A DBSGRIPTIVS STUDY OP THB

BHAKDAPUR DIALECT OP NBWARI

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO

THB UNIVERSITY OP POONA

POR THE DEGR.SB OP

DOCTOR OP PHILOSOPHY

IN LINGUISTICS

BY

SU^TDEK KRISHNA JOSHI

DEGGAN GOILBGB

POST (21ADUATE AND RESEARCH INSTITUTE

PUNE- 411 006

1984
 P/jo6.S

APPEDNIX : FORM 'A'

Certified tliat the work iticoporated in thesis,

•A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF B H A K T A P U R DIALECT OF NEWARI»
submitted by Shri SUNDER KRISHNA JOSHI was carried out
by the candidate under my supervision. Such material
as has been obtained from other sources has been duly
ackno41edged in the thesis.

P
P.BHASKARARAO
C^-<JC

Supervisor
 ACKNOAILICDGMEMTS

I would. liKe to express my sincere gratitude to my

guide Dr. Peri Bhaskararao, Professor and Mead of the
department of Linguistics, Deccan College and University of
Poena. I am, and r^iiain deeply indebted to Dr. Rao under
whose close supervision and guidence I learnt linguistics
better than I could have learnt from any book. I am, indeed,
very lucky to have v/orked under him. The present v/ork
could not have been accomplished v/ithout his encouragement,
nis careful and continuous supervision.

1 v/ould also like to express my gratitude to the present

Vice Chancellor of Tribhuban University, Nepal 3hri Ram
Chandra Bahadur Singh for providing me the opportunity under
Faculty Development Programme to do my Ph.D. in Linguistics
at Deccan College.

1 am particularly grateful to -;lr. Rarnapatiraj Sharma,

and Mr. Ram Bahadur Kayastha with whom I consulted about
Bhaktapur dialect. Both of them were kind enough to give
me time despite their busy schedule. I am equally grateful
to the following infoniiants from Bhaktapur for narrating the
texts:

1) Mr. Basudev Prasad Joshi,

Assistant Dean, Institute of Hiimanities and
Social Science, 'I'.U. Nepal.
2) rirs. Laxmi Bhaju
3) Mrs Manesv/ari Amatya
4) Mrs. lulsimaya Prajapati
5) Mrs. Ratnamaya Basukala
 I thank Mr. Deepak Muul, Mrs. Vishnudevi Vaidya and
Mrs. Radhadevi Nev/a from whom I got my data checked and
clarified some doubts. I am very grateful to Dr. M.P. Aneja,
Research Associate in Deccan College, and Shree Shanti Basnyat,
Lecturer, Tribhuvan University and Research Scholar at Deccan
College for useful consultation and cooperation.

My thanks are due to the teachers, Librarian, and

his staff, administrative staff of Deccan College for their
help and cooperation.

I would also like to take this opportunity to thank

my wife Shannistha and other family members for patiently
putting up with many inconviences for the last three years.

Lastly, I v/ould like to thank Mr. 3.R. Prabhu for

typing the running material of my thesis, and Mr. 3.K.
Jha for typing the vocabulary.
 CONTENTS

Acknov/ledgements
introduction
Abbreviations
Page
1. Phonology

1.1 Inventory of phonemes 1

1.2 Phonemic contrasts 2
1.2.1 Consonants 2
1.2.1.1 Voicing 2
1.2.1.2 Aspiration 4
1.2.1.3 Place of articulation 6
1.2.1.4 Manner of articuiaxion 8
1.2.2 vowels 12
1.2.2.1 vov/ei length 12
1.2.2.2 Tongue height 12
1.2.2.3 Vowel nasalization 13
1.2.2.4 Others 14
1.3 Fnonetic description of phonemes 15
1.3.1 Vov/els 15
1.5i.2 Consonants 18
1.4 Distribution of phonemes 25
1.4.1 Free variation of phonemes 27
1.4.2 Consonant clusters 27
1.4.2.1 Initial 28
1.^.2.2 Medial 30
1.4.2.3 Final 37
1.4.2.4 Vov/el sequences 38
1.5 Syllable t^'pe 40

MorphoDhonoloKV 41

2.1 Compensatory lengtnening 41

2.2 Deletion of sounds 42
2.3 Coalescence of similar sounds 45
 Par,e
xo,.:

2.4 Alternation of /u/ with /wA/ 46

2.5 Change of oblique /ya/ 46
2.6 Alterna.tion of vov/el-length in
aative and locative suffix 47
2.7 Metathesis 47
2.8
Vov/el harmony 48
2.9
Assimilation 48
2.10
Alternation of alveolar plosives
2.11 and alveolar nasal with /r/ 50
2.12
/r/ Corresponds to /l/ 51
/v:c/ Corresponds to /vcc/ 51
3. Noun
52
3.1
Derived nominals 52
3.1.1 From verbal bases 52
3.1.2
From nominal bases 62
3.1.3
From adjectival bases 65
3.1.4
From adverbial bases v ^ J'\. 66
3.2
Inflection / ^"^ T*\ ^'^
3.2.1 Number { ( J^' •^ *) ^^
3.2.2 Case V i^^w^V 70
3.2.2. 1 Case suffixes ^"^ ^y^ 70
3 . 2 . 2 . ,2 Oblique forms 75
3 . 2 . 2 . >3 Outlines of case-functions 88
3.3. Nominal compounds 96
D.'5.^ bubordinats compounds 96
3 . 3 . 1 . ,1 Determinative compounds 96
3 . 3 . 1 . ,2 Comparative compounds 97
3 . 3 . 1 . .3 Compounds caused by the deletion 97
of the medial component^.s)
::^.3.1- .4 Appositional compounds 97
3 . 3 . 1 . .5 Numeral compounds 98
3.3.2 Coordinate compounds 99
3.4 PronoLiiis 100
3.4.1 Personal pronouns 100
 Page

3. 4. 2 Demonstrative and interrogative

pronouns 101
3. 4. 3 Other tj^es 102
3. 5 Numerals 105
4 . VertIS
4. 1 Canonical shapes 115
4 ., 2 . Derivation 1l6
4. 2. 1 Transitivization 1l6
4 . 2 . 1.1 Transitivization of roots beginning
with voiced stops 1l6
4 . .2. 2
Causativization 118
4 . .3
Inflection 121
4 .. 3 . 1 Conjugation classes 121
4 .. 3 . 2 Base alternants 122
4 .. 3 . 3 Base lists 123
4 . ,4 Inflectional suffixes 132
4 . . 4 . ,1 Past conjunct and imperative conjunct 135
4 . , 4 , ,2 Past disjunct , 135
4., 4 . , 2 . 1 Proximate and remote... 138
4 . . 4 . .3 Non past conjunct and infinitive 139
4.. 4 . ,4 Non Past disjunct I4l
4.. 4 . .5 Past participle I4l
4.. 4 . ,6 Imperative disjunct 142
4.. 4 . .7 Habitual 144
4..5 Semantic values of the suffixes 146
4..6 Compound verbs l49
4,. 6 . .1 Idiomatic compound 149
4,• b ,,2 Auxiliary compound 150
4,. 6 . .3 Conjunct verbs 155
Adjectives and Adverbs 157
5.1 Simple adjectives 157
5.2 Derived Adjectives 157
5.2.1 From verbs 157
5.2.2 From nouns l6l
 Page
5.2.3 from adjectives 162
5.3 Adverbs 162
5.3.1 Simple adverbs 162
5.5.2 Derived Adverbs 162
5.3.2.1 From verbal bases 163
D.3.2.2 From aajectival bases 164

5.3.2.3 From onomatopoeic and pnonesthetic

bases 164
5.4 Demonstrative and interrogative bases 165
6. r'articies and Post Positions 173
6. Particles 173
6. 1.1 xikphatic 173
b. 1.2 Conjunctive 175
b. 1.3 Quotative 178
b . 1.4 Expletive 178
b. 1.5 Negative 179
b . 1.6 Prohibitive 179
o . 1.7 Benedictive 179
b . 1.8 Determinative 180
b . 1.9 Exclamatory- 180
b. 1.10 Hortative 182
6. 1.11 Initiative 182
b . 1.12 Responsive 182
b . 1.13 Vocative 182
b . 1.14 Question tags 183
b . 1.15 Interrogative 183
b . 1.16 Honorific 183
b . 1.17 Intensifier 184
b . 1.18 Sentence Q u a l i f i e r 184
o . 1.19 Idiomatic 185
6' 2. 185
7. Cl<a s s i i i e r s 188
7. 1 Verbal c l a s s i f i e r s 188
7.2 wominal classifiers 190
 Pafee
8. Reduplication and Onomatopoea 195

3.1. iimple reduplication 195

8.1.1 Reduplication of nouns & pronouns 195
8.1.2 Reduplication of numerals and
classifiers 197
8.1.3 Reduplication in veros 200
8.1.4 Reduplication in Adjectives 201
8.1.5 Reduplication in adverbs 201
8.1.6 Reduplication in Post-positions 202
8.2 jEcho reduplication 203
9. Dilectal Difference between Standard and 206
Bhaktapur dialect
9.1 Phonological level 205
9.1.1 Phonetic variations 206
9.1.2 Phonemic variations 208
9.2 grammatical level 221
9.3 Completely different words in Standard
and Bhaktapur dialect for the same
meaning 226

10. Sample Texts 229

10.1 229
10.2 237
10.3 249
10.4 256
10.5 263

10.6 265

11. Vocabulary .170

12. 'Bibliography 404

 ABBREVIATIONS

A agentive

Ab ablative

adj adjective

adv adverb

anira animate

asp aspirated

aux auxiliary

B Bhaktapur dialect

C Consonant

daus dansative

'dj donjunct

cl classifier or class

cl.n nominal classifier

cl.v verbal classifier

col •colloquial

comp comparative

cent continuous

cp compound

Dat dative

dem demonstrative

der derogatory

det determinative particle

dj disjunct

dim dimunitive

dist distributive

emph emphatic

equa equational

excl exclusive
exist existential
expl expletive particle
Fr unt fractional unit
Gen genitive case
hab habitual
hon honorific
I instrumental
imp imperative
inanim inanimate
incl inclusive
indef indefinite
inf infinitive
interj interfection
intr interrogative
K Kathmandu dialect
lit literally
LOG locative case
n noun
Nep Nepali
New Nev/ari
ng negative
N pa non past
obi oblique
onorn onomatopoea or onomatopoic
£> Patan dialect
pa past
pa p past participle

pfx prefix
Pl plural
po p post position
pm pronoun
proh proaibitive particle
prox proximate
pt particle
purp purposive
qiy quality
q. t . question tag
qty quantity
quot quotative p a r t i c l e
rdp reduplication
rem remote
rep repitition
resp responsive particle
rfl reflexive

sg singular
sfx suflix
sb somebody
sth something
temp fast tempo form
V. verb or vov/el
vd voiced
V i intransitive verb
vl voiceless
voc vocative particle
vt transitive verb
V non syllabic vocoid
 INTRODUCTION

Nev/ari i s a T i b e t o Burman l a n g u a g e s p o k e n i n i^jepai.

i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a n o n - p r o n o m i n a l i z e d l a n g u a g e oelong-

i n g t o t h e l i b e t o Himalayan b r a n c n . i t has, as noted by

Kamsakar Cl9o1 : 1 ) , i t s old v/ritten t r a t i o n starting

from i o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o i Shana dynasty

v/hich i n c l u d e s q u i t e a good number of h i s t o r i c a l GOCU-

ments i n c l u d i n g family h i s t o r y (bansavali), astronomy,

astrology, religion, tantra, m e d i c i n e , poems, d r a m a s etc.

I h e e a r i i e s t i n s c r i p t i o n c o n t a i n i n g Nev/ari v/ords so far

d i s c o v e r e d a s n o t e d by rfalla {^9'6^: 6 ) i s of oaniihu,

Bajrajv/A:gini d a t e d 1172, t h e e a r l i e s t iJev/ari inanuscript

so f a r d i s c o v e r e d i s D i l i n g u a l n i t o p d e s A d a t e d 1360.

i a r i i e r t o t h e s e d o c u m e n t s , n o n - S a n s k r i t -^ords h a v e b e e n

found i n t h e a n c i e n t i n s c r i p t i o n s of L i c c h a v i period

( 3 5 0 - 7 5 0 A . D . ) composed m a . n l y m S a n s k r i t m o s t o f v/iiich

a s p o s t u l a t e d by i-ialla ( l 9 o l a : i 7 ) are proto-iJeivari noj-iinals

denoting water-sources, n i l l o c k s , taxes, tax offices,

and some p . ; r s o n a l n o u n s . I'lalla f u r t n e r shov/s t h a t some

of t h e s e n o m i n a l s a r e i n t e r e s t i n g l y u s e d m modern i'Je•v^rari ( i 9 3 1 b : 5 j

'iJi r i p r i n g ' from v/hich t h e modern Ne.vari name (KhApA ( S ,

khwApA)' f o r B h a k t a p u r i s d e r i v e d , i s one of t h e 250 such v/ords

a s e n u m e r a t e d by famot ( 1 9 ^ 1 ) . During t h e l a t e r medieval age

many e x c e l l e n t poems and d r a m a s v/ere w r i t t e n and religious

s t o r i e s were t r a n s l a x e d i n x h i s l a n g u a g e . The t h e n

Nev.-ar K i n g s i n c l u d i n g B n u p a t m d r a n a i l (1597-1722) and

R a n a j i t M a l i a ( l 7 2 2 - 1 7 o 9 ) of B h a k t a p u r a r e famous a s p o e t s
as v.£_l as d r a m a t i s t s .

The tiaree i m p o r t a n t Ne'^ari setultmenLs i n th^, Kouhinandu

v a l l e y a r e Kaxhmandu p r o p e r , Patan and r-haktepur. Durin,-,
t h e Malla p e r i o d tiiese t h r e e kint^doms v.ere r u l e d oy
d i f f e r e n t ivewar kin^^s. They were c o n s i a e r e d t o be t n r e e
d i s t i n c t kinj^^doms. This has u l t i m a t e l y r-esulwed i n some
v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e speeches o i i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e s e ar.^as.
G e o o r a p u i c a l l y they a r e ver-y pr'oximate t o each other-,
Xathmandu and Fatan a r e p r a c t i c a l l y a d j a c e n t t o eacli other'
wnere as Bhaktapur i s s l i g h t l y p a r t n e r from botn i^ Obinj^
not more ti.an 12.& Km av.ay from t n e m ) . Katimiindu c^nr P a t e n
a r e coiuparatively more u r b a n i z e d , hov,ever, ..atumt.ndu,
beine t n e c a p i t a l of t a e country i s t h e most urD.-:^ni:^ed
Oi a l l . Bhaktapur, bLin^^ s e p a r a t e d from botn t h e o t n e r
plcices s t i l l m a i n t a i n s i t s r u r a l c h a r a c t e r \.itii i t s vast
a g r i c u l t u r a l f i e l d s and some h a m l e t s . I t s r u r a l clit^racter
i s r e f l e c t e d i n i t s ^cpcili name Bhadp^aon. tn._ '^^aon'
t e r m i n a t i o n n.eans L- v i l l a g e .

I a t e r e s t i n £ , l y a l l t h e t h r e e towns have triree s e t s

of name:- - a ixewari s e t , a Aepali s e t and a can::;kr'iti2ed s e t :
I\ ewari i^epali Baaskrltized
ye ;^ij.ya) Katnmandu kantipur
yAlA (.£). y«.la) Pat an Ltilitpur
khv.Ap^^^t;.khApri; ijhad£,aon j-i.aktapur'

Accor-ding to tLe census of Nepal 1S81, out of total

population of 1,41,79,301 iNiev.ari speakers are 4,48,746
( i . e . , 3.1>u 01 the t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n ) , and t h e i r d i s t r i -
bution i n these t h r e e d i s t r i c t s of Kattimandu valley i s
as below:
Kathmandu 1,23,935
Patan 67,772
Bhaktapur 79.038
iotal 2,70,765

About 60y^ 01 the total population of i\ev,ais are

conceriti ated in Kathmandu valley only and the rest are
distributed throu^nout the other parts of the country.

Out of the 75 districts in Ntpal i^haktapui' is tae

smallest one with an area of 139 square kiloraetert,but
most densely populated with an average ol 1070 people in
one square kelometer each. Out of the total population
of ijhaktapur (1981: 148769; -nore than 53^" are ivev.ari
speakers only. Besides i^ewari, iNiepali, i'a.an^ and other
dialects (insignificant with respect to the number of
speakers) are Sj^oken here'

In other parts of the country wnere Newari is spoken

except Bhojpur ^The'iSL\ari sj^eak^rt of this place claim
to be descended from iratan) and Jjoikha ^Ihe Newars oi
this district have their own Pahari dialect), the iMewai s
claim themselves to have been migrated from Bhaktapur, and
their dialects in many respects are close to bhaktapur

dialect than to the standard one.

Bhaktapur is situated to the east oi the capital.

It is surrounded oy river Kanahara in the nortu, by the

cliff of Mario-dev EwAKiiari and its range in the ea;^.t. In

the south lies surya Binayaka and itt elevated £j,.ace,

and its vvestern border is river Hanaha^ joining, witti Durga

stream. According to the political boundary Kathi landu lies

on the v.'e£t which is further excended to the north, Lalitpur

lies to the south which is further extended to the west,

and Palanchwak lies to the east which is further extended

to the south. The city is divided into 19 wards. The district

has 22 neighbouring villat^es with separate villb.ge tanchayats.

The major occupation of the residents of Bhaktapur are

pottery makin^;, agriculture, yoghurt making andraakint,black

corduroy caps ^--opularly known as 't>>.kw,rtj ti^^.uli' in 2\ev.arl,

The people of Bhaktapur are consider-ed to be ppor accoidin^,

to the standard of the people of the rest of tne valley.

They have a peculiar system of keeping, their suraaames by

the names of the pulses, birds and animals, super natural

beings such as bhuti. 'bean', kAe^u. 'peas', cana. '^^rams'

bi^:,r;iiuK. 'pegion', ima, 'eagle', cAkiiuN. 'spariow', wau bht^ttu.

'sparrow', makAi^ju. 'aonkey', phAi-.1u. 'ram', dhw>J.\^-.'iU. 'fox',

khica-.iu. 'dog', timila-.ju, 'moon', khva:-."iu '^enie',

bhu-ju, 'e,host' etc. iionrific paiticle/-ou/ is added to most

of them.
 Main f e s t i v a l s celebrated here are Sapar, 'cow f e s t i v a l '
t h a t occurs on the f i r s t of Bhadra wAdi (August), Biska
t h a t occurs on the f i r s t day of Vaishakh ( A p r i l ) , (rhe
legend of which i s included as t e x t No.2 i n t h i s t h e s i s ) ,
mwAhAnl, 'vijAya f e s t i v a l ' , and 'Diwali'

The Bhaktapur d i a l e c t i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by some

d i s t i n c t features i n i t s phonology, morpnology, morohopno-
nology, and l e x i s . The p e c u l i a r i t y of t h i s d i a l e c t aas a t t r a -
cted the a"ctention of some l i n g u i s t s previously. One of
tiiem i s ^hffee RamapAti Raj Shanna, a native grammarian. He
had published a c o l l e c t i o n of l i n g u i s t i c a r t i c l e s including
one on d i a l e c t a l differences between the standard and
Bhaktapur d i a l e c t (l980: 203-218), and has been publishing
the same i n various l i t e r a r y magazines with modifications,
-'iantaro, J .i-iashimoto has cornpilled 4,3^8 vocabulary items
and 132 sentence-patterns (i4entaro: 1977). The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of vocabulary i n t o various domines and also several vocables
are patterned on the b a s i s of Chinese language. 'Jie book
does not present any analysis of the d i a l e c t , or comparisons
with other d i a l e c t s of Newari. The t r a n s c r i p t i o n given in
Devnagari s c r i p t do not exactly represent the exact pronounci-
a t i o n as they should be.
The purpose of t i i s t h e s i s i s to describe the
phonology, .aorphology, morphophonology of Bhaktapur d i a l e c t
of wev/ari, and to point out the differences betv/een t h i s
d i a l e c t and the standard one. Analysis a t various l e v e l s
of pJrionolO£;y and morphology i s presented nere in a
d e s c r i p t i v e framev^ork. Tne corpus for analysis v. as
c o l l e c t e d in the shape of e l i c i t e a t e x t s , narrai;ivx^ at vvell
as v/ord l i s t s , and noii;inal and vei'bal paraait^'iis. r.ost of
the t e x t s and n a r i a t i v e s included in t n i s t n e s i s ccntti
primarily around the l i f e in lihaktapur. Tiit t e x t s on
pottery makini^, curd making,* establisoment of fuljc.>.h^-
bani in ijhaktapur, tv^^o leee^ds r e l a t e d to 'che f e s t i v a l s oi
i-haktapui' r e f l e c t t a i s a s p e c t . i-.no'Chtr r i t u a l story also
i s included ac a xext. K t o t a l nurabei' of voca^jules ixacluded
in vocabulary are around 4500.
are the
Five informants who/residents of Bhakta^-'Ur ric,.ht from

t h e i r childtiood v.ere s e l e c t e d foi- collecting, the d t t a .

Some of them do not know" any other language apart from

tne j-haktapur dialect. «.ll the texts, vocabulary, and

paradigms were collected from tneui, ^ £,00d number of other

residents of Bhaktapur vvei'e functioned as ancillary

informants for cross checking data, anc also filling in

somt gaps and clarifying some doubts, ti. total amount of

6 weeks vere spent in or around J^haktapur collecting, data,

:A ^"V*- ^K. '-^ r^.. V V

1. PHONOLOGY
1 Phonology
1.1 Inventory of Fnonemes

Following are the phonemes of this dialect:-

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Cilottal

'\a Vd VI Vd VI Vd VI Vd VI Vd

Stops:
UA P b t d k g
A ph bh th dh kh gh
Affricates:
UA c D
A ch dh
Nasals:
UA m n N
A mh' nh
Fricatives: s h
Trill: r
Laterals:
UA 1
A Ih
Approxi-
mants: w
Vowels:

Front Central Back

unrounded unrounded rounded
High i u
rlid e A
Low a

3uD ra s esm entals:

/ :/ Vowel length
/ - / Vowel nasalization

1,2 Fnonemic Contrasts

There is a contrast between voiceless (Vl) and Voiced (Vd),

aspirated (asp) and unaspirated (unasp) among the stops and
affricates. Among the fricatives /s/ is vl and /h/ is vd. Tae
rest of the consonants and vowels are vd.

Nasals (except velar nasal) and laterals have asp counter

parts

1.2.1 Consonants;

1.2.1.1 Voicing
/p / - / b /
pwAn- 'to offer' bwAn- 'to invite'
pukhu: 'tank• bukhu: 'dry layer of the skin'

1 For the sake of typographical convenience the following

adoplations are used:
(a) asp phonemes are symbolized as /ph/, /bh/, /th/, /dh/,
/kh/, /gh/,/ch/, /jh/,/mh/, /rh/, /nh/, /ih/
(b) /A/ stands for / ^ / , /N/ stands for /^/ and /"/ stands for /^/
 /ph/ - /bh/
phya- 'to keep aside* bhya- 'to be equipped with'
phi: • sand-(LOG)' bhi 'fruit-compartment'
SApha 'clean' SAbha 'meeting'
/t/ -- /d/
tan- 'to add' dan- 'to stand up'
twa: 'locality' dwas 'frying pan'
SAtte swearing meaning SAdde 'of the same blood
*of course' (as relatives)'

/th/ - /dh/
tha- 'to weare' dha- 'to say'
thu 'to dismantle(unp)' . dhu 'tiger'
gatha 'gardener caste' godha 'deep(as colour)'

/c/ - / j /
ca 'night' da 'cooked rice'
ci •salt' di 'I'
pacu 'smooth' paju 'maternal uncle'

/ch/ - /jh/
cha- 'to offer to God' dha- 'to come or go (hon)'
chi: 'interjectionI dhi: 'we (incl)'
expressing dislike
or uneasxness
1^1 - /&/
kan- 'to tell' gan- 'to prevent'
ku- 'to be covered oy an gu- 'to become torn'
umbrella'

maKAi,:) monkey magA(:) 'mahout'

 /kh/ - /gh/

kha: glass gha: wound

kha- 'to hang' ^a- •to link'

1.2.1 .2 AsDiration
hi - /ph/
pa •exe' pha 'hog'
pu- •to pull <DUt' phu- 'be finished'
cupi cleaver tuphi 'broom'

M - /bh/
bu- 'to carry sb bhu •plate'
on anns'

bya- 'confidential ideas bhya- 'be equipped with'

to be exchanged
among the intimately
known friends'

liba: 'late' libha: 'siin'

/t/ - /th/

ta- •to cut^ tha- 'to weave'

taku •thick (as liquid)• thaku 'difficult'
kuti •an impliment to kuthi 'granary'
.pound rice^
/d/ - /dh/
da- 'to beat^ dha- 'to say'
dusi •millet• dhusi 'hump-back'
 /k/ - /kh/

ka •thread' kha 'rooster'

kA: •precipitate' khA: ' sea. ffolding'

paka 'a stitch made on pakha 'eaves'

cut skin'

/g/ - /gh/
ga: 'pit^ gha: 'wound'

ga shawl gha 'to linkUmp)'

hi - /ch/
ca: •round object' cha: 'aliicum'

ci •salt Chi 'youChon)'

/ j / - /jh/
jwA: 'pair' jhwA: ' eiueua'

ju: 'gambling' Jhu: 'completely drenched'

/m/ - /mh/

ma 'husk' mha *'body'

mS song mhi 'gunny sack'

/n/ - /nh/
nae 'butcher' nhae 'nose'
•
nya- hhya- 'to kneed'
'to purchase'

lyA- /I/ - /Ih/

tto-select' llyA- 'to copy'
lu- 'to pour liquid Ihu- 'to dance'
out'
 6

1.2.1.3 Place of Articulation

/p/ - /t/
pan- 'to prevent' tan- 'to add'
pu 'seed' tu 'suger-cane'
kApu: 'camphor' kAtu: 'roller on which spun
threads are wound'
/ph/ - /th/

pna- 'to saw' tha- 'to rub (as soap on

cloliies)'
phu- 'to be finished' thu- 'understand'
kwApha- 'to drop' kwAtha 'room'

/b/ -/d/
ba- 'to depart' da- 'to beat'
ba 'floor' da 'year'
bibai 'disease caused bidai 'departure'
by black magic'

/bh/ - /dh/
bhi: 'fruit compartment' dhi: 'shulter'
bhu: 'stitching line' dhu: 'dust'

/t/ - /k/
tu 'suger-cane' ku 'load'
taha 'snake' kaha 'bugle'
si:t 'dew' si:k 'spirit'

/th/ - /kh/
tha- 'to weave(imp)' kha 'to hand(imp)'
thA: 'self khA: 'scaffolding'
kwAtha 'room' kwAkha 'lengthy piece*
 of holy thread or
cloth worn around the
neck.'
/d/ - /g/
di- 'be (exist,hon) gi- 'draw'
dA:- 'be (exist, hab gA: 'kennel'
non-hon)
swa:d •taste' swa:g 'ke •

/dh/ - /gh/
dha- 'to say' gha- 'to link'
dha: 'blade' gha: 'wound'

/m/ - /n/
ma 'husk' na 'scent'
ma: 'to need(hab)' na: 'v/ater'
ba:m 'a drum like ba:n ' arrow'
percussion'musi-
cal instrument'
/mh/ - /nh/
mhu- 'to dig out' nhu- to tread'
mhan- 'to dream' nhan 'to be completely
abolished'
rahu; 'fist' nhu: 'new'

/n/ - /N/

nya 'iron' Na 'fish'

nyA 'two' NA- 'to borrow'

/s/ - /h/
sa 'cow' ha 'bee'
si •loxisi' hi 'blood'
kasa 'game' kaha 'bugle'
 8

/w/ - /y/
rfA- 'to come' yA- 'to like'
gwA- 'to lock' gyA- 'to change as money'
khuwa 'a s'./eet prepara- khuya 'to steal (paCj)'
tion made of milk
cream'

1.2.1,4 Manner of Articulation

/b/ - /m/
bi- •to give' mi- 'to sell'
Abii^ 'father' AmaN 'mother'
laba 'garlic• lama 'man from Tibet'
/d/ - /n/
da 'year' na 'scent'
di- beCexist.,hon) ni- 'to grind'
bida 'leave' bina 'a female name'

/g/' - /N/
ga 'shawl' Na 'fish'
gyA- 'to exchange NA 'to borrow'
^money)'

/bh/' - /mh/
bhu: 'stitching line' mhu: 'fistful'
bhAe 'fear' mhAe - 'land cultivator'
/dh/' -/nh/
dhu: 'dust' nhu: 'new'
dhakwA 'corner' mhyakwA 'any much'
sidhA •• 'be finished sinhA: 'Vermillion mark on
Chab)' forehead'
 /t/ - /c/
ti- 'wear ornament' ci- 'tie'
tu 'sugar-cane cu 'grip'
citi sweat cici 'meat(baby talk)

/d/ - hi
dusi 'millet' jusi 'brimful'
dA: 'be(existential) 5A: 'light'
(hab)'
hada 'a sub-caste haja 'steamed rice'
/th/ - /ch/
thu- 'to cookCas rice)' chu- 'to bake'
tha- 'weave' cha- 'prune'

/dh/ - /5h/
dha- 'to say' Jha- 'to come or go (hon)'
dhu: •dust' jhu: 'completely drenched'
/t/ - hi
ti 'soup' si 'louse'
tu 'sugarcane' su 'straw'
kuti 'an implement to kusi 'flea'
pound rice'

/c/ - /s/
ci 'salt' si 'louse'
cu 'grip' su 'straw'
niici orthodox manner of ni:si occasional sanetification
sanetification in as of death or birth
day-to-day affairs' purification'
 10

/d/ - /r/
cia:g ' spot' ra:g 'classical song'

dani 'charitable person' rani 'queen'

da:s 'slave' ra:s 'heap'

/d/ - / I /

da 'year' la 'way'
dan- 'to stand up' lan- 'to weigh'
SAdaN 'always' SAlaN 'hard chalk'

/dh/ - /Ih/

dhusi 'hump-back' Ihusi 'a kind of fruit'

dha- 'to say' tha- 'to converse'

M -M
ki- 'to rash' hi- 'to wash'

kwA- to be overbumt' hwA- 'to bloom'

swaka 'loose (as kite)' swaha 'act of squandering away'

Id - N
gwA: 'roiind object' hv/A: 'hole'

gwAl- 'to stir' hwAl- 'to hurl'

hi - Ivl
ja 'cooked rice' ya- 'to do'

da: 'height' ya: 'festival with a procession'

kija 'younger brother' kiya 'to rash(paco)'

IDI - Inl
jwA- 'to leak' nwA- 'to be pricked'

oya 'work' nya 'iron'

 11

jyAl- 'to wear nyAl- 'to wind strands'

away gradually'

/oh/ - /nh/
jhan- 'to be scorched (as nhan- 'to be totally abolished
clothes in iron-
ing)'
jhapa 'name of a nhapa 'previously'
district in
iMepal'

/d/ - /I/
da 'cooked rice' la 'meat'
ja: 'height' la: 'saliva'
bAji 'beaten rice' bAli 'sacrifice'

/dh/ - /Ih/
jha- 'to come or go Iha- 'to converse'
(hon)'
jhan- 'to be scorched' Ihan- 'to repair'

/m/ - /w/
mal- 'to search for' wal- 'to blend'
mA: •gum' wA: 'pancake made of pulses'

/n/ - A /
ni: 'twenty' li: 'brass'
na: 'water' la: 'saliva'

/nh/ - /Ih/
nhyA • sleep' InyA: 'to copy(hab)'
nhu 'tread' Ihu- 'to dance'
 19

1.2.2 Vowels
1.2.2..1 Vowel length
/i/ - A : /
i 'particle expressing i: • spittle'
mild astonishment'
ti 'soup' ti: 'mule'

di 'I' JiJ 'cinnamon'

/u/ - /u/
ugu 'that one u:gu •that Cyonderj
(rem) • one (far rem;'
bhu 'plate' bhu: 'stitching line
ku 'load' ku: 'broken piece'

/e/ - /e:/
ke 'bulse-preparation' ke: 'younger sister'
che 'house' chii 'in the house'

/A/ - /A:/
kwA- •to be scorched* kwA: 'crow'
hwA- 'to bloom' hwA: 'hole'
gwA 'where' gwA: globular object'

/a/ - /a:/
la 'meat* la: 'saliva'
sa 'to p u U (imp)' sa: manure'
ka thread ka: 'bugle'

1.2.2.2 Tonsue-height
/i/ - /e/
ila 'act o£ smearing' ela 'cardamom'
 10

cm 'you (hon)' che 'interjection expressing

hatred'
pi:c 'pitch' pe:c 'screw'

/A/ - /a/

pAsA: 'shop' pasA: 'two palmful with both

the palms hold together'
hA- 'bring' ha- 'to husk'
bA: 'strength' ba: 'rent'

1.2.2.3 Vowel-nasali zation

/i/ - /i/
ti 'stitch' tl 'willow'
hi •blood' hi 'to bring (imp)'

/u/ - /u/
u 'interjection u 'interjection expressing
meaning 'look' • 'dislike''
ku load ku 'smoke'
bu- 'to carry sb on bu 'field'
arms (irap)'
/e/ - /e/
che 'interjection che 'house'
expressing hatred'

/A/ - /X/
A- denonstrative 'responsive p a r t i c l e
base denoting remo- implying t h a t the hearing
t e n e s s as i n A-the is listening'
'like that'
gA- ' t o climb (.imp) gX ' t o prevent (imp)'
 14

dA- 'to have' dJ 'to get up (imp)'

/a/ - /i/
'demonstrative base a 'mango'
denoting remoteness
as in a - na, 'here'
ka 'to take (imp)' ka 'to narrate (imp)
sa •to pull (imp)' sa 'cow'

1.2.2.4 Others:

/i/ - /u/
il- 'to smear' ul- 'to uncover'
sil- 'to wash' sul- 'to hide oneself
ci 'salt' cu 'grip'
i:s 'an interjection u:s 'an interjection
expressing strong expressing mild
disDelief disbelief

/i/ - /A/
Chi 'you (hon)' ChA 'you (non hon.)'
phi s 'sand' phA- 'to sustain (imp)'
ki: 'insect' kA:- 'precipitate

/A/ - /u/
chA 'you' chu •what'
dhA: 'stream' dhu: •dust'
iiA: 'precipitate ku: 'broken piece'
 15

1,3 Phonetic Description of Phonemes

In this section the prominent allophonic variants of

phonemes are listed
1.3.1 Vowels;

(l) The front vowels /i,i:,e,e:/ have glides which start

at a level higher than the concern-vowel. Thus these vowels
are dipthongal in nature. In the present analysis, the onglide
is represented by the symbol [jj« Occasionally these vowels
are pronounced as pure vowels i.e., v/ithout the onglide. Thus
the bhonetic values of these vowels are /y. J7,,7y,- ./, /y^?*
/y . V respectively. The onglide is more prominent (i.e.
longer) in the case of long vowels /i:, e:/

iJlt&l] 'wick'
/?^ih^ipaJ7 'marriage'
/k'^im^i / 'hook worm'
/chwal^i/ 'wheat-straw'
/^i:ka7 'a kind of seed'
IJ^X'J 'mule'
/cr^xi'^e/ ' t o remove'

1 In the examples listed in this sub-section, the sound

that i s discussed i s given in phonetic transcription and
rest of the word i s given in phonemic transcription.
 16

r 0^^1:7 'we (incl)

I^en^Bj 'to take with'

/cAm^e_7 'uvula'

rye:kye7 'to be loved'

/}ih7eiij 'egg'
Is^en^eJ 'to teach'
Cd^eisJ 'country'

II The long vowels / 1'-, e : , u : , A:, a: / are p h o n e t i c a l l y

s l i g h t l y shorter i n wood-medial p o s i t i o n as compared with t h e i r
counterparts i n other p o s i t i o n s :

/khitrjy ' d i s h made of r i c e , milk and sugar b o i l e d '

/7i:ka_7 'a kind oi seed'
/me*c_7 'chair'
C^eiZ/ 'buffalo'
^bhu:_7 'a stitching line'
Z_u:gu_7 ' t h a t one (rem.)
ZTpA'khaO 'wall'
/dhA:_7 'stream'
/^A: pu_/ 'easy'
/7Aca*r_7 'pickle'
r^'J 'pit'
^a:sJ7 'hope'

/a/ has two allomorph J^^Jt a c e n t r a l higher - low vov;el

occuring i n morpheme f i n a l p o s i t i o n and / ^ a 7» a central
low vowel occuring elsewhere:
 1?

