Accepted Manuscript

Review: Application of bioplastics for food packaging

Nanou Peelman, Peter Ragaert, Bruno De Meulenaer, Dimitri Adons, Roos Peeters,
Ludwig Cardon, Filip Van Impe, Frank Devlieghere

PII: S0924-2244(13)00116-7
DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2013.06.003
Reference: TIFS 1462

To appear in: Trends in Food Science & Technology

Received Date: 13 November 2012

Revised Date: 5 June 2013
Accepted Date: 6 June 2013

Please cite this article as: Peelman, N., Ragaert, P., De Meulenaer, B., Adons, D., Peeters, R., Cardon,
L., Van Impe, F., Devlieghere, F., Review: Application of bioplastics for food packaging, Trends in Food
Science & Technology (2013), doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2013.06.003.

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to
our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo
copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please
note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all
legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.
*Highlights (for review)

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Highlights
 Overview biobased materials (PLA, starch, PHA, cellulose)
 Limitations + possible solutions
 Applications (possible + current)
 Characteristics (permeability, mechanical, seal)
 Variation

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
TE
C EP
AC
*Manuscript
Click here to download Manuscript: Manuscript.docx Click here to view linked References

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

1 Review: Application of bioplastics for food packaging

2
3
4 Nanou Peelman1,2, Peter Ragaert1,2*, Bruno De Meulenaer2, Dimitri Adons3, Roos Peeters3,
5 Ludwig Cardon4,5, Filip Van Impe6, Frank Devlieghere1
6

PT
7
1 2
8 Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation and Research Group Food Chemistry and Human
9 Nutrition, Department of Food Safety and Food Quality (partners in Food2Know), Ghent University, Coupure

RI
3
10 Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium. XIOS Hogeschool Limburg, Department of Applied Engineering Sciences,
11 Research Group Packaging Technology - VerpakkingsCentrum, Universitaire Campus, Agoralaan, Gebouw H,
4
12 3590 Diepenbeek, Belgium. Centre for Polymer and Material Technologies CPMT, Associated Faculty of

SC
13 Applied Engineering Sciences, University College Ghent, Voskenslaan 362, 9000 Ghent, Belgium and
5
14 Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Ghent University, Technologiepark 903, 9052 Ghent, Belgium.
6
15 IBE-BVI, Z.1 – Researchpark 280, 1731 Zellik, Belgium.

U
16
AN
17

18 *Corresponding author: tel: +32-9-264 99 30

M

19 fax: +32-9-225 55 10

20 e-mail address: peter.ragaert@ugent.be

D

21
TE

22 Correspondence address: Ghent University, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Department

23 of Food Safety and Food Quality, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
EP

24
C

25
AC

26

27

28

29

30

1
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
31 Abstract
32 This review provides state of the art information on the performance of bioplastics
33 materials, focusing on food packaging. It gives an overview of the main materials used for
34 producing biobased films, their limitations, solutions thereof, possible applications and a
35 state of the art on bioplastics already used as a food packaging material.
36
37 Furthermore an inventory on bioplastics was made in the context of a research project.

PT
38 Important characteristics regarding packaging material are summarized in an extended
39 table, which shows a big variety (e.g. permeability, tensile properties), suggesting a wide

RI
40 range of food products can be packed in biobased polymer films.
41
42

SC
43
44
45

U
46
AN
47
48
49
M

50
51
52
D

53
TE

54
55
EP

56
57
C

58
59
AC

60
61
62
63
64
65
66

2
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
67 List of abbreviations
68
69 AA ascorbic acid

70 CA cellulose acetate

71 CMC carboxymethyl cellulose

PT
72 DCL double coated laminates

73 HDPE high density polyethylene

RI
74 HP high pressure

HPMC hydroxypropyl methylcellulose

SC
75

76 LBG locust bean gum

U
77 LDPE low density polyethylene
AN
78 MAP modified atmosphere packaging

79 MFC microfibrillar cellulose

M

80 MMT montmorillonite

81 MWNT multi-walled nanotubes

D

82 OMMT organically modified montmorillonite

TE

83 OPLA oriented PLA

84 OTR oxygen transmission rate

EP

85 PCL polycaprolactone
C

86 PE polyethylene
AC

87 PEF poly-ethylene-furanoaat

88 PEO polyethylene oxide

89 PET polyethyleneterephthalate

90 PHA polyhydroxyalkanoate

91 PHB polyhydroxybutyrate

92 PHBV poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate)

3
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
93 PHV polyhydroxyvalerate

94 PIP poly-cis-1,4-isoprene

95 PLA polylactide

96 PP polypropylene

97 PS polystyrene

PT
98 PVA polyvinylacetate

99 PVC polyvinylchloride

RI
100 PVdC polyvinylidene chloride

SC
101 RH relative humidity

102 SCL single coated laminates

U
103 SPI soy protein isolate
AN
104 SWNT single-wall nanotubes

105 TPS thermoplastic starch

M

106 TPZ thermoplastic zein

D

107 WPI whey protein isolate

TE

108 WVP water vapour permeability

109 WVTR water vapour transmission rate

EP

110

111 1. Introduction
C

112 Food packaging is becoming increasingly important in the food industry, where advances in
AC

113 functionality such as convenience and portioning are gaining more attention. Furthermore,
114 there is also an increased awareness on sustainability, which can in general be achieved on
115 different levels. On the level of raw materials, use of recycled materials or use of renewable
116 resources are two strategies to reduce CO2 emissions and the dependency on fossil
117 resources. The production process is another level where adjustments, e.g. towards a more
118 energy-efficient process, can be made. A final level where efforts can be done to increase
119 sustainability is waste management. Next to reuse and recycling of used materials,
120 production of packaging which is biodegradable and/or compostable contributes to reducing
121 the municipal solid waste problem. Biodegradable polymers are polymers that are capable of

4
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
122 undergoing decomposition into CO2, CH4, H2O, inorganic compounds or biomass through
123 predominantly the enzymatic action of microorganisms. Some of these polymers can also be
124 compostable, which means decomposition takes place in a compost site at a rate consistent
125 with known compostable materials (Siracusa et al., 2008, Song et al., 2009).

126 In the last decade, there has been an increased interest from the food, packaging and
127 distribution industry towards the development and application of bioplastics for food
128 packaging.

PT
129 According to the European Bioplastics organization, bioplastics can be defined as plastics
130 based on renewable resources (biobased) or as plastics which are biodegradable and/or

RI
131 compostable. Recently the attention in the packaging industry regarding the use of
132 bioplastics has been shifting from compostable/biodegradable materials towards biobased
materials (Molenveld, 2010).

SC
133

134 This article gives an overview of the main bioplastics, the most common limitations and
135 possible solutions thereof and the current or possible use in food packaging. Furthermore,

U
136 several characteristics of different biobased films were investigated with respect to their
AN
137 application in the food packaging area. Regarding the type of bioplastics described in this
138 review, partly conventional materials such as polyethylene (PE) and
139 polyethyleneterephtalate (PET) made from renewable resources are not discussed, as their
M

140 properties do not differ from the crude oil based PE and PET.
141
142 2. Materials
D

2.1 PLA
TE

143

144
145 PLA (polylactide) is a family of biodegradable thermoplastic polyester made from renewable
EP

146 resources which is nowadays seen as one of the most promising polymers for commercial
147 use as a substitute for low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and high density polyethylene
148 (HDPE), polystyrene (PS) and polyethyleneterephthalate (PET). It is produced by conversion
C

149 of corn, or other carbohydrate sources, into dextrose, followed by a fermentation into lactic
AC

150 acid. Through direct polycondensation of lactic acid monomers or through ring-opening
151 polymerization of lactide, PLA pellets are obtained. Since lactic acid exist as two optical
152 isomers, L- and D-lactic acid, three different stereochemical compositions of lactide can be
153 found, i.e. L,L-lactide, D,D-lactide and L,D-lactide. This stereochemical composition
154 determines the final properties of the polymer. The processing possibilities of this
155 transparent material are very wide, ranging from injection molding and extrusion over cast
156 film extrusion to blow molding and thermoforming (Bogaert & Coszach, 2000, Drumright et
157 al., 2000, Jamshidian et al.,2010, Liu, 2006, Rasal et al., 2010, Satish, 2008, Siracusa et al.,
158 2008, Södergard & Stolt, 2002).