/"dh^_7 'say (imp)'

Fyf^J 'do (imp)'
l^ \it\ ~\i J ' green'
/RyA -u J 'red'

/a:/ is phonetically C^'J* ^ central higher -low long vowel:

^^''l 'now'
/JsA iJ7 'manure'
/hAisjy 'residence'
/TAisJ 'hope'

III Vowel-sequences;

The vowel sequences /Ae/, /ae/ are peculiar. At phonetic

level they are merged into one segment each, and are realized
as / £ / and /ae / respectively. They are treated as sequences
rather than unit vowels for morphophonemic reasons.
E.g. gwae 'Beard' gvm CAe 'on the beard'

The underlying nominative form of /gwae/ is /gwacA/.

In nominative surface form, the termination /-ok/ is converted
to /e/, resulting in/g\7ae/. But in the Locative Case, the
suffix /e/ is added to the underlying forra /gwacA/ resulting
in /gwicA-e/.

All the instances of Ci^J and /"ae_/ could be resolved

into sequences of /Ae/ and /ae/ respectively. Furthermore,
the /e/ element in these sequences is either an added segment
or is brought adjacent to /A/ or /a/ by deleting the
 1 ^.

intervening phonemes, if any.

ivxcept the vowel sequences /Ae/ and /ae/ which are

described above, in the case of all other vowel sequences, the
first vowelis more prominent than the second vowel and hence
such sequences could be treated as dipthongs - the second
vowel being non-syllabic

/ul/ / ui / 'mad'
A
/khui/ / khui / 'sixty'
A
/kAi/ /kAi/ 'boil'
A
/kAu/ / kAu / 'blacksmith'
A

1.3.2 Consonants:

I. The labial stops /p, ph, b, bh/ have affricated

allophones vdien they are followed by the labial vov/el /u/ or
the labial approximant /w/. In other positions they are pure
plosives.
A.
Cv^^J 'seed'
^p^wA: 7 'blister'
/^ kAp*u _7 ' campho r'
/~p 2wA: J7 ' c l a s s i f i e r for flower and flower-shoped objects.
^Tsap^fu 7'book'
/7^^ap "wA: 7 'Jasminum grandiflornam'
^bPu7 'land'
/TbPwAJ/ ' c l a s s i f i e r for serving of food'
/"sabPu: 7 'soap'
 in

^b^PuJ •plate'
/ b^^wAH / 'paper'

B.
/•piJ 'umbili
Cv'^J 'axe'
C^^i-J 'sand'
^PhaJ 'hog'
/TbiJ 'snake'
CbasiJ •stale'
/ " b enca ,7 ' m a l e ' s ego s i s t e r s ' children, female's ego
brothers' children'
fb a^u J 'gentleman'

I I / t , d/ have two allophones each / " t d V dental p l o s s i v e s

t h a t occur a f t e r a n a s a l and j f t , dJ7 alveolar plosives that
occur elsewhere:
/"tusi 7 •cucumber•
fdusij •millet•
j^utuJ7 'lace'
/mAdujf ' t o be (ng h a b ) ' .
Zoa:t7 'caste'
/ya:d7 'memory'
LAntxJ •liquor - pot'
^bhiindruT' 'owl'
^cAndrAmaJ7 'moon'
r sAntrasi"7 'orange'
— n
III /dh/ has two allophones J^iiiJ a vd asp alveolar flap
and J[~dhJ7 a vd asp alveolar plosive, Z~rtiI7 occurs inter-
vocally as a free, Variant ot f^dhj, Z_dh_7 occurs elsewhere.
X"budhi_/ ^"^-^/^burhi _y /'^^^uri 2 'old. woman'

/ ^dhvApA 7 'dwarf woman'

/^ badha J7 * obstacle'

IV /c, j / are palatal affricates when they are preceded

and/or followed by /i,e,y/. KLsewhere they are alveolar
affricates, / j / has a devoiced fricative component in the word
final position:
t
/ " d i : swaN_/ '.lasminiom o f f i c i n a l e '
v
C^^elJ
/Td yaJ7 'aail'
'work'
V
.Z
/y>k6.\j 'beaten r i c e '
/ibAd^e J 'grand mother'
/^d^aj 'cooked r i c e '
rd^Ani;^ 'wai st-band'
r^^v^'J . 'pair'

1 I t should be noted t h a t i n i n t e r v o c a l i c p o s i t i o n LjcYi^

f u r t h e r freely v a r i e s with /T^^ which i s an allophone of
/ r / . 3o a form l i k e /kAdhA:/ has t h r e e a l t e r n a n t p r o -
nunciation =/TkAdhA^T, ^_kArhA:J^, / ^ k A r A : ^ . However,
the unasp flap pronunciation i s preferred.
 o^

/"d^ud^uj 'king'
/gid^Ae •^BjiJ'^l gid^ yae / 'to ridicule'
/"d^aej/'^/d^ae / 'in cooked r i c e '
/ " c i : d^.7 'thing'
^!kAle:d^7 'college'
ZrBiwAtdS'.7 'pleasure'
1/
ifjAhaid^J • slip'
rA 7 •salt'
Z:t^e:s7 'chess-game*
Zt^yAt;? 'servant'
/kXet^i 7 'scissors'
•r- r -7 ' t o shout sharply out of f e a r '
/ p i t yaye7
rt^u7 'grip'
/rt^Ame7 'uvula'
'night'
'urine'
/~t^e7 ^ / t^^/ 'eighty'
rt^aej r^ / t^ae/ 'in clay'

V / k , k h , g, gh/ are v e l a r plosives

/'ka7 'thread'
/rtaka7 'haste'
/phArAk 7 'di fferent'
/7icha7 ^rooster'
/~lukha 7 ' door'
/7da:kh7 'grape'
 I. gajf " shawl'
Z"laga:J7 •area'
' share'
'wound*

VI /m, mh/ are bilabial nasals /n/ is phonetically /n/ before

/i, y, e, j/, and /'n / else where*/" n ^ is a palatal nasal
C^J is an alveolar nasal, /nh/ is phonetically /" nh 7 , a
palatal aspirated nasal occuring before /i, y/. It is /nh 7 ,
an alveolar aspirated nasal occuring elsewhere.

ZTmaJZ 'husk*
/^rahajf 'body'

/'ninijy 'father's sister'

/"nyAnJ? 'to l i s t e n '
/TpAncAj 'five'
/"panjAV 'cage'
/nuj ' l e t us g o l '
/"nwA yeV 'to be pricked'
fnAuJ 'ashes'
fna'.gj 'snake'
tnA J •to e a t '
/^nae_/ 'butcher'
/TcAlAnJ 'custom'
TnhiJ 'day'
f^yAj 'to grind with t e e t h '
£^yA:J 'sleep'
L nhuguJ7 'new'
 /" riliAku_/ 'temple of the head'
/^nhk-yej 'to kneed'
/nhAe-sA:^ 'five hundred'
/~nhae_y 'nose'

VII /y/ is a palatal approximant, and

/w/ i s a labial approximant.

SY^'Z/ 'festival'
/~yA-ye_/ 'to like'
fykj 'he'
Jyo.^ ' rain'

VIII / I , Ih / are alveolar laterals

UlaJ 'meat'
r^hai J 'hand'
^lyaseJ7 'young lady'
/ IwAe / 'disease'
^ paiu^7 'ginger'
/7'rumalI7 ' towel'
/^Simsl bhu V Salmalia malabarica Schctt & JSndl

IX /r/ has three allophones

/r/ has three allophones: ££Jt a voiced allveolar flap

occuring intervocally; ^ r f J7» a voiced alveolar trill
with a voiceless offset occuring word finally; /~r_7» a
voiced alveolar trill occuring else v/here:

/bare_7 shakya caste

 ^uCuV •milk'
/. keXa^ 'banana'
/bAoa:rf_7 'market'
/"^ijair ,J 'The string to fasten the trousers'
/rrencuJ7 'spanner ^wrench)'
jf"ram - twAlia_]7 'lady's finger'
/"barliJ7 'barley'
^ barca J ' cup'

X . / s / has two allophones:

/" s 7 , a voiceless palatal fricative that occurs before
/i,e,y/; and £ sj, a voiceless alveolar fricative that
occurs elsevriiere.

r^sij louse'
r ^ima 7 tree'
z:s^e_7 liver'
r^yA:7 marrow'
Z" ki^i_7 a kind of c l a y - p o t '
^swAseNj/ 'directly'
ZAsyA:_7 crazy'
rsu_7 straw•
ZsA:7 voice'
Z'si7 cow'
ZT swS/ nest'
ZTsiij; tibetan'
/~sa:mi7^ manandhar by c a s t e '
 or;

£li>ls\x:J 'dry slaces of r a d i s h

/~wAsA J 'clothes'
/7hasaJ7 'winnowing pan'

XI /h/ is /"^Jf a vd glottal fricative

£(yAiJ 'leaf / &a / 'bee'

/Jhta'-Z/ 'hole' If^^Zl 'centipade'
f^yfANiJ 'silver' /2ps£ia.: J 'guest'

1.4 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Phonemes.

I Consonants occur i n w o r d - i n i t i a l and word-medial p o s i -

tions. Jiccept /-N/ which i s used as a compensatory symbol of
the d e l e t i o n of /nA/ or /mA/, some of them can occur i n word-
f i n a l p o s i t i o n mostly i n borrowed words E.g.,

-2 -t
sa:p ' t o o much prAkAt 'appearence'
-c.
sAtAk 'road' a:c 'blaze'
-£h -th
gula:ph 'rose' a:th •eight'
-kh -b

ta:kh •button' bha:b, 'emotion'

-£
ya:d 'rememberance' 0A:g 'fo\jndation'
-m -n
kAlAm 'pen' nuksa:n 'loss'
 OP
l^ J

-s -r
rA: s •juice' Ani:r 'fig'
-1
dAngAl 'forest'
But -N
gA:taN C-nA) 'callar'
pulaN C-nA) 'old'
tutaN C-mA) 'walk stick' etc.

II Vd asp consonants occur in initial position of a word.

They occur rarely in the medial position, that too mostly
in borrowed words. They do not occur in word-final
position

III Borrowed words which originally have vd asp stops get

these stops reduced to their vd unasp countee parts:

lab from labhA 'profit'

gula;h from gula:ph 'rose'
tiek from ta:kh 'button' etc.

IV Nasalization rarely combines with long vowels.

V Long vowel + geminate is not allowed. This is reflected

in the M.P, changes of v:C becoming VCC as in
3A:ti- = SAtti- 'be near to sth'
dhwAsdu- = dhwddu- 'come across sb suddenly'
tA:pa = tAppa 'big flat object' etc.
1.4.1 Free Variation of phonaaes

Some phonemes freely vary with some others as listed

below in intervocalic position:

I /d/ can be replaced by /r/:

/bAdaN/ />^ /bAraN/ ' ground-nut'
/sAdaN/^ /sAraN/ ' always'
/bida/ r\y /bira/ 'leave'
/dAda bnAtA/<~^/dArabhAtA/ 'husband's elder brother'

II /mb/, /nd/ can be replaced by /mm/ and /nn/ respectively;

/kimbu:si//^-' / kimmusi/ 'malberry'
/timba/ /"x/ /timma/ 'timber'
fSkcidxii/ r\^ /SAnnu:/ 'chest'
/bAndA: /-^^^ /hknnk'./ 'pawning'

III /nj/ can be replaced by /nn/ when followed by /i/ ;

/giinji/ /-\x /gAnni/ 'vest'
/rAndi/ ^'\/ /rAnni/ 'prostitute'
/dAndi/ rs^ /dAnni/ 'iron-rod'

1.4.2 Consonant Clusters

The following is an analysis of the consonant sequences

that are seen in the dialect:
 CC
5
k ft ft
itford-Initial Word-Medial rford-Final
\ -

^ II 8
Native Borrowed Borrowed
words words il words

ft ft
Across syllables Within syllables

1.4.2.1 Initial

A. Native
In native words, in such clusters the C2 is
always /w/ or /y/
(a) With /-y/ as C2 except /N, y, r, w/ all other
consonants can be Cl
Cb) With /-w/ as C2 except /N,nh,y, w/ all other
consonants can be CI

/p/ pya- 'be wet' pwa: 'hole'

/t/ tya- 'win' twa: •locality'
/c/ cyA: 'servant' cwA- 'write'
M kyAbA 'garden' kwa- 'peak'
/ph/ phyA- 'leak' phwA- 'soak'
/th/ thya- 'fold' thwA- 'pluck'
/ch/ chya- •mix' chwA- 'send'
/kh/ khya- 'threaten' khwatu 'thick as cloth'
/b/ bya; 'marriage' bwA- 'fly'
 on

/d/ dyA: 'good' dwa: 'frying pan'

/d/ dya 'work' jwAn- 'hold'

gya- 'be scared gwae 'mustache'
of
/bh/ bhya- 'be eqiiipped bhwAe 'feast'
with
/dh/ dhyApA 'dwarf woman' dhwA: •line'

/Oh/ dhya: 'window' OhwA: • queue'

/gh/ ghyA: 'ghee' ghwa- 'push'

/m/ mwA: •crowd'
/n/ nyAn- •listen' nwA- 'be pricked'
/mh/ mhyae ' daughter' mhwA: 'graphite'
M/ nhyA: 'sleep'
/r/ rwA:g 'disease'

A/ lya: 'account' IwAe 'disease'

/Ih/ IhyA- 'crawl' IhwA- 'vomit'
/s/ syA: 'marrow' swA- 'see'
/h/ hyau 'red' hwA- 'bloom'

B, Borrowed

In borrowed words other Cs besides /w/ and /y/ are

also available. But they are restricted in few words only:

priti 'love• klAb 'club'

sristi 'creation' skul 'school'
bridhi 'increasement' kri:m 'cream' etc.
 30

1.4.2.2 Medial
A. Across syllables

Word medial clusters could be of two types: Those

occuring in borrowed words and those occuring in native
words. Most of the medial clusters occuring in native v/ords
except /w/, /y/ as C2 be considered as derived from fuller
trisyllabic words by deleting the vowel of the second syllable
(Kansakar: 1979: p.59). However there are some words in
which such vowei-delition is not possible especially in
compounds such as hwAna ga 'patched shawl' mAsi-bhv^AN.
'carbon paper'.

Medial Consonant sequences can further be classified

into Geminates (in native as well as in borrowed words) and
Non-geminates:
A, Geminates

(a) In Natives:
/pp/ sAppa 'cow-dung cake'
/tt/ khwattA 'manner of getting throw without
any delay'
/cc/ lAcca 'sleeve'
/kk/ yAkkwA 'many'
/mm/ syAmma (as in syAmma sa gyae, I won't be
afraid even if I be spoilt*)
/nn/ kAnna 'pity'
/m/ sAl^jl^a 'a kind of dried fish'
 rt 1

/yy/ ayya 'interjection expressing too much

Gontinious pain'
/rr/ phyarrA 'manner of trembling continiously'

/ll/ sullA 'manner of gliding continiously'

/ss/ khAssA 'manner of feeling uneasy in the
stomach because of too much hunger'
(b) In Borrowed:

/gg/ bAggi 'carriage'

iJdAt 'prestige'
/dd/ Adda 'office'
/bb/ MbbAl 'double'
(ifB. Derived geminates medially occur with voiced unaspirated
stops only)

B. Non-geminates

/pt/ lApte 'leaf

/pc/ dhS:pca 'small'clay-water pot'
/p ph/ cApphu- 'break thread or thread l i k e thing(s)
into pieces
/p ch/ kapchAli 'tongs'
/pm/ Apman 'humiliation'
/pn/ sApiia 'dream'

/pl/ tApli 'cap'

/ps/ ApsAN 'fast'
/tp/ satpatu 'manner of b e i n g too much a f r a i d '
/tk/ phAtki:r ' crystal'
J^/ rAtnA 'gem'
/tr/ sAtru ' ^emy •
/tl/ sAtlAe " in an inn'
/ck/ micki ^ a kind of flower'
/c ch/ sAcchi 'mce hundred'
/cl/ puclAe in group'
/kp/ chikpuiM you (hon)'
/kt/ dhukti store-room'
/kc/ yakca alone'
/kb/ lukbi- 'set as sun, moon etc'
/k dh/ ikdhiki tight fitting manner'
/k oh/ akjhakaN 'suddenly'
/km/ lakmAN •by foot (lit. by shoe)'
/kn/ , kuknwA 'fire-controling handle'
/k mh/ cwAkmhuruca 'house-lizard'
/knh/ dAknhapaN 'first of all'
/ky/ takya 'pan'
/kr/ cwAkrA 'wheat-bran'
/kl/ sAklSi •all'
/kw/ yakwA 'arm-pit'
/ks/ bwAksi 'witch'
/pH.t/ chAphti 'one drop'
/kh t/ nAkhtya 'festival-feast after festival'
/kh r/ cyakhra 'red legged Indian patridge'
/bd/ sAbdA 'word'
 0 1

/bj/ laboa parched maize'

M/ dubli ' spouted earthen vessel in which alcohol
is collected during distillation'
/bs/ khwabsa ' towel'
/dr/ bhundru 'owl'
/jk/ bi:jkAnni ' a kind of ornament'

/js/ lAjga: profession'

/3 bh/ pujbhA: plate for worshipping god'
/on/ bhaonAe in bha.lAN'
/or/ bAjrAkAirai plasterer'
/gt/ bhwAgtya 'pomelo'
/gc/ dugca small he-goat'

/go/ mugji hem in a clothe'

/gm/ buNgmi man from Bunga'
/gn/ lAgnA an auspicious time to do sth'
/gr/ sAlNlgranti 'first day of a month'
/gl/ bhagiaN 'in an unarranged manner'
/gs/ Khagsi sand-paper'
/mp/ dhAmpA 'clay-oar'
/mt/ jimta 'to us'
/mc/ bhAmca 'bride'
/mk/ jirnke: 'with us'
/ra kh/ amkhv/Ala 'water pot'
/mb/ arabA 'goose berry*
/ml/ amli 'green berry'
 O A
'J 1

J^&l tirasi 'body-hair'

/nt/ Anti 'liquor-pot'

/nc/ sinca p a r t i n g l i n e on h a i r '

/nk/ sinka chop-stick'

/n t h / kAnthi ' adorn's a p p l e '

/ n ch/ bhancha 'kitchen'

/nd/ bhundru ' owl'

/no/ bAnja: grocer'

/ng/ angA: wall'

/nm/ jAnmA life'

/ n s / ( r a :m) pinsAN ' b y Bama a n d o t h e r s '

/nk/ ANka 'mxuber'

/N k h / sANkhA ' conch'

/Ng/ ANgA part'

/N g h / kaWghasa peas kneaded with w a t e r '

/rp/ marpa 'ftied bread stick'

/rt/ Arti moral lesson'
/re/ barca 'cap'
/rk/ pArk- patch'

/r ph/ bArphi a sweet i t e m '

/r th/ ArthA 'meaning'

/r kh/ bArkha 'summer'
/rb/ marbAlica 'ear-ring for girls'
/rd/ sArdi coldness*

/rj/ jAbArjAsti by force'

/rg/ ArgA:ca 'pebble'
/nn/ kArraA 'work'

Ml pAryaptA 'enough'
/rlf barli 'oat'
/rw/ kArwa 'water-pot'
/rs/ mar si 'a kind of paddy'
/rh/ kArhA: ' c a l l u s formed around a foreigh
l i k e thorn or g l a s s p i e c e '

/Ip/ sulpya 'leech'

/It/ baltin 'metallic bucket'
/ic/ phAlca 'inn'
/Ik/ pAlkAe thu- 'feel like to have sth.
/Iph/ kulphi 'curling feather of he duck that lie
on its tail'
/I kh/ apulkhAI^ 'unexpectedly'
/Id/ hAvAldar 'a post in defence'
/Ij/ palja: swaN 'Erythrima indica'
/Im/ dhAlmAe on beams'
/m/ calni shieve'
/is/ Alsi idle'
/so/ lAspAs intermingling'
/st/ KAsti honey'
/sc/ pusca a male name '?uspA-ca'
/sk/ bi ska: a festival in Bhaktapur'
/sb/ sAsbu father-in-law'
/sm/ sAsma: mother-in-law'
 3*3

/sn/ cesna 'consciousness'

/si/ ki s l i ' r i c e , a nut and a coin kept i n a
sAli (a shallow earthen cup) as a
reminder of a vow to a d i e t y '

B. w i t h i n s y l l a b l e s
Nl t / y / as C2 both i n borrov/'ed and n a t i v e occur v i t h i n one
syllable:-
sulpya 'leech' /-pw/ Apwa: 'too much'
/-ty/ bhv/Agtya 'pomelo' /-tw/ gutwa 'Cynodon dactilon*
/-cy/ kacya-kacya 'manner /-cw/ ApacwA: 'so much'
of Deing
sticky
repeatedly'
/-ky/ takya Span' /-kw/ yakwA 'arm-pit'
/-ph w/ AphwA:swaN 'blue lotus'
/ - t h y/ gwathya 'bulky'
/-ch y/ sachyat no o t h e r t h a n ' ;
very naughty'
/-kh y/ bilchya:t mamous'
/-by/ dhwAbya 'washerman / - b w / Abwa 'father'
/-dy/ lAdya- 'be folded on i t s won'

/-jy/ bajya grand father'

/-bh y/ Abhya s s exercise'
/-dh y/ AdhyayA chapter'
/-ghw/ AghwA:ri very d i r t y '
/-ny/ kAnnya girl' /-nw/ Kukm7;
fire controlling
handle'
/-ly/ cullya elbow'
/-sy/ AsyA: 'naughty' /-sv// bAswa- 'throw down'
 33

1.4.2.3 Final

Final cc. are restricted in certain loan v/ords

used mostly in the educated speech; ^^.g.,
-nc -nd
inc 'inch' bAnd 'closed'
phranc 'France' khAnd 'compartment'
bene 'bench'

-nt -St
rent 'rent' rest rest'
phent 'faint'
-nj.
birgAno 'a tovm in N(

1.4.2.4 Vowel-sequences

i'he dialect has the following vowel sequences:

Ai, a i , Au, au, Ae, and ui occur i n i t i a l l y and finally
and ae, and iu occur finally;
Initial
/Ai-/ Aila 'alcoholic drink'
/ai-/ aista 'deposit of money or land property
provided for the maintenance or for
the conduction of social or cultural
activities'
/Au-/ Aul 'malaria'
/au-/ au 'dyssentry'
/Ae-/ Ae 'like that'
 39

M/ Ul 'mad woman*

Final
/-Ai/ kAi •boil*
/-ai/ wai *will be poured out*
/-Au/ sAu, 'cow-dung'
/-au/ hyau •red*
/-kef gwXe 'nut'
l-a^e/ chae 'why*
/-ui/ khuica ' l o n g h a n d l e d implement t o c o l l e c t
and s p r e a d paddy when t h e y a r e sunned*
/iu/ khiu *dark'
liu 'mud-plaster*

1.5 Syllable Tvues:

The following syllable types are found in this dialect:
v:-

vc w

i: 'sickle' aN-gA' 'wall' au 'dyssentry'

a-lu 'potato' an-jA *soot' Ae 'like that'
i-ma 'eagle* aW-gu 'signet
ring'
si.-
cv cvc cw

ji 'I' tum-la 'moon' kAu-si 'Myrica e s c u l e n t a '

na: 'water' sin-ka 'ciiop-stick' l A i - s i 'radish-seeds
in pods'
lu 'gold* dhuk-ti * store-room * kAi 'boil'
 •10

cc:-
ccv 66w ccvc
gwi: ' b e t e l l e a f gwSe 'nut' pyAm-pa 'buttocks'
Iwa-pu ' f i g h t ' g^/ae 'moustache' khyam-pwa: 'anus'

pra-si 'sari hyau 'red' cwAk-ra 'heat-bran'

The following a d d i t i o n a l types are a v a i l a b l e only i n borrowed

words: , ^ ^
vcc cvcc
pa-und 'pound' bir-gAnJ 'name of a town i n Nepal'

ccv ccvc
tri-sna 'thirst' kran-ti 'revolution'
ccvcc
phrans 'France'

TKGT3g
2. MORPHOPHONULOGY
 41

2. Morphophor^olop:V:
Changes i n the shapes of morphemes when they come
i n t o contact with other morphemes a r e discussed i n t h i s section.
VI
2.1 Compensatory lengthllng:
In the case of several noims, the surface nominative
form i s considered to be derived from an underlying form by
d e l e t i n g of the f i n a l s y l l a b l e . This also i s the case v/ith
a few adverbs, 'i'aen such a d e l e t i o n takes p l a c e , the vov/el
t h a t precedes the deleted s y l l a b l e i s lengthened. But, i f the
deleted s y l l a b l e has a nasal i n i t , then /N/ i s added at
the end of the r e s u l t i n g form vathout lengthening the vov/el:

buliohu-nA buluN slowly

kAtA-kA kAtA: others
silA-kA silA: p r a y e r - s o n g , hyran
mAnu-kiiA mAnxxi person
kA-tA kA: precipitate
ka-pu-ti ka-pu: p i e c e of 'thread'
jhya-lA JiJya: window
ki-lA ki: 'insect'
saphu-li saphu: book
tuta-mA tutaN walk-stick
bhuJi-nA bhujiN fly
na-mA naN name

But i f the d e l e t e d s y l l a b l e JLs /,thiAi/:the f i n a l vowel i s

n o t l e n g t h e n e d i n Bj
swA-thS swS proboscis
twa-tliA tvra mouth
pwa-thA pwa stomach
pA-thS pS bamboo

The d e l e t i o n of t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e can be c a r r i e d on
twice. I f t h e vov/el t h a t r e q u i r e s l e n g t h e n i n g i s preceded
by / h / then i t i s n o t lengthened?

nya-ha-lA bya-ha byat marriage

bwA-hA-rlA b\/A-hA bwA: shoulder
jya-bA-hA-lA jya~bA-hA jya-bA: tool
la-ha-tA la-ha Iha: hand
tya-ku-ba-ha-lA tya-ku-ba-ha tya-ku-ba: a tip given by
the Tsrinner to
others
ba-ha-lA ba-ha ba: buddhist monastry

It is the underlying full form that is used in A-I-Ab

and L O G :

Meaning Base A-I-Ab Loc

window jhya: jhya-lA-N jhya-lA-e
store dhuku: dhuku-ti-N dhuku-ti-i
person mAnu: mAnu-khA-N mAnu-KhA-e

2.2 Deletion of sounds;

(l) Deletion of /h/:
/h/ is dropped optionally;
 43

chi (i-i >)i: r i t u a l wedding

kumha: kuma: potter
keheN keN younger sister
rnhari mari sweets
kArhA: kArA: callus formed around

a foreign body like thorn

burha bura
old man
burhi buri
old women
pahaN paN
guest
bAnhA: bAnA:
pawning
swanhi swani
ladder
IwAhS(tA) IwS:
stone
sinhA(lA) sinA:
Vermillion mark on forehead'
kuhaN kwaN
downward etc.

Due to the deletion of /h/ vd aspirated plasives freely

vary with unaspirated ones in some words:

pujabhA: pujabA: plate to -.worship viod

sabhuN sabuN soap

ghaghA: ghagA: unnecessary obstackles
bajhA: bajA: middle aged

\,inisri)kadha (mi s ri ) kaoda =ka ra

(2) Deletion of /g/:

Tne consonant /g/ of the ternination /gu/ is deleted

optionallyi
 A A

chA-gu: chAu: one cl.

ya-gu yau of (possessive)
kae-gu kaeu to take
dha:gu dha:u said

(3) Deletion of final consonant in borrowed works ending

in consonant lengthens the preceding vowel:

guthiar guthya: member of a guthi

(A social organization)
parija:t palija: name of a flov/er
nayAk nayA: hero

but the vowel is not lengthened in Dhut=bhu 'ghost'

(4) Deletion of medial vowel:

As noted by kansakar (1979J 74-75) the vowel in the

second syllable is prone to be deleted in several words
resulting in consonant clusters, ^^.g.,

lApAte=lApte 'leaf sApA»a=sApna 'dream'

sAtAlAe=sAtlAe 'inn (Loc)' yakA:ca=yakca 'alone'
bwAkAsi=bwAksi 'witch' lAoAga:=lAoga 'Profession'
bhwAgAtyA=bhwAgtya 'pomelo' duguca=dugca 'he-goat' etc.

C5) Suffixes ending in /N/ cause tae final nasal or nasali-

zation of the base, if any, to be dropped;
 45

Suffix /-N/
Kun- confine ku-N comer
mun- collect rau-N a c t of c o l l e c t i n g
bu field bu-N f i e l d (A-l-Ab)
lu gold lu-N gold (A-I-Ab)
dhu tiger dhu-iJ t i g e r (A-l-Ab)
c u t a - -mA tutaN- walk-stick
sAla- -mA sAla-N hard chalk
bhuji-nA bhuji-N f l y

(Final /A/ of tuta-raA/, sAla-mA/ and /bhuji-nA/ etc

are dropped before the suffix).

2.3 Coalescence of similar vowels:

./hen twro similar vowels come into contact they coalesce

and form a corresponding long vowel:

(l) Noun base:

Meaning Norn Loc Final form

Cucumber tusi tusi-i tusi:

river khusi khusi-i khusi:

house che che-e che:

^ii) x^umeral b a s e :

i'Ieanin/5!; Simple Multiplication Final form

often"
numeral

two nyA(ni) n i -- i ni:

four oi o i -- i pi:
 4'3

( i i i ) Verb base;

Meaning Verb-root Npa d.i, final forro

tie ci- ci-i ci:
wear ti- ti-i ci:
plant pi- pi-i pi:

Tnis rule i s mostly an internal sandhi-rule applying

within a word occasionally in fast tempo. This rule can
be used in external sandhi:
Idii-i: ta = khi: t a : 'to scoop out s t o o l s '
c i - i : ta = c i : t a : 'to distribute s a l t '

2.4 Alternation of /u/ with /wa/:

In some cases the basic /u/ alternates with /wa/, and the
basic /WA/ alternates with /u/:

su 'who* swA-ya-ke = swae -ke 'with whom'

(=swA)
gwA 'where' gu-idie ' t o which s i d e '
(=gu)

2.5 Change of oblique /va/:

The oblique /ya/ optionally changes to /i/ after /i/, and

/e/ after low-vowels:
 ^-1

Meaning iiase Obi Case form Final form

I5at
louse si si-ya si-ya-ta =si-i-ta= si: ta
a female oita sita-ya
name 3ita-ya-^ =sita-e= sitae
Loo
dog khica khica-ya Khica-ya-ke= khica-e-ke= khicae-ke

2.6 Alternation of vowel-length in Pat and Loo suffix;

/a/ of Dat suffix /ta/, and /e/ of Loc suffix /ke/ is

long, whereas after the oblique marker /ya/ both of them are
short:
sita - ke: saphu: dA:/ sita-ya-ke-saphu: dA:
sita (Dat) book be(hab)/ sita(obl-Loc)-book- be (hab)
Book is with sita.

ramA_N sita-ta: sA:tAlA/ ramA-N sita-ya-ta sA:tAlA

Ram(A) sitai.Dat) call(padj)/ Ram(A) sita(obl-Dat} call(pado)
'Ram called Sita'

2.7 Metathesis

(1) Metathesis of voweli

/i/ can be metathesized:
gu-mha-si-ta = gu-mhis-ta
intr-cl-obl-i)at = to whom (a particular person)

(2) i'ietathesis of aspiration:

gu kathAi\[ = gu khatAi"^
intr pop
'how*, 'in whicn manner'
 4-3

kA-thA-nA-N khA-tA-nAN
'immediately a f t e r '

2.8 Vowel-harmony

narmony betv/een vowels according to t h e i r heignt i s seen

i n the language. Loc six has allomorphs / i / and / e / , and the
morpheme for m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of ' t e n ' has allomorphs / i / and / e / .
The v a r i a t i o n of high vov/el / i / and low vowel / e / i s controlled
by the riei^ht of the l a s t vowel of the r o o t :

Meaning Nom Loc

river khusi knusi-i

sugarcane tu tu-i

la.ap mAtA mAtA-e

winnov/ing hasa hasa-e

tray

Simple nr. i4eaning Multiplication of ' t e n ' meaning

nyA(=ni) two n i -- i tv/enty

SWAC=SU) three su-- i thirty

2 . 9 Assimil a t i o n :

( l ) Regressive a s s i m i l a t i o n i s seen a f f e c t i n g n a s a l s . A nasal

i s replaced oy the corresponding homorganic nasal before a s t o p :
ji-N 'lU)'
ji-r* khipA sala
I;A) rope pull^pa c j )
' I pulled a r o p e ' .
 43

ji-n tyApA nya-ye

I C A ) clay-jar purchase (wpa cj)

'X purcnase a clay-jar'

ji-m me:c sal-e

HA) cnair pull (Npa cj)

'I pull a chair'

:^AN 'anger' mv/A- 'become' = tAm mwA- 'become angry'

(2) Pro.gjressive Assimilationt

Progressive assimilation is seen between /n/ and /d/;

/m/ and /b/; /N/ and /g/:

/n/ and /d/:

rAnda rAnna 'trying plane'

bAnda bAnna 'cabbage'

sAndu sAnnu ' box'

dhAnda dhAnna 'anxiety'

cAnda cAnna 'donation'

/m/ and /b/

bh AmbA: bhAmmA 'black bee'

ambA: armnA 'goose-bepry'

kimbusima kimmusima 'malberry tree'

bAmbai bAmmai 'Bombay'

/N/ and /g/:

DuNgA bUi\[NA 'a village in Patan, iJepal'

phaiMga phauWa 'a quilt'

 50

aNgA: aNNA: 'wall in a building'

sil%A siNNA 'lion' etc.

2.10 Alternation of alveolar plosives and alveolar nasal with /r/i

iuedial /t, th, d, dh, n/ may, as noted by Sharma (1980:

79-81) alternate with /r/:
/t/ ^ /r/
chA-t(A)-ka r^ chArka 'one rupee'
kAt(A)-puN r^ kAr-puN 'others'
sAtAbAtA e^ sArbAt 'plaited hair'
pAtasi ^^ prasi ' sari'

gAthekh£-:se '>^gArkhe:se 'unpleasent'

thAthe .'•^- thAre 'like this'

/d/^/r/
mAdu /— raAru 'be (ng-hab)'
Ada r-^ Ara 'elder brother'
Ad(A)bhu:t r^ Arbhu:t 'vranderful'
rlAdai r\^ lArai 'war'

/dh/.^/r/
madhi r^ raarhi 'v mari 'sweets'
tAidhi^tAirhi'^tAiri 'tall'
budha '^ burha /^ bura 'old man'
/n/^/r/
j AnmAnhi: -~ j ArjuAni : bi rth-day *
 51

2.11 Ivl c o r r e s p o n d s v/ith 111'.

r a c h e s r^ lakhAe 'demon'
r a j k u : l />
' w- l a e k u : 'royal palace'
s A n t r a s i r^ Si^ntlasi ' orange '

2.12 Iv'.ol'^Nool

In a few words, t h e medial sequence of / v : c / a l t e r n a t e s

with corresponding / v c c / :

s A : t i - y e '->-^sAttiye 'be n e a r e r i n d i s t a n c e o r i n relation'

k A : t a - y e '^- k A t t a - y e 'be v^ell g r i p p e d '

t 5 : mwA-y e ^^ t Arn-mvAA-y e 'be a n g r y '

t a : h a - y e ' ^ tAh-ha-ye 'be l o n g '
cA: bu-ye<v/cAb-bu-ye 'be broken \.as l e n g t h y o b j e c t s '
l A : thya-ye«-lAt-thya-ye 'fold'

flAila ^^' hAlla ' s e e d l i n g of o a t s '

tA:chya-ye '^tAcchya-ye 'break'
bhwA: su-ye r>^ bhwAs su-ye ' r e s t on e i t h e r s i d e of t h e
body f o r r e s t i n g o r s l e e p i n g
purpose'
twA:thul-e twAtthul-e 'break (stick l i k e object)
swA:thun-e swAt-thun-e 'keep i n s i d e f o r p r e s e r v i n g
purpose'
hwA:gan-e hwAg-gan-e 'be bored'
Iv/A: su-ye IwAssu-ye ' e a t C i n bad s e n s e ) '
dhv/A: khan- e />^- dhwAk - khan- e ' p u t i n a c o n t a i n e r taking out
t h e cooked t h i n g s from a cooker*
sA:pha- ^"v/ sAppha- be a s t o n i s h e d '
NOUN
3. Noun:
Structure: The following is the general structure of woun:
Root + (Derivative suffix) • (Inflectional suffix) > Noun

A root followed by optional derivative suffixes and

inflectional suffixes results in a full noun. The root can
be a nominal root or a non-nominal root. If it is a nominal
root, it will obligatorily require a derivative suffix. A
few nominal roots also may take a derivative suffix. The
structure of noun is described in terms of derivation, inflec-
tion and compounding in the follov/ing pages.

3.1 Derived Mominals:

Nouns can be derived from verbal, adjectival, adverbial

and nominal bases by adding suffixes. A majority of such
derivative suffixes are added to verb bases. In the following
analysis, these suffixes are listed according to the oases
that take them. The suffixes are illustrated by giving the
bases on the left, and derived bases on the right.

3.1.1 From verbal bases:

i^uffixes ending in /N/ cause the final nasal of the

base, if any, to be dropped:
1) /N/

kun- 'confine' ku-N 'comer'

pan- 'stop' kwA-pA-N 'convex clay covering
designed to cover pan-
cake made of rice-floar
called cAtaN mari v/hile
cooking it'
 53

'befelt' jhu-mi-N 'unconsciousness'

mian- 'collect' mu-N ' a c t of c o l l e c t i n g '
lan- 'wait' pa-iA-N ' s a c r e d food taken
after a fast'
2)/pAlV
dwAn- 'be mistaken' dwA-pAI^ 'blame'
dya- 'bear a loss' dya-pAI^ ' a c t of b e a r i n g a l o s s '
Iha- 'pay a share' Iha-pAi^ 'sharfe'

3) /Nsa/
mhan- •dream' rahaNsa ' dream'
4) / g i N /
phwAn- 'beg' phv/A-giN 'begger'

5) / s i N /
pwAn- 'offer' pv/ANsiN 'a l u s t f u l supernatural
f e m a l e - b e i n g who i s
supposed t o seduce men'
6) / : / The f i n a l vowel of t h e b a s e i s l e n g t h e n e d :

tu- 'scoop' ca-tu: 'location or pit from

v;here the clay is scooped
out for pottery making'
sA- 'know' dhu-sA: 'an occupational caste of
chemists'
7) /gA:/
This suffix is added to /bu-yea/, the infinitive of
the verb 'carry'. The base has altenaent forms bui/bAi (=buy/bAy)
before the suffix:
 5-^

bu- 'support, 'carry' bui-gA:/bAi-gA:, 'the topmost storey

of the house (that
is supported by the
storeyes below it)'

8) ghA;(-lA)/
gha- 'join' gha-ghA : 'useless accompaning bu

9) /cA: C-IA)/

ki- obstruct' ki-cA: ' shade'

pi- 'wipe' pi-cA: 'shrum of eye'
khya- 'threaten' khya-cA: 'threatening'

lO)/bA:(-lA)/
jya- 'give shape to' jya-bA: 'tool'
Iwa- 'fight' Iv/a-bA: 'weapon'

11) /a/
pArk- 'patch' pArk-a 'a patch'
khyAl- 'use' khyAl-a 'act of using'
chyAl- 'use' chyAl-a 'act of using'
swAl- 'imitate' swAl-a 'imitation'
kal- 'scramble' kal-a 'scrambling'
mal- 'search' mal-a 'a search'
wal- 'blend together' wal-a 'olending'
sal- 'pull' sal-a 'act of pulling'
il- 'smear' il-a 'smearing'
cil- 'move' cil-a 'act oi moving'
 •J J

til- 'dress hair with til-a 'act of dressing hair

with oil'
thil- ' smear' thil-a 'smearing'
nyAl- 'wind' nyAl-a 'act of winding'
nhyAl- 'smile' nhyAl-a 'act of smiling'
'lough' 'act of laughing'
hii- ' change' hil-a 'change'
Kul- •stir' kul-a ^stirring'
bul- •blend' bul-a 'act of blending'
sut- 'hide oneself' sul-a 'act of hiding oneself
hwAn- 'invite' bwAn-a 'invitation'
s(w)An- 'establish' s(w)An-a 'establishment'
cin- 'compose song cin-a 'composition'
sin- •esfSegt'-^' sin-a 'act of collecting'
khiin- 'prepare* Na--khun-a 'pungent preparation of
fish cooked in meat-soup
v/ith spices'
chun- 'start' chun-a 'a start'
tun- 'wish' tun-a 'wish'
mvn- collect mun-a 'collection'

12) /ca/
khan 'open' khan-ca 'crow-bar'
bhun- ' cover bhwAn-ca 'crucible'

xiere /u/ of the base /bhun/ is replaced by /wA/

before the suffix.
13) /«na/
kwa 'become hot' kwa-na 'welding rod'

14) /pa/
da- 'get changed' da-pa 'mistake in changing'
iwa- 'fight' Iv/a-pa 'an a c t of rubbing a n o t h e r ' s
face from fore-head dovmward
as a gesture of i n s u l t or
fight'
ki- 'scratch a ki-pa 'picture'
line on'
chi- 'dye' chi-pa 'an occupational caste of dyers'

15) pa: (-1A)

ca- 'cut flat objects ca-pa: 'bigger pieces of cloths

mechanically' left oy cutting a large piece
mechanically'

su- 'boil' su-pa: 'reduction of liquid by

evaporation'
hii- 'change' hyu:pa: revolution'
The base hil/change to /hyu: hiu/ before the suffix,

lb) /la/

chya- 'mix up' chya-la 'soup prepared by mixing

many things viz. radish-
slaces, beans, peas, potatoes
etc, '
17) /v/a: (-1A)/
0(.h)A- 'graze' o(.h;A-wa: 'a shepherd'
ju- 'keep moving' ju-v;a: 'traveller'
 57

pi- 'wait' pi-wa: ' o n e who v / a i t s '

su- •boil(milk) r su-wa: 'an occupational caste
of cooks'
18 / s a /

ku- 'be c o v e r e d by ku-sa 'umbrella'

sth'
gi- 'drav/ a circular gi-sa 'compass'
line'
gh- 'link' gha-sa 'side-dish'
cwA- 'v;-rite' cwa-sa 'pen'

jwAn- 'hold' jv/S- s a ' t h i n g s held i n the hands

of god(s)
_ 1
tan- 'acid' ta- sa 'addition'

ti- ' '.vear' ti-sa 'ornament'

tya- 'borrov/' tya-sa 'loan'

twAn- ' arink' tw5 - s a 'drink'

-1
thin- 'lift up' thi -sa 'a hoister'

thya- 'fold' thya-sa 'folding'

ioyaiv- .'soak' pyak-sa ' p i e c e of c l o t h u s e d by

a woman i n n e r bath'

Base final /n/ is changed into nasalization Defore the suffix

 o

phwA- 'soak' phwA-sa 'mildevr'

phwAn- 'beg' phwA-sa ' s t h asked by the ouyer
i n concession of what he/she
had purchased a l o t from ,
a shop-keeper'
(the base f i n a l /n/of/t)hwAn/ i s dropped before the suffix)

bu- rub' bu-sa 'ruobing implements l i k e

sand paper, brush e t c '
bkA- 'di splay' bwA-sa ' t h i n g s (to be) displayed'
lu- •drag along' lu-sa 'trowel'
aa..- 'spread(bed e t c ) ' l a - s a 'bed,matress etc.'
su- 'broom' su-sa ku-sa ' a c t of c l e a n s i n g '

(su»-sa ku-sa i s always reduplicated)

IwA- 'be s u i t e d ' IwA-sa 'extra dish'

swa- •link' swa-sa 'copper mixed gold'

ha- ' v/innow t ha-sa 'winnov/ing tray'
hyAek- 'tell lie' hyAek-sa 'falsehood'
(= hyAek-sa dya, habitual fraud'
19 /sa:(-lA) /
kA- 'hit' KA-sa: 'torture'
gkA- 'plan' gwA-sa: 'plan'
hil- 'go around hi-sa: 'thread of a screw'
sth/sb'
(the final /I/ of'hill'is dropped before the suffix)

20 /i/
gal- 'fan' gal-i-ca 'mannual fan'
 5'3

dut- 'obtain entry into' dut-i 'antry'

2l)/khi/
ci- 'tie' ci-khi ' s t r i n g to bind s t h '
da- 'beat* da-khi 'a piece of straw-made
rope which i s used to t i e
a bundle of r i c e - p l a n t s to
trasla a g a i n s t a f l a t piece
of vraod'
da- 'measure' da-khi 'measuring tape or rod'

22 /ti/
lu-man-C1) remember' lu-man-ti ( l ) rememberance'
C2) forget' (2) forgetfulness'
23)/bi/
khwA- 'weep' khv/A-bi ' tears'
24)/si/
tA- 'put' tA-si 'rack'
dA- 'be' or 'have' dA-si 'proof
ghAe-pu- 'embrac e' ghA-si 'embrace'(baby t a l k )
da- 'get boiled' da-si ' a c t of b o i l i n g over'
ha- 'steam' ha-si ' c l a y pot used for d i s t i l a t i o n '
di- 'stop' di-si 'a f e s t i v a l celebrated
i n the month of January
to mark the change of
d i r e c t i o n of sim's movement'

pi- 'sow' pi-si vulva'

chu- 'bake' chu-si 'fuel consisting of straw,
wheat straw etc.
 63

lu- ' sprout* lu-si 'finger n a i l '

Ihu- 'beat' iusi(=lhusi) 'pistie'

(In /ghAe-pu/ 'embrace' the f i n a l /Ae/ of the f i r s t syllable

i s changed i n t o /A/, and the second s y l l a b l e / p u / i s dropped
before the i n i t i a l a s o i r a t e d constant i s changes i n t o unaspi-
rated consonant before the suffix)

25) /ku; (-ti)/

nwA- 'be p r i c k e d ' nwA-ku: 'wedg e'

26) /cwA/
dhya- 'satirize' dhya-cwA 'sati re'

27) /pu/
nA- 'eat' nA-pu 'manner of eating'
swA- 'see' swA-pu 'manner of seeing'
Knya- 'threaten' Khya-pu 'threatening'
da- 'measure da-pu 'measurement'
dha- 'say' dha-pu 'saying'
Iwa- 'fight' Iwa-pu 'fight'
iha- 'talk' Iha-pu 'manner of talking'
swa- 'link' swa-pu 'linkage'
lyAn- ' remain' lyAH-pu- 'remaining'
lyAN
ha- steam hapu 'cooked rice' (baby talk)

C^yAN-pu-lyAI^ is always reduplicated)

28) /pu: (-li/ti)/

ca- 'cut' ca-pu: 'smaller pieces of cloth

or paper that are left
after cutting the larger
pieces'

da- 'measure* da-pu: 'standard measuring rod

or pot'
bhin 'be sood bhim-pu: 'a piece of coral (lit good
bead)
(final /n/ of /bhin-/ is replaced by homorganic /m/
before the suffix)

29) /e/
nya- 'walk' nya-e 'walking'

30) /lu/
khwA- 'weep' khwA-lu ' \/eeping'

(the word /khwA-lu/ occurs in the collocation as

/khwAlu pica-ye/)

31) /su/
dA- 'be' or 'have' dA-su 'proof
jha- 'come' o r ' g o ' (hon) J h a - s u 'relaxation'
ta- 'hear' ta-su 'power of h e a r i n g '
da- 'measure' da-su 'measurement'
thya- 'fold' thya-su 'folding'
gyAn- 'be weighty' gyA-su 'weight'
(final /-n/ of /gyAn/ is dropped before the suffix)
32) /k/
si-ye 'to die' si:k 'evil spirit'

(the final /e/ of the infinitive is dropped and the

preceeding /y/ is changed to /i/ before the suffix)

33) /0/
ha- 'steam' ha 'steam'
pal- 'chop' pa 'axe*

(the final /l/ of /pal/ is dropped before the suffix)

34) /ca/
bhen 'be good' bhen-ca 'male e g o ' s s i s t e r s '
c h i l d r e n ; female ego's
brothers' children'
3.1.2. From Nominal b a s e s :
1) /caif

Dimunitive suffix /ca/ may signify smallness, superiority

of the speaker, affection in kinship terms or intimacy. It
also distinguishes some kinship terms from each other:

Smallness
kha 'rooster' kha-ca 'chick'
me: 'buffalo' me:ca 'calf of a buffalo'

Superiority oi the speaker (belittlin.?. the addressee):

babu 'young boy' bau-ca 'young boy of farmer caste'
mastAr 'teacher' mastAr-ca 'teacher' (in derogatory
reference)'
 G3

Affection;
kehe 'younger sister' kehi-ca 'affectionate yovinger
sister'

dai 'elder brother' dai-ca 'affectionate

elder brother'
Intimacy»
Sita ' a female name' 3ita-ca 'Sita (an intimate
friend)'
Distinction between the kinship terms:

kae 'son' kae-ca 'male ego's brother's

son; female ego's
sister's son'
mhyae 'daughter' mhyae-ca 'male ego's brother's
daughter; female's ego's
sister's daughter'
2) /ta:/
lAsA juice lAsA-ta: 'pleasure'

3) /ya/
pAsA: (-1A) 'shop' pAsAl-ya 'shop-keeper'

4) /ya: C-r)/
guthi 'a social organi- guth(i)-ya:(-r) 'member of a
sation' guthi'

5)/wa/
ghyA:(-lA) 'ghee' ghyAr-wa 'lamp l i t by the
^ use of ghee'
(Vov/el-length i n the f i n a l p o s i t i o n / / g h y A : / i s replaced by
i t s o r i g i n a l deleted s y l l a b l e / l A / . / l a / corresponds to / r A / .
Final /k-jd i s dropped before the suffix)
 Gl

6) /W
jya 'work' jya-la 'wage'
7) /sa/
pu 'seed in particular' pu-sa 'seed in general!

8) /ni:/i/

This suffix is added to noims denoting male persons

of particular caste/profession to derive nouns denoting female
persons of that caste/profession:
jya-pu 'farmer' jya-pu-ni: 'female farmer'
nAu 'barber' O^u-ni* 'female barber'
pAsAlya 'shopkeeper (male) pAsAlya-ni: 'shop keeper'(female)'

This is also available with the follov/ing three

derived nouns denoting female persons belonging to three
districts of Kathmandu valley:
yae-mi 'man from Kathmandu' yae-mi-ni: 'woman from liathamandu'

khAp-Ae 'man from khAp-(Ae)-ni: 'woman from

Bhaktapur' Bhaktapur
yal-Ae 'man from Patan' yal-(Ae)-ni: 'woman from Patan'
I
/i/ is found in the following four, one oi which
is a profession-name: These bases \jndergo some changes as
seen below:
jya-thA 'Old man' jyi-th-i 'old woman'
khwae 'deaf man' kiiu-siN 'deaf woman'
 b:3

nae 'butcher' nAl 'female butcher'

Wile 'mad man' u-I 'mad woman'

O/mi/ tTnr,vi I
man' is added to denote places or occupational castes.

yae 'Kathmandu" yae-mi 'man from Kathmandu I

nepa: 'Nepal' 'nepa:-mi 'man from Nepal'

jya 'v/ork' jya-ffli 'worker'
salA 'oil' sa:-mi 'oilman'
(The f i n a l / l A / of t h e b a s e i s r e p l a c e d by vov;el l e n g t h )

10) / k u i ( . - l i ) /
su ' strav/' su-ku: 'straw-matress'

11) / g u : C-li)/
si 'hair' saN-gu: 'small piece of hair'

12) / n u U - l i ) /
hi 'blood' hi-nu: 'vein'

13) / p u /
'work' jya-pu 'farmer'
sa 'cow' sa-pu 'cow-catcher'

14) /N/ changes i n t o /m/ b e i n g followed by t h e s u f f i x /-a:/

o r /-v/A:/
gaN 'village' gam-a:A'A: 'villager'
3.1.3 From Ad.iectival i H s e s :

1) / p A : ( - h A ( - l A ) ) /

it derives abstract nouns denoting undesirable qualties:

 bo

('hucca 'sycophant' chuc c a-pAhA 'syc ophancy'

lucca 'mean' lucoa-pAhA 'mean-mindedness'
swAjha 'simple-minded' swAjha-pAtiA 'simple mindedness'
gyani 'wise','sober' gyami-pAhA 'act of pretending
to be wise or sober'
lyaema 'young' lyaema-pAhA 'style of showing
youth'
bura 'old' bura-pAhA 'style of showing
oldness'

2) /ca/ used in deriving non-honorffie male names;

caKu 'sweet' caku-ca 'a non-aonorific

male name'
haku black haku-ca 'a non-honorific
male name'
3) /si/
khayu: 'oitter' khai-si ' o i t t e r orange'
caku 'sweet' caku-si ' c i t r u s lameta'

4)/j<l/
taha 'long' taha ' snake'

;^.1.4. From Adveroial b a s e s :

1) /pa/

twa: ' b r e a d t h wise' tv/a:pa ' t e c h n i q u e ' o f laying

the b r i c k s with t h e i r
broad sides facing
^ach other and the
narrov/er side facing
downv/ard'
/be/ 'slantly' be-pa 'technique ol l a y i n g
t h e b r i c k s on l e n g t h ,
the broad side facing
horizontally'

2) / l i / 'after'

che 'house' che-li 'ground floor of the

house (lit. after house'

3.2) Inflection;

iNiouns a r e i n f l e c t e d for number and c a s e .

3.2.1 Nufaber:

There is a singular/plural distinction in nanber. Wouns

and pronouns have number distinction. Plural number is marked
and singular number is unmarked. Plurality is expressed by a
plural suffix.

The allomprphs of the plural suffix are /tA/ and /ouN/

l) /tA/ occurs with nouns denoting honorific persons, animate

beings, and all inanimate beings. /tA/ is optionally
added to these nouns when the noun:' is preceded by a
numeral. It is, however, obligatory to use /tA/
if the noun is not preceded by a nxomeral.
sg. pi.
khica 'dog' idiica-tA
mAca 'child' mAca-tA
saphu 'book' saphu-tA
 b J-

pi.

nyA-raha khica ^tA) 'two dogs*

svirA-mha mAca (-tA) 'three children'

2) /-puU p i n i - mi/

/puW/ occurs with noiins denoting honourable persons, gods

in general, kinship-nouns, pronouns, simple and derived

adjectives:

sg. pi.

juju 'king' juju-puW

dyA: 'god' dyA:-puN

tAta 'elder s i s t e r ' tAta-puN

\vA 'he/she/it' A -puN
ba:la:mha ' b e a u t i f u l ba;la:-pul''l
person'
v/A:rnha ' t h e person wA;-puN
who came'
A l l noxms and pronouns ending i n a long vowel r e c e i v e / p i n i /
a s t h e i r p l u r a l marker when t h e y a r e i n f l e c t e d f o r non-
nominative c a s e s . However, t h e f i r s t p e r s o n p l u r a l incisive
pronoun / j h i : / does n o t t a k e t h e p l u r a l suffix.

sg. pi. case

^ita a female iiita-pini-sAl\i A-I-Ab.

name'
KrisnA a male name' KrisnA-pini-ke Loc
kija younger b r o t h e r ' k i j a - p i n i - ( y a ) t A . Dat
dyA: god' dyA;-pini-0 lien,
huN that 'yonder)' huW-pini-0 Gen.
wAekA: he(hon)' wAekA^-pini-sAI-J Dat
chA:pwA: you (most hon) chA:pwA:pini-sAi^i A-l-Ab.
 Pronouns ending i n a s h o r t vowel i n non-noiQinative
cases w i l l receive /mi/ as t n e i r p l u r a l marker:

2l' case

chA 'you' chA-mi-sAl^^ A,i-Ab

di 'I' ji-mi-ke Loc

V/A'' 'he' A/i-mi-ke Loc
thkA 'this' (K.)thA-mi-izi '-ren
( P . ) t h u - m i ii
(B.)thA/thu-mi-iZ$

gwA ' who' gu-:ni-ta Dat

As e x p l a i n e d above /puN/ i s h o n o r i f i c v/hereas /xA/ i s

non-nonorific. Hence a woord l i k e / j u j u - t A / means ' k i n g s i n
g e n e r a l ' whereas / j u j u - p u N / i s used to s i g n i f y 'kings l^respected)'

honorific general
'a.

gurju-puN 'Buddhist priests' bare-tA 'Buddhisis in Neoal'

bajya-puN 'respected branmins' brau-tA 'brahmins (in general)
dyA;-pui'^ •Gods' dyA.tA 'idols of gods'

/v/A/ sg. is changed into /A/ in k, and /i/ in p. Jut the

word /gwA/ 'v/ho' has /gu/ only infl,rs..andP.
 ^•^

3.2.2 Case.:

Nouns, singular or plural, are inflected for case, nomi-

native case is unmarked. The other cases viz., Agentive, Instru-
mental, locative, ablative, dative and genetive are denoted by-
suffixes. In the following analysis, the shapes of these suffixes
are given first followed by a brief description of their functions.

3*2.2.1 Case suffixes:

l) Nominative Case (Nom):

A singular or plural noun base itself functions as a

noun in nominative case. No separate suffix for nominative
case is proposed:
ra:m. wAlA
ra:m. i came
ra:m. - puN v/AlA
raim and otners came
wAN sima palA
he tree chop- pa dj
he chopped the tree

2) Agentive- Instrumental- Ablative case (abbrivated as A-i-Ab)

is marked by the suffix /N/:-

•leaning Nom Oblique A-I-Ab

'a male name' ra:mA ra:mA-N
'good one' bhl:-mha bhi:mha-sinA- bhr:-:iiha-sinA-N

S.-mhA
 *^i

Meaning i\lom Obliaue A-I-Ab

'children' mAca-tA mAca-tA-ya sA-Nyase mAca-"t:Wya s A-N

mAca-tA-yase-N

'Kings' juju^'-puN O U j u - p i n i - sA- juju-pini-sA-N/

se-N

'fox' dhwAt dhwA-nA- dhwA-nA-N

dhwl;-nA- dhwA:-nii-N

'house' che che- che-N

che-nA- che-N

'who' su su-na- su-na-N

3) l o c a t i v e C a s e (Loc) :

The Locative case suffix has three allomorphs: /i/, /e/,/ke/,

/i/ and /e/ occur after inanimate nouns and classifiers used
with inanimate nouns, /ke/ occurs after all animate nouns and
pronouns, inanimate plural nouns containing the oblique marker
/ya/, and the animate classifier /mha/.

/i/ occurs after inanimate nouns ending in a high vowel

viz, /i/ or /u/. /e/ occurs after inanimate nouns ending in a
low vowel viz., /e/, /A/ or /a/:

I'leaninA Norn Obliaue Loc

'river' khusi khugi-i

'broom' tuphi tuohi-i

'one lengtny chA-pu chA-pu-i

piece'

S -pi:
 7a.

Meaning Norn Oblique Loc

'sugarcane' tu tu-i

'grip' cu cu-i

B
'one flat object' chA-pa chA-pa-e

'gunny sack' mhe mhe-e

'house' che che-e

'urine' cwA cwA-e

'serving of bwA bwA-e

ofood to one
person'

'nose' nhae nhasA- nhasA-e

1
'ground' ba ba-e = ba-e

'winnowing pan' hasa hasa-e

nasa-khA- hasa-khA-e

'sugarcane' tu tu-ichA- tu-khA-e

'gunny sack' mhe-khA- mhe-l<iiA- mhe-lchA-e

1 Shift of nasalization *
Optional oblique marker /KhA/ in locative case denotes surface

whereas /^/ denotes centre as in mhe-khA-e pv/a: dA:, 'there

is a hole on the surface of gunny sack', rahe-^-e jaki dA:, 'there

is rice inside the gunny sack'; jiH chAnta jign bu-khA-e pAla:

tAeke mAkhu, 'i won't allow you to tread on my field' jnya:-khA-e

rAnna-N suye mani, 'It needs to plane the window (on its surface)

with a plane' jhyalA-^ -e na:da:, 'water is in the windov/' etc.

Meaning Norn Oblique Loc

'house' che che-khA- cha-khA-e

C
'a female name' oita sita(-ya-) sita(-ya-)ke

'children' mAca tA mAca-ta-ya- mAc a-1A-ya-ke

'dog' khica khica(-ya-) lthica(-ya-)ke

'ants' yal-tA yai-tA-ya- yal-tA-ya-ke

'louse' si si(-ya-) si(-ya-)ke

D
'books' saphu-tA saphu-tA-ya- saphu-tA-ya-ke

•knives' cAkku-tA-ya- cAkku-tA-ya-ke

4. Dative Case (Dat.):

ITie Dative suffix is /ta;/'' /ta/. Dat. sfx /ta:/ after

the noun base itself is long '.\rhere as it is short after the

oblique :aarker /-ya-/

rieaninK Norn Oblique Dat.

'book' saphu Saphu-ta 5

saphu-ya- saphu-ya-ta

'a male name' ra:m ra:m-ta:

ra:m-ya- ra:m-ya-ta ra:m-ya-ta

'children' raAca-tA mAca-tA-ya- mAca-tA-ya-ta

'this' thwA thv/A-ya- thwA-ya-ta

2 3
'kings' juju-puN
juju-piN- juju-pin-ta:

1 3. -tA

2 medial /u/ af ihe final syllable of the nominative form is

replaced by /i/
3 base final velar nasal of the oblique form changed into nasal
homagganic/n,/ in the Dative case.
Meaning worn Oblique Dacbive

•fox' dhwS: dhv/S:-ya- dhwS:-ya-ta

dhwl:- dhv;S: - t a :
'apple' syau syau-ya- syau-ya-ta
syau- syau-ta:
'you' chA chA-n- chA-nata:

5 . Geni'tlve Case (Gen.)s

Wouns and pronouns b e l o n g i n g t o c a t e g o r y 4 and 1 s i n g u l a r

pronoun / j i / ' I ' and i n c l . p l . p m / j h i : / add t h e g e n e t i v e
s u f f i x d i r e c t l y t o t h e i r b a s i c forms. I n t h e c a s e of t h e r e s t of
t h e nouns and pronouns t h e g e n i t i v e s u f f i x i s added t o t h e o b l i q u e
base.

Meaning i'jom Obl. Gen.

'I' ji
'we'(incl)' jhi: dhi:-^
'we' Cxcl)' ji-puN ji-ifli-^

you ( p i . ) ' chA-puN chA-mi-j^

'they' A-puN A-mi-?}
'they (yonder)' huM-pu7.N huN-pini-?{
'these' thA-puN thA-mi-jJ
'kings• Ouju-pu N 3Uju-pini-9(

1 S.Chi-

2 medial /u/ oi the final syllable of the Norn is replaced by

/i/, and /ni/ is added finally in Gen.
 75

Meanins Norn Obi. Gen.

'good one' bhi:-inha bhi i-mha-siya- bhi:-mha-siya-^

'book' saphu saphu-ya- saphu-ya-?(

'good one' bhi-N-gu • bhi-N-gu-ya- bhiW-gu-ya-?J

'children' mAca-tA mAca-tA-ya- mAca-tA-ya-i^

'this' thwA thwA-ya- thv/A-ya-^

'who' su su-ya- su-ya-^

'wife' misa misa-ya- misa-ya-?{

'that'(yonder) huN huN-ya- hui'^-ya-j^

'you' chA chA-N- chAxK-^

3.2.2.2 Obliaue forms:

Before the addition of some case suffixes except the nomi-

native case suffix, all nouns and pronouns except the 1st person

sg. p m . /Ji/ 'I' undergo some changes in their shapes. These

changes are attributed to the addition of an oblique suffix.

The oblique suffix has various shapes depending upon the type
or
of the n o u n ^ m . that takes it, and also depending on the case
suffix that follows the oblique base. An analysis of the oblique

markers show that the following syllables either individually or

in some combinations function as oblique markers with nouns and p m s ,

sA, si, se, sya, nA, na, ya, lA, khA.

As noted above only the 1st person sg. prn. /ji/ ' i ' does

require any oblique marker throughout its inflection for case:

 76

Meaning Mom A-I~Ab. Loc, Pat. Gen.

'I' ji ji-N ^i-ke ji-ta ji-jz^

Compared to t h i s a l l the o t h e r p m s . and nouns require

one or the other oblique marker i n t h e i r i n f l e c t i o n ii.g.,

Meaning Horn A-i-Ab Loc, Pat, Gen.

•drum' khiN khiW-nA-N khiN-khA-e khiN-ya-ta khiN-ya-^

The f i r s t morpheme i n the non-no;ninative forms i s the noun-root.

The l a s t morpheme i s the case-marker. ITae remaining middle
p o r t i o n i s the oblique marker used for the noun are /nA/ in
animate sense and /khA/ i n inanimate sense i n A-I-Ab, /khA/
i n l o c a t i v e case, / y a / ( o p t i o n a l l y used) i n d a t i v e and o b l i -
g a t o r i l y i n g e n i t i v e case.

'The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the alloaiorphs of the oblique suffix

i s discussed while taking the category of nouns and p m s as
the basis. For t h i s purpose nouns and p m s are grouped i n t o ten
categories. The c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , i n the case of c a t e g o r i e s 2
to 10 i s based on semantic, grammatical and pnonological
criteria.

Category 1;

This category includes six pronouns. These pronouns do not

share any com;iion phonological or grammatical feature. Hence
this category is a list of residue forms only. The p m s . are
listed beiow along with the obliquie markers that they receive
in various cases:
 77

•^ "^QL
I ^et »-~v IV
a 1 sd (d
>. OJ >s I
CO 1 >> >. 1.
< 1 ! •» I
I I •3: : '^ ;3 <
C5 to t Xi
-P
:i
w
w
—'
j::;
-P o

cd ',^ cd
•P cd cd -P
as cd 1 -P -P 1 cd
-P •p cd 1 1 cd
1 1 >. cd cd >> +1>
cd 1 >. >> 1 fl
>. a
>. <: 1 •• 1
•p 1 1 ^ •^ 13 < <
d :i ^ :3 CO Xi si
Q CO > ^ CO v—^ •p o

0) ^ <u
ijj cu 0) ^
0) (U 1 v; j^^; 1
M ^ cd 1 Cd
1 1 >, "icd cd >> I
cd cd 1 >^ >. 1
>> >> < 1 1 ••
o 1 1 ^ S ;3 <
o HJ << xi ^ CO xi
J CO ^ P CO ^—' •p o
•rH

cd

^ 1 I I I
«: Cd I
M
1
1
ii
1
:i
;3
<
I
cd
cd

CO
I5 I
xi
< CO ^ CO o

••
13 <
to xi
Oi 2; • << +3
•H << Cd « •> •
CO IS rt o <: s <
col 3 xi x: O .cj
CO % +J 3
to
• ~*

O
+>
B
•H
Cd
a.
cu
•H >
— y"-^ •H
=H • •
X
-P S to B ~ •H «H cu ••
o cd -H •H -H t>. «d H H D
C d d 0) tH o
4 •P Cd -p
-
3
^—' —
S •H
^—' —
to Q)
SH —
>-.
 78

Category 2 :

This category includes two inanimate pronouns /chuN/ 'a little

(adj. of quantity or indefinite numeral adj)' and /chukiN/
'any (indefinite inanimate pronoun), and inanimate nouns ending
in a long nasalized vowel, velar nasal or a vov;el sequence.
They receive the oblique marker /khA/ in A-I-Ab and Loc, and
/ya/ optionally in Dat and obligatorily in Gen.