5
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
159 2.2 Starch
160
161 Starch is a widely available and easy biodegradable natural resource. To produce a plastic-
162 like starch based film, high water content or plasticizers (glycerol, sorbitol) are necessary.
163 These plasticized materials (application of thermal and mechanical energy) are called
164 thermoplastic starch (TPS) and constitute an alternative for polystyrene (PS). Starch-based
165 thermoplastic materials (e.g. blends of TPS with synthethic/biodegradable polymer

PT
166 components, like polycaprolacton, polyethylene-vinyl alcohol or polyvinyl alcohol) have been
167 successfully applied on industrial level for foaming, film blowing, injection molding, blow
168 molding and extrusion applications (Bastioli, 1998, Chivrac et al., 2009, Mensitieri et al.,

RI
169 2011, Satish, 2008, Weber, 2000).
170

SC
171 2.3 PHA
172

U
173 The polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) family are biodegradable thermoplastic polymers,
174 produced by a wide range of microorganisms. The polymer is produced in the microbial cells
AN
175 through a fermentation process and then harvested by using solvents such as chloroform,
176 methylene chloride or propylene chloride. More than 100 PHA composites are known, of
177 which polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is the most common. The PHAs have potential as a
M

178 substitute for many conventional polymers, since they possess similar chemical and physical
179 properties (Cyras et al., 2009, Farinha, 2009, Lunt, 2009, Sanchez-Garcia et al., 2008, Singh,
D

180 2011).
181
TE

182 2.4 Cellulose

183
EP

184 Cellulose is the most widely spread natural polymer and is derived by a delignification from
185 wood pulp or cotton linters. It is a biodegradable polysaccharide which can be dissolved in a
186 mixture of sodium hydroxide and carbon disulphide to obtain cellulose xanthate and then
C

187 recast into an acid solution (sulphuric acid) to make a cellophane film. Alternatively,
188 cellulose derivatives can be produced by derivatization of cellulose from the solvated state,
AC

189 via esterification or etherification of hydroxyl group. Especially these cellulose derivatives
190 were the subject of recent research. Cellulose esters like cellulose (di)acetate and cellulose
191 (tri)acetate need addition of additives to produce thermoplastic materials. Most of them can
192 be processed by injection molding or extrusion. Cellulose ethers like hydroxypropyl cellulose
193 and methyl cellulose are water-soluble, except for ethyl cellulose and benzyl cellulose. Ethyl
194 cellulose can be used for extrusion, laminating or moulding after addition of plasticizers or
195 other polymers. Most of these derivatives show excellent film-forming properties, but are
196 too expensive for bulk use. (Cyras et al., 2009, Liu, 2006, Petersen et al., 1999, Shen et al.,
197 2009, Weber, 2000, Zepnik et al., 2010).

6
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
198
199 2.5 Other materials
200 The main advantages and disadvantages of some other raw materials are listed in table 1.

201
202 3. Main limitations

PT
203
204 The use of bioplastics as food packaging materials is subjected to different limitations,
205 restricting at this moment their use. Besides a higher price level compared to conventional

RI
206 plastics, the concerns on availability as well as on the use of land to produce bioplastics,
207 there are major limitations on the functionality.

SC
208
209 Brittleness, thermal instability, low melt strength, difficult heat sealability, high water vapor
210 and oxygen permeability restrict the use of PLA films for many food packaging applications

U
211 (Cabedo et al., 2006, Jamshidian et al., 2010, Mensitieri et al., 2011, Rhim et al., 2009b).
212
AN
213 Because of the hydrophilic nature of starch and cellulose, packaging materials based on
214 these materials have a low water vapor barrier, which causes a limited long-term stability
215 and poor mechanical properties (sensitive to moisture content). Other drawbacks are bad
M

216 processability, brittleness and vulnerability to degradation (Cyras et al., 2009, Gáspár et al.,
217 2005, Liu, 2006, Müller et al., 2011, Satish, 2008, Shen et al., 2009, Yu et al., 2006).
D

218
219 Brittleness (due to high glass transition and melting temperatures), stiffness, poor impact
TE

220 resistance and thermal instability are finally also factors limiting the application of PHA/PHB
221 films as food packaging (Cyras et al., 2009, Liu, 2006, Modi, 2010, Yu et al.,2006).
222
EP

223 This has resulted in increasing research on improving the functionality of bioplastics, which is
224 described in the next paragraph.
225
C

226 4. Improving the properties of bioplastics

AC

227
228 A large amount of studies have investigated different strategies to improve the properties of
229 bioplastics. Specifically in terms of increasing barrier capacities towards gasses and water,
230 following techniques, described in detail in subsequent paragraphs, could be used.
231
232 4.1 Coating
233

7
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
234 In general, it can be stated that coating biobased films is a suitable tool to improve the
235 properties of these films. Coating consists of applying an additional thin layer of another
236 material on top of the biobased films. As illustrated by the examples below, especially the
237 barrier properties, like oxygen and water vapor permeability and oil and grease resistance
238 and to a lesser extent mechanical properties, like tensile strength and elasticity can be
239 enhanced by applying such a coating. Different types of coating, biobased and non biobased,
240 can be used.
241

PT
242 The coating of PLA with PLA-Si/SiOx, PCL-Si/SiOx (polycaprolactone) or PEO-Si/SiOx
243 (polyethylene oxide) enhanced the barrier (oxygen and water vapor) properties, which

RI
244 makes the PLA films applicable as a packaging material for medium shelf life products in
245 combination with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (sliced processed meat, fresh
246 meat, cheeses, vegetables) (Iotti et al., 2009). Similarly, Hirvikorpi et al. (2011) reported that

SC
247 a thin (25 nm) AlOx-coating can significantly improve the water vapor and oxygen barrier of
248 several polymers (PLA-coated board, PLA film, nano-fibrillated cellulose film, PHB). PLA-
249 coated paperboard (PLA: 35g/m2) coated with AlOx showed decreasing OTR values from 420
250

U
to 12 and 400 to 2 cm3/m2/105 Pa/day for respectively 310 g/m2 board and 210 g/m2 board.
AN
251 The WVTR values decreased from 65 to 1 and 75 to 1 g/m2/day for respectively 310 g/m2
252 board and 210 g/m2 board.
253
M

254 Coating of SPI films with PLA raised the tensile strength from 2,8 MPa up to 17,4 MPa and
255 the elongation from 165,7% up to 203,4%. Water vapor permeability decreased 20- to 60-
256 fold, depending on the PLA concentration in the coating solution (Rhim et al., 2007).
D

257 Coating of a acetylated cellulose film with PHB resulted in lower WVP values, higher elastic
TE

258 modulus and tensile strength for films containing 10% or more PHB and better strain at
259 break for films containing 15% or more PHB (Cyras et al., 2009). A nitrocellulose or PVdC
260 coating on cellophane improved both O2 and H2O barrier properties (Shen et al., 2009). In
EP

261 general, Popa and Belc (2007) stated that chitosan may be used as a biobased coating on
262 polymers with poor gas barrier properties.
C

263
264 4.2 Blends
AC

265 4.2.1 Nanotechnology

266 4.2.1.1 General information

267 Nanotechnology is generally defined as the creation and utilization of structures with at least
268 one dimension in the nanometer length scale (10 -9 m). These structures are called
269 nanocomposites and could exhibit modifications in the properties of the materials or create
270 novel properties and phenomena to the materials. To achieve these modifications, a good
271 interaction between the polymer matrix (continuous phase) and the nanofiller
272 (discontinuous phase) is desired (Lagaron & Lopez-Rubio, 2011).

8
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
273 Incorporation of the filler into the polymer matrix can be achieved using in situ
274 polymerization (dissolution of the nanoparticles in the monomer solution before
275 polymerization), solvent intercalation (use of a solvent to enhance the affinity between the
276 nanoparticles and the matrix) and melt intercalation (addition of the nanoparticles during
277 extrusion) (Chivrac et al., 2009, Shen et al., 2002).

278 Among the different nanoparticles which could be used to reinforce a biopolymer, nanoclays
279 have attracted most attention. These nanoclays, like montmorillonite, belong to the family

PT
280 of phyllosilicates and have a structure based on the pytophillite structure Si4Al2O10(OH)2.
281 They are aggregates of stacked, ultrafine layered particles (tactoids). The thickness of one
282 layer (or platelet) is in the order of 1 nm. Depending on the interaction between the

RI
283 continuous and the discontinuous phase, different polymer-clay interactions occur: tactoid,
284 intercalated and exfoliated. When the affinity between the clay and the polymer is rather

SC
285 low, the clay interlayer does not expand and the clay tactoid structures remain as such in the
286 polymer matrix. In this way, no true nanocomposite is formed. When the affinity between
287 the clay and the polymer is moderate, medium expansion of the clay interlayer occurs. The

U
288 polymer can partly penetrate the clay interlayer, leading to an intercalated structure, which
289 is still a layered structure. When the affinity between the clay and the polymer is high, the
AN
290 layered structure of the clay is lost and an exfoliated structure is formed by dispersion of the
291 clay into the polymer matrix (Arora & Padua, 2010, Chivrac et al., 2009).
M

292 Since a high surface-to-volume ratio has the greatest effect on the properties of the
293 polymer, the exfoliated structure is the ultimate goal. A good dispersion is affected by the
D

294 hydrophobic/hydrophilic character of the polymer and the clay. Different chemical
295 modification to make the surface of the nanoclay more hydrophobic, such as cationic
TE

296 exchange, use of ionomers, block copolymers adsorption and organosilane grafting, are
297 sometimes necessary to improve intercalation/exfoliation into the polymer matrix. Also
298 modification of the polymer and/or adding compatibilizing agents can lead to a more
EP

299 homogeneous dispersion (Arora & Padua, 2010, Chivrac et al., 2009, Silvestre, 2011).