Following is the list of nouns that belong here:

chuiNl 'a little'

chukiN ' any'
I: sickle'
khiW drum (a musical instrument)'
hiN asafoetida'
hA(:)thAi\l soap-nut'
dhuK incense-stick'
simi: bean'
kArai frying pan'
sAlai 'matches'
tai tie'
lAtal 'kite-botibin'
kAn cowry'
khAn the residue from which the juice is extracted'
jhAu sealing wax'
sAu cow-dung'
dhAu curd'
 79

khAi 'phlegm'
lAl 'radish'
kAi 'boil'

Sample paradigm:

Case forms
Meaning Basic/ A-I-Ab Loc Dat Uen
Norn
'a little' chuN chuN-khA-N chuN-khA-e chuN-(ya)-ta chuN-ya-jJ

'drum' khiN khiN-khA-H khiN-khA-e khiN-(ya)-ta khiiM-ya-0

'sickle' 1: i:-khA-N Il^khA-e i:-(ya)-ta l:-ya-i^
'curd' dhAu dhAu-khA-N dhAu-khA-e dhAu-(ya)-ta dhAu-ya-^

Category 3:

This category includes inanimate noxms ending in /e/. They

receive the oblique marker /khA/ optionally in A-I-Ab and Loc,
/ya/ optionally in Dat and obligatorily in Gen. Following is
the list of the nouns that come \Jinder this category:

ke 'soup prepared from the pulses'

che 'house'
me 'song'
mhe 'gunny-sack'
si 'liver'

Sample paradigms J
Case forms
Meaning Basic/' lA-I-Ab Loc Dat Gen
Mom
'house' che chi-(khA)-N che-(khA)-e che-Cya)-ta ch5-ya-^
'gunny sack' mhe mh5-(khA)-N mhe-(khA)-e mhe-(ya)-ta mhe-ya-^
 80

Category k i

PI, nouns containing the pi. marker /pini/-^' /pulV and all
pi. p m s . are grouped here. They take the oblique marker /sA/^
/se/ in A-I-Ab. They do not take any oblique marker in Loc,
are
Dat, and Gen. A l l t h e p i . p m s . t h a t belong t o t h i s group/listed
here:
ji-puN 'we^excl)* chikA:-puN 'you(hon)'
jhi:-pul>l ' w e ( i n c l ) * thwA-puN 'these'
chi-pul^ 'you' thwAekA:-puN 'these(hon)'
chA:pwA:-puN 'you(most AnpuiN 'they'
hon)'
thA:-puN 'self(refl.)' wAekA:-pUi^ ' t h e y ( h o n ) '

Follov/ing a r e some of t h e nouns t h a t belong t o t h i s g r o u p :

kae-puiM ' sons'
Ata-pioN 'sisters (elder)'
juju-pul^ 'kings' etc.

Sample paradigm:

Meaning : Basic/Nom Case form

A-I-Ab
•we(excl)' ji-puN ji-mi-sA/se-N

'we(incl)' ohi:-puN jhJ^sA/se-w

'kings' juju-pui\F juju-pini-sA/se-N
'sisters' Ata-puN • Ata-pini-sA/se-K
 81

Category 3''

This category includes the 3 per. sg. p m . /huW/

'that ^yonder)' in animate sense and sg. anim. nouns ending
in /vN/ or w / . They receive the oblique marker /nA/ in A-i-Ab,
/ya/ optionally in Loc and Dat, and obligatorily in Gen. S.g.,

hui^ that i, yonder)' mAl ' gi rl'

oyaw frog• dhai 'wet nurse'
nAkhiraiM voracious eater' bAtai 'quail'
haraN a male name' kAu 'black smith'
ul a mad woman' hAi 'centipade'

nAi a female butcher v,hA„ 'son or younger brother's

^occupational caste)' wife'
cat
Sample paradigm: Case form
Meaning Basic/ A-I-Ab Loc Dat Gen
Nom
'that(yonder)' ,^ huN-nA-N huN-(ya)- huN-(ya)- huN-ya-0
ke ta
'frog' byaN byaN-nA-N byaN-(ya)- byaN-(ya)-byaN-ya-^
ke ta
•!girl' rnAi mAi-nA-N mAi-(ya)- mAi-(ya)- mAi-ya-?i
ke ta
'eat' ''bhAu bhAu-nA-N bhAu-(ya)- bhAu-(ya)-bhAu-ya-^
daughter-in-lav/' ke ta

Note that the noun /bhAu/ 'cat' and daughter-in-law

has separate old basic forms /bhAti/ 'cat' and /bhAli/ 'daughter-
in-lav/' which are commonly used even these days by the people of
old generation. They come under category 7.
 82

Category 6;

All pi. nouns that contain the pi. suffix allomorph

/tA/ are included here. They receive the oblique marker /yasA/'vy
/se/ in A-I-Ab, and /ya/ in Loc, Dat, and uen. £^.g.,

mAca-tA 'children* mi sa-tA 'women','wives'

mAnu:-tA 'men' ki:-tA 'insects'
khica-tA 'dogs' saphu:-tA 'books'

Sample paradigm ••

Case forms
Meaning Basic/ A-I-Ab Loc Dat uen.
Nom

'children'mAca-tA mAca-tA-yasa mAca-tA-ya raAca-tA- mAca-tA

/se-N -ke ya-ta -ya-?{

'books' saphu:- saphu:-tA-

^£ ^ , ,, .
saphu:tA- , .
saphu:- v. . 4.\
saphu:-tA-
yasA/se-N ya-ke tA-ya-ta ya-^

Category 7:

'ihe following are included in this category:

(a) All simple sg. anim. nouns.
(b) /mha/, the adj. oi indefinite quantity used in noaiinal
sense meaning 'fewer (anim)'
(c) /AthiN/ a p m . used with reference to animate beings whose
name is not immediately recollected. They receive the oblique
marker /ya/ optionally in Loc and Dat and obligatorily in
Gen. They take no oblique marker in^-I-Ab.
 83

E.g..

raha 'fewer'

misa 'wife'

khica 'dog'

Sita 'a female name'

Ata 'elder sister'

kija 'younger brotlier'

bhAti 'cat'

bhAli ' daughter-in-lav/'

AthiN (xiom-AthinA)

Sample paradigm:

Case forms

i-ieaning Basic/ Loc Dat Gen

Nora

'fever' mha mha-(ya)-ke mha-(ya)-ta mha-ya-?i

' AthiN AthiN-(ya)-ke AthiN-(ya)-ta AitihiN-ya-j^

' yoiinger
brother'kija kija-(ya)-ke kija-(ya)-ta kija-ya-5^

uiisa-(ya)-ke misa-(ya-),-ta misa-ya-^

'wife' misa

Category 8;
The following are included in this category:

(a) simple inanimate nouns

(b) inanimate nouns derived by adding the suffix /gu/

(c) /mha/ fewer (in inanimate sense)

(d) AthiN (in inanimate sense)

 84

They take the oblique marker /ya/ optionally in Dat, and

obligatorily in Gen. They do not take any oblique marker in
A-I-Ab and Loc.

J^.g.»

saphu:(-li) 'book'
cAkku 'knife'
kA:ti 'saw'
bhii^fgu 'good one'
ba:la:gu 'nice one'
6u:gu 'torn one'
mha 'fewer things'
AthiN
(ivom AthinA) 'a p m . used v/ith reference to inanim things
the name of v/hich is not immediately recollected'

Sample paradigm:

Case forms
Meaning Basic/Norn Pat Gen

'book' saphu:(-li) saphu:-(ya)-ta saphu:-ya-^

'new one' nhu-gu-(ya)- nhu-gu-(ya)-ta nhu-gu-ya-jii
'fewer' mha mha-(ya)-ta mha-ya-?(
AthiN AthiN-(ua)-ta AthiN-ya-<z5

Category 9!

The cl. /mha/ and all derived sg. anim nouns ending in
the anim, sfx. /mha/ are grouped here. They take the oblique
 85

marker /vya) sinA/ optionally in A-rl-Ab, /(ya)si(ya)/

obligatorily in Loo and Dat. In Gen. -chere are two possibilities:

when the inflected noun is to be follov/ed by another noun the

oblique marker /(ya) siya/ is used. But when the inflected

noun is to be followed by one of the noun deriving suffixes

/mha/ or /gu/, the oblique marker /^a) si (ya)/ is used.

^.g.,

ba:1a:-mha 'pretty one'

haku-mha 'black one'

swAjha-mha 'sober one'

nyAmha 'two (animate beings)'

w'a-raha 'five (anim, beings)

thwA-rnha 'this many (anim. beings)

Sample paradigm:

Case forms

Meaning Basic/ A-I-Ab Loc Pat Gen.

Nom

•Black hakurrmha ha^tu-mha- haku-mhA haku-mha- (a) haku-mha

one' (ya) sinA -(ya)si (ya)si -(ya)siya-?(
se-N (ya)-ke tya)-ta
(b) haku-mha-
-(ya)si(ya)
-mha/gu
•1
'hundred sachi-mha sachi-mha 3achi-mha
anim' -(ya)sinA -(khA)-e
se-N

when the noun denotes a number of persons then the oblique

marker /khA/ is optionally added to the cl/mha/ in Loc in B
i.e., the noun is treated as inanimate though it is an animate
noun.
 86

Category 10
This category includes the following:
(a) p m s . meaning • all' ^ ..i •many'
yA(k)kwA 'many' sAk(k)wA- 'all'
phu(k)kA 'all' byak(k)A 'all'
ciA(k)kwA 'all'

(b) Nominals derived from the verbs by adding the sfx. /-kwA/
and meaning 'as many as'

dha-kwA 'as many as one says (dha- 'to say')

si-k\irA 'as many as one knows' (si- 'to know')
phA-kwA 'as many as one is able to do' (phA- to be able' etc.

All these forms are divided into two groups (A) those used
in animate sense and (B) those used in inanimate sense.

Group A; These forms receive: /sink/•^/se/ oblique marker

in A-l-Ab /si (ya)/ in Loc and Dat, and /siya/ in vien.

Sample paradigm:

Case form
Meaning B a s i c / A-l-Ab Loc Pat Gen
JNlom

'all' phu-kwA phu-KwA- phu-kwA phu-kwA- phu-kwA-si

sinA-/se-N -si(ya)-ke si(ya)-ta -ya-0
'many' yA-kwA yA-kwA- yA-kwA-si yA-kwA- ya-kwA-
sinA-/se (.ya)-ke si(ya)- siyat-?!
ta
' a s many dha-kwA dha-kwA- dha-kwA- dha-kwA- dha-kwA-
a s one sinA-/se si(ya)-ke si(ya)-ta siya-?$
can s a y ' -N
 87

Group B:

These forms receive one oblique marker /ya/ optionally

in iiat. and obligatorily in Gen. They do not take any oblique
marker in Loc

In A-I-4b they may receive the oblique marker /nA/:

Sample paradigm

Case form

i'leaning Basic/Nom A-I-Ab Dat Gem

•all' phu(k)-kwA phu(k)-kwA phu(k)-kwA phu(k)-kwA-

nA-N -(vfl)-ta
-Cya)-ta vfl-(^
ya-0

'many* yA(k)-kwA yA(k)-kwA- yA(k)-kwA- yA(k)-kv/A-

nA-N (ya)-ta ya-0
'as many phA(k)-kwA- phA9k)-kwA- phA(k)-kwA phA(k)-kwA-
as one nA-N -(ya)-ta ya-^
can do'

Category II:

This category includes the following inanimate pronouns:-

(a) interrogative and relative or conjunctive pronouns /chu/
'what', /gwA/ 'which'
(b) Demonstrative /wA/ 'that (rem)' /thwA/ 'this(pro)' /hull/
'that (yonder)' take the oblique marker /ki/ in A-I-Ab and
Loc, and /ki(ya)/ in Dat and ki ya! in Genu
 88

Sample paradigm

Case fonn
Meaning basic/ Arl-Ab Loc Pat Gen
Norn
'what' chu chu-ki»N chu-ki-i chu-ki chu-ki-ya-^
(ya)-ta
'\/hich' gvfA gu-ki~N gu-ki-i gu-ki gu-ki-ya-?i
(gu-) Tya)-ta

'that' wA u-ki-N u-ki-i u-ki(ya)- u-ki-ya-^

(u-) ta

'this' thwA thu-ki-N thu-ki-i thu-ki thu-ki-

(thu-) Cya)-ta ya ^
'that' huN huN-ki-N huN-ki-i huN-ki huN-ki-
(yonder)' (ya)ta ya ^/

3.2.2.3 Outlines of Case-functions

1) i^ominative:
i^ewari is a type of Ergative language as seen by the
fact that the subject of an intransitive sentence or the direct
object of a transitive sentence is marked for nominative case
whereas the subject of a transitive sentence is in agentlve
Case:

ra:m dyAn-A
Ram (i'iom) sleep (pa dj)
Ram slept
ra:mA-.'j sita khan-A
Rara(A; sita>.Nom) see (pa dj)
Ram sav/ sita
 89

ra:mA-iM" sita-ya-ta sA:t-A-lA

Ram(A) sita (Dat) call (pa dj)
Ram called sita

Complement of a verb is in Nomina tive forra:-

sita ridAr jul-A
sita(NQm) reader(Norn) become (pa dj)
3ita became a reader

2) A^entive:

A noun in Agentive form functions as a subject (doer or

causer of an action denoted by the verb) of a transitive
sentence;
wA-N ji-ta dal-A
he(A) I-Dat beat (padj)
He beat me.

phAsA-N lApte puik-A-lA

wind(A) laaf (i^om) blow off (pa dj)
wind blew off a leaf

3) instrumentali
A noun in Instrumental form functions as an i;aplement
or tool in an action. Tools, bodily parts, natural forces,
animate nouns (wnen it works as an instrument), vehicles used
as conveyances, abstract nouns used as manner or cause may be
realized in instrumental case:-
 90

vfA-U rav/AgAlA-ivi khwA:siiJ tAcchya-tA

he(A) hammer(I) wall-nut(Worn) break (pa d j )
He broke w a l l - n u t with a hammer

wA-N tutiTti'J bA:i ttiv/a-tA

he (A) footCI) ballU^om) h i t (pa d j )
He h i t t h e b a l l v/ith h i s f o o t

./A-W che mi-i'i nAk-A-lA

he(^) house(i\lom) fire(I) feed (pa dj)
ne set fire to the house (lit He caused lire to eat the house)

wA-I\f sita-N/va-ta pAit cwAk-A-lA

he(A) sita(l/Dat) letter (Mom) write (caus pa dj)
He caused sita to v/rite a letter.

AnimTnoun who is caused to do sth can optionally be

realized in Dative form too'
The vehicle-instrument used as conveyance can optionally
be realized in locative as well as in instrumental forms:

ji baiskAlA-N/e wA-ya
I (iMom) bicvcle(I/Loc) come (pa dj)
I came by bicycle

It is interesting to note that big enclosed vehicles like

aeroplane, train etc. ai"e preferrably used in instrumental form,
and the small open vehicles like motor-cycle, bicycle etc.
usually receive locative marker.
 91

wA tilmA-r-ii mi ju-lA
he (Nom) anp;er(I) f i r e (Worn) be (padj)
He became very angry (lit. He became fire with an.-^er)

tA; IwAcA-N v/A si-tA

serious ilmess (I) he (Nom) die (pa dj)
He died of serious illness

bhv/athA: nAnA-N v/A pihaN wan-A

ragged ciothes(I) he (worn) out go (pa dj)
He went out with (wearing) ragged clothes.

In some cases, manner may be optionally realized in

locative as well as in instrumental forrasJ

wA-N tAmA-H/e khica-ya-ta da-lA

he(A) anger(I/Loc) dog (Dat) beat (pa dj)
He bet dog v/ith/in anp:er

4) Ablative;
A noun in Ablative functions as a source from v/hich sth.
separates or as a path from v/here one goes:
sima-M hA: hal-A
tree (Ab) leaf (Worn) fall down (pa dj)
leaves fell down from a tree
ji-ii ra:m-va-ke saphu: kA-ya
I iw^) Ram (Ab) book(.^ora) take (pa cj)
I took a book from Ram
 92

ji nepalA-N wA-ya
I (Nora) i'jepal(Ab)- come (pa dj)
I came from Nepal

5) Dative:

A Dative base functions as an indirect object of a

transitive verb, iibcperiencer, beneficiary, purpose, animate
nouns collocated with certain verbs etc. may be realized in
Dative form:

ji-K wA-va-ta saphu bi-ya

1(A) he(Pat) book (Norn) give (pa cj)
I gave him a book

Ji chA-n-ta nap-la:~ve-dhA-ka t/tA: wA-ya

I(i^iom) you (Dat) meeting (Pat) come (pa dj)
I came to meet (for meeting) you

.1i-ta la dA:
I (Dat) emph be (Hab)
to/for me i t i s there

./ith the .use of the verb /wA-/ 'come' the experiencer

i s realized in dative as well as in Genitive form:

sita-va ( t a ) / ( v a ) t a jv/A:r wA-lA

s i t a (Gen/Pat) fever (Nom) come (pa dj)
oita suffered from fever ( l i t s i t a ' s fever came/fever came
tosita)
 93

Animate nouns as patients callocated with certain verbs

like da- 'beat', ghwa- 'push', thwa- 'kick', cwa- 'hit by
leg' etc. are realized in dative form whereas inanimate or
non-hiiraan nouns as patients with the same type of verbs are
realized in nominative form:

wA-ii ra:m - va - ta/saphu sal-A

he(A) Ram(Pat)/book(Norn) pull (pa dj)
He pulled Ram/book

i n the sense of benediction the no\in denoting the benefi-

c i a r y v/ill be r e a l i z e d i n d a t i v e or genetive form:

sita-vaCtA)/(va) tA jAe jui ma

^ita-Gen/Dat goodness be benedictive-pt

Let s i t a be by goodness ( l i t l e t goodness be o f / f o r sita)

However genetive form, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , i s p r e f e r r a b l e

6) Locative:

A noun in locative case denotes location;

wA puknuli-i dhAlAN bwa-Na cwAn-A

he (worn) lake-(Loc) swim (pa p) continuei,pa dj)
He was swirnraing in a lake

Possession with an animate noun can be denoted by

Locative as well as genetive bases:
 94

i ^ i c a - y a / k e na "tuneu sAkti dil:

dog;iien/Loc) smeiling-power be (Hab)
dog has smelling power ( l i t . smelling power i s in/v/ith dog)

7) l e n i t i v e
Cienetive base works as an adjective to the possessed noun:
ra:m -va- '^{m) saphu:
Ram - Gen-(cl) book (Norn)
Ram's book

Price-ratio can aptionally be marked by genetive marker

/ya/ or instrumental marker /N/:

alu KilwA-N/-va khurka wA-N

potato kilo^^ ram (.I/Gen) six rupees cost (Hab)
One kilo potatoes costs six rupees

Obligation or Voluntery action denoted by an auxiliary

verp /mal-/ 'need' after the main verb in infinitive stem
causes the doer \.which is seraantically agentive) to be realized
in genitive form:
wA-va me hal-e ma:
he<,-ien) songu^om) singiinf.) need (Hab)
He needs to sing a song

sita-va bwAn-e ma:

sita;>Gen) read(inf.) need (Hab)
sita needs to read
 95

i i x p e r i e n c e r with c e r t a i n v e r b s of f e e l i n g i s realized
i n u e n i t i v e . form:

ratm ya nhyA: wAck-a cwAn-A

Ram (Gen) sleep corae-caus.pap c o n t i n u e (pa d j )
Ram was sleeping
(,lit Ram was c a u s i n g h i m s e l f t o s l e e p )
 9?

3.3 Mominal Compounds:

A nominal compound is made up of two or more bases v/ith

or without change in their shapes. Nominal compounds can be
catagorized into (l) subordinate, (2) coordinate (3) idomatic
types. .

3.3.1 Subordinate Compounds:

The general meaning of the last component (the meaning

of which is more important than that of other(s) is restricted
or modified oy the preceding one. ^Subordinate compounds can
further be divided into (I) determinative, (2) comparative,
^.3) compound caused by the deletion of the .aedial co;riponent,
^4) appositional, and (.5) numeral types.

3.3.1.1 Determinative Compound

Determinative compounds are formed oy deleting the case-

suffix of the first component:

^ N2 1^13

i4Aca-ya-ta kv/Abi:mha = mAca kwA-bi:mha, 'one -.-rho

baby ^Dat) one who c a r r i e s c a r r i e s a baby'
jalAe " cwAijgu la= ja-la. ' f l e s h t h a t v/as on t h e
waist'
v/Aist (LOG) o c c u r - c l flesh

mikhai^^ ka:mha mikha ka:,

eye(I) blind 'blind by eye'
 97

N1 N2 m
Aca:r-ya-ta kuliN = Acasr-kuliN
pickle-Dat a clay-pot 'kuliN''for fermenting the
pickles'
che-ya thuwa: = che-thuwa:,
house-<ien owner 'house-owner'

3.3.1.2 ComDarative Compounds:

Comparative compounding formed by deleting the comparative

particle /theN/ 'like' as in:

khica ya theN oa:gu tuti= khica-tuti

dog-Gen like - cl leg leg which look like that of a dog

maKA(:) ya theN aa:gu pali = maKA:pali

monkey Gen like - cl. sole of feet = sole of feet which
look like those of a monkey.

duru theN oa:gu (tuyu:gu) IwAhS = duru -IwAhS

milk like-cl (white cl) stone = The stone which look like
milk (the stone v/hich is as
white as milk)

3.3.1.3 Compound caused by the deletion of the medial component^):

jya yae-gu pAsA: = jya -sA:
work to do -cl shop =v/ork-shop
3.3.1.4 ApT3ositional Compounds:

Ad; N N

wau bhAttu wau bhAttu

green bird parrot

 98

Ad.i N N

hyau mAca hyau mAca

red baby neonet
tA; mi tA:mi
big/great man rich man

A noun can precede an adjective:

N Mo N

misa hyA: misa hyA:

wife (here vroraan) enticed lustful man

3.3.1.5 Numeral Compounds:

ijr Nr/N Nr

UyA sA: nyA sA:

two hundred two hundred

In certain types of numerals the condinative particle /N/ v/ill be

present:

SA: (-1A) sA:(-lA) = sAlA-N sA:

hundred hundred hxindreds
3.3.2 Coordinate ComiDounds:

These compoionds denote either collective or contrastive

meanings. The componential nouns, in these compounds, are inde-
pendent of each other:
A. Collective:
la wA lusi = la -\ lusi
flesh and nail intimates (lit, flesh, near to the nail
and nail (when separated
causes intense pain))
 99

misa wA miJAN = misa-mijAN

wife and husband spouse

B. Contrastive:

na: wA mi = na:-mi
water and fire enmity
thApu: kwA.pu: sthApu: r-kwApuv
act of turning up act of turning down sexual activity
3.3.3 Idiometic Compounds:

The total meaning of an idiometic Compound is different

from that of components:
mAsi bhwAN = mAsi - bhwAN
ink paper carbon-paper
gAN IwAe gAl\f-lwAe
dry disease tuberculosis
cici (baby talk) papa (baby talk) cici-papa
meat sweets act of preservation with great
affection
,lu OhaNgA = lu-QhaNgA
gold bird a person from whom one can make a
good profit
rugA: sya: kuti = ruga: sya: kuti
heart painful particle miser
meaning a person

ha- pu =hapu
steam seed cooked rice (baoy talk) (lit. steamed seed)
 100

3.4 Pronouns

Txie follov/ing are the types of Pronouns: (I) Personal

(Il]l Demonstrative and I n t e r r o g a t i v e and (,111) o t h e r s .

3.4.1 Personal Pronouns:

Personal pronouns show d i s t i n c t i o n between f i r s t , second

and t h i r d persons. F i r s t person p l u r a l has exclusive and
inclusive distinction. F i r s t person singular / j i / ' I ' will
o b l i g a t o r i l y take p l u r a l marker /-puW/ to form i t s p l u r a l
exclusive c o u n t e r - p a r t , and the f i r s t person i n c l u s i v e p l u r a l
base / j h i : / 'we' w i l l optionally take the p l u r a l marker /-puii/.

In the second and t a i r d person honoric and non-nonorific

(including the most honorific) d i s t i n c t i o n i s there, rlon-
honorific second person singular /chA/ ' y o u ' , t h i r d person
/WA/ ' h e ' , ' t h a t ' and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p l u r a l forms / c h i -
puH/ ' y o u ' , /A-puN/ ' t h e y ' are used for the j u n i o r s , people
of i n f e r i o r c a s t s and o t h e r s .

Honorific second person s i n g u l a r / c h i / 'you' w i l l

o b l i g a t o r i l y take the p l u r a l marker /-puN/ to denote non-
honoric p l u r a l and o p t i o n a l l y to denote honorific singular,
i t s honorific p l u r a l form v;ill take / - k ( - A ( - : ) - / before the
p l u r a l marker. Honorific singular t h i r d person /v/AekA:-puN/ are
used for the s e n i o r s , people of superior c a s t e . The most

TK • G 7 3 8
 101

nonorific sin^^^ular /chA: puN/ and its plural counter part

/ch.A: (lA:) pwA: (lA:) puN/ in the second person, siinilarly
/V/AS(A) pwA:lA:/ and its plural counter-part /v/As(A)p'7A:lA:puN/
in the third person are used for uods, kings, members of
royal family. Brahmins, and Buddhist priests.

Paradi^j;m of Personal pronouns:

Person " 3^ ^^
1st ji Oi-puN(excl)
jhi: (-puM) \. incl)
2nd chA (non-hon) chi-puN
chH,puN)(hon) chi-k(-A(-: ))-pUii
chA:-puK chA: pv;A:-puN
3 rd v/AekA: (hon. rem) v/AekA: -puN
thwAekA: (hon, p r o x ) thwAekA: -pui-I
v;As(A)p,/A:iA: (aaost •.wAs(A)pwA:iA:-puN
hon. rem)
thv/As(A)pv/A:lA: thwAs(A)p;;A: lA:-pUi^i
(mo3t hon. p r o x , )

3.4.2 Demonstrative and I n t e r r o g a t i v e Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns a r e t h e t h i r d p e r s o n p r o n o u n s .
They have remote and proximate d i s t i n c t i o n . /wA/ 'he ( r e m ) ' ,
/thwA/ ' t h i s ( p r o x ) ' /huN/ ' t h a t (extreme rem)' /amu/ 'that'
\tar from t h e a d d r e s s e r , h u t n e a r t o t h e a d d r e s s e e ) ' have
t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i v e o l u r a l forms v^fhich a r e t h e b a s e s i n
 102

reduplication- f i u r a l suffix /-puH/ w i l l be added to form

t i i e i r simple p l u r a l counterp: r t s .

I n t e r r o g a t i v e pronoun / s u / 'who' occurs for haman

beings, /chu/ occurs for non-human beings, and /gv/A/ 'which
on what p a r t i c u l a r s p o t ' occurs both for animate and non
animate no\ans. For anaphoric d e f i n i t e form animate c l a s s i f i e r
/mha/ and inanimate c l a s s i f i e r / g u / are added to /gu (gv/A)/:
gu-mha 'which p a r t i c u l a r animate b e i n g '

gu-gu 'which p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g '

3.4.3 Other types;

Besides the above major typos of pronouns there are
some other pronouns. Interrogative (intr.) pronoun also
have conjunctive meaning:
su wAl.i wA jimi pasa khA:
v/ho came tliat my friend is(hab)
'That who came is my frisnd'

chA-N chu hAya wA Jita ma:

you(A) what brought that I(Dat) need (hab)
'That what you brought I need'

Indefinite pronouns are derived by adding the emphatic

suffix /N/ to the interrogative base:
 103

Interrogative Base Indefinite form

su 'who' su-N 'any'(anim)'

chu 'what' chu-N*any *(inanim)
gu-mha 'which one (anim)' gu-mlia-N 'any one(anim)'
gu-gu 'which one(in'^anim) gu-gu-N 'any one (in anim)'

/thA:/ 'self is the reflexive pronoun.

Demonstrative, interrogative and other pronouns h':^,ve

distributive (dist.) plural forms which are formed by redup-
licating the base themselves:

Dem base Dist. base

wA 'he' wA wA 'he and he'
thwA 'this' thwA tnwA 'this and this'
huN 'that (yonder)' huN huN that and that
Intr. base pjist. b a s e Simple p i ,
su 'who' su su 'who and who' su-puN
chu 'what' chu chu 'what and what'
g\-fA 'which on what gwA g-v/A 'which and which gu-puN
(=gu) particular spot' on what particu-
lar spots'

Rfi. base Dist. base Simple pi,

thA; 'self thA: thA: (puW) thA: puN

selves (one by one) 'selves'
 104

I n d e f . form D i s t . form Simple Pi,

su-N 'any ( a n i m ) ' su u suN •somebody-
Cone by o n e ) '

chu-N 'any ( i n a n i m ) ' chui^' chuN 'something

i,one by o n e ) '

^u-mhaN 'any p a r t i - gu-mha gu-mha

cular person' 'some parti-
cular persons

(one-Dy-one )

gu-guN 'any p a r t i c u l a r gu-^^uN gu-guN ^^^^^ p a r t i -

obdecf ^^^la^ o b j e c t s
(one by o n e ) '
 105

3.5 Numerals

Numerals from 'one'to 'ten' and numerals 'hundred',

'lakh' and 'crore' are monomorohemic. They ard called simple
numerals. The rest of the numerals are formed by the combi-
nation of two or more simple numerals. These are called compound
numerals.

1. iMumeral base/one/: This has two allomorphs /chA/ and /chi/.

/chA/ occurs before classifiers as well as words denoting quantity:
chA gA: a 'one mango'
chA mAna ^=chAmna), 'one mana'
/chi/ occurs after a noim denoting-'
Cl) Certain units of measures:-
pha chi measure of eight raanas
ku:-chi measure of two manas
mhu-chi one fistful
kwAla-chi span
cwA kwAla-chi the distance between the tip of the thumb and the
tip of little finger when the hand is fully extended
with the middle fingers folded,
ku-chi the distance between the elbow and the tip of
middle finger
Au-chi breadth of a finger
-gv/A: chi oreadth of sth.
(supA: gwA:chi straw's breadth)
 106

(2) Periodical units;-

di-chi C= da-chi) = 'one year'

la-chi 'one month '

ghAu-chi 'one ghAu'

(3) Counting units:-

dwA:-chi one thousand

sa-chi one hundred

(4) Fractional units;-

bA-chi half of any amount

jA:-chi one-fourth of a rupee

daH-chi one-fourth of a pice

cA-kAn-chi, one-fourth of a mana

(5) One-whole units:

nhi-chi one whole day

ca-chi one whole night

bhwA-chi one whole joint family

maca-chi one whole small family restricted in one's

o\m. parents and children (excluding others

of branch-relations)

2. i^umeral base 'three' has two allomorphs:- /swA/ and /swAN/,

/swAN/ occurs before the classifiers /gu:/and /gA:/:

sv/AN-gA: dhyAba three pi'ce

swAN-gu: jya three works

 1G7

/sv/A/ occurs else-where:

swA-pa- mari 'three sv;eet-meats (flat in shape)'

swA-ku:-gwJe 'three pieces of nuts'
swA- ju- lAkaN 'three pairs of shoes'
swA- twa: -suka 'three broken pieces of threads'
swA- la 'three months' etc.

3. i^iumeral base 'four' has three allomorphs /pi/, /pyA/, and

/pyAN/. /pi/ is used as recitative form in counting. It is also
used in forming the numeral 'forty'. Receitative form in counting
chA 'one', nyA 'two', swA 'three',pi 'four', Na 'five', khu 'six'
nhAe'seven'-, cya 'eight', gu 'nine', hi 'ten'.
pj-i = pi: 'forty'

/-pyM/ o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e c l a s s i f i e r s / g u : / and / g A : / :
pyAN-gu: aNgu: 'four rings'
pyAlNi- gA: ghAri ' f o u r w a t c h e s '

/pyA/ o c c u r s e l s e w h e r e :
pyA-pa mari ' f o u r s v / e e t - r a e a t s ' ( f l a t i n shape)
pyA-ca: ghA:ca: ' f o u r t o y - r i n g s '
pyA-mha mAnu: 'four persons'
pyA-la ' f o u r months'
pyA-da 'four years' etc.

4 . Numeral base ' n i n e ' h a s tv^o allomorphs /guN/ and / g u : / .

/guN/ o c c u r s b e f o r e t h e c l a s s i f i e r s / g u : / and / g A : / t
 108

guN-ga: dhyAba 'nine pice', guN-gu: kha 'nine facts',

/gu/ occurs elsewhere:
gu-mha mAnu: 'nine persons', gu-phi tuphi 'nine brooms',
gu-da 'nine years', gu-nhu 'nine days' etc.

5. iMumeral base 'hundred' has two allO:norphs /ski/ and /sA/,

/sA/ occurs before /chi/ and /sA:/ occurs elsewhere:

sA-chi 'one hundred',nyA sA: 'two hundred', swA sA: 'three

hiandred', gu sA: 'nine hundred' etc.

6. Following numeral bases have one form each:

'two' myA, 'five' Na, 'six' khu, 'seven' mhAe, 'eight' cya,
'ten' hi, 'thousand' dwA, 'lac' lakh, 'crore' kwA:ti.

7. Compound numerals are formed from the above numbers:

A. Numerals from eleven to nineteen (11-19) have the follov/ing

structure:
'ten' - obi- 'one','two' etc.

The numeral 'ten' is followed by the obi. marker /-n-/

which is again followed by the numeral 'one', 'two' etc. to
form 'eleven', 'twelve', etc.

hi-n-chA' 'eleven* (ten-one)

hi-n-nyA 'twelve' (ten-two)
hi-n-swA 'thirteen' (ten-three)
hi-n-pyA/pi 'fourteen' (ten-four)
 109

hi-n-Na "fifteen' Cten-five)

hi-n-khu 'sixteen' (ten-six)
hi-n-nhAe 'seventeen' (ten-seven)
hi-n-cya 'eighteen' (ten-eight)
hi-n-gu 'nineteen' (ten-nine)

B. Compound numerals denoting the multiples of 'tens' (20, 30,

40, etc.) are formed by adding /-i/ or /-e/ to the respective
simple bases. Multiples of 'tens' have the following structure:
'tv/o, three etc: - 'ten'

The allomorph of /hi/ 'ten' in this construction are

/i/and /e/. /i/ comes after bases ending in a high vov/el, and
/e/ comes after bases ending in a low vowel:

nyA-i = ni: 'twenty (two-ten)'

swA-i = sui'^'swi: 'thirty (three-ten)'
pyA-i = pi: 'forty (four ten)
Na-e = NAe 'fifty (five-ten)'
khu-i = khui:~'khwi: 'sixty (six-ten)'
nhAe-e = nhAe: 'seventy (seven-ten)'
cya-e = cAe 'eighty (eight-ten)'
guari = gui'^gwis 'ninety (nine-ten)'

In /nyA/ 'two',/swA/ 'three', /pyA/'four/,'

the final /-A/ is dropped,before the suffix /-i/ is added.
/-w-/ of /swA/ 'three' is optionally changed to /-u/ and /-y-/
of /nyA/ 'two' /pyA/ 'four' is obligatorily changed to /i/
 110

before the suffix A / is added, /y/ of /c!^a/ 'eight* is dropped

before the suffix /-e/ is added. Final /u/ of /Idiu/ 'six',
and /gu/ 'nine' is optionally changed to /w/ before the suffix
is added. Here the /i/ is long.