300 4.2.1.2 Effect of the use of nanoparticles on material properties

C

301 Incorporation of nanoparticles is an excellent way to improve the performance of biobased

AC

302 films. From the examples discussed below it can be concluded that almost all the
303 shortcomings, which limit the use of biobased plastics as food packaging, can be overcome
304 by making use of this technique. However, an important possible drawback is, at least partly,
305 the reported negative effect on the elongation at break, especially in PLA films. The effect of
306 the incorporation of nanoparticles, especially on the barrier properties, can be explained by
307 the ‘confinement effect’. Polymer molecules can be ‘confined’ between the dispersed
308 nanoparticles, providing a tortuous path, forcing the water and gas molecules to travel a
309 longer path for diffusion through the film, thereby improving the barrier properties. The
310 thermal stability can be explained by a slower diffusion of volatile decomposition products

9
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
311 within the nanocomposite (Damme, 2008, Kumar et al., 2011, Nielsen, 1967, Silvestre et al.,
312 2011).
313
314 Properties of PLA/clay composite films can be improved by choosing the proper type of
315 nanoclay and its optimum concentration (Rhim et al., 2009b). Oxygen barrier properties of
316 amorphous PLA increased by 50% by using chemically modified kaolinite. Addition of
317 kaolinite nanofillers to PLA films is a feasible strategy to improve both thermal stability and
318 mechanical properties (Bentz, 2011, Cabedo et al., 2006). Combination of PLA with

PT
319 montmorillonite layered silicate ameliorated the barrier properties and made it applicable
320 for food packaging (Arora & Padua, 2010). Strength and modulus of a PLA matrix increased

RI
321 by applying bentonite but it deteriorated the elongation (Petersson & Oksman, 2006).
322 Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2010a) observed that addition of mica-based nanoclays to PLA caused
323 a diminished UV transmittance. Adding zeolite type 4 particles enhanced the tensile strength

SC
324 and modulus of elasticity, but lowered the elongation at break. The changes occurred
325 proportional to the zeolite loading (Yuzay et al., 2009).
326
327

U
Incorporation of organically modified montmorillonite (OMMT, Cloisite) into thermoplastic
AN
328 starch (TPS) raised the tensile strength with 28%, the elongation at break with 21% and
329 reduced the water vapor permeability with 50% (Park et al., 2002). Avella et al. (2005)
330 reported similar results. Addition of clay (montmorillonite) to TPS increased tensile strength,
M

331 elongation at break and Young modulus at 15% relative humidity (RH), but only increased
332 tensile strength and Young modulus at 60% RH. Mixing of this bionanocomposite with
333 Ecoflex had a negative impact on the reinforcing effect of the clay, but heightened the
D

334 elongation at break even more.

TE

335
336 Sanchez-Garcia and Lagaron (2010a) reported a lower water and oxygen permeability and a
337 good UV-barrier of a poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) film after
EP

338 incorporation of a mica-based clay. Reductions in water permeability of 61%, 76% and 47%
339 were found for respectively 1 wt%, 5 wt% and 10 wt% of clay. A reduction in oxygen
340 permeability of 32% was found for 5 wt% of clay. Raising the clay content did not result in
C

341 further decrease of the oxygen permeability. PHBV films with 1, 3, 5 and 10 wt% of carbon
342 nanofibers resulted in respectively 14, 5, 21 and 58% lower oxygen permeability, while 1, 5
AC

343 and 10 wt% of nanotubes decreased the oxygen permeability with respectively 62, 10 and
344 33% (Sanchez-Garcia et al., 2010b).
345
346 Incorporation of chitosan nanoparticles in hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) resulted in
347 better tensile strength (from 30,7 to 66,9 MPa) and barrier properties (De Moura et al.,
348 2008). Similarly, mixing of MMT (montmorillonite) with TPZ (thermoplastic zein) resulted in
349 improved mechanical properties. Stress at break increased from 6,68 MPa to 13,98 MPa for
350 respectively pure TPZ and TPZ + 10% MMT (Mensitieri et al.,2011).
351

10
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
352 4.2.1.3 Migration and legal issues

353 Incorporation of nanoclays in biobased food packaging has a high potential, but before these
354 new materials can be commercially used, the extent of migration of the nanoclays from the
355 packaging material into the food has to be investigated. Up to now, only few studies on the
356 migration of nanoclays from biobased packaging to food are present in literature. Avella et
357 al. (2005) found very low migration of MMT from films of potato-starch and potato starch
358 polyester blends into food simulants. Also Mauricio-Iglesias et al. (2010) reported low

PT
359 migration of MMT from wheat gluten/MMT films into food simulants. Although these results
360 are reassuring, the current knowledge on migration of nanoclays and their effect on the
361 human health and environment is too limited and further research is necessary before these

RI
362 products can be put on the market for use as a food packaging material (Silvestre et al.,
363 2011, Sorrentino et al., 2007).

SC
364 At present, no specific regulation for nanoparticles is established, meaning that Regulation
365 (EC) 1935/2004 is still applicable for nanomaterials. In 2009, EFSA concluded its assessment

U
366 of the potential risks of nanotechnologies for food and feed, stating that a cautious, case-by-
367 case approach is needed as many uncertainties remain over its safe use (Silvestre et al.,
AN
368 2011, Sorrentino et al., 2007).

369
M

370 4.2.2 Cellulose

371
372 Another way to improve the properties of biobased films is the addition of the biopolymer
D

373 cellulose. The most pronounced effect of this embodiment was the reduced water vapor
374 permeability, but also several mechanical properties, like tensile strength and Young’s
TE

375 modulus were influenced. Also here, the crucial point seems to be the elongation at break.
376
EP

377 Dias et al. (2011) and Müller et al. (2009) observed that the incorporated cellulose fibers
378 were well cemented in the plasticized starch polymer matrix. This is because the chemical
379 similarity between starch and natural fibers provides a strong interaction (Avérous, 2001, Lu
C

380 et al., 2006). The positive effect of the incorporation of cellulose fibers on the water
381 permeability of (starch based) films is related to the highly crystalline and hydrophobic
AC

382 character of the fibers. As for the nanoclays, addition of cellulose fibers decreases the water
383 vapor transmission by increasing the diffusion path length through the film (tortuous path).
384 However, this effect can be reversed by adding too much fibers, causing congregation (Kristo
385 & Biliaderis, 2007, Müller et al., 2009).
386
387 Addition of cellulose fibers to starch-based films (made of rice flour) diminished the water
388 vapor permeability with 35% (plasticized with glycerol) or 14% (plasticized with sorbitol) and
389 increased the tensile strength and Young’s modulus, without altering the elongation at break
390 (Dias et al., 2011). Müller et al. (2009) also found reinforcement of starch films and lower

11
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
391 water vapor permeability after incorporation of cellulose fibers. Also, application of
392 carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) in starch-based films showed a decrease of the water vapor
393 permeability with increasing CMC content (Ghanbarzadeh et al., 2011). Addition of 5 wt%
394 ZnO-CMC to plasticized pea starch improved tensile strength (from 3,9 to 9,8 MPa) and
395 water vapor permeability, but reduced the elongation at break (from 42,2 to 25,8%)(Yu et
396 al., 2009).
397
398 Gáspár et al. (2005) tested the effect of different natural additives (cellulose, hemicellulose,

PT
399 zein and poly-ε-caprolactone) on the water resistance of a starch-based film (70% corn
400 starch + 30% glycerol). Hemicellulose and zein filled starch-based film showed better tensile

RI
401 strength and modulus than the pure film, but elongation of all four filled films was lower
402 than the pure TPS (thermoplastic starch). Water resistance of cellulose, hemicellulose, zein
403 and polycaprolactone filled films was better compared to pure TPS, but zein showed the

SC
404 lowest water uptake after 14 days.
405
406 Sanchez-Garcia et al. (2008) investigated the effect of cellulose fibers in PHBV films. Water
407

U
permeability decreased with 52% for 10 wt% fiber content and with 71% for 1 wt% fiber
AN
408 content. Alternatively, Cyras et al. (2007) investigated the influence of PHB on cellulose
409 paper and found that addition of PHB with more than 10 wt% had a positive influence on
410 water vapor permeability (WVP) and on the mechanical strength of the cellulose paper.
M

411
412 According to Petersson & Oksman (2006) incorporation of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)
413 showed no reduction in the oxygen permeability of PLA. In contrast, Sanchez-Garcia &
D

414 Lagaron (2010b) found up to 90% oxygen permeability reduction for PLA after addition of
TE

415 1,2,3, or 5 wt% cellulose nanowhiskers (CNW).

416
417 4.2.3 Others
EP

418
419 Various other materials can be used to improve the properties of a biobased material.
Several of them are described in the following paragraphs. Among them, especially blends of
C

420
421 two biobased materials seems to have a great potential. When blending materials,
AC

422 compatibility is a major challenge. Enhancing this compatibility for immiscible polymers can
423 be done by the introduction of a reactive functional group, chemical modification (e.g. of the
424 hydroxyl groups of starch with a hydrophobic compound) or esterification (Thiebaud et al.,
425 1997). Although most of the blended polymers seemed immiscible and/or incompatible (see
426 next paragraph), positive effects of blending were observed.
427
428 Although PLA and PCL were clearly immiscible, Cabedo et al. (2006) observed no extensive
429 voiding and debonding at the interphase, suggesting some sort of compatibility. Suyatma et
430 al. (2004) found that chitosan and PLA were immiscible and incompatible, due to the
431 absence of specific interaction between both polymers. This incompatibility leads to

12
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
432 decreased mechanical properties when blending those two polymers. A blend of PHB/PLA
433 prepared by casting after dissolution in chloroform (3% w/v), evaporation at room
434 temperature and vacuum drying for 24h, suggested immiscibility of both polymers in the
435 amorphous state. Melt blending, evaporation under reduced pressure and maintaining the
436 blend at 190°C for 30 min implied greater miscibility. A possible explanation is that
437 transesterification between PHB and PLA chains at 190°C leads to the production of block
438 copolymers. These polymers will act to compatibilize both polymers and improve their
439 miscibility (Zhang et al., 1996). Furthermore, also PHB and HV and PHBV and PLA seemed to

PT
440 be mostly immiscible, although some interactions between the polymers were observed.
441 Higher PLA concentrations lead to more compatibility, but render the material more difficult

RI
442 to process (Modi, 2010). In contrast with the above, starch and PHB have been reported to
443 be significantly compatible (Koller & Owen, 1996).
444

SC
445 Blending PLA with PCL (polycaprolactone) reduces the brittleness and slightly increases the
446 thermal stability of the PLA film, but decreases the barrier properties proportional to the
447 amount of PCL added. Loss of barrier properties can be reversed by adding kaolinite
448

U
nanoclays. Combination of PLA with starch, plasticizers (glycerol/sorbitol) or other
AN
449 degradable polyesters can diminish the brittleness of the film (Cabedo et al., 2006). Addition
450 of PLA to a chitosan film had a positive effect on water vapor permeability and sensitivity to
451 moisture, but decreased the tensile strength and elasticity modulus (Suyatma et al., 2004).
M

452
453 Incorporation of 3-hydroxyvalerate (HV) in PHB, resulting in PHBV, increased the impact
454 strength, elongation at break, tensile strength and decreased the Young’s modulus, making
D

455 the film tougher and more flexible, with increasing HV content (Modi, 2010, Shen et al.,
TE

456 2009). Blending PHBV with PLA had a positive effect on elasticity modulus, elongation at
457 break, flexural strength for many different blends, but tensile strength did not improve in
458 any of them. Similarly, Zhang et al. (1996) reported improved mechanical properties for
EP

459 PHB/PLA blends compared with ordinary PHB. Further, PVA (polyvinylacetate) grafted on PIP
460 (poly-cis-1,4-isoprene) and blended with PHB showed better tensile properties and impact
461 strength than PHB/PIP blends, which were immiscible (Modi, 2010, Yoon et al., 1999).
C

462
463 Thermoplastic starch (TPS) blended with PHA had a positive effect on barrier properties and
AC

464 hydrolytic and UV stability of the starch based film and diminished processing temperature
465 resulting in less starch degradation (Shen et al., 2009). Blends of TPS with natural rubber
466 appeared to be less brittle than TPS alone (Yu et al., 2006). Addition of locust bean gum
467 (LBG) improved the tensile strength, but lowered the elongation of starch-based films.
468 However, elongation significantly improved after gamma irradiation. Also the WVP improved
469 with increasing irradiation dose (Kim et al., 2008). Blending agar with starch had a positive
470 effect on the microstructure of the starch film. WVP and mechanical properties were
471 enhanced (Wu et al., 2009). Famá et al. (2009) stated that blending starch with wheat bran

13
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
472 reduced the WVP of the film and improved the mechanical properties with increasing wheat
473 bran fiber content.
474
475 4.3 Chemical/Physical modification
476
477 Another way to improve the performance of bioplastics is by chemical and/or physical
478 modification. Modification can have a positive effect on mechanical properties and water

PT
479 vapor permeability of materials as such, but modification can also be a tool to enhance
480 compatibility between two polymers. For the latter, mostly starch has been modified to
481 improve their hydrophobicity, making them more compatible with hydrophobic materials.

RI
482
483 WVP of starch films decreased after addition of citric acid. A 10% (w/w) citric acid content

SC
484 showed the greatest reduction. This can be explained by the multi carboxyl structure of citric
485 acid. These groups can interact with the hydroxyl groups of the starch, which results in a
486 reduction of available OH groups. Furthermore, strong hydrogen bounds can be formed,

U
487 preventing retrogradation and recrystallization. Mechanical properties can also be improved,
488 because citric acid can serve as a cross-linking agent. (Thiebaud et al., 1997, Ghanbarzadeh
AN
489 et al., 2011, Shi et al., 2008). Oxygen permeability and hydrophobicity of microfibrillar
490 cellulose (MFC) films can be improved by acetylation with acetic anhydride. Film thicknesses
between 42 and 47 µm lead to oxygen permeability values required for modified
M

491
492 atmosphere packaging application (Rodionova et al., 2011).
D

493 Flexible and water resistant starch films can be made by heating gelatinized starch in an
494 anhydrous suspension with lithium chloride in the presence of an organic solvent (Fang et
TE

495 al., 2005).

496 Chemical modification by crosslinking cellulose acetate with tri-sodium tri-meta phosphate
EP

497 led to materials with improved mechanical properties (higher tensile strength), lower water
498 up take and slower degradation kinetics. This can be explained by the crosslinking of some of
499 the hydroxyl groups that were present in the cellulose acetate blend (Demirgöz et al., 2000).
C

500 Incorporation of starch modified by epichlorohydrin in comparison with native starch in a

AC

501 LLDPE film resulted in higher tensile strength and elongation. Crosslinked starch is more
502 hydrophobic because it has more carbon chains than native starch. This causes better
503 compatibility of the starch with the LLDPE film (Kim & Lee, 2002). Yin et al. (2005) found that
504 boric acid serves as an excellent crosslinking agent for starch with poly (vinyl acohol) (PVA).
505 A films with good water resistance and mechanical properties could be made.

506 According to Gennadios et al. (1993) the water vapor and oxygen barrier properties of a
507 wheat gluten derived film can be improved by partial substitution of the wheat gluten with
508 hydrolyzed keratin, probably due to linkages between the two proteins. A better water
509 vapor barrier was also obtained by soaking a wheat gluten film in CaCl 2 and then in distilled

14
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
510 water or by soaking it in a solution at a pH of 7,5. These processes also provided higher
511 tensile strength and are probably caused by respectively cross-linking of Ca2+ in the film
512 structure and by protein insolubility at a pH equal to the isoelectric point of wheat gluten.
513 According to Rhim et al. (1999) UV irradiation of a wheat gluten based film increased the
514 tensile strength by 20%, suggesting cross-linking within the film structure. However, the
515 cross-linking seemed insufficient for an effect on the WVP.

516

PT
517 5. Possible application
518

RI
519 Several studies have investigated the possible use of biobased material for food packaging,
520 especially in comparison with traditional packaging materials. At present it appears that

SC
521 mainly for fresh (respiring) produce, like fruits and vegetables, fresh meat and fresh juices
522 various biobased options are available, but also fat rich products could be packed in
523 biobased packaging. For these products, biobased packaging can even have a positive effect

U
524 on the food product in comparison to the conventional packaging. It can be concluded that
525 at present the main focus for biobased packaging are short shelf life applications and dry
AN
526 products that do not require high oxygen and/or water vapor barrier.
527
528 5.1 PLA
M

529 Several studies on PLA based packaging have shown that they could replace some of the
D

530 conventional packaging for a number of food products. Koide & Shi (2007) evaluated the
531 microbiological and physicochemical quality of whole green peppers packed in a PLA based
TE

532 film (Tohcello, 25µm, Japan) compared to LDPE and perforated LDPE. Results showed no
533 significant difference in hardness, ascorbic acid concentration and colour after 1 week of
534 storage at 10°C, but for the PLA film coliform bacteria counts were lower. Fresh cut romaine
EP

535 lettuce can be packed in thermoformed oriented PLA (OPLA) during storage at 10°C
536 (Benyathiar et al., 2009). Almenar et al. (2008, 2010) stated that PLA containers (Versapack®,
537 8 oz., Wilkinson Industries Inc., USA) are possibly applicable for commercial post harvest
C

538 packaging of blueberries. In contrast to the conventional PET container, an equilibrium

AC

539 modified atmosphere could be developed inside the PLA containers. This increased the shelf
540 life of the blueberries. Sensory evaluations showed that consumers preferred blueberries
541 packed in PLA containers for one or two weeks over the blueberries packed in conventional
542 containers. Haugaard et al. (2002) reported that PLA packaging (thermoformed cups,
543 Autobar, France) is suitable for storage of fresh, unpasteurized orange juice at 4°C for 14
544 days. Color changes, ascorbic acid (AA) degradation and limonene scalping were most
545 effectively prevented by PLA when compared to PS and HDPE.

546 5.2 Starch

15
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
547 Research on starch based films has shown that they could be suitable alternatives to
548 conventional plastics for different food products. Cannarsi et al. (2005) demonstrated that
549 two biodegradable films based on starch (1 blend of starch and polyester and 1 blend of 3
550 biodegradable/biobased polyesters, Novamont, Italy) could be used to replace PVC films to
551 pack fresh cut beef steaks. Furthermore, Ifezue (2009) found Mater-Bi® (blend of starch
552 with biodegradable synthetic polymers like PCL or PVOH) to be superior to perforated LDPE,
553 PLA and Ecoflex to pack whole fresh celery, especially regarding mechanical performance.
554 Also Kantola & Helen (2001) stated that the quality of tomatoes packed in PLA coated

PT
555 cardboard covered with a perforated Mater-Bi® bag remained as good as when packed in
556 LDPE (low density poly ethylene) bags during three weeks.