In /nhfte-e = nhAe:/ 'seventy' the phonemically long vowel

/Ae/ is phonetically short. But when it is followed by other
numerals its extra length is optionally deleted:
/nhAeC:) nyA/ 70+2 = 72, nhAe(:), 70+3 = 73 etc.

In /cya-e = cAe/ 'eighty' /-y-/ is dropped, and the final

/-a/ by receiving /-e/ suffix is changed into /-Ae/.

Multiples of 'hundred', 'thousand' have the structure:

= X - 'hundred' / 'thousand'
where x stands for any numeral J^.g.,
200 'two Hundred (two-hundred)'
8032 'eight-thousand-three -ten-two)

All the other compound numerals are formed oy adding 'one'

to 'nine' after the multiples of 'tens' concerned:

ni: - chA 'twenty one' (20-1)

ni: - nyA 'twenty two' (20-2)
swi: sui-swA 'thirty three' (30-3)
pi: pyA 'forty four' (40-4)
NAe-Na 'fifty five' (50-5)
 Ill

khwi: khui - khu 'sixty six' (60 - 6)

nhAe(:) -nhAe 'seventy seven' (70-7)
cAe - oya 'eighty eight' (80-8)
gwi :'-^giii-ga 'ninety nine' (90-9)

Fractionals. multiplicative« & ordinals

1. One half:

The fractional meaning one half has two allomorphs

/bA/ and /ba/. /bA/occurs before /chi/ and means half oi an
indefinite nurnber, amount or quantity.

bA - chi dakh, half of an indefinite number of grapes.

bA - chi la, half of an indefinite quantity of meat.
bA - chi mAnu:, half of an indefinite number of persons.
/ba/ occurs before classifiers as well as words denoting
quantity:
ba-ku:, 'half a piece of sth.'
ba-pu, 'half a lengthy piece oi sth.'
ba-ta, 'half a (flat) sv/eet'
ba-tav;ai, ' h a l f a bundle of s t h . ( t h a t t a k e s thv/ae c l . )
2 . X and h a l f :

/tya/ means 'x and half dere 'x' can stand for the
follov/ing:
(A) a noun denoting a larger time unit like /la/ month,
/da/ 'year' /lA-tya/ 'one and half month', /dA-tya/ 'ona
and half year'
 112

Low c e n t r a l vowel / - a / of / l a / Vaonth' and / d a / year'

ciianges to /-A/ before they receive the suffix / - t y a / , and
i n / d a / the n a s a l i z a t i o n too i s d e l e t e d .

(^) A measure word l i k e /mna/ 'mana measure':

/khu-iima t y a / ' s i x and half mana measure'

(C) Tae higher numeral /sA/ 'nundred' and /dwA:/ 'thousand'

"With these numerals / c h i / i s used optionally a f t e r /sA/
'nundred' o b l i g a t o r i l y a f t e r /dv/A:/ 'tnousand' vwen no o :her
numeral proceeds them.

./ith the higher numerals /sA/ 'nundred', and /dv/A:/

'thousand' / - t y a / stands for xialf of the numeral v i z . , 'fifty'
and ' f i v e hundred' r e s p e c t i v e l y - i n these c o n s t r u - t i o n s the
element / c h i / ' o n e ' i^ optional i n some cases, obligatory
i n some and not p r e s e n t i n some:-
sA (chi) tya, 'one hundred f i f t y "(.hundred-i,one;-half)'
dwA: chi tya, 'thousand and five hundred' '(thousand-one-
half } '
nyA sA: tya, 'tv/o hundred f i f t y ' '(two hundred-half)'

3. One fourth of a ruoee:

/jA: c h i / means 'one fourth of a rupee i . e . t\/enty five
pice. Here / c h i / 'one' i s o b l i g a t o r y . I t can occur a f t e r
numerals from ' o n e ' to ' n i n e t y - n i n e ' .

chArka j A : c h i , 'one rupee and tv/enty five p i c e '

'(one rupee one-fourth rupee)
 113

oAchi wA iNiarka jA:chi, 'hundred five rupee and -b^enty five p i c e '
^.one nundred five rupee one forth rupee)
I t can proceed a numeral with the morpheme / p a : / 'less'
intervening:
jA:chi pa: Narka, 'four rupee and seventy five p i c e '
(tv/enty-five p i c e - l e s s - f i v e arupees)

4. One fourth of a p i c e :

/ d a n - c h i / means one fourth of a p i c e . / c h j / d o e s not occur

a f t e r the numeral /nyA/'fe/o' and on.vard. Final / - n / of
/dan/ when not follov/ed by / c h i / ' o n e ' changes i n t o v e l a r
nasal (.nasalization of the preceding vov/el / - a - / i n o ) :
nyX daN ( S . d i : ) , 'two fourth of a p i c e '
swA daN ( c i . d i : ) , ' t h r e e fourth of a o i c e '

5. Formation of o r d i n a l s :

/iTiha/ and /gu/ function as ordinal suffixes /mha/ is

used when the qualified noun is animate, and /gu/ ix it is
inanimate. These are added after the classifier that follows
the numeral;
chA mha mha 'first one', nyA mha mha 'second one'
swA pa: gu lApte, 'the third leaf pyAiJgA: gu alu, 'the
fourth potato'.

6. i4ulti plicative:
The multiplicative meaning'x times' is formed by adding
/dugS:/ to a numeral. It means 'x times the number /quantity'
4. V E R B S
 114

4 Verb

Structure;

Verb is composed of a root followed by some suffixes.

Suffixes are of two types - derivational and inflectional.
Causative formation is the only type of derivation available.
Various tense suffixes form the inflectional layer. Derivation
of verbs from non-verbal roots is done by means of auxiliaries
but not by suffixes. Person concord is not indicated separately
in the verb. However past and non-past suffixes maintain a
difference between conjunct and disjunct categories to distinguish
first person from the rest. The structure of a verb can be
represented as follow:

Verbal root • (causative) -i- inflectional suffix

Quite a few adjectives like /haku/ 'black' etc. seem to

function as verbs directly by taking a suffix /ye/ ^.g., ....haku-li
became black.

This is not treated as derivation of verbs. Because all

these cases can be treated to an underlying verb /ju/ 'to become'
Wiiich is optionally and preferably dropped. /haKu-lA/ comes
from /haku - ju-lA/. This is also seen in the case of some
ciassifiers:ii.g.,
tA:-pa-ye 'to become large' comes from /tAs-pa:-ju-ye/
 115

4.1 Canonical shapes;

verbal roots are mono-syllabic. The only exception

i s /kutanl^-/ ' d r o p ' . This may not be a mono-raorpheraic root.
I t i s possible to derive t h i s from /kutuH - wan-k-/ 'dov/n-
go- c a u s a t i v e ' .

Roots belonging to conjugation c l a s s e s 1-5 are quite

uniform i n t h e i r shape. Their canonical shapes are the
follov/ing:
V \i- open
c^ ka- take
ccv kwa- strike
vc in- distribute
cvc kan- tell
CCVG kyAl- mill

All vov/els, except the vov/el / e / can be the r a d i c a l

vov/el. Roots of e l s , 1-5 can have only a short vov/el as
t h e i r r a d i c a l vowel.

kfnen a root has an i n i t i a l consonant c l u s t e r , the

second consonant i n the c l u s t e r could be e i t h e r / y / or /w/.

The f i n a l consonant of a root i s generally / l / or / n / .

In a few verbs i t i s /t/.
A 'lon^ vov/el, t h a t t o o ' , / A : / i s available only in
two roots belonging to c l . 6 . They are /twk'.t/ ' l e a v e ' , /oA:t-/
'call'. The length of tiie /A/ i n these roots i s due to the
 IIG

deletion ol syllable /lA/ which originally follov/ed the vov/el

/A/ i.e., (twA:t- from twAlAt-).

iiixcept the root /kutank/ 'drop' whose inonomoriphenic--

ness is doubtful as explained above. The roots that belong to
cl. 7.have the following canonical shapes:

cvc puk- 'fry in oil or ghee'

cvcc ghutk- 'shallow'

CCVC chwa-k- 'sorinkle'

4.2 Derivation
4.2.1 Transitivization and causativization

Transitivization and causativization are the only

forms of derivation available in this dialect.

4.2.1.1 Transitivization of roots be^ining with vd. stoos:

oome intransitive roots are converted into transitives

by the process of changing the initial vd.unasp. stop into
homorganic vl. asp. stop. Following are tlie roots that
undergo such changes

Intransitive AeaxiinR Transitive I'ieaning

base base
(yAg) g a - be hung (yAk)kha- hang
(hwA:) gan- be bored (hwA:) khan- bore
gu- be t o r n Ichu- tear
gya- be a f r a i d khya- t r i g h t en
 117

Intransitive Meaning Transitive Meaning

"base base

(kw>i:) oi- be decided (kwA :)chi- decide

ju- be(equational) chu- start

jyAl- be w o m o u t chyAl- use

gradually

(iwakA) jya- be mixed (iwakA) chya- mix

jv/A- leakout chwA- send

dA- be(existential) thA- have sth for

the future use

dAl- be broken thAl- break

dan- stand up than- cause sb to stand

up

du-/dxin- be dismantled thu-/thun-• dismantle

dyAn- sleep thyAn- cause sb to

sleep

dya- be in loss thya- cause sb.to loose

ba- be separated pha- separate

(CA;) bu- be broken (CA: )phu- break

as threads
etc.

(maN)bu- be soaked (maN)phwA- soak

byAn- be untied phyAn- untie

bv/a- run fast phv/a- divert

1 The r a d i c a l vowel / u / i s replaced by /wA/ i n i t s causative

base.
 118

but-
bwAl- be stripped off pwAl- strip off
(where in transitive form the initial consonant /p/ is not
aspirated)
dhan- be assembled than- cause others to
be conscious for
collective v/ork
(where in /dhan-/ in intransitive form the initial conso-
nant is aspirated)

These roots can also take the regular consative

suffix /-k/. This suffix can be added even after the root
is converted into a derived base by the change of the initial
vd. stopjinto corresponding vl-asp. stop:

dyAn- 'sleep' dyAn-k- 'cause sb to sleep one's own.^

thyAn-..,'cause sb to thyAn-k-'cause x to cause y to sleep
sleep'

ba- 'be separated' ba-ye-k- 'cause sth, to be separated'

pha- 'separate' pha-ye-k- 'cause sb to separate sth.'
gya- 'be afraid' gya-k- 'cause sb to be afraid'
khya- 'frighten' khya-k- 'cause x to frighten y'etc.

.4.2.2 Causativization

The regular causative suffix is /-k/

Cls 2 and 5t

3ases of these classes receive an oblique marker

 119

/-ye/ before they take the causative suffix /-k/. Final

/-!/ of bases of ol 5 is dropped before the oblique marker
/-ye/:-

%se Meaning Causative stem

CI 2
gA- climb gA-ye-k-

ca- feel ca-ye-k-

bi- give bi-ye-k-

Cl 5
it- smear i-ye-k-

cal- be open ca-ye-k-

jyAi- wear away OyA-ye-k-

Cls 1.4, and 6:

Bases of these verbs do not undergo any change:

CI 1
ki- obst: ki-K-

gha- link gha-k-

gu- be-t( gu-k
Cl 4
tall add tan-k-
thun- dip thun-k-
phwAn- beg phwAn-k
Cls 6

mhit- play mhit-k-

sA;t- call sA;t-k-
 120

twAit- leave twA:t-k-

dut- obtain entry into dut-k-

As Ci 3 contains irregular forms of vowel ending bases,

some of them do not undergo any change (like those of Gl l)
and some of them undergo the change applied to CI 2, and
some will have both forms like those of CI 1 and CI 2:

Base Meanine Causative stem Meanino;

u- bark u-k- cause (a dog) to bark

khA- be(equational) khA-ye-k- let sth to be

twA- take off twA-k- help sb to take off

(.the clothes)
twA-ye-k- cause sb to take off
(the clothes on his own)
thwA- pluck(flower) thwA-k- cause sb to pluck
(flowers)
thwA-ye-k cause the flov;-er to be
plucked by sb, or
cause sb to plucK
(the flower) in causer's
presence.
nA- eat nA-k- feed
nA-ye-k cause sb to eat on
his own or
cause sth. to be eaten
by sb. ate.
 121

Bases v/hich end in a /k/ which is either a radical

consonant or a consative suffix do not take the causative
suffix /-k/. instead they can be converted into causatives by-
adding the auxiliary verb /bi-/ 'allow' after the infinitive
steral
Base Meanin/n: Infinitive stem Causative stem

KutaNk- drop kutai%-e kutaNk-e-bi-

ghutk- shallow ghutk-e ghutk-e-bi
cuik- put/sth/sb cuik-e cuik-e-bi- etc.
in v;ater to
be carried
away

/thAk-/ 'return (having done sth)' does not have causative

form.

^o Inflection

4.3.1 Conjugation classes

Verb bases are grouped under seven conjugation classes.

Eacn class contains bases that are maximally uniform in their
conjugational behaviour. The classification is mostly based
upon the final sound of the base.

Class 1 contains vowel-ending bases. These bases

receive /t/ allomorph of the past disjunct and /Na/ allomorph
of past conjunct.eiass 2 contains vowel-ending bases v/hich
 122

receive /i/ allomorph of the past disjunct suffix and /ya/

of past conjunct.

Class 3 contains a mixture of vowel ending bases. Some

of them received /t/, some /l/, some both as the allomorph of
the past disjunct. They are also irregular in receivin^; the
/Na/, /ya/ allomorphs of the past conjunct.

Class 4 contains bases ending in /n/, class 5 contains

bases ending in /l/, class 5 contains bases ending in /t/, and
class 7 contains simple and derived bases ending in /k/.

"4.3.2 Base Alternants:

The bases of els. 4 and 5 undergo some changes before

the iaiperative, habitual and causative suffixes:

(1) iiefore the imperative and habitual suffixes the final /n/ of
t/ie bases of cl. 4 is converted into nasalization, and is
placed over the last vov/ei of the full verbal form (the Inst
vowel of either tne base of the suffix).

(2) The final /I/ of the bases of cl. 5 is dropped before

the impei'ative and nabitual suffixes. It is replaced by
/ye/ before the causative suffix.
 123

4. 3 O Base-list of Con.lURation classes

These bases appear in the vocabulary at respecxive

places. They are listed here for the convenience of
reference. If a base has more than one meaning, only one
of the meanings is given here, and the full range of meanings
can be seen in the vocabulary:

Class 1

i- distribute (kv/A:) ji- be decided

(var of in-v4) (tya)oi- pronounciation to
ka- be pressed be distinct and clear
ii.1 — obstruct land
kwa- strike dya- give shape to
kha- tremble ta- cut
khu- tear ti- close as door, pen,
khya- terrify knife, shut as eyes
khwa- kinale fire tisi- squeeze
ga- be sufficed tya- borrow
hv/rt) g i - be rotten tha- weave
gu- be torn thi- pour out liquid
sya- be afraid from one vessel to another
gv/a- be kiiidled thu- dis-iantle
£.ha- link (var. of thun--v4)

gnv/a- push tnya- fold

Na- bite thv;a- kick

cu. KvA^K
 124

Cl- bind da- measure

cya- cut(mechanically) di- stop

du-'/ collapse

cv/a- stamp by foot ( v a r of d u n - v 4 )

cha- prune dya- bear a loss

chi- dye diiwA- be touched

chu- bake ni- count

chya^i mix nya- buy

nv/a- r e b u k e sb far bhya- be equipped v/ith

rebukee's goodness mwa- live

nhya- wear undergarments ya- do

pa- paint la- s n a t c h av/ay

pi- plant li- chase

pu- have ouming Iv/a- fight

sensation wa- waste

pya- plait hair sa- become tasty

pha- delicate si- die

phu- be iinished su- be v/ell DOiied

pnya- keep stn aside ior as milk

phwa- aivert sya- kill

(li)ba- be late sv/a- link

bi- set as sun, moon ha- be dashed a ; ; a i n s t

and other planets

bu- be defeated hv/a- fry in oil oi- i^nee

bya be well v/ashed as

clothes

bv/a- run fast

 125

Class 2

i- clean up khu- steel

iku- feei :jiddy v/eep

isu- feel heavy conti- climb

nious pain deep ga- step across

inside the body gi- scratch a line

usu- feel uneasy in gyA- change money

chilly smoke gv/A- lock

ulu- feel excessively borrow

spicy
icA- hit ca- b e open
ka- take ( v a r of c a l -v5)

ki- obstruct caku- b e sv/eet

ku- be covered by an casu- feel itching

open uabrella ciku- feel cold

kucu- nave tickling cu- be well sold

sensation cv/A- b e s p e e d e d up

k.yAl- mill chv/A- be Dumt

kv/A- be over burnt jA-ZohA- graze

kv/acu- have sensation of ja- b e come full

touching partly Gi- be nice

smooth sun ace ju- walk

like the skin of jwA- leak

snake or corduroy jha- come o r go (non)

kiiA- be illu-iinated tA- put

by Mght ta- nap pen t o i i e a r

kha- hang ti- press

icniu- be dark tu- scooo o u t

 12G

tyA- b e t i m e t o do s t h . pacu- be smooth

twa- s a i n e a s sun pi- wait
•chA- shave pu- uproot
thi- touch pyanu- be s t i f f and
thu- cook(rice) s t i c k y l i k e chev/ing gum
thWA- pluck Cflower)

dA- f a l l do^-m phA- receive stn. in

da- beat joined palms or

di-, s t a y (hon) 1 in a container

du- set lire to held in hand(s)
Ui/dnA- be completed pha- slit into

ciha- say phyA- lick

nA- eat phwA- soak

nicu- b e powdered ba- be separated

nisu- l e n g t h y o b j e c t ^tjo bi- give

be t h i n . bu- carry sb on arms

^•cya;nu- be tired bulu- be dim
nyalu- be l e s s tasty bekv/A' be bent
nwA- become sharper bwA- display
nhu- tread maku- be tasty like coconut,
iiiiyA- munch ground nut etc.
iiiiya- kneed mi- sell
PA- cohabit mu- be bl?.sted
; d h A : ) p a - s t a n d v/ith l a g s mwA- collect one by one
apar-t \"/nA- ask for more of a
pau- oe sour tiling(s) t h a t is

already given
 127

:.ixiu- dig out SA- bear

gA- like sa- add

lA- narve^t si- fry

la- be cured LU- sev/

\,var of lan-v4) sya- kill

lU- PUi-l iiA- oring

lyA- Ciioose hS- like

1V;A- suit ha- st-^ara

l^A- crov/i halpu- feel pleasant

inu- dance hi- v/ash

v/A- come iiU-76ihu- v;ipe o u t

v/Acu- ' be olue nyA- be l u r e d

v/au- b e r;reen hyau- be red

liv/A- bloom

Class 5

u- bark be s i d e d v/ith
b e(equa t i o n a l ) ti- fluff up cotton
sho./er tu- cost

ma- 3iink (g-,7A)tu- l a y dov/n

( v a r of (g.vA)tul-v5)

chv/A- v/rite tv/-A- take off

cha- offer s t h t o G-od tliA- echo

chu- fit(set-up) dA- oe i, e : : i s t e n t i c i l )

chv/A- send da- measure
 128

ciirv/A- be s l i g h t l y touched phyAetu- s i t dov/n

nya- festival to be la- s p r e a d b e d , r.iat e t c ,
celebrated lu- sp r o u t
n-.vA- be p r i c k e d Ihu- beat rice
[,-jli\rAe)pl- get scratched Ihv/A- vomit
l,ba)pu- sv/eep (bhv/A)su- rest either side
phA- be a b l e oi' t h e body against
phi- make yo,:jhurt, sth for rest

make p i c k l e t o b e sv/A- see

lermented mA-hi- n o t t o t o l e r .":e

Class 4

in- distribute can- become deteriorated

\.var of i - v l )

kan- tell cin- compose v.songs and

kun- confine poems}

kyAn- sho\/ c"i7An- stay

linan- happen to see chin- separate the

khin- scatter fighters

khun- cook soup p r e o a - chun- start

r a t i o n of che cnyiUn- comb

p u l s e s o r of m e e t chv//ui- release string

-\'an- prevent jy^''-^- be untied

b e v/eighty jv/i^ui- hold

an- be s p r e a d i n a l l jhan- be over burnt

directions (as Clothes)

 129

be about xo do s t h ppan-
an- stop

tan- ada pun- v/ear clothes

tiri- i l u f i up pyAn- l i n e up v / i t h a

tun- v/i sh rope or a c-iain

pv/iki- be vacated

tTv/An- drink phyAn- untie

than- v/ake phv;An- beg

tnin- lift up ban- c o v e r v/ith a

thun- dip transparent

thyAn- reach cloth

dan- scand up byiln- be untied

dun- dive bv/An- read

djATL- sleep bhin- be good

diian- accumulate bnun- cover v/ith

diiin- push man- boil

d:iun- be- s t h don luman- remember

dnVATl- cut rain- ieel

( t i k i j r n a n - be d r i p p e d rnhan- dream

nin- be gooa i o r h e a l t h yan- v/rap a l o o m

nun- shallo'./ lan- v/eigh

ay An- ask lyan- remain

ayan- be experienced iv;An- become t i r e d oi

nhan- be -co-cally a b o - eating the same

lished t y p e of food

niiyiUi- be c o n t a i n e d every day

 130

Irian- lift syAn- be spoilt

wan- !^0 sv/An- lay fouiidation
san- more han- thread
siiii- wear sari hin- stir

\.var o f s i - v l ) hwAn- oatch

Class 5

il- smear chyAl-/lmyAl- use

4

ui- open
chv/Al- insert sth. into
kal- scramble
a hole
kui- stir oyAi-
v/ear av/ay
kyAi- mill til-
smear o i l on
khyAl-/cnyAl- use
hair
t^al- fan tul-
roll
^ul- stir tyAl-
press
(tilAe)syAl- be effective (ku:)thAl-
break
i',,^^ oi gya-v2;
^var A o\ what one (var of thA-v2)
had eaten thil- smear
dAl- be broken
Kal- adopt
nyAl- v/ind s t r a n d s
cal- be open
nyal- be melted
(var of Ca-v2)
cil- move niiyAl- smile

cui- rub pal- chop

chal- not to be pul- pay b a c k

embarassed
QV/Al-
s t r i o off wal- blend to ir e t h e r
 131

phal- narrowly escape sal- pull

i'rom baa event sil- v/ash

bul- blend swM- imitate

buAl- be stripped off hal- cry

mal- need hil- change

mul- fold &. stitch the hul- dance

edge of a cloth

rnhal- control diet hwAl- hurl

yAl- level the grains

in a measuring pot

Class 6

tv/A:t- leave inhit- play

dut- obtain entry into sA:t- call

Class 7

kutai'flc- drop thAk- return having

ghutk- shallow done stn.

cuik- put sth into v/ater think- purchase on credit

to be carried pArk- patch

away puk- fry in oil or ghee

cv/Ack- proclaim pyAnk- kick

yAriK- take with h.4k- rebuke

lak- snatch av/ay suculc- hide

ihulc- help sb to unload hi Ik- fry in oil or ghee

a load
 132

Derived b a s e s :

kv/a- strike kwa-k cause sb to strike

i- c l e a n up i-ye-k cause sb to clean up
u- bark u-k- ciuse (a dog) to bark
cwA- v/rite cwA-k- cause sb to v/rite
gan- prevent gan-k- cause 'x' to prevent 'y'
ii- smear i-ye-k cause sb to smear
sA:t- call sA:t-k cause 'x' to call'y'

'^.4. Inflectional suiiixes

4.4.1 Past Con.iunct (Pa c.j) and Imperative Con.iunct (,Imp cj;

Pa cj and Imp cj suffixes have the same shape. Iriey

have three aliomorphs; /Na/, /ya/ and /a/.

1. Alxomorph /Na/?

(A) I t occurs afxer bases of c i l . ^.^.,

leaning Pa c.1 /Imp c.l/

ki- obstruct ki-Wa

cha- prune cha-Na
cu- husk cu-Na
(3) I t a l s o occurs ai'cer the followins, bases
of e i 3 :
gha- link gha-Na
 133

ti- fluff up (cotton) ti-Na

Oa- be sided with ja-iMa

da- measure da-Na

phe-tu- sit down phetu-Na

. Allomorph /ya/:

(A) I t occurs a f t e r b a s e s of c l 2 . E.g.,

ka- take ka-ya

thi- touch thi-ya
nA- eat nA-ya

(B) I t also occurs with the following b a s e s of cl3

khA- be (equational) khA-ya

cwA- write cwA-ya
tu- cost tu-ya
tv/A- take off • twA-ya
thwA- discoiinect thwA-ya
dA- be (existential) dA-ya
dhwA- be slightly dhwA-ya
touched
nwA- be p r i c k e d nwA-ya
phA- be a b l e phA-ya
IhwA- vomit IhwA-ya
swA- see swA-ya
ihu- bathe Ihu-ya
jhwAe-pi- be scratched jhwAe-pl-ya
 134

3. /Na/ and /ya/ freely vary with the following bases of cl3.

u- bark u-Na/ya
nya- be celebrated nya-Na/ya
as festival
c.ic-cha- offer cha-Na/ya
la- spread out mat etc. la-Na/ya
lu- drag along lu-Na/ya
mA-hi- not to tolerate mArhi-Na/ya

4. Allomorph /a/:

I t occurs after bases of els 4-7. The final / n /

of bases of cl4 i s replaced by /N/ before the suffix:

in- distribute iN-a

kan- tell kaN-a
kun- (i) confine, kuN-a
(ii) be heated by
being near to the
fire
cwAn- (i) sit, live, stay cwAM-a
(ii) look like
(iii) continue (aux)
dy^n- sleep dyAN-a

cl.3 i^»g.i

nhyAl- smile, laugh nhyAl-a

pal- chop pal-a
 135

sil- wash sil-a

tyAl press tyAi-a

cl.6 ii.S.
twA:t- leave twA:t-a
mhit- play rahit-a
sA:t- call sA:t-a

cl.7 E.g.,

chwak- sprinkle chwak-a

think- g u r c h a s e d on c r e d i t t h i n k - a
pArk- patch pArk-a
dik- unload dik-a
nwAk- wedge nwAk-a

^.^.2 P a s t Dis.iunct ( p a d j ) : ITie P a s t D i s j u n c t suffix

h a s f o u r alloraorphs: / t / , / l / , /ji/, /Al/, A pa dj stem
i s n e v e r used i n d e p e n d e n t l y . I t h a s t o be followed either
by a proximate o r a Remote s u f f i x .

1. Allomorph / t / . '
(A) o c c u r s a f t e r b a s e s of c l . 1
E.g.,
kha- tremble kha-t-
ki- obstruct ki-t-
gu- get torn gu-t-
cha- prune cha-t-
thi- pour liquid from thi-t-
one vessel to another
 136

thya- fold thya-t-

thv/a- kick thwa-t-

(B) occurs after the following bases of cl.35

khA- be (equational) khA-t-

dA- be(existential) dA-t-
phA- be able phA-t-

ti- fluff up (cotton) tl-t-

2, Allomorph /l/: occurs with bases of cl.2: ^.g..

kA- hit kA-1-
ka- take ka-1-
ki- rash ki-1-
ku- be covered by ku-1-
an umbrella
kyA- crush kyA-1-
kwA- be burnt kwA-1-
3. /t/ and /l/ freely vary after the bases of cl.3 except
the bases /khA-/, 'be (equational)', /dA-/ 'be (exist-
ential)', /phA-/ 'be able' /cha-/,'prune', • V : '
which take /t-/ only £.g.,
u- bark u-t-/l-
gha- link gha-t-/l-
cwA- write; butt cwA-t-/l
cha- offer; prune cha-t-/l-
chwA- send, lay eggs chwA-t-/l-
 137

da- be s i d e d w i t h e e s ja-t-A-
tu- c o s t , b e durable tu-t-Xl-
twA- t a k e off iwA-t-/l-
thwA- disconnect thv/A-t-/l-
da- measure da-t-/l-
dhwA- be s l i g h t l y touched dhwA-t-/l-
nya- f e s t i v a l t o be nya-t-/l-
celebrated
nwA- be p r i c k e d nwA-t-/l-
phe-tu- s i t dov/n phe-tu-t-/l-
la- spread o u t mat e t c . la-t-/l-
lu- sprout lu-t-/l-
jhwAe-pi scratch JhwAe-pi-t-/l
Ihu- bathe, beat rice lhu-t-/l-
IhwA- vomit lhwA-t-/l-
swA- see swA-t-/l-
mA-hi- tolerate (ng) mA-hi-t-/l-

4 . Alloinorph / 0 / I t o c c u r s a f t e r b a s e s of e l s 4 and 5;

cl. 4 ii.g..

dhyAn- cut dhyAn-^-

dan- construct dan-?$-
diiin- push dhin-^-
thun- dip thun-^-

cl.5 S.g.,
kyAl mill kyAL-;^-
 138

kal- scrapie kal-?$-

il- smear il-?(-
ul- open

5. Allomorph /Al/ occurs after bases of els. 6 and 7.

cl. 6
twA:t- leave tv/A:t-Al-
mhit- play mhit-Al-
sA:t- call sA;t-Al-
dut- obtain entry into dut-Al-

61. 7
cyak- bum cyak-Al-
tik- stick tik-Al-
thAk- retum having done sth. thAk-Al-
pArk- patch pArk-Al-
puk- fry in oil or ghee puk-Al-

4.4.2.1 Proximate and Remote: A pa dj verb has the

following structure:
verb base - pa dj suffix - proximate/remote suffix

The Proximate (prox.) and Remote (rem) suffixes

are added to the pa dj stem. The prox suffix is /A/ and
the rem. suffix is /a/
 139

B^se i''IeaninK p a . d.i. stem pa.d.L prox. pa,d.i. rem

cha- prune cha-t cha-t-A cha-t-a

ci- bind ci-t- ci-t-A ci-t-a

kha- hang kha-1- kha-lA kha-l-a

khu- steal khu-1- khu-l-A khu-l-a

dhwA- get sligh- dhwA.l-/-t- dhwA-l-A dhv/A-1-a

tly touched dhv/A_t-A dhwA-t-a

chu- bathe lhu-l-/-t- Ihu-l-A Ihu-l-a

lhu_tA ihu-t-a

bwAn- read bwAn-^- bwAn-?$-A bv/An-?(-a

dhin- push dhin-{^- dhin-ji-A dhin-j^-a

kyAl- mill kyAl-(^- kyAl-?{-A kyAl-jz^-a

ul- open ul-izJ- ul-gi-A ul-j^-a

twA:t- leave twA:t-Al- twA:t-Al-A twA:t-Al-a

mhit- play nihit-Al- mhit-Al-A mhit-Al-a

cyak- bum cyak-Al- cyAk-Al A cyak-Al-a

dhuMk- get sth dhui-^-Al- dhuNk-Al-A dhuN-Al-a

done

In the pa dj 3 . does not d i s t i n g u i s h between proximate

and remote. Hence, the pa dj form i n 3 have /A/ as the
f i n a l vov/el corresponding to A/a i n B.

4.4.3 Non-Past Con.junct and I n f i n i t i v e (N pa cj & i n f ) :

,N pa c j ' and i n f have the same shape. They have

two allomorphs / y e / and / e / ;
 140

I* /ye/ occurs after vowel ending bases viz., bases

of els 1-3.

2. /e/ occurs after consonant ending bases viz., bases

of els. 4-7.

Sase i'ieaninR i^ pa c.i/in£.

cl 1

ta- cut ta-ye

u- bake u-ye
cl.2>
ti- press ti-ye
tu- scoop out tu-ye
cl.5l
khA- be actualized khA-ye
dA- be (existential) dA-ye
cl.4l
kyAn- show kyAn-e
khan- open khan-e
cl.5
il- smear ilee
gal- fan gal-e
cl.6
mhit- play mhit-e
sA:t- call sA:t-e
ol.7
tik sticK tik-e
pAsk patch oArk-e
 14.

4 . 4 . 4 . i\ion Past Dis.jijnct (N pa d j ) :

/i/ is the Non-Past Disjunct marker. It oc(

all the bases:
Base Meaning N pa d.i
cl.1 thya- fold thya-i
cl.2 ta- hear ta-i
cl.3 phA- be able phA-i
cl.4 khan- happen to see khan-i
cl.5 til- dress hair with oil til-i
cl.6 mhit_ play ;nhit-i
cl.7 think- get on credit think-i

4.4.5 Past Participle (pa p ) :

The Past P a r t i c i p l e suffix i s / : / , I t i s added to the

pa c j stem: ii.g.,
Base MeaninK pa c] stem pa p
ki- obstruct ki-Na ki-Na-:
cu- husk cu-Wa cu-Na-:
ju- walk ju-ya ju-ya-:
tA- put tA-ya tA-ya-:
cha- offer cha-ya/-Na cha-ya-:
cha-Na-:
la- spread (bed la-ya/-Na la-ya-:
mat, carpet etc. la-Na-:
in- distribute iN-a in-a-:
 142

c\7An- live, stay, sit cwAN-a cwAN-a-:

il- smear il-a il-a-:

ul- open ul-a ul-a-:

mhit- play mhit-a mhit-a-:

sA:t- call sA:t-a sA:t-a-:

pArk- patch pArk-a pArk-a-:

yAnk- take yAnk-a yAnk-a-:

4.4.6. Imperative Dis.iunct (imp iBij.):

The imp dj suffix has three allomorphs: /i/, /u/,

/?5/.

1. Following are the three bases which have irregular

imoerative forms;

Base Meaning imperative

tA- put ti

hA- bring hi

wAn- go hu

2. The bases of cl. 4 and 5 undergo some changes before

this suffix according to the Base alternant rules given

alongwith the conjugation classes? ^"g**

Base meaning imp, Base meaning im£

in- distribute iu pal- chop pa
kan- tell ka pul- pay back pu
thim- dip thu sil- wash siu
dyAn- sleep dyX hul- dance hu
 143

3. Allomorph /i/ occurs with base bis. 6 and 1'.

cl. 6
twA:t- leave twA:t-i
mhit- play mhit-i
sA:t- call sA:t-i

cl.7
dik- unload dik-i
nwAk- wedge nwAk-i

4. Allomorph / u / occurs with bases having the r a d i c a l

vowel / i / :
ci- bind ci-u
ti- shut;close ti-u
mi- sell mi-u
hi- wash hi-u
jhwAe-pi scratch jhwAe-pi-u
il- smear i-u
til- dress the ti-u
hair with
oil
in- distribute i-u
cin- compose ci-u
(songs and poems)

5 . Allomorph /^/ o c c u r s w i t h t h e r e s t of t h e b a s e s :

kwa- strike kwa-jz5

Ihu- beat rice Ihu-^
 144

tv/A- take off twA-^

kyAn- show kyJ-^
kal- scramble ka-j^
wA~ come wa-^

The base final /A/ of wA-'come' is replaced by /-a/

before the suffix.