RI
557
558 5.3 PHA/PHB

SC
559 Replacement of conventional films by PHA/PHB based films could be possible according to
560 several investigations. Levkane et al. (2008) investigated the effect of pasteurization on a
561 meat salad packed in conventional (PE, PP) and biobased packaging (PLA, PHB) and found

U
562 that PHB films could be successfully used to pack this type of food. Haugaard et al. (2003)
AN
563 found that orange juice simulant and dressing packed in PHB resulted in the same quality
564 changes compared to HDPE, which means commercial juices and other acidic beverages and
565 dressings or other fatty foods could possibly be packed in PHB. Furthermore, Bucci et al.
M

566 (2005) stated that PP can be replaced by PHB for packaging of fat rich products (mayonnaise,
567 margarine and cream cheese) according to physical, mechanical (dynamic compression and
568 impact resistance), sensorial and dimensional (dimensions, volumetric capacity, weight and
D

569 thickness) tests. Similarly, Muizniece-Brasava and Dukalska (2006) stated that PHB materials
TE

570 are suitable materials for storage of sour cream.

571
572 5.4 Cellulose
EP

573 Different studies on cellulose based films showed that they could be an alternative for
574 packaging several food products. Popa & Belc (2007) stated that paper and board, based on
C

575 cellulose, are the most widely used renewable packaging materials nowadays. Also a lot of
576 cellulose derivatives are produced commercially, of which cellulose acetate (CA) is the most
AC

577 commonly used for food packaging (fresh produce, baked goods).
578
579 Makino & Hirata (1997) showed that a laminate of chitosan-cellulose and PCL had a similar
580 film permeability as LDPE, which makes this laminate a possible MAP packaging for fresh
581 produce (shredded lettuce, cabbage, tomatoes, sweet corn and broccoli). Usability was
582 confirmed by computer simulation. Popa & Belc (2007) found that coating of cellophane
583 with nitrocellulose or PVdC (polyvinylidine chloride) improved barrier properties and this
584 film could be used for packaging of candies, processed meat, cheese and baked goods.
585 Furthermore, Rhim et al. (2009a) stated that paperboard coated with PLA could be used as a

16
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
586 substitute for PE-coated paperboard in manufacturing 1-way paper cups or containers for
587 high moisture foods (beverage cartons, ice cream containers).
588
589 6. Current applications
590
591 An overview of current applications is listed in table 2. From this table it can be concluded
592 that of the different biobased materials on the market, PLA is the most commercially used

PT
593 one. Furthermore, it can be stated that the main market for bioplastics nowadays are short
594 shelf life products, like fresh fruits and vegetables and long shelf life products, like potato

RI
595 chips and pasta.
596

SC
597 7. Main characteristics of different bioplastics
598

U
599 An overview of the main characteristics of various multilayered biobased films, collected
from several companies, was made (table 3). Several physical and mechanical properties
AN
600
601 (e.g. gas and water vapor permeability) and some other characteristics (e.g. amount
602 biobased) were examined or provided by the companies.
M

603
604 This table shows that the investigated materials cover a broad range for the different
605 physical and mechanical characteristics that were examined. Considering gas and water
D

606 vapour permeabilities, it can be stated that the materials are ranging from low barrier to
607 high barrier films. Considering the tensile properties, elastic and less elastic films and films
TE

608 with high and low strength can be found in the table. This means that these films could be
609 used for a wide range of packaging applications.
610
EP

611 Concerning the other characteristics, not all of them were tested for every film, since several
612 films are still in the test phase. All of the films that were already tested are printable. All the
C

613 tested films can be used for refrigerated storage, except for Natureflex N913 and Xylophane
614 A and B and for frozen storage, except for Xylophane A and B. For applications where
AC

615 pasteurization is needed, none of the tested films can be used. Most of the films are already
616 food approved (according to regulation 1935/2004). All the films are at least 40% biobased
617 and derived from non-food raw materials or corn.
618
619 Considering the variation in film characteristics displayed in table 2, it can be stated that
620 multilayered biobased films have properties which make them applicable for use as a
621 packaging material for various types of foods, ranging from short shelf life products, over
622 medium shelf life to long shelf life products.

623

17
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
624 8. Conclusion
625
626 Nowadays biobased packaging materials are mostly used to pack short shelf life products,
627 like fresh fruits and vegetables, and long shelf life products, like pasta and chips, which do
628 not need very high oxygen and/or water barrier properties. However, the inventory of films
629 show a wide variety in properties, which could make them also applicable as a packaging
630 material for other food products with stricter conditions, like MAP packaging. Storage tests

PT
631 and tests on the industrial packaging machines should be performed to make sure that these
632 films can be used commercially. It can be concluded that biobased materials offer great

RI
633 potential for the packaging industry. It is however important to realize that a thorough
634 evaluation of the functional properties of a biobased material is essential before it can be
635 used as an alternative for traditional film materials.

SC
636
637 Acknowledgments
638 This review paper and extended table was obtained in the framework of a collective

U
639 research (CO 095062) supported by the Institute for the Promotion of Innovation by Science
AN
640 and Technology in Flanders, Belgium (IWT) and by 22 participating companies in close
641 collaboration with 5 research institutes.
642
M

643 9. References
644
D

645 Almenar, E., Samsudin, H., Auras, R., Harte, B., & Rubino, M. (2008). Postharvest shelf life
646 extension of blueberries using a biodegradable package. Food Chemistry, 110(1), 120-127.
TE

647 Almenar, E., Samsudin, H., Auras, R., & Harte, B. (2010). Consumer acceptance of fresh
648 blueberries in bio-based packages. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 90(7),
EP

649 1121–1128.

650 Arora, A., & Padua, G.W. (2010). Review: Nanocomposites in Food Packaging. Journal of
C

651 Food Science, 75(1), 43-49.

AC

652 Avella, M., De Vlieger, J.J., Errico, M.E., Fischer, S., Vacca, P., & Volpe, M.G. (2005).
653 Biodegradable starch/clay nanocomposite film for food packaging applications. Food
654 Chemistry, 93(3), 467-474.

655 Avérous, L., Fringant, C., & Moro, L. (2001). Plasticized starch-cellulose interactions in
656 polysaccharide composites. Polymer, 42(15), 6565-6572.

657 Bastioli, C. (1998). Properties and applications of Mater-Bi starch-based materials. Polymer
658 Degradation and Stability, 59(1-3), 263-272.

18
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
659 Bentz, K.C. (2011). Synthesis and Characterization of Linear and Branched Polylactic Acid for
660 Use in Food Packaging Applications. http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/theses/578 (last
661 accessed: 10/10/2012).

662 Benyathiar, P., Almenar, E., Auras, R., Ryser, E., Harte, J., & Siddiq, M. (2009). A sustainable
663 package for fresh cut green salad. Presented at The United Fresh 2009 Convention, Las
664 Vegas, Nevada, US.
665

PT
666 Blakistone, B., & Sand, C.K. (2007). Using Sustainable Packaging Technologies to Respond to
667 Consumer, Retailer, and Seafood Industry Needs. International Smoked Seafood Conference
668 Proceedings, 75-79.

RI
669 Bogaert, J.C., & Coszach, P. (2000). Poly(lactic acids): A potential solution to plastic waste
dilemma. Macromolecular Symposia, 153(1), 287–303.

SC
670

671 Bucci, T.Z., Tavares, L.B.B, & Sell, I. (2005). PHB packaging for the storage of food products.
672 Polymer Testing, 24(5), 564-571.

673
U
Bunge (website). http://www.bunge.com.br/sustentabilidade/2011/port/EN/value-chain-
AN
674 management/waste-reduction.asp (last accessed: 10/10/2012)

675 Cabedo, L., Feijoo, J.L., Villanueva, M.P., Lagarón, J.M., & Giménez, E. (2006). Optimization of
M

676 biodegradable nanocomposites based on a PLA/PCL blends for food packaging applications.
677 Macromolecular Symposia, 233(1), 191–197.
D

678 Cannarsi, M., Baiano, A., Marino, R., Sinigaglia, M., & Del Nobile, M.A. (2005). Use of
679 biodegradable films for fresh cut beef steaks packaging. Meat Science, 70(2), 259–265.
TE

680 Chivrac, F., Pollet, E., & Avérous, L. (2009). Progress in nano-biocomposites based on
681 polysaccharides and nanoclays. Materials Science and Engineering R, 67(1), 1-17.
EP

682 Cyras, V.P., Commisso, M.S., Mauri, A.N., & Vázquez, A. (2007). Biodegradable Double-Layer
683 Films Based on Biological Resources: Polyhydroxybutyrate and Cellulose. Journal of Applied
C

684 Polymer Science, 106(2), 749–756.

AC

685 Cyras, V.P., Commisso, M.S., & Vázquez, A. (2009). Biocomposites based on renewable
686 resource: Acetylated and non acetylated cellulose cardboard coated with
687 polyhydroxybutyrate. Polymer, 50(26), 6274-6280.

688 Damme, H.V. (2008). Nanocomposites: the end of compromise. In: Brechignac C, Houdy
689 P,Lahmani M, editors. Nanomaterials and nanochemistry. New York: Springer, 348–380.

690 Delhaize-press release (2007) http://www.delhaize.be/_webdata/pressreleases/_NL/Pr-

691 070829-hoevekip%20bourgognel-nl-sdl%20_4_.pdf (last accessed: 21/01/2012).

19
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
692 Demirgöz, D., Elvira, C., Mano, J.F., Cunha, A.M., Piskin, E., & Reis R.L. (2000). Chemical
693 modification of starch based biodegradable polymeric blends: effects on water uptake,
694 degradation behaviour and mechanical properties. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 70,
695 161-170.

696 De Moura, M.R., Avena-Bustillos, R.J., McHugh, T.H., Krochta J.M., & Mattoso L.H.C. (2008).
697 Properties of novel hydroxypropyl methylcellulose films containing chitosan nanoparticles.
698 Journal of Food Science, 73(7), 31–37.

PT
699 Dias, A.B., Müller, C.M.O., Larotonda, F.D.S., & Laurindo, J.B. (2011). Mechanical and barrier
700 properties of composite films based on rice flour and cellulose fibers. Food Science and

RI
701 Technology, 44, 535-542.

702 Drumright, R.E., Gruber, P.R, & Henton, D.E. (2000). Polylactic acid technology. Advanced

SC
703 Materials, 12(23), 1841-1846.

704 Famá, L., Gerschenson, L., & Goyanes, S. (2009). Starch-vegetable fiber composites to

U
705 protect food products. Carbohydrate Polymers, 75, 230–235.
AN
706 Fang, J.M., Fowler, P.A., Escrig, C., Gonzales, R., Costa, J.A., & Chamudis, L. (2005).
707 Development of biodegradable laminate films derived from naturally occurring carbohydrate
708 polymers. Carbohydrate Polymers, 60, 39-42.
M

709 Farinha, I.d.S. (2009). Optimization of Bioplastics Production from Cheese Whey
710 http://hdl.handle.net/10362/2377 (last accessed: 10/10/2012).
D

711 Gáspár, M., Benkó, Zs., Dogossy, G., Réczey, K., & Czigány, T. (2005). Reducing water
TE

712 absorption in compostable starch-based plastics. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 90(3),
713 563-569.

Gennadios, A., Weller, C.L., & Testin, R.F. (1993). Modification of Physical and Barrier
EP

714
715 Properties of Edible Wheat Gluten-Based Films. Biological Systems Engineering; Papers and
716 Publications, 70(4), 425-429.
C

717 Ghanbarzadeh, B., Almasi, H., & Entezami, A.A. (2011). Improving the barrier and mechanical
AC

718 properties of corn starch-based edible films: Effect of citric acid and carboxymethyl cellulose.
719 Industrial Crops and Products, 33, 229-235.

720 Guillaume, C., Pinte, J., Gontard, N., & Gastaldi, E. (2010). Wheat gluten-coated papers for
721 bio-based food packaging: Structure, surface and transfer properties. Food Research
722 International, 43(5), 1395-1401.

723 Han, J.H., & Krochta, J.M. (1999). Wetting properties and water vapor permeability of whey
724 protein coated paper. Transactions of the ASAE, 42(5), 1375–1382.

20
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
725 Han, J.H., & Krochta, J.M. (2001). Physical properties and oil absorption of whey protein
726 coated paper. Journal of Food Science, 66(2), 294–299.

727 Haugaard, V.K., Udsen A.M., Mortensen, G., Hoegh L., Petersen, K., & Monahan, F. (2001).
728 Potential Food Applications of Biobased Materials, An EU-Concerted Action Project.
729 Starch/Stärke, 53(5), 189-200.

730 Haugaard, V.K., Weber, C.J., Danielsen, B., & Bertelsen, G. (2002). Quality changes in orange

PT
731 juice packed in materials based on polylactate. European Food Research & Technology,
732 214(5), 423-428.

Haugaard, V.K., Danielsen, B., & Bertelsen, G. (2003). Impact of polylactate and

RI
733
734 poly(hydroxybutyrate) on food quality. European Food Research & Technology, 216(3), 233–
735 240.

SC
736 Highlights in bioplastics,
737 http://www.biodeg.net/fichiers/Highlights%20in%20Bioplastics%20(Eng).pdf (last accessed:

U
738 10/10/2012)
AN
739 Hirvikorpi, T., Vähä-Nissi, M., Nikkola, J., Harlin, A., & Karppinen, M. (2011). Thin Al2O3
740 barrier coatings onto temperature-sensitive packaging materials by atomic layer deposition.
741 Surface & Coatings Technology, 205, 5088–5092.
M

742 Hult, E.L., Iotti, M., & Lenes, M. (2010). Efficient approach to high barrier packaging using
743 microfibrillar cellulose and shellac. Cellulose, 17(3), 575–586.
D

744 Ifezue, C. (2009). The effect of bio-based films on quality and shelf life of fresh celery.
TE

745 http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?did=1859978421&Fmt=7&clientId=27431&RQT=309&VNa
746 me=PQD (last accessed: 10/10/2012)

Iotti, M., Fabbri, P., Messori, M., Pilati, F., & Fava, P. (2009). Organic-Inorganic Hybrid
EP

747
748 Coatings for the Modification of Barrier Properties of Poly(lactic acid) Films for Food
749 Packaging Applications. Journal of Polymers and the Environment, 17(1), 10-19.
C

750 Jager, A. (2010). Ingeo™ polylactide een natuurlijke keus, presentation given at VMT
AC

751 conference: green packaging (9/12/2010).

752 Jamshidian, M., Tehrany, E.A., Imran, M., Jacquot, M., & Desobry, S. (2010). Poly-Lactic Acid:
753 Production, Applications, Nanocomposites, and Release Studies. Comprehensive Reviews in
754 Food Science and Food Safety, 9(5), 552-571.

755 Joshi, S. (2008). Can Nanotechnology Improve the Sustainability of Biobased Products? The
756 Case of Layered Silicate Biopolymer Nanocomposites. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 12(3),
757 474-489.

21
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
758 Kantola, M., & Helen, H. (2001). Quality changes in organic tomatoes packaged in
759 biodegradable packaging films. Journal of Food Quality, 24(2), 167–176.

760 Kim, M., Lee, S.J. (2002). Characteristics of crosslinked potato starch and starch-filled linear
761 low-density polyethylene films. Carbohydrate Polymers, 50, 331-337.

762 Kim, J.K., Jo C., Park H.J., Byun M.W. (2008). Effect of gamma irradiation on the
763 physicochemical properties of a starch-based film. Food hydrocolloids, 22(2), 248-254.

PT
764 Koide, S., & Shi, J. (2007). Microbial and quality evaluation of green peppers stored in
765 biodegradable film packaging. Food Control, 18(9), 1121–1125.

RI
766 Koller, I., & Owen, A.J. (1996). Starch-Filled PHB and PHB/HV Copolymer. Polymer
767 International, 39, 175-181.

SC
768 Kristo, E., & Biliaderis, C.G. (2007). Physical properties of starch nanocrystal reinforced films.
769 Carbohydrate Polymers, 29 (1), 254–259.

U
770 Kumar, P., Sandeep, K.P., Alavi, S., & Truong, V.D. (2011). A Review of Experimental and
771 Modeling Techniques to Determine Properties of Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites.
AN
772 Journal of Food Science, 76, 2-14.

773 Lagaron, J.M., & Lopez-Rubio, A. (2011). Nanotechnology for bioplastics: opportunities,
M

774 challenges and strategies. Trends in Food Science & Technology 22, 611-617.

775 Lawal, O.S. (2004). Composition, physicochemical properties and retrogradation

D

776 characteristics of native, oxidized, acetylated, and acid-thinned new cocoyam (Xanthosoma
777 sagittifolium) starch. Food Chemistry, 87(2), 205-218.
TE

778 Levkane, V., Muizniece-Brasava, S., & Dukalska, L. (2008). Pasteurization effect to quality of
779 salad with meat and mayonnaise. Foodbalt 2008, 69-73.
EP

780 Liu, L. (2006). Bioplastics in Food Packaging: Innovative Technologies for Biodegradable
781 Packaging. http://www.iopp.org/files/public/SanJoseLiuCompetitionFeb06.pdf (last
C

782 accessed: 10/10/2012)

AC

783 Lu, Y.S., Weng, L.H., & Cao, X.D. (2006). Morphological, thermal and mechanical properties
784 of ramie crystallites-reinforced plasticized starch biocomposites. Carbohydrate Polymers, 63,
785 198–204.

786 Lunt, J. (2009). The development and Commercialization of Poly Hydroxy Alkanoates (PHA).
787 Bioplastics magazine, Issue 03/2009, 36-38.

788 Makino, Y., & Hirata, T. (1997). Modified atmosphere packaging of fresh produce with a
789 biodegradable laminate of chitosan-cellulose and polycaprolactone. Postharvest Biology and
790 Technology, 10(3), 247-254.

22
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
791 Mauricio-Iglesias, M., Peyron, S., Guillard, V. & Gontard, N. (2010). Wheat Gluten
792 Nanocomposite Films as Food-Contact Materials: Migration Tests and Impact of Novel Food
793 Stabilization Technology (High Pressure). Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 116(5), 2526-
794 2535.

795 Mensitieri, G., Di Maio, E., Buonocore, G.G., Nedi, I., Oliviero, M., Sansone, L., & Iannace, S.
796 (2011). Processing and shelf life issues of selected food packaging materials and structures
797 from renewable resources. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 22(2-3), 72-80.

PT
798 Modi, S.J. (2010). Thesis: Assessing the Feasibility of Poly-(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-
799 valerate)(PHBV) and Poly-(lactic acid) for Potential Food Packaging applications.