4.4.7 Habitual (hab):-

Habitual suffix has three allomorphs: /A:/, /u:/, and
/:/. The final /I/ and /n/ of the bases of els, 4 and 5
undergo changes according to the Base Alternant rule given
under conjugation classes,

1. Allo.norph /A:/ occurs with bases of els 6 and 7

Base rieaning hab

el.6
mhit- play mhit-A:
sA:t- call sA:t-A:
twA:t- leave twA:t-A:
cl.7
pArk- patch pArk-A:
lak- snatch away lak-A:
2. /u:/ occurs with bases containing vowel /i/:
ci- bind ei-u:
ti- close; shut ti-u:
thi- touch thi-u:
 145

pi- wait pi-u:

jhwAe-pi- scratch jhwAe-pi-u:
khin- scatter khi-u:
cin composei.songs ci-u:
poems)
il- smear i-u:
sil- wash si-u:

/:/ occurs with rest of the bases:

Base Meaning hab

kwa- strike kwa-:
cu- husk CU-:

Ivha- hang kha-:

khu- steal khu-:
chwA- send chwA-:
kyAn- show ky3l-:
khan- see kha-:
ul- open U-:

gal- fan ga-:

khA- be (equational) khA-:
dA- be (exisitential) dA-:
(s, du)
phA- bfi able phA-:
(s.phu)
 UG

4.5 Semantic value of the suffixes

Con.iunct;-
Conounct form is used when the subject is in first
person
Disjunct:
Disjunct form is used when the subject is in second
or third person
Pasti
Past denotes past action:
Past Conjunct;
It denotes past action by a subject in first person:
ji wA-ya
i come (pa cj)
I come
Imperative conjunct:
This is formally the same as past cunjunct. Functionally^
Imperative conjunct is used when the object is in first
person:
chA-N ji-ta pyakhAN swA-ka
youCA) i(Dat) drama show (caus. imp)
You show me (a) drama
Imperative Disjunct:
This is used when the object is other than first person:
compare imp cj and imp dj below:-
 147

Imp C.1:
chA-N ji-ta saphu bi-ya
you(A) i(Dat) book give (imp cj)
Give me (a) book

imp d,1:
chA-N wA-ya-ta saphu bi-u
you (A) he (Dat) book give (imp. dj)
(you give him (a) book
Past Dis.iunct;

It denotes past action by a subject in second or

third persons
wAN N Ja nA-lA
he rice eat (pa dj (prox^)
He ate rice

wA-N Ja nA-la
he(A) rice eat (pa dj (rem))
He ate rice (He had already started taking rice)
Mon Past I-
It denotes present or future action.
Compare N pa cj and N pa dj
N pa cj :
ji wA-ye
i come (present or future)
I(will)come

^ pa d.1'
wA wA-i
he come (present or future)
He (will) come(s)
 148

Infinitive
I t functions as a verbal noun:
ji v/an-e mhi:
i go(inf) l i k e (ng hab)
I don't like to go (going)
Past Participle:
It denotes incomplete action: It takes some auxiliary-
verb to couiplete the sense:
ji wA- Na: cwAn-e
I goCpa p) continue (inf)
I continue going

ji-N dha-ya cHwA-e

i (A) say(pa p) complete (inf)
I complete the task of saying.
Habitual:
Habitual denotes habitual action. Stative, and long
form (shiesthacharya 1981: )come under it.
wA khica khA-:
that dog be (hab)
That is (a) dog
Oi-ke: dhyAba mA-du
i(Loc) money be (ng hab)
I don't have money.
 149

4,6 Compound verb

Conipound verbs are of two types (l) Idiomatic and

(2) Auxiliary.

4.6.1 Idiomatic Compound:

A noun followed by a main verb and constituting a
compoiind verb is idiomatic compound the meaning of which is
different from its components: E.g.

chyAnA-N cu-ye
head (I) prop (inf.)
work h a r d ( l i t , p r o f , by head)
t u t i - N cu-ye
l e g ( I ) prop (inf)
be s e l f supported ( l i t . prop by l e g )
nhasA-N cu-ye
nose ( I ) p r o ^ (inf.)
be compelled ( l i t prop by nose)
mAnA bwA-ye
mind fly (inf)
be i m a g i n a t i v e ( l i t mind t o be f l i e d )
mikha bwA-ye
eye fly (inf)
v/atch ( l i t . eye t o be flied)
dhAliiM swA-ye

beam see (inf)

s l e e p ( l i t . see beam)
 150

na sv/a-ye
scent be linked
be sweet scented ( l i t . s c e n t to be l i n k e d )

ba swa-ye
ground be linked
throv/ dovm ( l i t . b e l i n k e d with ground)

rnakha hal-e
hen cry (inf)
for a man to be hen packed ( l i t . hen to cry)

bhae hil-e
language change (inf)
translete (lit, change the language)

akhA: hil-e
letter change (inf)
transcribe (lit, change the letters)

4,6.2 Auxiliary compound

A set of verbs can function as auxiliary verbs
with a different meaning. E.g., /bi-/ has the meaning'to
give' as a main verb, and has a permissive or consative
meaning \/n.en it functions as an auxiliary verb. Besides
this permissive or causative form an auxiliary verb can
denote, perfective aspect, continuation, beginning of a v/ork
or a work an advance.

A main verb followed by one or more auxiliary verbs

 151

c o n s t i t u t e s a compound verb. The main verb t h a t takes an

a u x i l i a r y w i l l be e i t h e r i n i n f i n i t i v e or p a s t - p a F t i c i o l e
or i n h a b i t u a l form.

In addition, t h e r e i s a set of au:ciliary verbs v/hich

cannot function as main verbs i . e . , they always have an
a u x i l i a r y function. They are the following:

/tan-/ 'about to do s t h . '

/tyA-/ 'be time or be r i g h t to do s t h '
/thAl^-/ ' r e t u r n by doing s t h '
/di-/ 'do (hon)'
/dliun-/ 'be done'
' ' Of

/^hA-/-.''be a b l e ' y / y A - / be p o s s i b l e to beXto do s t h .

/chaX-/ 'not to feel shy'
These are i l l u s t r a t e d below i n t h e i r respective p l a c e s .

A. After the main verb i n i t s p a s t f ) a r t i c i p l e form;

1) cv/An- (main meaning t) ' l i v e ' ) Aiixxmeaning:' continue (without

interruption) '
Hain_V: swA-'watch' Cpv-» swA-ya(: )cv/An- 'keep watching'
" sucuk- ' h i d e ' " s u - c u - k - a ( : )cv/An- 'keep hiding oneself'
(cf j u - , yAnk-, hA-)

2) " ju- (main meaning; 'be') Aux.meaning:'continue (with

" hal- 'shout'
interruption)'
" hal-a(:)-ou 'go on shouting'
ha-: (hab)-ju-) (be habituated
in shouting)
(cf. cwAn-, yAnk-,hA-)
 15:

3) yAnk- (main meaning:'take with*) A\ix. meaning:'continue without

interruption)'
main V. dha-'say' op v dhA-ya-(;)-yAnk- 'go on saying'
(of. owAn-,ju-,hA-)
4) hA- (main meaning: ' b r i n g ' ) Aux, meaning: ' ( a ) s t a r t sth.doing
(b) eaploy sb.or
use sth to
convey the nev/s
main V; k a n - ' n a r r a t e ' cp v: (a) kAn-a(:)-hA-
(a) start narrating (continuation
after start)
(of. cwAn-,ju-, yAnk-)
5) ka- (main meaning: 'take') Aux meaning: get sth.v/ell done for
- . oneself(perfective aspect)
main V: mha-si-ye-k-'recognise' cp v:mha-si-ye-ka(:)-ka -
recognise well for
oneself
main V: 'dha- 'say' cp v: dha-ye-ka(:)-ka-

'get well decided by others'

6) chwA- (main meaning: 'send') Aux.meaning: complete the task of

jnain v: sya- 'kill' cp v: sya-Na(: )-chv;A- 'complete the

^ task of killing'
7) thAk- Aux.meaning: return after
• doing sth.
main V: bi-'give' cp v: bi-ya(:) thAk-'return after giving sth'

• J bi-(main meaning: 'give') Aux.meaning: 'complete the task o f

 153

main v: ya- 'do* cp v: ya-NaCO-bi- 'complete the task of

doing'
9) twA:t- (main meaning: '1eave') Aux meaning: 'promise to do sth
(determinative )
main v; hA. 'bring' cp v: hA-ya(:)-N-twA:t- 'be sure to bring'

10) tA-;,main meaning: 'put') Aux,meaning: leave by doing sth

in advance
main v: tApu-'cover' cp v: tApu-ya(:)-tA- 'leave being covered'
main v: sya- 'kill' cp v: sya-Na(:)-tA- 'leave being killed'

11) di-fmain meaning: 'stop (hon'))Aux meaning: 'do (hon)'

main v: 'hA-'bring' cp v: hA-ya(:)-di- 'do the work of
bringing (hon)'
12) biya- (main meaning; come of go (most hon) Aux meaning:
'do the work of (most hon)'
main v: hA- 'bring' cp v: hA-ya(:)-bijya- 'do the work of
bringing (most hon)
13) swA- unain meaning:'safe' Aux. meaning: 'try or taste'
main v: nA- 'eat' cp v: nA-ya(:)-swA- 'taste oy eating
main v: dhA-'say' cp v: dh^-ya(:)-swA- 'try by saying'

B, After the main verb in its infinitive form:

14) ji-/main meaning: 'be (equa.)) Aux meaning: Ca) be time

to do sth.
(b) be proper to do sth
main v: klaa-'pluck (as fruits)' cp v: kha-ye-ji- 'be time
to pluck'
 154

main v: ka-'iake' cp v: ka-ye-ji- 'be proper to take*

15) — Ai^.meaning: 'about to do sth'

main v; khwA- 'v/eep' cp v: khwA-ye-tan- 'about to weep'
16) dA- (main meaning: 'have;be') Aux meaning: have the chance of
main v: swA-'see' cp v: swA-ye-dA- 'have the chance of
seeing sth.'
17) Aux meaning: 'get sth. done'
main v* Iwa- 'fight' cp v; Iwa-ye-dhun- 'get the fighting
be done'
18) phA~ (main meaning: — Aux meaning: 'be able to do sth'
main v: khya- 'terrify' cp v: khya-ye-phA- 'be able to
frighten'
19) be- (main meaning: 'give' Aux meaning: 'let or cause'
main v;wan- 'go' cp v: wan-e-bi- 'let sb go'
pArk-'patch' cp v: pArk-e-bi- 'cause sb to patch sth'
20) chal- — Aux meaning: 'not to feel shy'
main v: kha Iha-'talk' cp v: kha Iha-ye-mAchal- 'feel shy to
talk'
21) yA- — Aux meaning: 'be possible to..'
main v: ju-'be' cp v: ju-ye-yA- 'be possible to be'
22) khan- Cmain meaning:'happen to see' Aux meaning: 'get the
chance o f sayiHg'
main v: dha-'say' cp v: dha-ye-khan- 'get the chance of
saying'
23) tyA- Aux mea/iing: be time/proper to do s t h .
main v: sA:t- ' c a l l ' cp.v: sAt-e-tyA-'be time/proper to
c a l l sb'
 155

24) thya- (main meaning; 'be included') Aux meaning: 'be autho-
rised to.. '
main v: ka-'kake' cp v: ka-ye-thya- 'be authorized to take'
25) dhun- Aux meaning: 'be done'
main v: nhyAn- 'be contained' cp v: nhyAn-e-dhan- 'be done
the work of being
contained'

C. After the main verbs in its habitual fonnst

25) ju- (main meaning; 'move' Aux meaning; 'continue'

main v: mhit-'play' cp v: riihit-A:-ju- 'be habituated in
playing'
(mhit-a:(pa p)-ju-)(go on playing-
with interruption)
27) dA-^main meaning: 'have, be (existential))' Aux meaning:
'be sb for sb'
main v: Na-'adopt' cpv: iJa:dA- 'be sb to adopt sb' (i.e.
(be 'x' to adopt 'y')

4.6.3 Con.lionct verbs:

A borrovAed verb can be followed by an auxiliary. The
verbal roots /ju-/ 'move', and /ya-/ 'do' function as auxiliaries
here.

This process is used in making the conjunct verbs

from borrowed verbs. These auxiliaries can be added to
borrowed verbal bases. The base ending in a consonent will take
/Ae/ and the base ending in a vowel will take /e/ before the
axixiliaries.
 15G

Nep: n^fAk - nu • stop'

Mew: i. rwAk-Ae- ju-ye 'be stopped'
t . n/Ak-Ae- ya-ye 'stop'

iMep: cArkA-nu 'be cracked'

New: i . cArkA-e. - j u - y e 'be cracked'
t . cArkA-e - ya-ye 'crack'

Nep: khurkA-nu ' s c rap e '

New: i. khurkA-e-ju- 'be s c r a p e d '
t . khurkA-e - y a - 'scrape'

Nep: ghwAt-nu ' rub'

New: i . ghv/At-Ae-ju- 'be rubbed'
t . ghwAt-Ae-ya- 'rub'

Nep: phit-nu 'stir'

New: t . phit-Ae-ya- 'stir'
i . phit-Ae-ju- 'be stirred'

Nep: mil-nu 'mix'

New: t . mil-Ae-ya- 'mix'
i . mil-Ae j u - ' b e mixed'
5. ADJi:X:TIV^ AND ADViiRBS
 157

5. Ad,1ectives and Adverbs

Adjectives (adjs) modify noiins, and adverbs (advs)

modify verbs. Both adjs and advs are e i t h e r simple or
derived.

5.1 Simple ad.is:

Tiiey are descriptive denoting quality and quantity.
Demonstrative and interrogative roots also are basically
adjectival in function.
(1) Ad.1 of q u a l i t y :
/pulaiM/ 'old*, / b a s i / ' s t a l e ' , /wau/ ' g r e e n ' , e t c .

(2) Ad.1 of q u a n t i t y :
/yAkkwA/ 'too much*, /mha/ 'less,/Apa:/ 'many' etc.

Comparative and superlative adjs are obtained by adding the

v/ords /jhAii/ 'more' and /dAkkAe/ 'most' to an adj.

caku 'sweet'
jhAn caku 'sweeter'
dAkkAe caku 'sweetest'

5.2. Derived ad.1

Adjectives can be derived from v e r b a l , a d j e c t i v a l and
adveroial bases by adding the s u f f i x e s .

5.2.1 From verbs

/a/
khun- 'cook soup p r e p a r a t i o n khun-a l a 'cooked meat'
of pulses and meat'
 158

Nal- ' adopt' Nal-a mAca 'adopted c h i l d '

puk- 'fry in oil puk-a l a ' f r i e d meat'
or ghee'
ban- 'cover with bAn-a ga ' s h a w l covered w i t h a
transparent transparent cloth'
cloth'

k\/An- ' p a t c h ' hwAn-a ga ' p a t c h e d shawl'

bv/An- ' i n v i t e ' bwAn-a pAu ' i n v i t a t i o n c a r d '

/na/

cu- 'husk' cu-na j a k i 'husked r i c e '

/kh(A)na/

khwA- 'v/eep' khv/A khCA)na sA: ' l a m e n t i n g v o i c e '

/suwa/
nA- 'eat' nA-suwa 'one who spends a l l h i s money on
eating only'
/su/
khu- ' s t o p t h e flow' khu-su ' d u l l - w i t t e d ' (flow of t h i n k i n g
stopped)
/ya: (-ha)/
chwAl- 'insert sth. chul-ya: 'an instigator'
into a hole'
pwAl- 'strip off pwAl-yaJ 'one who tells tales about sb'

(/-w-/ of /chwAl-/ and /pwAl-/ is changed to /u/ before the

suffix)
/kA/
b$;a- ' c o n f i d e n t i a l i d e a s t o byak-kA all
be exchanged among t h e
intimates'
 153

phu- 'be iinished' ohuk-kA 'all'

/kwA/
dha- 'say' dhak—kwA 'as much as one can say'
hA- 'bring' hAk-kwA 'as much as one can bring'
(base ending in /-a, -A and -u/ causes the follov/ing /k/
to be geminated)

/bAhA/ This is added to -che infinitive of the verb. It can

occur after all the verbs;

Nal- 'adopt' Nal-e-bAiiA 'adoptable'

gwak- 'instigate' gv/ak-e oAiiA 'instigable'
/pu/ It occurs after the N pacj or pa p form of the verb:

gya- 'be afraid' gya-n(a)-au 'terrible'

ghAc-ca- 'feel hatred'ghAc-ca-ya-ou 'hateful'
^1- 'adopt' Wal-a-pu 'adaptable'
yA- 'beloved' y^i-ya-pu 'lovely'
ha- 'feel pleasure' ha-ya-pu 'pleasant'

/chi/
ga- 'suffice' ga-chi 'only as much as one needs'
tu- 'cost' tu-chi 'only as much as sth.cos:s'
/si/
gan- 'be dried up' ga-i-si 'lean'
i^final /n/ oi /gan-/ i s replaced by / I / before the suifix;

HI
« ^-^ I r!
thya- 'fold I
thya saphu 'foidable book'
 IGO

briin- ' b e good* bhin-tuna 'good wishes'

/N/ Bel'ore t h i s s u f f i x t h e f i n a l / n / i s d r o p p e d , and p r e c e -

ding / a / i f any, i s c h a n g e d t o /A^ i

kan- 'open' kM mikha 'open eyes'

,,an- 'be dried u4' fiAN IwAe ' t u b t r r c u l o s i s i,lit.

driea diease)
byAn- 'be purified of b y M duru 'the first m i l k 'j,iven by
birth or death the c a t t i e s after giving
purification' b i r t h to a baby'
lyAn- 'remain' I v M jya ' r e m a i n i n g work

lyAI'^I-pu-

lyAiNl 'final stock

(lyAN pu lyAl\^ i s a l w a y s r e d u p l i c a ..ed;

syAn-'bu' s p o i l t ' sy^U^i^ lUi\7a: ' d e f a e e d person'

dan- 'be cheap' dAiNi bAnja: ' a g r o c e r who s e l l s things

a t cheaper p r i c e ' .

/ : /

chv/a- 'flo\7 with h i g h chwai rnhutu ' a s h a r p - t o n g e d p e r s o n '

velocity'
thA- 'echo' tiiA: SA: 'ecnoed sound'
nyAL- ' b e t i r e d ' nyA: ichwa: "cirea aopearenc;
Di- 'sex' bi: iibha: s e t t i n g sun'
I
lu- rise lu: iibha: i''isin;^, sun
sya- ' l e e l pain' sya: pasa Qo.isom f r i e n d '
nv/A- 'bloom' nwA: nugA: ai;;:i minded'
 16:

6^'' ^yat khwa: ' t e r r i f i e d aooearence'

thya- 'be incluaeci i n ' thya; kae ' l e g i t i . n a t e son'
sa- 'ieei tasty' sa; uiiiutu 'one who i s riaoituated in
eating t?i3ty d e l i c i o u s food
only'
diiv/Ae-gi- ' r o t ' dhwA^-gi: khv/a: ' r o t t e n face'
\only tne females uj>e -chis
phrase v;hile rebuKin;', o t i e r s )
5.2.2 Jrrom nouns
/payA:/
khwa: 'face' knv/a: -payA i ' a sycophant'
/Aurha:/
MAti 'mind' mAti-kurha: 'of bad .nentality'
/suv/a/
kha 'talk' Kha-suwa 'talkative'
/sii-J/
levy'A: 'aian with whom a lev/A:oiN 'a v;o:nan who i s notorious
v/ornan has an for having i l l i c i t affairs'
illicit affair'
/lu/
khv/Abi ' t e a r s ' y^iv/Abi-lu ' mandolin'
/:culu/gulu/
Ai'la: 'wine' Ai:'l£: l:ulu/gulu ' drun.:ard'
t:i.;A 'beer' thwS kulu/gulu 'one v;ho drinks a lot
of bear
.ajx 'rienro' gaji Kulu/gulu 'one v/ho is habituated
in smokins hemo'
 16

tAm 'ane,er' tAm k u l u / g u l u 'one ./ho i s al\/ays a g g r y '

/mulu/
kni 'stool' i^i-mulu 'a diarrhoeic parson'
cv/>il,.iA; 'urine' cv/A(k) mulu ' a bed v / e t t e r '
/sulu/
nhi ' n a s a l rheum' n h i - s u l u 'one v/ho n a b i t u a i l y a a s a
runnin;:-: n o s e '
^ • 2 . 3 From a d j e c t i v e s

/kali/
tnA 'eider' thA-kali 'eider'
iiv'/A 'yo"ang' kv/A-Kali 'younger'
/s(A) kae/
bhiH- '"ood' bniii s\,-i)kae 'v/ho p r e t e n d s t o be p^ood'

5 . 3 . Adverbs
Adverbs may be simple o r d e r i v e d .
5 . 3 . 1 oimple Adverbs
.:3imple adverbs a r e mononiorpheraic. They may be of time
and p l a c e :
/a:/ 'nov/ (ac.v. ox t i m e ; '
/ana/ ' t h e r e (adv. of p l a c e j '
Adverb of manner i s always d e r i v e d .
9 . 3 . 2 Dexuved Adverbs

Adverbs can be deraved from v e r b a l , a d j e c t i v a l b a s e s and

ono.iiato joeic and j r i o n e s t i c o a s e s :
 163

5.3.2.1 From V e r b a l bases?

Adverbs d e r i v e d fr-oin t i i e v e r b a l b - s e s by addin_, t h e

suffix /icA/ d e n o t e s manner o r e f f e c t . V e r b a l b-r.ses o i olie cl.s 2

and 5 ' t a K e an o b l i q u e / y e / b e i o r e t i i e y t a k e - c i i s s u f f i x , and

t n e b a s e s 01 e l s . 1 and 4 t a k e t h i s suffix direccly. jases

of c l 1 ijet t h e i n i t i a l / k / of t h e suf;Cix g e m i n a t e d across

syllables;

e l s . Base Meanina Derived i:''ast tempo

2 • kA- hit kA-ye-kA kae-kA

2 gA- climb gA-ye-kA gAe-kA

5 pul- pay pu-ye-kA pui-kA

5 sal- puSil sa-ye-kA sae-kA

1 ga- suffice gak-kA

1 si- die sik-kA

1 pu- be b u r n t puk-kA

4 wan- go Wi^-kA

4 dan- be cheap diin-i%ui

3ome of t h e b a s e s of c l 3 do n o t u n d e r g o any c h a n g e like

t h o s e of c l 1 and some u n d e r g o t h e chan^-,e a p p l i e d t o t h e b a s e s

of c l 2 , v/hereas some v / i l l h a v e b o t h fonns:

cl ^
Base Meanin,2: Derived
u- bark u-kA
WiA- b e \.eGua) khA-ye-KH (=khAe-kA;

tu- cost tu-kA

tu-ye-kiri. ( = t u i - k A ;
 161

^ase Meaning Derived

dA- be (exist) dA-ye-kA C=dAe-kA)

phA- be able phA-ye-kA (=phAe-kA)
phyAe tu- sit do\-m. phyAe tu-kA
phyAe tu-ye-kA (phyAe tui-k.-i)
5.3.2.2 From Ad.lectival bases;

/kA/ 'in the manner o f

Base i;leaning derived
hyau red hyau-kA
ha-ya-pu pleasant ha-ya-pu-kA (=haipu-t:A)
C= haipu)
yA-ya-pu lovely yA-ya-pu-l;A
(= yAipu) (=yAipu-kA)

— e
5.p.2.3 From onomatopolc and phonesthecic bases
Onomatopoeic and paonesthetic bases are basically
auveroial in l"unction. These bases can lurtner be .,iodified by
an addition of suffixes or by reduplication.

Suffixes /-kkA/ or /tta/ derives onomatopoeic or

phonesthetic adverbs aenoting iaomentary action. Reduolication
of the oase signifies repe-ced action. Continu:tion is d.-aoted
jy the suxfixation Ox /li/ or by triplication of th-^ f in. .1
syllable.
oome of xhese adverbs have only one form, some hr.ve
two, some have three,and qui oe a few have four foriAs .rith the
 165

last two in continuity of slow and fast motion of c ;ren-cia"cion:

I'leafiinR Bnse Monentar^/- repeated oonxinumus

manner of ghusu- •;:husu-kkA ghusu-ghusu ^husu-H ghusususu-N
laoving a s {slov/ (fast
chariots, •Tiotion) lotion)
venicles,
planets, u
clouds

•1
manner of phi s i - phisi-k:<A phi s i - p h i s i phisi-N n h i s i s i s i - r .
smiling ^manner ^ .anner- of
sleG-ping
do\\m)
'^fast-motion)
manner of musu- musu-kkA musu-musu musu-II
smiling
manner of DacAra- pacAra-N
l i v i n g the
things
undone

manner of ghutu- ghutu-kkA ghutu-gnutu

drinking

manner oi by a- pya-ttA
beating
slightly by
a hand
manner of Ichv/a- khv/a-ttA
getting
throw

O.'-s- Demonstrative and Interrogative base;

The follov/ing are tha Demonstrative bases:

1. Change in meaning is caused by the fact that phisi- type

01 smiling cannot be fast in continuity.
 6G

The deiaonstrative and interroijiative roots are o a s i c a l l y

a d j e c t i v a l in function. They can receive several tyo.:3 of
s u f i i x j ^ in forilling derived o a s i s . A majority of such bases
are analysed belov/:
The following are the der.ionsxr' -cive bases:
1. t.i,r,-^ ' t h i s (oroximate to a d d r e s s e r ; '
2. aiuu ' t h a t i,proxi:aate to addresserj '
3. ./ii ' t n a t ;, remote; '
4. huil ' t h a t ;,extreme remote^ '
In context of the distance from the adares^er and ad..ressee
to "che object aimed a t , the above bases can be c l a s s i f i e d in
the xollowin- manner:
1.p r o x . t o 2.orox.tp 3.remote 4.extreme
addVesser addresser remoise
thv/a amu wA nui.

--idaresser close far far verv lar

Addressee far/close close far very far

ihe following are the interro.^ative b a s i s :

5. su 'v/no (anim. human)
6. chu 'v/hat ^anim. non-human and inanim. includin ' abstract

nouns/'

7. ^v/A 'v/here'

These roots receive d e r i v a t i v e suffixes to fonn

derived adjectives and adverbs. The bases v;hich do not take
any suffix v;ork as ironoims v/hen taey do not Cxualify any
noun, and ./orK as a d j e c t i v e s v/nen txiey qualify c e r t a i n nouns.
 167

Adj. thv/A jigu che khA:

I r,v
this my house is This i s my h o u s e '
Pm. thv;A jigu IchA:
this mine is ' i h i s i s mine'

Follov/ing i s t h e paradigm of d e r i v e d f o n n s :
( I n t h e paradigm t h a t i'ollov/s, o n l y t h e item i n t h e zirst
column v / i l l be g i v e n an a p p r o p r i a t e meaning and 'uhe
meaning of t h e r e s t of t h e i t e m s i n t h e rov; can be ceduced
from t h e coluian-headings)

1, p r o x . t o ^.prox.to 3.rem. 4 . extreme 5 . i n t r .

rem.
addresser addresser
1. City-Degree
huN-ti 1 v/.-i.-li
A. thwA-li . amu-li wA-li
=gur^.ii
=thu-li =am-li =u-li
' t h i s much'
B. t h u - l i - a:n-li-.aAchi u-li-mAchi m-li-riachi
mAchi
' t n i s many' , '
2
2.Uly-manner
_A_. t h u katnAi\[/am(ii)-kathAlVu-kathAN/ huN-kathAlV gu-kataAi\[/
kiiatAil khatAi^ khatAN kiiatM^ khatAlNl
'in this
fashion'

1 extreme r e m . / h u N / t a k e s / t i / ' t h a t much' t o d e n o t e qty-

d e g r e e , v/hereas o t h e r forms t a k e / l i /
2 . qly-manner Bv'thA t h e / ' l i k e t h i s ' d e n o t e s a c t i o n vmere as
C. /tnwA theN/ ' l i k e t n i s ' d e n o t e s ' s h a p e ' , o i m i l a r i s
t h e c a s e v/ith comparative ana;jhoric anim. and inanim.
/ t h v / A - j a : - m h a / , / t h w A - j a > ^ u / and /thwA-tneiM-jaJ-rruia/ thv/A_
thei\i-ja^gu/.
 1G8

1. prox. to 2.prox.to 3.rem, 4.extreme 5.intr.

addresser addresser rem.

B. t h A - t h e am-the A-the ;A-the

" 'like this'

C. thwA-thexNl am(u)-theN wA-theW huH-theN ?:v7A-theN

'like this'

3 . Anaphoric;
A. Animate
thu-mha amu-mha u-mha huN-mha gu-rnha
' t h i s one'
B. Inanimate
thu-gu amu-gu u-gu huN-::u u-;m
O^^ CJ>

' t h i s one'
4 . Comparative
..inaphoric
_A. .>nimate
P . t h u - j a : - m h A am-ja:-mhA u - j a: -mhA huN-ja: -rnhA P . gu- j a: -milA
K.thA-ja:-rahA k.A-jai-mhA - K.gA-ja:-:iihA
3.thu/thi^- B.gu/ ^A-ja-mha
ja-mlia
'of t h i s type'

B. Inanimate
P.tha-ja:-gu am-ja:-gu ^-ja:-su huN-ja:-gu P.gu-ja:-gu

K.thA-ja:-su K.g.i-ja:-gu

B.thu/thA- B.gu/gA-ja:-gu
ja:gu
'of t h i s t y p e '
 x^s
1.prox.to 2.prox.to 3.rem. 4.extreme 5.intr.
addresser addresser rem.
.C_, animate ; (

thv/A-theiM- am-theN- wA-theN; huN- t h eN / ^v/A-U^.

t h eN
ja:-mha Oa;-mha Oa:-mha -ja:mha -ja:mha
'like this' (2)su-theN
' o f t h i s type t Oa:-mha.
D.Inanimate
thwA-theK am-theN wA-theN hu N-theN(l)g\-/A-theN
-ja:-gu -Oa:-gu aa:-su ja:-gu ^^)ja:-gu
'like chis' (2)chu-theN
-ja:-3U

5 . Temporal
A.'
P.thu-bAlAe P.u-bAlAe P.gu-oAlAe
xi.thA-bAlAe K.A-bAlAe k gA-bAlAe
B.thu/thA/- B.u/A-bAlAe - B.gu/gA-b^lAe
bAlAe
' t h i s time'
B. P . t h u - w A e - t i - B,u-./Ae-ti P.gu-wAe-ti
K.thA-wAe-ti - K.A-v/Ae-ti k.gA-wAe-ti
3.thu/thA-wAe - B.u/A-wAe-ti - B.gu/gA-wAe-ti
-ti
'around t h i s
I
xime

1 /gv/A/ occurs for non-human anim. and inanim. nouns, /su/

occurs for human nouns /chu/ occurs for inanim. nouns only
 170

1. p r o x . t o 2.prox.to g.rem, 4 . extreme 5.intr.,

addresser addresser rem.

C.
P.thu-khu- P.u-khu-nhu - ai-.:nu-nnu
nhu
'on t h i s day' K.A-khu-nhu
3,u/A-khu-nhu
D. t n u - g - s i :
' t h i s year'

6. L o c a t i o n a l
A,
tnA-na ara-kA-na d-na hui^'-kA-na ;i.H.-nA
'here'
B.
P.tnu-iine ara-khe u-khe nuN-ri-ime gu-khe
K.thA-khe - A-lihe gA-iChe
B.thu/thA-.che - u/A-khe gu/^A-kiie
'this side'
^.thu-thae am-thae u-thAe huI^J-thae ,Tu-tnae
'in this place'
7 . rleason
thu-keiM' am-keij P.u-keN m-keN
'ifor t h i s K.A-keN
reason' B.u/A-keN
8. verbial
classifier
Tirae Count
thv/A: -l-cA; v/A:-kA: ;A:-:cA
' t h i s many t i m e s '
 1 7•*?i

1. orox.to
•i,
2,prox.to 3.rem. 4.extreme 3.intr.
addresser addresser rem.

9. iJiectic
location
tnv/A:-dhu- - v/A:-dhu: - gv;A:-dhu:

'this many
times'

Action count

thv/A:-tu - wA:-tu- - S^,\rA:-tu-

C-tuye) (-tuye) (-tuye'

'this many
motions of
scoojing out'

10. Otner els.

thA-pae-pu am-pae-pu A-pae-pu kuW-pae-pu gA-pae-pu

'this much big' CwA-pae-pu)

ciiA-pae-ha: am-pae-ha: A-pae-ha: huN-pae-ha: gA-pae-ha:

'T:his mucn long'

thA-pae-phi am-pae-phi A-pae-phi huN-pae-phi gii-pae-phi

' t h i s mucn t h i c k '
thA-pae-l-dia a:n-pae-\:ha A-pae-kha huN-pae-kha gA-pae-kha
'Tills ;:iucn b i g '
(housej'

1 v/ith the c l a s s i f i e r s other than verbal c i . iha base

takes / - p a e - / as i t oblique marker before the c l . i s added
vl4) / p i n e / 'oui: o f (15) /phus-ie/ ' above'

jhya: pine chy.-L'. phusAe

v/indov/ o u t of head above

' o u t of v/indov;' 'above head'

(16) / l i k k A / 'near by' (17) /tAicA/ 'mp t o '

-ie;c liidcA ana takA

Chair n e a r by t h e r e up t o

' n e a r by chair' 'uo t o there'

U S ) /then/ 'like' (19) /lagi/ 'for'

oh A theil ji-gu lagi
you like I-Gen for
'like you' 'for me'

(20) / t i / 'about' (21) / s u : / ' d u r i n g the time of

u-li ti\.ti) la: su:

that-;nuch about recover-hab d u r i n g t h e t i m e of

' a b o u t t h a t much' ' d u r i n g t h e t i m e of recovery'

U2) /lise/nnpAlNl/'together (23) / b a : r A e / 'about'

with'

chA lise/nApaii sita (ya) ba:rii.e

you t o g e t h e r v/ith sita about

' t o g e t h e r v/ith you' 'about sita'

( 2 4 ) /sik^-uj/sv/Aya:/ 'than (cciparative) '

chA siliAI^^'/Aya: V;A tA:rhi

you than he tall

'He i s i a t l e r t h a n you (are/'

6. PARTICLES AND POST POSITIONS
 70

o ^ a r t i c l e s and Post positions

6.1 Particl<a
P a r t i c l e s , the indeclinable .riinor parts ox s.veecr. ?,re

tree in to no, and occur a f t e r any major or luinor oarts of

speeca includinj a a r t i c l e s t.iemselves. I'he follov/in: are the

types oi p a r t i c l e s iouna in t h i s d i a l e c t :

U ; ii.iiph^tic, \'2.) Conjunctive, \,3) uuotative, \.^) lixoletive,

K'o) ive-^ative, (,6) Proaibitive, \.7) 3enedictive, \6) ijeteriii-

native, ;9> iixclainatory, ^,10; a o r t a t i v e , U l ) l i t i a t i v e , 02)

riesponsive, (13) vocative, \\k) Uuestion tags, (15) i n t e r r o -

,-,:.'tive, ^>16) .loaoriiic v.17) I n t e n s i f i e r (l8) oeatence o u a l i i i e r

(19; Idiomatic.