RI
800 Molenveld, K. (2010). Biobased verpakkingen: antwoorden op vragen van eindgebruikers,
801 presentation given at VMT conference: green packaging (9/12/2010).

SC
802 Muizniece-Brasava, S., & Dukalska, L. (2006). Impact of Biodegradable PHB Packaging
803 Composite Materials on Dairy Product Quality. Proceedings of the Latvia University of

U
804 Agriculture, 16(311), 79-87.
AN
805 Müller, C.M.O., Laurindo, J.B., & Yamashita, F. (2009). Effect of cellulose fibers addition on
806 the mechanical properties and water vapor barrier of starch-based films. Food Hydrocolloids,
807 23(5), 1328-1333.
M

808 Müller, C.M.O., Laurindo, J.B., & Yamashita, F. (2011). Effect of nanoclay incorporation
809 method on mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of starch-based films. Industrial
D

810 Crops and Products, 33(3), 605-610.

TE

811 Nieburg, O. (2010). Unique sustainable deep freeze packaging set for European launch.
812 http://www.foodproductiondaily.com/Packaging/Unique-sustainable-deep-freeze-
813 packaging-set-for-European-launch (last accessed: 10/10/2012)
EP

814 Nielsen, L.E. (1967). Models for the permeability of filled polymer systems. Journal of
815 Macromolecular Science Part A-Chemistry, 1(5), 929-942.
C

816 Park, H., Lee, W., Park, C., Cho, W., & Ha, C. (2002). Preparation and properties of
AC

817 biodegradable thermoplastic starch/clay hybrids. Macromolecular Materials and

818 Engineering, 278(8), 553-558.

819 Petersen, K., Nielsen, P.V., Bertelsen, G., Lawther, M., Olsen, M.B., Nilsson, N.H., &
820 Mortensen, G. (1999). Potential of biobased materials for food packaging. Trends in Food
821 Science & Technology, 10, 52-68.

822 Petersson, L., & Oksman, K. (2006). Biopolymer based nanocomposites: comparing layered
823 silicates and microcrystalline cellulose as nanoreinforcement, Composites Science and
824 Technology, 66, 2187–2196.

23
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
825 Popa, M., & Belc, N. (2007). Packaging. Food Safety, Part 1, 68-87.

826 Rasal, R.M., Janorkar, A.V., & Hirt, D.E. (2010). Poly(lactic acid) modifications. Progress in
827 Polymer Science, 35, 338-356.

828 Rhim, J.W., Gennadios, A., Fu, D., Curtis, L.W., & Milford, H.A. (1999). Properties of
829 Ultraviolet Irradiated Protein Films. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 32(3), 129-133.

830 Rhim, J.W. Lee, J.H., & Hong, S.I. (2006). Water resistance and mechanical properties of

PT
831 biopolymer (alginate and soy protein) coated paperboards. Food Science and Technology,
832 39(7), 806–813.

RI
833 Rhim, J.W., Lee, J.H., & Perry, K.W.Ng. (2007). Mechanical and barrier properties of
834 biodegradable soy protein isolate-based films coated with polylactic acid. Food Science and

SC
835 Technology, 40(2), 232-238.

836 Rhim, J.W., & Kim, J.H. (2009a). Properties of Poly(lactide)-Coated Paperboard for the Use of
837 1-Way Paper Cup. Journal of Food Science, 74(2), 105-111.

838
U
Rhim, J.W., Hong, S.I., & Ha, C.S. (2009b). Tensile, water vapor barrier and antimicrobial
AN
839 properties of PLA/nanoclay composite films. Food Science and Technology, 42(2), 612-617.

840 Rodionova, G., Lenes, M., Eriksen, Ø., & Gregersen, Ø. (2011). Surface chemical modification
M

841 of microfibrillated cellulose: improvement of barrier properties for packaging applications.

842 Cellulose, 18(1), 127–134.
D

843 Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., Gimenez, E., & Lagaron, J.M. (2008). Morphology and barrier
844 properties of solvent cast composites of thermoplastic biopolymers and purified cellulose
TE

845 fibers. Carbohydrate Polymers, 71(2), 235–244.

846 Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., & Lagaron, J.M. (2010a). Novel Clay-Based Nanobiocomposites of
EP

847 Biopolyesters with Synergistic Barrier to UV Light, Gas, and Vapour. Journal of Applied
848 Polymer Science, 118(1), 188-199.
C

849 Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., & Lagaron, J.M. (2010b). On the use of plant cellulose nanowhiskers to
850 enhance the barrier properties of polylactic acid. Cellulose, 17, 987-1004.
AC

851 Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., Lopez-Rubio, A., & Lagaron, J.M. (2010a). Natural micro and
852 nanocomposites with enhanced barrier properties and novel functionalities for food
853 biopackaging application. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 21(11), 528-536.

854 Sanchez-Garcia, M.D., Lagaron, J.M., & Hoa, S.V. (2010b). Effect of addition of carbon
855 nanofibers and carbon nanotubes on properties of thermoplastic biopolymers. Composites
856 Science and Technology, 70, 1095–1105.

24
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
857 Satish, J. (2008). Can Nanotechnology Improve the Sustainability of Biobased Products? The
858 Case of Layered Silicate Biopolymer Nanocomposites. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 12(3),
859 474-489.

860 Shen, L., Haufe, J., & Patel, M.K. (2009). Product overview and market projection of
861 emerging bio-based plastics. http://en.european-bioplastics.org/wp-
862 content/uploads/2011/03/publications/PROBIP2009_Final_June_2009.pdf (last accessed:
863 11/10/2012).

PT
864 Shi, R., Bi, J., Zhang, Z., Zhu, A., Chen, D., Zhou, X., Zhang, L., Wei Tian, W. (2008). The effect
865 of citric acid on the structural properties and cytotoxicity of the polyvinyl alcohol/starch

RI
866 films when molding at high temperature. Carbohydrate Polymers, 74, 763–770.

867 Singh, R. (2011). Facts, Growth, and Opportunities in Industrial Biotechnology. Organic

SC
868 Process Research & Development, 15(1), 175–179.

869 Silvestre ,C., Duraccio, D., Cimmino, S. (2011). Food packaging based on polymer

U
870 nanomaterials. Progress in Polymer Science, 36, 1766-1782.
AN
871 Siracusa, V., Rocculi, P., Romani, S., & Dalla Rosa, M. (2008). Biodegradable polymers for
872 food packaging. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19(12), 634-643.

873 Södergard, A., & Stolt, M. (2002). Properties of lactic acid based polymers and their
M

874 correlation with composition. Progress in Polymer Science, 27, 1123-1163.

D

875 Song, J.H., Murphy, R.J., Narayan, R., & Davies, G.B.H. (2009). Biodegradable and
876 compostable alternatives to conventional plastics. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
TE

877 Society B, 364, 2127–2139.

878 Sudesh, K., & Iwata, T. (2008). Sustainability of Biobased and Biodegradable Plastics. CLEAN,
soil, air, water, 36(5-6), 433-442.
EP

879

880 Suyatma, N.E., Copinet, A., Tighzert, L., & Coma, V. (2004). Mechanical and barrier properties
881 of biodegradable films made from chitosan and poly (lactic acid) blends. Journal of Polymers
C

882 and the Environment, 12(1), 1–6.

AC

883 Thiebaud, S., Aburto, J., Alric, I., Borredon, E., Bikiaris, D., Prinos, J., Panayiotou, C. (1997).
884 Properties of fatty-acid esters of starch and their blends with LDPE. Journal of Applied
885 Polymer Science, 65, 705–721.

886 Türe, H., Gällstedt, M., & Hedenqvist, M.S. (2012). Antimicrobial compression-moulded
887 wheat gluten films containing potassium sorbate. Food Research International, 45, 109-115.

888 Weber, C.J. (2000). Biobased packaging materials for the food industry, Status and
889 perspective, http://www.biodeg.net/fichiers/Book%20on%20biopolymers%20(Eng).pdf (last
890 accessed: 10/10/2012).

25
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
891 Weston, S. (2010). Packaging – assessing its environmental credentials,
892 http://www.foodbev.com/article/packaging-assessing-its-environmental-credentials (last
893 accessed: 10/10/2012).
894
895 Wu, Y., Geng, F., Chang, P.R., Yu, J., & Ma, X. (2009). Effect of agar on the microstructure and
896 performance of potato starch film. Carbohydrate Polymers, 76(2), 299-304.

897 Yin, Y., Li, J., Liu, Y., & Li, Z. (2005). Starch crosslinked with poly (vinyl alcohol) by boric acid.

PT
898 Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 96(4), 1394-1397.

899 Yoon, J.S., Lee, W.S., Jin, H.J., Chin, I.J., Kim, M.N., & Go, J.H. (1999). Toughening of poly(3-

RI
900 hydroxybutyrate) with poly(cis-1,4-isoprene). European Polymer Journal, 35(5), 781–788.

901 Yu, L., Dean, K., & Li, L. (2006). Polymer blends and composites from renewable resources.

SC
902 Progress in Polymer Science, 31(6), 576-602.

903 Yu, J., Yang, J., Liu, B., & Ma, X. (2009). Preparation and characterization of glycerol

U
904 plasticized-pea starch/ZnO–carboxymethylcellulose sodium nanocomposites. Bioresource
905 Technology, 100(11), 2832–2841.
AN
906 Yuzay, I.E., Auras, R., & Selke, S. (2009). Poly(lactic acid) and Zeolite Composites Prepared by
907 Melt Processing: Morphological and Physical-Mechanical Properties. Journal of Applied
M

908 Polymer Science, 115(4), 2262-2270.

909 Zepnik, S., Kesselring, A., Kopitzky, R., & Michels, C. (2010). Basics of Cellulosics. Bioplastics
D

910 magazine, Issue 01/2010, 44-47.