6.1.1 i^-iphatic p a r t i c l e s (^e.ion.pt.): Ihey occur i.a;.iediately after

the e.aphasised stem:

(1) /ka/ coaling between tv/o redualicated ste.as

dyA Qui ka v;A dyA:

^od be-iJpa dj emph that god

'ae must be a god'

(2) /tuiJ/ stui^/ natuiV sAij0 'only'., 'still'

ana tuN/ stuH/natuiM/sarM dA:

there only is

' ; i t ) i s there only'

libha taii'Ja tuiVstuW/ natuw/s^'U-;/ cw^-ini:

sun snine-pap still contmua-i. oa dj

"sun continues s t i l l shining'

 71

(3) / l a / (yatA: , ( i h a i ) ' s t h . i n p a r t i c u l a r '

dhyAba l a (yatA: , d h a i ) b i - y e ;nAlchu
raoney a t g i v e - i n f beCequg) n g . h a b .
As f a r as raoney i s concerned, I v/on't g i v e you.

(4) /ya-v/ i n a l t e r n a t i o n t o / l a / i s used i n B. o n l y :

dhAu yaW sa: hu:
curd pt tasty be-hab
'curd, in p a r t i c u l a r , i s t a s t y '

(5) /nAlV napAij/ 'even'

u l i nAi-I/ nApaW yae(=ya-ye) rn.i-phA-ya l a ?
t h a t much even do-ini be a b l e - n g . p a p . i n t r . o t
'you c a n ' t do even so l i t t l e '

(6) / n i / s p e c i f y i n g s t h . by uieaning 'you know'

v^A waiv^gu dhae dA: ni
t h a t green grass be-hab pt

'Thj.t green g r a s s , you knowV

(7) /inuiuUJ/ ' a l l v/ithout e E c e p t i o n '

muKAiM • lAl cJAlcA ya tArkari mA-sa:

all r a d i s h only Gen curry be t a s t y - n g . h a b

(8; /ya/ occuring bet^.'/een two r e d u p l i c a t e d stems meaning

' a l l i.v/ithout e x c e p t i o n ) '

 175

dhyAba ya dhyAba
pice pt pice
'pices only'
(.a) /he/ 'self
v/A he: ma
that itself need-hab
( I ) need t h a t its'ilf'
(10) /soN/ 'even'
v/A sai^ jiu
that even be-hab
' that even v/ill do '
(ii) /sArjyantA/ 'including all (v/ixhout any exception)'
mulu sArjyantA biya ch\'/A-ya'
needle even(including give-pap give pa cj
all without
any exception)
i,I) gave all including a needle even*

6.1.2 Conjunctive;
Conjunctive particles are of tv/o kinds: (a) Coordinative
and (b) -iubordinative. (a) Coordinative can further be
divided into {^ j Cumulative, (2/ alternative (3-) aJver-
sative anci (4) illative
1,1; Cu:iul:,tive:
I t coiaPines tv/o i n d e p e n d e n t 'yords, c l a u s e s or s e n t e n c e s ;
/wA/ 'and'
rai v/A sAnna
Kai aj'id 3harma
 176

/nnii/ 'also'
rai nAii sArraa nAi-l
rai also oArma also
/jri.k.A mAlchu nAi'I/ ' n o t only b u t a l s o '
r a i j^^ii niAkhu sAnna nAi^I
r a i only b e - n g . h a b sArina also
.»ot o n l y R a i , b u t inarma a l s o .
(2) A l t e r n a t i v e :
/ki/ 'or'
rai ki sAnna
rai or onrma

/ki k i / ' ei uier—or.. '

:'ki r a i i:i o^rma
j i i t n e r r a i o r 5Anna

/nA.. nA/ 'neither .. nov..'

nA rai nA oHraia
neither rai nor 6Amfia

(3) Adversative;
/Ae .•iall/ 'even then'

wAiJ yAkv/A bv/i^inA, Ae sai^' wA

he-A too much study-pa dj even then he

jacAe fe:l julA
examination-Loc f a i l e d be-pa dj
'he studied hSrd, event.ien he f a i l e d in the exaaino'tion'
i^) Illative:
/kxN/ 'so', 'therefore'
 1 7"^

v/AN yAkv/A ov/anA Akii'i wA Qac^i-e

he-ii t o o much study-pa dj so he exanination-Loc

pa:s JulA

success be-pa dj

'He s t u d i e d h a r d , so h e p . s s e d i n t;n ;r e x a : n i n a t i o n '

{b) Suboigdinative:

I t c o . i b i n e s t,ie c l a u s e s one of v/iicii . r i i i b e

subordinate:

/lii'V ' a s (deno-cing c a u s e ; '

b a : iaiCii bv/Ai^^^u 11 r^' V/A

v/ell study-hab cause-I he exa^aination-Loc

pa:, ju-lA

passed be-pa dj

ne passed i n t h e examination as he s t u d i e d v/ell.

/ki/ 'that (.denoting eifect;'

v/rt-i'l khicac-ta (=knica-ya-ta) thA-pae-oAk-ih

he-A aog-Dat t a i s nuch s e v e r l y

da-lA ki khica si he si-l-i.
beat-padJ that dog d i e - e m p h - d i e - p a dJ
'He b e t t h e dog so s e v e r e l y t h a t i t d i e d finally'

/driAkA/ dlWKa:/ 'v7ith t h e p u r p o s e of

«' 7A pyakhAk' sv/Ae ^,=sv/A-ye) dhAkA/dhAka: taAna v/.-ilA

' h e draraa see-inf -/ith t h e p u r p o s e of

tli.ina v/AlA
here come pa d j
'lie came h e r e v/ith t h e o u r j o s e of seein^^: a d r a m a '
 1 ^ 0^
•X. i

I so. I ' i f i^denotirii], coned t i o n ; '

Ji-ke dliyAbe du- sa ji-i~>! ya-ye-gn
I-Loc money bevexist)-hab-ii I-A do-inf-det.

siu ka

kno-.7-hab enph.

' I l-aaoj vm -t should I do i f I hv.ve money ^

/tx4.11^-».e/ ' s o son:; t.denotin.i conai cion) '

Athne niA-ya: t.'^llAe ji: mA-khu

l i k e "Chat do-ng.hab so l o n g bo-hab b e - n ^ . h a b
' s o l o n ^ i t be n o t done l i k e t h a t i t vroa't be 'ood'

/saW/ ' t h o u g h i,denoting contrast/'

v;^ griri:b sai\ nugA: rn.i-sya'.
he poor though h e a r t f^el oe.in-ng.hab
'he i s l i b e r a l thougli he i s joor'

6.1.3 ^y^o t a t i v e
/hJ/ occuring at the end ox a sentence:

i./A-.-i Ail a twan-e ;:i.^---:hu _1IA,

he-A wine drink-inf be -^equaj-ng. hab

lie said t h a t he v d l l n o t d r i n k wine.
/ k i / o c c u r i n g b e f o r e t h e quoted speech:
w-i-.'I dhalA ki_ Aila tw-vn-e :nA-k;iu
he-a say-padj that v/ine d r i n : : - i n i be'sequa;-n^^.hab.
lie s a i d t h a t he w i l l n o t d r i n k wine.
5.1.4 i:^x?lative
xaese p a r t i c l e s a r e used as mannerisms by p e o p l e during
convei'sation. I t may occur a t any p o s i t i o n i n a clause or
 179

or a sc-ntence, but never within a word. Its ineanin-^, if any,

is not related to tlie context. They are:

/ci/ caine/, mane/, yane, /hAH/

6.1.5. i^e,g.ative

T i i s o c c u r s v/ith v a r b s . I n t h e c a s e of comoound v e r b s

i t conies b e f o r e t h e a i x j c i l i a r y b e r b .

\7an- ' t o g o ' mA-v/an- ' n o t t o g o '

swA- ' t o s e e ' :iiH-awA- ' n o t t o see'

cv/Ana: cv/nn- ' t o c o n t i n u e cv/.^a: mA-cw.-i.n- ' n o t t o c o n t i n u e

staying' sta-'ing'

y a e - j i - ' t o be r i g h t yae-raA-ji- ' n o t t o be r i - h t

to do' to do'

n g . p t /mA/ w i t h i n i t i a l / m / of t h e v e r b v / i l l be /rr.-iXf:

m a l - ' t o need* mv/a:l ' n o t t o n e e d '

6.1.6 Prohibitive

/niAte/ I t o c c u r s a t t h e end of a s e n t e n c e

cur.4:s tv/An-e mAte

cig.trette drink-inf don't

' D o n ' t smoke c i g A r e t t e '

b . 1.7 dPil'^diQjti v£

/ma/ 'let'

I t o c c u r s a t t h e end of sentence:

t a mv/ae ma

long l i v e - i n f let

' L e t you l i v e long'

 13^
J L %> «_>

6.1.3 Jeterminative
/tini/ ' s t i l l to be'
\jA v;A-i tin!

he co.'.ie-^^ pa dj _stll_l .^to b e )

'He v/ill s t i l l come'
v/A-rl nA-ln tini
he-A c a t - p a d j s t i l l *.to b e )
He a t e s t i l l (.continuation a g a i n s t o n e ' s exoectation)

5.1.9 i:^xclamatory
^ r i e - ' / (1) o u r p r i s e
^Ae thAu raoku:n'-;r .nAsi:
Lool: today p r i n c e die-ng-liab
'Look t o - d a y i^the) p r i n c e d i d n o t d i e '
( i i ; sudden re/.ieniberance:
Ae I: chA-pu yaW dA:
On, sick-le o n e - c l e.aph b e - h a b
'Oh I have a s i c k l e '
/ a^ha/pleasure
a-ha, guli baila^gu sv/aij'
look, what beautiful flower
Looic what ( a ) o e a u t i f u l flov/er

/•""u/ ' s u r p r i s e ' i n sudden a p p e a r a n c e of s t h o r so u n e x p e c t e d '

/ apa/apu/ 'sudden f e e l i n g of burning
heat or biting cold'
 Pf
*->-i.

lYBsmaj i n t e r j . expressing surprise or

f e a r (:jeaning '0 mother'; e.g.,
yAiirna, gAe gAl-n wA ;a.ica
pt hov/ climb-padj t h a t baby
' i t i s a mather of s u r p r i s e , hov/ did the
baby climb'
yABpa, ji gya-t;i
pt I be afraid-pa dj
'oh, I am a f r a i d ' '^.aostly the females use i t ;

'continuous pain' /ka-ka/ 'sudden calamity'

'sudden oain' /kasa/ 'cnallenge'
/kya:ba:t/-
^aya ma/ ' fati'iiue' k3/a:ba:3// 'aooreciation'

/u:/uiiu/ ' b i t t e r oain' /sya: ba:s/i

/ka/ * sudden /chi/ 'dislike'

raaemberance* yfchi-chi:/ ' m o r e d i s l i k e '

/K-.:/ calamity"' /dhAtt'iri/'mild rebuke'

Aia: /aka :/'rep entance, /diiAnyA d h ^ n y A / ' g r e a t a p p r a c i a t i on

distress,

grief.'

/dhi-vrv/A: dhArra/i | /^ " / sympathy

/mancwAsa/mampA-saA /hAre sibA/
sv/eanng
/sAtte/ dhi.ikar/ 'demoralizing'

Asyanvmasa/
fsyanvmasa
 182

6.1.10 Hortative
na 'take' na, saphu jv/A
take book hold-imp
*take, hold (the) book'

6.1.11. Initiative
hA: 3Ae 'commanding to pull a heavy thing
all at a time'
bina:bi 'exclaiminj at so to keep away in a
religious perforTnance'
Siie 'askin;;: to move, and give v/ay'

6.1.12 Responsive
These are used in resoonse to a call:

hA yes'
hAju:r yes (most hon)
hA:i yes (fanners' speech;
hA:s alright (hon)'
hai sAe in response to 'hA:sAe'
\-7lien some heavy thing is pulled,
OyA:u 'yes (hon. mild)
A '»/nile listenin..^, to sb's narration
dA/d^e alright (non.hon.)

b.1.15. Vocative:

It is used -uo ad-:ress sb:

Ae Oh, ^the common i'olk-non-lion;'

i.'j
 183

yA: 'u, ^relatives, and respectable persons)

he '0, (iving, god most hon)

Occasionally v/nile calling a person v/ithout using his

name /Ae/ can be used, /he/ is rarely usea i,only tne young
generation started using it to denote love, affection or
intimacy to the addressee, but /he/ is never used like th-t.

5.1.14 Question tags

khiila/hAla 'undei'stand', ' i s i t not so'
nhae/nhi: 'all right?'
/hai/ 'v/hat did you say, once more (•)lease/ '
jYik:I 'w.1. gAna h A : , 'v/here h e i s ? '

6.1.15 Interrogative
/ l a / I'c occurs ax the end of a sentence:
v/H-x; saphu bilA l a 'uid he give a book?'
In a l t e r n a t i v e t^^^e of question, i t occurs befo: e the
coxijunction / k i / 'or' :
\/^ l a - k i xhv/A, ' t h a t or t h i s ? '
6.1.16 Honorific
/ju/ I t occurs a f t e r a o e r s o n ' s name:
ra:m Ju, .ir. Ram
bh.-iriit j u , Mr. J h a r a t

In / j u j u / ' i : i n g ' , /bhaju/ ' g e n t l e man', /mi-veju/

' l a d i e s ( r e s p e c t e d / ' / j u / i s an unseparable p a r t a v/ord.
 184

/khe:/thAe. I t occurs a f t e r an i n t e r r o g a t i o n pronoiua:

ana " ...... su khe:/thAi
i

the person to be resp'-'Cted v/ho ot.

vmo he/she \.the respectable person; is

pt. khe: /thAe makes the sentence quite mild in hoiiour
or tne person to be respected.

6.1.17 Intensifier
/se/ 'too much'. It causes the consonant follovied by
the iinal vov/el geminated:
It occurs after certain adjectives of raality: But final vv
of a v/ord m^y not cause <^emination of the preceding consonant:
mhasu 'yello'v' mha/su-s_e ' very yellov;' .
•.7-vcu 'blue' v/-i,ccu-se 'very b l u e '

'^-'^^ 'Coid' kh./au-se 'very cold'

6.1.13 oentonce quolifi_e^r

/-sa/ after habitual form of verbs, demonstr-ative and

interrogative bases:
Dem. o. Intr. basis:
/-le/ like that' /^e sa/ 'if so'
ae sa ji n.-ii* v/.ie ka
if so ± too come-inf emph.
'If so ^ii the case is like that; I too ./ill come'.
/thAe/ 'like this' /thAe sa/ 'if the case be like this..'
/^AQ/ 'hov/' /,_Ae-oa/ 'hov: then..'

/z »'erbal base: hab« oentence Qualifier

/la-/ 'occur' /la:/ /la: sa/ 'perhaps'
 185

/ji-/ 'be r i g h t ' /j)'xi:/ /jyu'.sa/ ' i f possible . '

/phH-/ 'be a b l e ' /ohu/ /phu-sa/ ' i f one c a n . . '

Others;

/bast-i.bAe/ 'in fact..'

/rn^tl^Vo/ ' I uiean.. '

0.1.19 Idiomatic

/th-V 'let'
ya: sa thA ya
do-hab i f l e t do
I t one does (sth) l e t him do.
/rav;aeoe/ ' l e t i t be'
ju: sa thA ju, inv;aese SU.JKH CV/A

be-hab i f let be l e t i t be quiet stay

' I f ',sth) happens, l e t i t be, keep mum'.
ing
/nintyaiv/ i t i s , found i n 3.only meaiiyfe 'not to ha;:):)3n -/hai
i s expected'. I t o:curs a f t e r a sentence:
cn-'i w/ii hintyai-I
you come-;lp . dj pt
'I expected jiou will come, but did not'

°• 2. r'pst position Lpop/

Post positions come after noun, pronoun, adjective,

certain adverbs, non-finite verbs, ana ethers to indie te

place, direction, sour-ce, -ietriod etc.

 186

U ) /kalliAii = khat.-uV ' a s ' , 'according t o '

I t o c c u r s a f t e r d a a o n s t r a t i w e and i n t e r r o g a t i v e b a s e s
and non-finite v^rbs:
u- kathAl\i/i"^hatM jya ya
that a c c o r d i n g t o v/ork do
LJO work a c c o r d i n g t o t h a t

dh.-i-ya .. kathAi'V/khatAN jya ya

say-pa c j as ^^^^,^ ^^

Do v/ork as ( l ) said

(2) /Kath/mAii = KhatAn;-uJ/ bAkAWAz-W/ 'immediately iiter'

These o c c u r a f t e r t h e p a s t p a r t i c i p l e form of t h e verb;

diiae kathiinAi'I/khat^inAiJ/bAkA.Vwiil-1 wA v;an-A
say — pap pop he go-pa dj
'l.ii.iiediately a f t e r s a y i n g ( s o ; he v/ent'

; 3 ; /nhyA:/ 'before (te.iporal;'

chi'i. nhyA: ji v/an-e

you before I go
' I go b e f o r e you ( g o ) '
(4) /bAlAe/ ' a t t h e t i m e '
u- b-ilAe
t h a t time-Loc
'that time'
^5) /li/ 'after'
v/A v/He driu.raa: Li
he come-inf. f i n i s h - o a p after
' A f t e r he had come'
 187

(6) /knuEiiiu/ 'on t h e p a r t i c u l a r day o f

sAiii^;ranti khunhu
1 s t day of a laonth pop

'on t h e l i r s t day of ( a ) month)

\7) /nlseu/ 'from... on'
u- hAlAe niseN
Th:.t time-Loc from...on
'tro.a t h a t time on'

u- thae nisew
t h a t piace-ijoc from...on
'^'rom t h a t o l a c e on'

(,8) /kv/Ae/ 'beneath' (9) / k h e / ' t o ' , ' t o ./ards'

jhya I kv/'Ae thu khe
'jindov/ b e n e a t h this side
' 0 eneath v/indov/'

(lO) /cv/Ae/ 'above' (ll) /thae/ ' a t the place o f

lul^iia ' cwAe khiu 'thae
door aoove dark in
'above d o o r ' 'in dark'
(12) /d.i,thui/ 'betv/een, U 3) / p a k h e / r i k h e / ' tov/ards'
among'

imi dAthui ram pakhe

thooO betv/een/a..ion[^ ram tov/ards
' betv;een/amon5 them' 'tO'.vards Ham'
7. CLASSIFIERS
 188

7 C l a s s i f i e r s K-.-'-

..ev;ari h a s tv/o tiroes of c l s i ( l ) v e r b a l ; and (2j no.ainal

7.1 Verbal c l a s s i x i e r ^ C c l . v ) :

;1) /kA:v.-lii;/
Tais is the most general cl.v th.;.t can occur ',;ith all

the verbs. It can also be used in place of all the other cls.v:

v;A ch.i-kA; wAlA 'he came once'

(2) /jha; (-1A;/

it denotes substantial or state luidergone once or uiore

during a definite period of time:

v/A ch;i-.1ha: AsyA: julA *ne became crazy once'

^3) /tu/

This is a reduplicative cl. used v/ith the verb /tu-/

'to scooo out'

nyA-tu cini tu-ye- 'to scoop out sugar t^/ice'

(4) /thu/

This i s Uoed v/ith v e r b s t h a t denote a sudden o r

laomentary a c t i o n :
chA-thu da-ye 'to beat once'
nyA-thu s y a - y e to d r i n k l i c u o r tv;ic;e ( s l a n ^ ;

^ 5 ; /diia: (,-lAj/ nhu:i,-li}/

These t\70 e l s . have a co..Kaon se.aantic r a n g e . They

o c c u r v;ith v-c;rbs of v/ashing, rubbinQ;, t r e a d i n g and Imoading:
chA chiLi/mhu: ca-ye. ' t o v/ash c l o t h e s t w i c e '
 189
^6) / d i i u : ^-li)/

This c l . o c c u r s vd.th /v/A-/ ' t o c o m e ' , / v / a n - / ' t o ; o ' , /

/chwA-/ ' t o s e n d ' , ^' '. / h A - / ' t o b r i n e ' &./Yi\YA-/ 'to c rry
t h e l o a d ' aoriotes diectic location:
v/A nyA-dliu: WAIA 'He came tv/i.ce'
I t can be r e d u p l i c a t e d , j y iase..'ting /v/aiV botv/eon t h e
Oiise and r e d u p l i c a t e d con^onent. ihen i t may denote innurn.e-
. a b l e r e p e a t e d a c t i o n as i n :
v/Ai-J dliu v/a.i cihu: ca ihyAlA,
he c l (rdp) c l a y c a r r y - p a dj
'lie c a r r i e d t h e c l a y a/-^ain ana a;;ain i,:nany t i . n e s ;
(7) / s \ . A ) l a : (-khA)/ occurs v/ith t h e verb c a - 'be co.aoleted'
i n s e r v i n g t h e food i t e m s i n a f e a s t . I t i s in nr-ctice
amonj t h e Buddliists i n iMeoal.
sv/A-s(A)la: v/ana. hi bh\7rie kv/A-cai
three cl go-pa dj a f t e r f e a s t come t o t h e end--.pa dj
' F e a s t v/111 be co;iiploted a f t e r t h e 3rd round s e r y i c e ' .
(3; /si:i,-lA)/
This i s a r e d u p l i c a t i v e c l . used with t h e verb si-'to fry'
nyA-si: l a si-ye '-co f r y meat t . v i c e '
(9) /hiNC-nA)/
This i s a r e d u p j - i c a t i v e c l . used v/ith t h e verb
hi-ye-k- 'to turn'
chA-hi: l a h i - y e - k - ' t o t u r n once to mi:: v/halc ir-yins meat'
(10) / s u : ( - l i ) / This i s a r e d u p l i c a t i v e c l . I t o c c u r s ,,'ith
t h e verb s u - 'to mill'
wa chr^-su: su-ye ' t o m i l l t h e r i c e o n c e '
 190

7.2 iJoiainal c l a s s i f i e r s

(1) /lea/ I t I s used v/lth the follov/lng nouns:

la ' p a t h ' , s i ' f i r e v/ood', Iha; 'hand' i.:;men denoting
hands of a many handed s t u t u e s or i^ods)
si chAkka 'a piece of f i r e v/ood'
la nyA-ka 'tv/o p a t h s '
Iha: s\7A-ka ' t h r e e hands i,oi a s t a t u e , or a c;od)
(2) /ku:(-ti}/ i s used v;ith nouns denoting cuts on a body,
s c a r s , spots e t c .
gha: chA-ku: 'one c u t '
As a Q_^uasi-unit cl. it can. . occur v;ith a broken
piece of any object.
gvwe chA-ku, 'one piece of nut'
(3) /kha/ is used '.-dth the noun /che/ 'house' only:
one chA-kha 'one house'
'House' but not denoted by /che/ v;ill not t.-ke tnis cl:
cApa: chA-gu:, 'one co ::nunity house'
(4) /gA: (-lA)=gwA:(-lA)/
ihe following groups of nouns receive these e l s :
(A) spherical or spheroid o b j e c t s :
bhv;.-^gtya 'pomelo' e t c .
(3; Containers v/ith aefinixe v/alls;
alaiari 'cup-board' e t c .
^C) u-lobular or cylendr.Lcal f r u i t s , vogetaoles, g r a i n s :
aiu ' p o t a t o ' , t u s i , 'cucumber', liaegu 'pe.is' e t c .
\ijj r'oies, c3/ii/idrical objects and s t u l i o d o b j e c t s :
yA:sir^ 'long v/ooden p o l e ' , g a - ^ t a : g h a r . 'the
 191

£ i i a n t a : g h a r of Kathmandu', phunga ' p i l l o v / ' etc.

(iii) Some a o u s e - p a r t s :
pA: -clia: ' v / a l l ' , dliAliN ' c e i l i n g ' etc.
{b') s o h e r o i d o r g l a n d u l a r p a r t s of body:
niicha ' e y e ' , .jhv/Ari ' b e l l y ' e t c . '
vu) Musical i n s t r u m e n t s :
diiyjiinAe ' o i g dram', s i t a : r 'sitar' etc.
(H) 'fools v/ith s p h e r o i d or cube l i k e h e a d s :
mv/AgA: 'nammer', j A s i l a 'adge' etc.
\,l) UtEnsils:
takya ' f r y i n g p a n ' , ghA: ' p i t d i e r ' etc.
\J) ^iclosed vehicles:
bA:s ' o u s ' , r e : l 'xrain' etc.
i^iv) s p n e r o i d o r cubish sv/eet:aeat o r bakery i t e m s :
l^adu ' l A d d u ' , ke:ic ' c a k e ' etc.
(,L) .-iisceilaneous i t e m s :
IWA: ' s t o n e ' , ghAdi, 'v/atch' etc.
(5; / c a : (-KA:i6-lA};/ occurs v/ith nouns d e n o t i n g r i n g shaped
o b j e c t ^^;•itll an opening i n t h e c e n t r e :
gnA:ca chA-ca: 'one t o y - v / h e e l '
c a : c a nyA-ca: 'two e a r - r i n g s ' etc,
(6) / t u / i s used v/ith nouns d e n o t i n g s t r a n d s of vhr3ads i;hat
coascitute a tnicker thread:
k:; ny^-t-tu 'tv/o f i n e t h r e a d s '
(?) / t a and thiV' t h l , : s t a n d s f o r the nunoer of t y p e s i n a
given g r o u p s , t a s t a n d s f o r che -cotal numoer of to..ens i n
t h a t ;:;roup:
 192

sv/A-trii: inari*. fti-ta dA:

t h r e e - t y p e s - L O G sv/eets t e n p i e c e s be ( e x i s t z - i i a b
' \.'i'iiere a r e ; t a n p i e c e s i n t h r e e t y p e s of s w e e t s '

\o) /tv;a:^-iCA) c; n a : ( - i A ) /
twa: i s used, t o denote a oroiien :^iece of lenrytny o b o - c t ,
n a : i s used t o denote a broken or Lnbro.ien len;;thy objoci:
xhe p i e c e denoted by n a : i s i o n g e r 'than tv;a:
cn.-i-na'• suka 'one ion>^.,.ir ) i e c e of t h r e a d '
cnA-tv;a: suka 'one s n o r t e r broken Diece of thread'
tv/a' a l s o f u n c t i o n s as a c l . f o r "che noun j r a s i , ' s a r i ' :

cm-i.-1./a: o r a s i 'one s a r i '

h a : a l s o f u n c t i o n s as a c i . f o r ,:,-^iii 'lane'
cnA-na: t,-'i-ifi> 'one l a n e '
1^9; /dliv/A: ( - 1 A ) / As a noun t h i s raeans ' a l i n e * .
As a c l . i t o c c u r s v;ith nouns t h a t denote l i n e s o r l i n e
like things:
diiv/A: chA-dliv/A: 'one l i n e '

(10) / p ; A ) t a / comes v/ith nouns denotin;: small round marks or

p i e c e s of o b j e c t s J
s i n A : ^ - l A ) chA-p(A)ta 'one v e r . i i i l i o n mark'
(11) /pa/ o c c u r s v/ith:
(A) njuns denotin/;, sv/eet i t e m s and bakery i t e m s v;hich a r e
p r e p a r e d oy o r e s s i n p , spreadin.3, l a y e r i n p of t h e dou^h o r
o t h e r rav/ m a t e r i a l s :
puri ch-i-pa, 'one p u r i ' etc.
 193

i,3) J r i c k s , t i l e s and some moulded f l a t items:

AtA chA-pa 'one b r i c k '
SAppa nyA-pa 't;/o cov/-dung c a k e s ' e t c .
(C)paired o b j e c t s :
t u t i p;.. ny-'i pa ' f e e t ' ate.
(12) / p a : ( - t A ) / o c c u r s ,/ith nouns t h a t denote f l a t non-eatable
objects:
bhv/-iiil cliA-pa: 'one s h e e t of p a p e r '
hasa ny^-i.-pa: 'tv/o v/'innov/in;-, t r a y s ' e:c.
(13) /?!•/ This i s a r e d u p l i c a t i v e c l . used v/ith nouns denoting
heavy k n i v e s , t r o v ; e l s , u j n b i l i c a l cord:
sya: cupi ch.^-pi 'One o u t c h e r ' s knife'
dakA;m cupi nyii. p i 'tv/o b r i c k l a y e r ' s trov/els e t c .
Cl4) / o u / o c c u r s v/ith nouns t h a t denote tliin l o n ^ o b j e c t s :
khipA: chA-pu 'one r o p e ' etc.
•v15) /p'./A: ( - 1 A ; / o c c u r s v/ith nouns t h a t denote s o f t p a c k e t s ,
s o f t p r o t r u o e r a n c e s , b r e a s t and b l i s t e r s :
dura nyApv/A: 'tv/o paclie-cs of milk
duru pwA.: ny.i-pv/.-L 'tv/o b r e a s t s ' e-cc.
;16) /pv/a: 1,-tA;/ comes v/ith t h e noun /mAtA/ 'light':
mAtH ch.-i-pv/a: 'one l i g h t '
(17} / p v / a : ; - l . w / f n i s i s a i^eduplic-rcive c l . and i s U;.ed /ith
nouns deaiotinj, h o l e s :
:)v/a: c:aA.-ov/a: 'one n o l o '
'v 13; /phi/ •^his i:j a r : : d a . u i c a t i v c c l . :^nd i s used v/f-ch nouns
denotin' 'orooms'
tu')hi chA-jhi 'one oroom'
 194

09; / p i i u t i = p t i / i s used with nouiis deiiotin,:, small s p o t s :

da.j, CiiH-pnuti ( p t i ) 'one s p o t '
\.20) /phv/a: ^ - I A ; / o c c u r s v/ith nouns t h u t de.iote ilo-./er::,
:-'lov/er-sliLipod o b j e c t s , and t h e o b j e c t s vmich i s attached
t o t h e t i p of a rod or a s t a l k :

h i t i ph\-!A: nv.i-pp.y;i'i,:_ 'two ^I'/ater/ taps'

l^i„^ui sv/A-phv/A: '-three c l o v e s ' etc.
^21; /na/ This i s a r e d u p l i c a t i v e c l . occurin:_: -..dth nomas
denoting, p l a n t s and t r e e s :
sv;ai. uia nyAma 'tvro p l a n t s ' etc.
(,22/ / m a : ; - l ^ i ; / This i s a r e d u p l i c a t i v e c l . and i s used to
de:iote g a r l a n d s :
sv/ai. n a : ch--i.-ma: 'one i l o v / e r - g a r l a n d ' etc.
\,23y /:iiha/ o c c u r s v/ith nouns d e n o t i n g aninu..te b e i n p s , personified
Dojects, supernatural bein-,s:
s.U.a cl\<-w.pha 'one h o r s e '
A-tita.: ::iari nyA-ralia 'tv/o d o l l s '
b h u : t cha-mha 'one g h o s t '
(24) / 2 u : ( - l i ; / This i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e r-esidure c l .
occurin;. \7ith a \7ide ran^,e of unanim t e nouns i n c l u a i n g
a i j s t r a c t n o u n s , n a t u r a l pheno:aena aad ma ^y o t h e r s :
jya chA .;u: 'one vrorlc'
p.tsA; ny.-4:^u: 'tv;o shops'

bha:bAna chn-'^u: 'one e,.iotion' ..-to.