TE

911 Zhang, L., Xiong, C., & Deng, X. (1996). Miscibility, crystallization and morphology of poly(b-
912 hydroxybutyrate)/poly(D,L-lactide). Polymer, 37(2), 235–241.

Zhong, N. & Yuan, Q. (2013). Preparation and Properties of Molded Blends of Wheat Gluten
EP

913
914 and Cationic Water-Borne Polyurethanes. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 128(1), 460-
915 469.
C

916
AC

917

918

919

920

921

922

26
Table(s)

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Table 1: Raw materials, their origin and their advantages and disadvantages
Raw Origine Advantages Disadvantages Reference
Material
Zein Main -good film forming -brittle (use of
protein of properties after plasticizers can
Ghanbarzadeh
corn dissolving in ethanol overcome this)
(2006),
and acetone
Sozer & Kokini
-good tensile and
(2009)

PT
moisture barrier
properties
Chitosan Derivative -antimicrobial and -high water sensitivity
Darmadji &
of chitin antifungal activity

RI
Izumimoto
-good mechanical
(1994),
properties
Jo et al. (2001),

SC
-low oxygen and
Suyatma et al.
carbon dioxide
(2004)
permeability
Soy protein Derived -poor mechanical

U
isolate (SPI) from properties
Rhim et al. (2007)
AN
soybean -high sensitivity to
moisture
Whey Waste -good oxygen -moderate moisture Galietta et al.
protein stream of (comparable to barrier (1998), Kokoszka
M

isolate cheese EVOH) and aroma -plasticizer necessary et al. (2010a),

industry barrier to create easy to Maté & Krochta
handle films (1996) McHugh et
D

al. (1994),
McHugh &
TE

Krochta (1994)
(Wheat) Waste -low cost -high sensitivity to
Gluten stream of -good oxygen barrier moisture Zhong & Yuan
EP

derived wheat -good film forming -brittle (2013), Türe et al.

films starch properties (2012)
industry
C
AC
Table(s)

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Table 2: Current applications of bioplastics
Packaging application Biopolymer Company Reference
PLA
Coffee and tea Cardboard cups coated KLM Jager (2010)
with PLA
Beverages PLA Cups Mosburger (Japan) Sudesh & Iwata (2008)
Butter PLA Container Cyclus (Brasil) Bunge (2011)
Fresh salads PLA Bowls McDonald’s Haugaard et al. (2003)
Carbonated water, fresh PLA Bottles Biota, Noble,… Sudesh & Iwata (2008)

PT
juices, dairy drinks,…
Freshly cut fruits, whole Rigid PLA trays and Asda (retailer) Koide & Shi (2007)
fruits, vegetables, bakery packs Jager (2010)

RI
goods, salads
Organic pretzels, PLA bags Snyder’s of Hanover, Weston, 2010
potatochips PepsiCo’s Frito-lay

SC
Yoghurt PLA jars Stonyfield (Danone) Haugaard et al. (2001),
Jager (2010)
Frozen fries PLA films (Bio-Flex) McCain Nieburg, 2010
Organic fruit and PLA packaging Mont Blanc Primeurs

U
vegetables
Highlights in bioplastics
Pasta PLA packaging Biorigin
AN
Herbs PLA packaging Asda (retailer)
Prepared sandwiches, PLA bowls, packaging
pasta salads
Delhaize- press release
M

Bread Paper bags with PLA Delhaize (retailer)

(2007)
window
Organic poultry PLA bowls, absorb pads
D

Starch based
Milk chocolates Cornstarch trays Cadbury Schweppes food
TE

Group, Marks& Spencer Highlights in Bioplastics,

Organic tomatoes Corn-based packaging Iper supermarkets (Italy), website European bioplastics
Coop Italia
Cellulose
EP

Kiwi Biobased trays wrapped Wal-Mart Blakistone & Sand (2007)

with cellulose film
Potato chips Metalized cellulose film Boulder Canyon
C

Organic pasta Cellulose based Birkel Website European

packaging bioplastics
AC

Sweets Metalized cellulose film Qualitystreet, Thornton

Table(s)
ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
Table 3: Main characteristics multilayered biobased films

Permeability Seal conditionsb Tensile

Modulus Ec
O2a H2Oa strain at breakc
Film T P t (Mpa)
Shape (cc/m2.d) (g/m2.d) Thicknessa (%)
(tr=transparant) 23°C - 38°C – (µm)
n-tr=non 75% RH 90% RH (°C) kN/m2 (s) MD TD MD TD

PT
transparant)
Natureflex N913 (cellulose-based) flex. film (tr) 9,9 10,1 55 100-170 69 0,5 >3000 >1500 22 70

RI
Natureflex N931 (cellulose-based) flex. film (n-tr) 3,4 5,0 44 120-170 69 0,5 >3000 >1500 20 44
Ecoflex+Ecovio/Ecovio/
flex. film (n-tr) 815,0 216,4 55 70-85 400 1,6 596,8±54,3 8,1±2,0 294,0±27,0 316,8±43,3

SC
Ecoflex+Ecovio
Metallised PLA flex. film (n-tr) 25,4 2,3 20 70-80 411 1,6 2289,6±254,1 3270,5±307,0 5,1±0,7 5,9±0,3

U
Cellophane /Metal layer/PLA flex. film (n-tr) 9,1 9,7 46 105 420 1,6 2885,8±75,4 2256,7±65,3 30,4±1,1 45,5±9,5

AN
Paper/AlOx/PLA flex. film (n-tr) 45,7 6,0 91 120 600 1 2394,8±163,7 1276,9±113,1 6,1±0,4 9,4±0,5

M
Bioska 504 (multilayer PLA) flex. film (tr) 617,6 275,1 34 60 414 1,6 921,3±38,7 924,7±94,6 185,3±9,3 169,7±59,9

D
Natureflex/PLA flex. film (tr) 11,01 11,3 60 60-75 415 1,6 942,4±25,4 718,9±12,6 30,8±3,8 99,7±10,0

TE
Cellophane/PLA flex. film (tr) 10,5 13,8 100 60-80 420 1,6 534,2±24,5 571,5±35,8 43,6±4,7 99,5±5,5

PHB/Ecoflex flex. film (tr) 142,1 80,6 87 70-80 410 1,6 146,7±27,0 109,4±7,1 701,2±60,4 721,6±30,0
EP
100 f
Xylophane A (coated on paper) flex. film (n-tr) 3,7 24,3 170* / / 593,7±14,5 / 8,3±0,4 /
(coating = 9)
100
Xylophane B (coated on paper) flex. film (n-tr) 6,0 23,9 170* / / 618,6±12,1 / 8,0±0,1 /
C

(coating = 9)
PLA tray
AC

tray (tr) 46,8 3,8 200-300 / / / / / / /

a b
Measured at Packaging Centre, Xios Hogeschool, Hasselt, Belgium/From technical sheet Measured at BVI, Zellik, Belgium
c
Meaured at University College Ghent, Ghent, Belgium (except Natureflex N913 and N931)
 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Used Food
Film Biobased
Tensile stress at Print- approved
Origin Provider
breakc (N/mm2) ability (Vincotte)e
MD TD Cooling Freezer Pasteurisation (1935/2004)
Bastin-Pack nv,
Natureflex N913 (cellulose-based) 125 70 YES OK NO NO YES ** Non-food
Be_Natural

PT
Natureflex N931 (cellulose-based) 80 45 YES OK OK NT YES **** Non-food Be_Natural

RI
Ecoflex+Ecovio/Ecovio/
23,1±0,2 19,9±0,9 YES OK OK NT YES ** Non-food + corn BPI Formipac
Ecoflex+Ecovio

SC
Metallised PLA 66,4±7,8 86,7±6,2 YES OK OK NO YES **** corn Vitra

Cellophane /M/PLA 98,8±1,7 71,1±4,9 / NT NT NT / **** Non-food + corn Be_Natural

U
AN
Paper/AlOx/PLA 79,0±1,7 54,7±3 YES NT NT NO YES **** corn Be_Natural

M
Bioska 504 (multilayer PLA) 23,9±0,6 20,5±2,4 YES OK OK NO YES **** Be_Natural

D
Natureflex/PLA 56,2±1,2 34,0±1,1 / NT NT NT / *** Non-food + corn Segers&Balcaen

TE
Cellophane/PLA 54,5±1,4 35,2±0,7 / NT NT NT / *** Non-food + corn Segers&Balcaen
Food contact
PHB/Ecoflex 25,5±1,8 21,0±1,1 / NT NT NT **** corn + cereals Roychem BVBA
safe
EP
Xylophane A (coated on paper) 32,4±1,0 / / NO NO NO NT **** Non-food Xylophane

Xylophane B (coated on paper) 34,3±0,5 / / NO NO NO NT **** Non-food Xylophane

C

PLA tray / / / / / / / / / HoGent

AC

d
NT = not tested
e
20-40% biobased = *, 40-60% biobased = **, 60-80% biobased = ***, >80% biobased = ****
f
/ = no information or not yet tested