8. RjiDUPLICATION AND ONOMATOPOEA
 195

3. Reduolication and Ono;.iatoooea

Reduplicatiooa compound is obtained t>y repeating the

cojuponent with or without change on them.
Reduplication is of two types:(l) simple reduplication and
'\2} echo reduplication.
8.1. Simple Reduplication: This is done v/ithout any change in
the forn:
8 • 1 • 1 • Noun and Pronouns
CA) Interrogative, Demonstrative, Reflexive, and Indeiinite bases
when reduplicated form their distributive pi. counterparts.
Interrogative and Relative base: Distributive pi. for:ii:
su 'who' su su "who and v;ho'
chu 'what' chu chu 'what and what'
Demonstrative base
tnv/A 'this' thwA thv/A 'this and this
wA 'that' wA wA 'that and that'
Reflexive base:
tnA: 'self thA: thA: 'selves'
Indefinite base:
suW 'any one (anim)' suij suN ' some one '
chuiM 'any one (inanim) chuW chuM 'some one'
(.B) Personal prns of pi. fonn in L-en case can be reduplicated
to denote reflexive sense:
chimi 'your' chimi chimi 'among yourselves'
jimi 'our' jimi jimi 'among ourselves'
imi 'tiieir' imi imi 'among themselves'
 196

tC) Among t h e nouns oy i n s e r t i n g an empnatic p t . i n between t h e

base ana t h e r e p e a t e d component, t h e .neanin.-] i n p i . fonn
v/i 1 i be emphasized:
kae 'son' kae-ya-kae ' a i l the sons'
l a 'month' la-nAiM-la 'months t o g e t l i e r '
tnA: ' s e l f ' thA-wAi>j-thA: 'among, . s e l v e s '

( D ) By i n s e r t i n g d e m o n s t r a t i v e p r n . i n betv\feen t h e b a s e and t h e
.will b€

repeated component, the meaning more emphasized:

dyA: thwA dyA: 'This is no other that god himself (lit.god
this god)
khu chA khu 'you are no other than thief (lit thief you thief)'
(E) i^iany nouns denoting animals in baby-talk are reduplicated.
Such reduplicated nouns are Onomatopoeic, and are accompanied liy
the dimunitive suffix/ca/:
ai ' 'biting manner ai al-ca 'small ouffalo'
kwa: 'cow's crying' kv/a: kwa:-ca 'hog'
w
gdae ' duck' gl.ie ghwae-ca 'ducii'
nau 'cat's mewing' nau-nau-ca 'cat'
mae 'goat's cr-ying' mae-mae-ca 'dog'
hau 'dog's crying' hau-hau-ca 'dog'
halt 'manner of riding a horse' hait-hait-ca 'horse'

Some other nouns of baby talk are reduplicative in form:

kai-kai 'curry' ku ku 'alcoholic drink'
ci-ci 'meat' cai cai 'sweets in general'
pa-pa 'bread, sweets etc. pu pu 'chick'
 197

bu-bu 'parched grains' su su 'urine'

£bccept/cai/ 'sweets' and /]^B.1/ 'curry' which are
ending in vowel sequences, other words without reduplication
nave no meaning.
(E) some nouns when reduplicated with (vowel length) and
nasalization in the repeated component become adv. of time in
pi. form:
nhi 'day' nhl: nhi: 'daily} 'every day'
di 'year' da da 'every year' 'years together'
ca 'night' ca: ci: 'over many nights'

c3.1.2 Reduplication of numerals and classifiers

(A) Rdp of iMumerals
Ail the numeral with the els. they take including
fractional units and multiplications by 'ten' can be reduplicated
to give the meaning of distributions:
chA - mha chA-mha chA-mha 'one by one', one each
one - cl (anim.)
sA - chi sA-chi sA-chi 'hundred by hundred'
hundred-one (unit)= 'hundred each'
one hxindred

sA- tya sA-tya sA-tya 'one fifty by one fifty',

hundred-half(fractional)
=hundred and half 'one fifty each'
Ci.e. 150)

Multiples of 'hundred' 'Thousand' etc. are reduplicated

to give the meaning of innumerable pi. counterparts:
 198

sA 'hundred' sA-lAI\f-sA: 'hundreds of .. '

dwA: 'thousand ' dwA-lAl\i-dwA: 'thousands of..'
la:kh 'lakh' lAkhA-N-lAkh 'lakhs of..'
kArwA:d 'crore kAn"/A:dA-N-kAr^,vA:d, 'crores. .of. . '
(B) Rdp of classifiers:
Classifiers without numerals can be reduplicated to fonn their
emphasized innumerable distribution pi.counter parts. Emphatic pt.
/N/, /nAiNf/ are optionally inserted in between the base and
repeated component for further empnasis:
/dhu:(-li)/ verbal cl. denoting diectic location, and occuring
with the verbs wA- 'to come', wan- 'to go'
chwA- 'to send', IhyA- 'to carry load'
wA dhu C-waiNi-)dhu: wAlA
he again and again (many innumerable times) came
/pa:C-tAV nominal ci. denoting flat non-edible objects like
leaf, mat etc.
pa: pa: lApte or
patA-m-pa:lapte, 'many a leaves'
/gwA:(-lA)/ nominal cl. denoting rov; objects, contaii;ers etc.
gv/A: gv/A: dhAu or
gwAlA-N-gwA: dhAu, 'many a bov/ls full of curds'

/kha/ cl used for house only

kha-(nAN) kha 'many a houses'

Quite a good nurnoer oi els including all non-unit counter and

quasi unit counxers are reduplicative. Ihe occurrence of the
counter v/ith the head noun is optional. So without reduplication
also is possible:
 199
5
tu-(kAle) chA kAle 'one bundle of suiarcane'
la-(phA: )-chA phA 'a chunk of meat
marl-(pa) chA pa 'one sweetmeat'
But some els. are Reduplicative els. which has, without redupli-
cation, no meaning:
/hi:(-nA)/ verbal cl. oceuring with the verb hi-ye-k- 'to fry
(lit. 'to turn')
chA hi: la hi-ye-ke 'to turn once to mix while frying meat'
/tu/ verbal cl. occurs with verb tu- 'to scoopout'
nyAtu tu- 'to scoop out twice'
/ma/ nominal cl. oceuring v/ith the nouns denoting plants and trees:
swAN ma chA ma 'one plant'
oceuring
/pni/ nominal el./with the nouns denoting brooms:
tuphi chA phi 'one broom'
Some els when reduplicated give another meaning different
from what it aenotes without reduplication:
/pwA:(-l4)/ is used with noums denoting soft packet, softprotrube-
rances, breats, and blisters:
duru nipwA 'two packets of milk'
duru pwA: nyApv/A: 'two brests'
/pa/ oceuring with paired objects:
Iha nyA pa 'two hands
lha:pa nyApa 'two palms'
tuti nyA-pa 'legs'
tuti pa nyA-pa 'feet'
/sisi/ el denoting measurement in terms of eoatafner :
duru nyA-sisi 'amount of milk measured by a bottle tv/ice'
duru sisi nyA sisi 'two bottles of mflk'
 200

8 ' 1 . 3 Reduplication in Verbs;

Simple r e d u p l i c a t i o n occurs v/ith a l l f i n i t e forms of the
main Verb:
(A) In the case of past and non-past forms, rdp. brings emphaSis:
ki- 'obstruct'
pa Npa
niNa kiNa '(l) obstructed ki: -ki:'(l) (v/ill) obstruct obstructed'
obstructed'
(3) i-vdp of past participle implies the repeated continuous
action:
wA ki-Na: ki-Na: v/anA
he'obstruct (pap in rdp) go-pa dj
He v;ent by obstructing repeatedly
(C) Rdp in imperative and habitual is more intensive:
Irap-
kiu kiu 'obstruct obstruct'
riab -
kiu kiu 'no doubt one obstructs' (lit.obstructs obstructs)

(D) Rdp with an emphatic pt. inserted in between the base

and the repeated component denotes repeated action of
the verb is intensified:
ghvra-ttu - ghwa - 'push by force again and again'
As marked by stresthacharya (l976: 121) it occurs v'/ith
a short stem of verb, and indicates continmous repeated .-iction.
He observes that by inserting /mAtu/ the action is further
intensified. This does not seen to be true. ./hen /mAtu/ is •
used the sense of eniphasis goes do^/m and turns of action
 201

increases:
ghv;attu mAtu ghwa - 'push raany times v;ith l e s s f o r c e '
/jAkA/ 'only' 'just as'
As noted by Shrestliacarya reduplication with the addition of:
(1) jAkA/means 'only:
v/A-K nAyA nA jAkA nAlA jya mA-ya:
'He ate only, but did not v/ork'
It also denotes momentary action -
chA \vA jAkA wanA wA wAlA. (just as you v;ent he came'
(2) /ni:/ means 'before ,anything else'
sv/A ji: sv/Ae AlAe dhae, 'First I see then comment'
(5) /he/ means 'certain', 'certainly'
khA he khA 'It is certain'

!,ii) Reduplication of non finite verb:

ihe base repeated with the repeating component followed

by /N/ gives the sense of continuity of past participle incompletive
form: wA khwA khwA-N wanA, 'xie went weeping'

8.1.4 Reduplication in Adjective

intensity goes down when adjectivial base is reduplicated:
Base Rdp.form
hyau 'red' hyau hyau 'reddi sh'
mhasu 'yellow' mhasu mhasu 'yellowish'
pau 'sour' pau pau 'sourish'

8.1.5 Redu-olication in Adverb

Reduplication of the a d v e r b i a l bases denotes repeated

 202

action. Continuation in slow motion is signified by suffixation,

but continuation in fast motion is signified by triplication of
the laiit syllable:

Meaning Base Repeated action Sontinuation

'\ fast motion)
manner of moving ghusu ghusu-ghusu ghusu-su-su
chariots,vehicles,
planets
manner of having sulu sulu-sulu suiu-lu-lu
running nose
manner of p u l l i n g ghisi ghisi-ghisi ghisi-si-si
some heavy thing

This type of t r i p l i c a t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d to a fev/ pho-

n e s t h e t i c type of words. Repeated forms afe many i n number.

8.1,5 Reduplications of P o s t p o s i t i o n s :

kwAe 'do\'m' SwAe-kwAe 'deep do^^/m'

cwAe 'above' cv/Ae-cwAe ' f a r above'
pine ' o u t s i d e ' pine-pine 'very o u t s i d e '

In t h i s type of rdp, the f i n a l v or w of the base i s

stressed.
ti 'about' ti ti 'about only
thuli t i t i hi 'bring about t h i s much only'
R e s t r i c t i o n of l i m i t a t i o n i s i n t e n s i f i e d h e r e .
lise/napAl^ 'v/ith' lis-lise-N/nap-AapA-N ' t o g e t h e r w i t h '
Adhesion i s emphasized h e r e .
mhyA: 'before' nhyA: nhyA: 'before ( c o n t i n u a t i o n ) '
liu 'after' liu liu 'after (continuation)'
 203

8•2 Echo R e d u p l i c a t i o n

In echo compounds t h e concerned noun i s r e p e a t e d v/ith some

modification. The r e p e a t e d component i s c a l l e d t h e eco-noun.
Echo compounds g e n e r a l i z e t h e meaning of t h e o r i g i n a l word. A
g e n e r i c sense i s i m p l i e d i n t h i s type:
(A) The vowel i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e / i , u ( : ) / i s r e p l a c e d by / a ( : ) /
i n t h e echo noun:
t i s a 'ornament' tisa-tasa 'ornaments etc'
kusi ' f l e a ' kusi-kasi 'fleas etc'
ci 'salt' ci-ca 'salts etc'
ku 'spade' kuika: 'Ispades e t c '
phu: ' f i n i s h e d ' phu:pha: 'remnants'
( B ) The vov/el i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e / i : , u i / i s r e p l a c e d by / a e / ' ,
ki 'insect' ki:kae ' i n s e c t s eltid.'
i 'spittle' i-ae 'spittle etc'
kul 'kitchen knife' kui-kae 'kitchen knife etc'
phul 'arrogance phui phae 'arrogance etc'
(C) The vowel i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e / ( w / y ) A ( : ) , i s r e p l a c e d by
/i(:)/a(:)/''
kwA: ' crov;' kwA: k a : / k i : ' crows e t c . '
sA: 'sound' sA: s a : / s i : 'sound etc'
tApuya 'cover(pa p)' tApuya tapuya/tipuya 'by earring etc'
che 'house' che cha/chl 'houses e t c '

1 B prefers final /A/ of the base replaced by /a/ in eco

noun, whereas 3 prefers it being replaced by /i/
 204

se:l 'spring roll' se:l sa:l/si:l 'spring rolls e t c '

but
•1

mAsi 'ink' mAsi-mi|:,i 'ink etc. '

(D) The vowel in the first syllable /(w/y) aC:)/ is replaced
by /i(:)/
ka 'thread' ka-ki 'threads e t c '
ka: 'bugle' ka: ki: 'bugles e t c '
twa: 'locality' twa:ti: 'locality e t c '
khya: 'genie' khya: khi: 'genie e t c '
(£) In a restricted member of eco-compounds the first consonant
is replaced by another consonant viz. /b,t,s, kh/. 5ome of
these nouns, however can also have echo-compounds formed by
vocalic modification ii^.g.,
thala *pot^ thali-bala
thala thila
kha Iha *• talking khalabala 'conversation'
(l) thae 'place' thae-bae 'residence e t c '
thae-thi: 'places etc'
hAna- 'fact of respecting' hAna-bAna 'regards e t c '
hila 'act of changing' hila-bula 'exchange'
thekan 'address' thekan-bakan 'certainity'
thekan-thakan/thikan 'addresses etc'
4

/mAsi/ 'ink' should have its eco-noun as /masi/ too, but as it

means 'vulva' in this dialect both S & B intentionally avoids
it. CDometimes unconsciously comes out and creates coproiogical
humour.
2
little difference in meaning may be caused by the echo-noun
/bae/ which independently means 'residence'
 205

mhala-l-act of controling mhala-sala 'preservation of

one's d i e t ' clothes with care'

ni: 'act of purifying' ni:si: 'sanification as of death

or birth purification'
n i : 'act of purification' ni:ci: 'orthodox manner of
sanetification in day
tg day affairs'
hebaye- 'get sb hurt' hebae-cAbae 'words used to hurt
others'
Iwapu 'fight' Iwapu khyapu/'fights etc'
Iwapu lipu
9 . DILi^CTAL DIF-^ERi3-^-CE BiiT»/EEN STANDARD MiD BHAKTAPUR

DIALECT
 206

9. Dilectal differences between <S ;anci B

Dilectal differences between^/and/B/at the phonological,

grammatical and lexical levels are presented here. I'he
presentation is illustrative ^-^ther than exhaustive:
9.1 Phonological level;
At phonological level we find only three phonetic
variations, and several other phonemic variations. The follow-
ing are the phonetic variations:
9.1.1 Phonetic variations
(l) Phoneme /N/ in B
Velar nasal /N/ is a separate phoneme in B, where as
it is an allophone of /n/ in S.
In B
Na 'fish'
wMa 'go (pa cj)'
swaN 'flower'
/na/ 'take' /Na/ 'five'
In 3 lyij occurs homorganically before velar nasal:

/sAnka/ /sANka/ 'doubt'

/sAnghA/ /sANghA/ 'association'
(2) Allophone /"A7 in B:
3, unlike S, has C/\^> a central higher low vowel
as an allophone of /a/ Sharma (1980:207-8) thinks this to
be a separate phoneme. But it is conditioned by environment-
 207

I t i s therefore an allophonic v a r i a t i o n of / a / . I t occurs

i n morpheme f i n a l p o s i t i o n .
S and B S B
/dha/ Zdiia? /dh/\J7 'say(imp)'
/sa/ /•sa? Z"s/^^/ 'pull(imp)'
/v/au/ /wau/ /w/\ u / 'green'
/hyau/ /hyad/ / i y / \ u/ 'red'

3 / a : / in B i s phonetically LAU-
/ga:/ /iaf? ^ A ^ 'pit'
/a:s/ fp^'H D^ '^ 'hope'
/ta:/ J?aJ7 Z^A i? 'lock'
/ n a J / 'water' i s the only exception i n B v/hich i s Jjia^iJ
(3) /- ^ - / onglide for / e /

In consonant ending verbs and p o s t p o s i t i o n s aie im:'.!

/ e / does not have a iT^J? onglide i n B, whereas 3 has such
an onglide: 3 g
/kyAl-^' /kyAl'^eZ JE^^'^il 'mill'
/Ichan-e/ ^aaxrej ^hane7 'happen to see'
/mhit-e/ /mhit'^e/ TmhlteJ 'play'
/dy5:ne/ /dyltn^eZ .ZdyX:ne7 'above'
/dune/ /dun^e_/ 1§^^EI 'inside'
/pine/ fplxyoj /pine7 'outside'
/pArk-e/ /pArk^eZ /pArke/ 'patch'
 gas

9.1.2 Phonemic Variations

oharma (l980: 203-18, l40-l45)has noted the corres-
pondences no. 1,2,3,12,21 and 25.
(l) 5 oral= B nasalized Vs & vice versa
Corresponding to B. nasalized V is more,common than the
reverse situation: -i^.g..
3 B Meaning
g\irAlA gwAla a v i l l a g e i n Kathmandu.
kAsi kasi a clay-pot
|sAti pati mosquito
yAlA yAlS P a t a n , Nepal
haja haja steamed r i c e
kwatl kwatl s o u p - p r e p a r a t i o n of v a r i o u s
pulses.
gwAe S'.i'R'e nut

gv/ae gwae moustache

kA:che kA:che sweat s o f t p e a s

bS:si J)apsi wooden partition

bakhA: bakha story
(2) 3 /A(;)/=B /a/ & vice versa:
Corresponding to B /a/ is more common than the reverse;
£-.g..

B Meaning

ii.1 a mango
kS: ki tiiom
khS kha matter
tAn- tan- add
 209

B Meaning
dAn- dan- be cheap
hi ba floor
ma husk
As noted by Sharma (l980: ) vov/els clustered with />//
or /y/ remain unchanged:

s B Meaning
kyAn- kyAn- show
gwAl- gwAl- stir
syAn- syAn- be spoilt
pwAl- py/Al- peel
Reverse situation occurs in the follow.
apa Apa: many
kauli kAuli couli flower
cakusi cA:si citrus lameta
laki: lAkaN shoe
sural surAl dug
(3) S /Ae/ = B/ae/ & vice versa in the fo
3 B Meaning
dhAe dhae bedbug
hSe hae duck

nhaepS: nhAepAN ear

nhaekS: nhAekAN mirror
khwae khwAe deaf (male)
 210
(4) S. /a/ or /a/ = B /yA/ or /ya/ in the following v/ords:
S B Meaning
ca- cya- cut
nA nya ir8n
nAn- nyAn— have experience
nha- nhya- kneed
(5) 0 /A(:)/= B/wA(:)/ & vice versa in the following words:
3 B cleaning
pAli pwAlA: roof
kApA: kwApuN a convex felay-cover
cAthai cwAtha: a festival
cA:bi cwA:bi toilet
sAgS: swAgAN omen

twA:ku: tA:ku: hoe

sv/X hi- sA bi- brood over eggs
swA- sA- for the grains to be completely
dried up
twA:pu- tA:pu- cover
bhwA:pu- phA:pu- upside down
khv/A'3pA khApA Bhaktapur
(6) 3 /ae/ = B /A:/ or /a:/ in the follov/ing words:
B Meaning
nhaepJ: kAthi nApA kAthi reed
dhaeli: dhA:riN quickly
thwae thwa: cl.qu.for a big bundle of green
vegetable
thae bhu tha:bhu special plate
 211

3 B Meaning
nhaekS: nha:kAN nettle
lyaemhA lyamha young
saemi sa:mi oilman
sinae svi^a: sina:swaN Buddle.ia asiatica
wA:laeJbhyAgA: wAla: bhyAgA: bigger type of clay pot
(7) /A/ = B /e/ in the following words:
3 B Meaning
kAlAs kAles special type of v/ater pot
pyA: peN hip
nhyApyS: chupeN tail
(8) 3 /Au/ = B /A/ in the following words:
3 B MeaMng
lAula tAlaiMsi a sweet item
pAukwA pAkwA: space beneath a roof
bhAuca bhAca cat
kAula kAla break-fast
(9) 3 /Au/ = B /u/ in the follov/ing words
3 B Meaning
nAu lu rope to tie the stick made fence
around a field,
sipAu sipu planks
(10) 3 /u/ = B /a/ & vice versa in the following words:
3 B_ Meaning
kutuJt wAnk- kutaNk- drop
rkhunne carkhanna gingham
cAsupwa: cAsa pwa: top of the head
 212

B Meaning

waku dhi: waka dhi: jaw

syanguli sinNgali chestnut

dala dalu basket

Cll) S /u .Ci)/=i p / A ( : ) / &i vice versa in the following words:

§. B Meaning

chepu chephA a misticle figure

n eku: NAlih A ho m

musu musA cough

sAsA;kija sAsu k i j a M f e ' s younger brother

(1?; S /wA/i= B / u / & v i c e v e r s a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g words

^ . C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o B . / u / i s more common t h a n t h e r e v e r s e situation)

B Meaning:
cv/AtA cuta second floor of the house

kwAki:ca kuki:ca rake

kwAbi kubi- c a r r y i,load on shoulders)

kwAswA:pakha K\fAsu: p a k h a sun shade

jv/Asi jusi joshi-caste

dyAwA dyA: dugu dyA: tutelary diety
mv/A j a muja suck
sv/Asi susi pine-v/ood
cwAL- cul- rub

butta bv/Atta design

fflu»;A: mwAgA: hammer
 213

^ B Meaning
nun- IwAn- be t i r e d of e a t i n g t h e same
"type of food every day.
tuna:SI twa:na:si an oblique-beam t h a t supports
the roof.
(13) S/u/ = B / A ( : ) / o r / a / & v i c e v e r s a i n t h e f o l l o w i n g words:
B Meaning
cirrna: cAmaT s t e p mother

tiki jhya: tika jhyaJ l a t t i c e d windov/

bAsila bAsAla adze

wAsA: i s A : wAsA: asA:/isA: 'clothes etc.'

cA:ti citi sweat

tAssAkA: tAssikAlNl too much
mAsAla pwA: mAslN pv/A: package of dry fruits
(14) S/i(:)/ B/yA/ or /ya/ and vice versa in the following v/ords:
ci:sA: cya.:sA: low voice
pAniu pAnyA: laddie to scoop out the
cooked rice
bhinca bhyAnca made ego's sisters' children,
female ego's brothers' children

nil- nyAl- wind strainds

syanguli siNgali chest nut
(15) S/i(:)/ B/c (:)/ & vice versa in the following words 1
B Meaning
kArnic kAmeij shirt
ti chu tec^u mole
 214

B rieaning
mhica mheca pocket

hema hima fine husk

(16) S /i/ B /u/ & vice versa in the foliov/ing v/ords;
S B Meaning
cikidhA: cuku dhAN small
dyAwAdyA: dugu dyA: tutelary diety
tim(i)la tum(u)la moon
pi: puN pl-marker

Aju: swa: AJi swaN JJasminum humile

bhut(u)mAli bhutima: kite
(1?) 3 /iu/ = B /i/ in the following words:
3 B Meaning
liune line on the back of
c i u r i ghyA: c i r i ghyA: yak's c l a r i f i e d butter,
(18) S / e / = 3 / a / i n the following words:
S B Meaning
ye ya kathmandu
kaple kablya-ca tortoise
(19) Deletion of vowel length i n B

Both i n 3 & B the surface nominative form of several nouns

i s derived from underlying form by deleting the fxnal s y l l a b l e .
When such d e l e t i o n takes place the vowel t h a t precedes the deleted
s y l l a b l e i s lengthened, i h i s type of vowel-length i s well maintained
 215

in 3 3 has a tendency of dropping the vowel-length in its collo-

quial form which is, however, mainteined in careful speecn. 2.p;.
ati(S)'giutinJ i(:)'spittlei"'khAlu(:)'thresh, hold J ghA:su(:)
t

t;ult of purifying the house on the 11th day of near relatives' death,
3aphu(:) 'book', makA(:) 'monkey', magA(:) 'mahout', musuj:)'lens escu-t
lenta'
But i f the deleted s y l l a b l e i s /thA/ or / t h i / B unlike S,
does not have the compensatory vowel-length, i i . g . .
Meaning Base Norn
S B
'mouth' twa-thA twa: twa
or
'snout'
' stomach' pv/a-thA pwaJ pwa
' p r o b o s c i s ' sv/l-thA swS: swS
'well' tun-tni tu: tu

'thorn' kA-thA kl: ka

In the following words also even in the careful speech,

unlike 3-, B. does not have vowel length
Meaning Base Norn
3 B

'cloths ' kapA-tA kapA: kapA

'brown sugar' sakhA-lA sakhA sakhA
'blister* pwA-lA pv/A: pwA
'nail' nyaki-nA - nyaki
nAki-nA nAkI:

'medicine' wa3A-lA wa3A: wa3A etc.

 216

Meaning Base Norn

S B
'mango*' A-nA A: a
'story bakhA-nA bakhJ: bakha

wife's parents' sAsA-lA sAsA: sAsA

house

small broken saNgu-li sAngu: saNgu

piece of hair

(20) s/":/ = B /N/

If the deleted syllable has a nasal, the preceding vowel

will be nasalized ,and lengthened in 3, in B velar nasal /N/ will

be added after the vowel which is kept shorts -E.g.,

Meaning Base Norn

S B

walk stick tuta-mA tuta: tuta-N

hard chalk sAla-mA sA±a: sAla-N

'fly bhuji-nA bhuji bhuji-N

(21) Deletion of vowel sounds i n B

s B Meaning

/A/ nAwA:ca nwArca mongoose

/a/ syanguli siNgali chestnut

/i/ cAmeli cAmel jasmine

/u/ puwa pwa-ca seedling of rice

saparu sapar 'cov/-f estival

gwS:ju gwS:j crocodile

cwAkAmulu-ca cwAkumhu r-ca house-lizerd

(22) Deletion of/syllable

The deletion of/the second syllable resulting in

 217

Consonant cluster Is common to both S & B, But it is more common

in 3 rather than in B. In the following words the vov/el in the
second syllable is not dropped in B, wnereas it is dropped in 3:

S B Meaning
Oa/ arpAti ataputi viscera
khwAlca khwAlaca cup

/i/ gunpunhi: gunhipunhi a festival

take a takica white clay
tAnna: tArima 'mother's elder sister'
/u/ dalca daluca 'Eucal vptus'
/e/ mAlju mAleju maternal aunt

(23) 2 /nhy/ = B /h/ in the following words:

S B Meaning
niiyAthu. hAthu first v/ifG for thG"aocQnd.

nhyAine hS:ne in front

nhyAsu hAsu foster
nhyAtA hAta in advance
nhya-ye ha-ye be interested in
nhyai pu- haipu- be pleasant
iiliyAka: jhitogA: kAka: jhaNgA owl
(24) 3 /c/ = B /t/ in the follov/ing words:
3 B i'leaning
cimi s5 timsa body-hairs
sAcika satika hair-ribbon
lu cukA: sv/i.: lu tik: 3waN orchid ^yellov;)'
v/A: cuk A: sv/a: wA:tik.
wA:tiki swAN orchid (v/hite)
 218

(25) Alternation of /n/ and /l/ or /r/ & vice versa in the

foilov/ing \'^orcls:

S B i-ieanin.g;

nun- IwAn become t i r e d o i e a t i n g

t h e same t i p e of food
every day

sAnai sAla: funeral procession

nAu lu rope t o t i e t h e s t i c k -
made f e n c e a r o u n d t h e
fields

ninat nila: beam, girder

nibha: libha: sun

sv/Anti swAlaunti divrali festival

pAnti pAlanti 'a neighbouring village

of B h a k t a p u r , Nepal

ohAkS: sAna: phakAN s A r a : p i c k l e made of R a n d i d a

uliginosa (.plant)

lA: na: vmter

mAlta m2\nta cnilley

mAlA: mAna J Tfahunder b o l t

iS: nAN clothes

dhalca dhanaNca a m e t a l l i c vi
i n r e l i g i o u s ceremonies

(25) S / l / = B / r / & vice versa i n the following v/ords:

^ B i-ieaning

kAlki swa: k A r k i swaN * plumeria

phAla kv7Aki:ca phAra k u k i c a f l a t bladed rake

 219

s B Meaning
sulpya surpya leech
sulu pu- suruN pu- whistle
cwAk(A) cwAk(A) mhurca house lizard
muluca

ku: sAlA kuNsHuru horse carved tunals

nari nali pulse
3 /unasp Cs/;= B /asp Cs/ & vice versa in the follov/ing wo:

I B Meaning
nyAku: NAkhA horn
sakya-ca sakhAi-ca a kind of green vegetables
bhutu: bhuthu: 'hearth'
bhwAtAca bhv/AthAca padded jacket
swa:ne swa:nhA stair case
chepu chephA a mistical figure
gAlAbAndi gAlAphAndi muffler
dAbu: dAbhu: stage
bAska bhusakha tonsure ceremoney among the
hindus

bArma brAmha gimlet

kunhA:bu kunmukhuca bAuhemia

nhaepJ: kAthi nApA kAthi reed
dwaphwA: swa: dwab swaN Jasminum grandiflorum
dhAlI: dAliN beaxrj
mhudA: muthA caves board
 220

(28) 3 /ny/ = B /N/ in the lolloping words:

3 B Meaning
nyAku , NAkhA horn

nyA- NA- w e a r shav/1

nyAta: NAta: check

nya Na lish etc.

(29) Metathesis:

(A) I ' i e t a t h e s i s of v o w e l s :

3 B Meaning

cv/AkAr cwAkrA wheat bran

cali:(-nA) calni sieve

pArsi prasi sari

sArpA sArAp snake

(B) M e t a t h e s i s of C o n s o n a n t s

3 B Meaning

taigAisima t A : s i gwSema a t a l l palm tree

inhudA muthA eaves board

laka:si kAla:si s e a t i n a swing

iAkhwa: sv/akhA: lime

(30) Optional Gemination & De^emination

3 B Meaning

gAlA: gAl(l)A/gAlA: goitre

nA:la nAlla/nA:la oat-seedling

bhu:nya bhuiM'Na lethargy

cuilya cul(l)ya elbov/

pittA pit(t)A bile

 221

S B Meaning

lAppa lAp(p)a fore-arm

lAssa lAs(s)a saturation
(31) Voiclnp: & d e v o l c i n g
S B Meaning
kaple kablyaca tortoise
dwaphwA: swa: dwab swaN .iasmlnum g r a n d l f l o r u m
gAl(A)bAndi gAlAphAndi muffler

9.2 Grammatical level

(1) S pl.afx /pi:/ = B /puN/

S B Meaning
jl-pl: jl-puN v^e (excl)
(2) Use of pronouns after the nouns in respective cases in B:
Pronouns come generally instead of nouns to avoid repe-
tation of the same nouns every time. But in B. they come addi-
tionally after the nouns in the same sentences. This is seen
in Dat, Gen and Loc Case forms:
Pat
B. ramaeta waeta thwA saphu biu
ramA(Dat) he(Dat) this book give-imp
S. ramaeta thwA sAphu: biu
ramA(Dat) this book give-imp
'give this book to Rama'
 222

B, ji kijae wae mhyae

I-Gen Brother-Gen he-Gen daughter
'my brother's his daughter'
u). ji kija ya mhyae
'my brother's daughter'

Loo.
B. puna A-nyA: thae
puna that-like place-Loc
'in a place like that Poona
S. puna the: nya: thae
puna like- like-adja place-Loc
comp.pt.
'in a place like Poona
3. Morphophonemic Change in the inflection of Nouns and Verbs:

(A) In the fast tempo forms, Case oblique /ya/, and the
pa p allomprpii /ya(:) of the verbal bases of CI- and some
of the bases of cl, change to /i/ in k, and to /e/ in B

F i n a l form
U IT
i-ieanino; Base obi Pat K B
dog khica kMca-ya khica-ya-ta/ khicAi-tA: khicae-ta:
tA
pa p

come wA- wA-ya(:) wA-i wa-e

B. wA wae cv/AnA
S. wA wAi cv/AnA
'He v/as/is coming'

P does n o t undergo any change

 223

(B) In ihe fast tempo forms before the pa p allomorph /ya(:)/,

the base final /u/ of verbs changes to /wa/ in B. further,
this /ya(:)/ becomes /i/ in k and /e/ in B

Fast tempo form

1
Meaning Base careful speech K B

b e a t ' r i c e Ihu- lhu-ya(:) ihu-i Ihwa-e

K. sitAi bAji Ihui cwAnA

B. s i t a e bAji Ihwae cwAnA
' S i t a was/is beating r i c e

(C) 'ihe pap allomorph / n a ( : ) / of 3 corresponds to /Na:/ of B.

In the f a s t tempo, B drops the whole allomorph, and
compensaterily lengthens and n a s a l i z e s tne preceaing vowel.
K drops the f i n a l vowel. P does not undergo any change:

pa p

Meaning Base K B
strike kwa- kwa-naJ kwa-Na:
(=kwan-) (=kwa:)

P. Sita-ya ca kwa-na(:) cwAnA

K. SitAi ca kwan cwAnA
B. Sitae ca kwa: cwAnA
' S i t a was striKing the e a r t h '
In addition, i f the base ends i n vowel / i / , then in B,
i t i s changed to / y / i n the f a s t tempo foarm:
 224

pa p

Meaning Base careful speech f a s t tempo form

B. t i e ci- ci-Na: cyi:

K, t i e ci- ci-na- cin-

4 . Differences i n Habitual form:

Habitual suffix ailoraorph / A : / of B occuring with the bases

of clsB 6 and 7 corresponds to / u : / in S:
Meaning Base 3 B
cl 6
play mhit- mhit-u: mhit-A:
call sA:t- sA:t-u: sA:t-A:
leave twA:t- twA:t-u: twA:=.A:
Tl 7
patch pArk- pArk-u: pArk-A:
snatch awa^•f lak- lak-u: lak-A:

5* Imperative Con.iunct i n B
S has only one imparative form whereas B has two forms*.
( l ) imperative conjunct and (2) imperative d i s j u n c t

B 3
imp C.1 chA-N j i t a twA:ta chA-rJ j i t A : twA:ti
'you leave me' 'you leave me'
imp d.1 ChA-N waeta twA:ti chAN waetA: twA:ti
'you leave him' 'you leave him'
(6) Proximate and Remote past in B:

S does not distinguish between Proximate and Remote past

 225

It nas xne sul'iix /A/ for this. B distinguishes them by

adding proximate suffix /A/ and remote suffix /a/ to tiie
pa dj stem: Examples from B:

Base Meaning pa d,1 stem pa d.j prox pa d.j rem

Iwa- fight Iwa-t- Iwa-t-A Iv/a-t-a
pal- chop pal-0- pal-?S-A pal-0-a
mnit- play . mhit-Al- mhit-Al-A mhit-Al-a
syAn- teach syAn-{2)- syAn-0-A syAn-P-a

wA nAktini wAlA
he just now came
'xie came just now'
v/A u-i<hu-nhu .. , he.L.-; v/Ala
he t h a t - d e f i n i t e day eraph came
' h e came t h a t v e r y p a s t day*

In r e s p o n s e to a q u e s t i o n l i k e v;A gubA-lAe wAlA? '\\rhen

he came?' The ansv/er w i l l be i n proximate p a s t d i s j u n c t form
o n l y : as
wA u-khunhu he wAlA
He came t h a t v e r y p a s t day
I t i s b e c a u s e t h e ne\-fs of t h e remote p a s t i s conveyed
i n t h e Non p a s t time o n l y . The sense of w'on p a s t dominates ^y**
xnelremote p a s t when t h e t h i n g h a s happened.

As S n a s only 0A/ ending pa dj form i t c o r r e s p o n d s t o

/A/a of B.
 226

7 . Some chanA'e i n eco-redupiication

The vov;el i n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e /(v//y) A ( : ) , e C O / i s
r e p l a c e d by / i ( : ) / a ( : ) / : E.g.,
sA: 'sound' sA:sa:/sA: s i : 'sounds etc'
se:l 'spring r o l l ' se:l s a : l / s e l s i : l 'spring rolls etc'

/ ( w / y ) A ( : ) , e ( : ) / r e p l a c e d by / a ( : ) / - i s p r e f e r r e d by B.
whereas S. p r e f e r s t h e replacement by / i ( : ) / .

9 . 3 . Completely d i f f e r e n t v;ords i n 3 and 3 f o r t h e same ineanin,G;s:

B S i-'ieaning
igha AthA; v e s s e l s f o r v/ashing t h e c l o t h e s
AhA y a - bica'.ya- to think
kwAthA: khA:mu: sling
khv/a:la tA:kha: frozen meat
gutAica bAlla p e l l e t bov/
gutv/a: situ cynodon dactilin
g\^A:baha cAba: egg offered to god
gv/ara bagA: dwarf (male)
chupeN iihyApyA: tail
ja: gAsi creeper
jhyarkhi gAlA:ka balancing string 01 a
flying kite
t u p h i nAu nliyApyS:taha nAu comet
te:lAN suthA n h a p a : early in the morning
tyApA lv/i\hS i h i IwAiiS stone designed to get the
piller supported, used in tne
ground floor
twa: mhutu mouth
 227

dAnde K.buigA:
attic
P.bAigA:
dhyApA bhyAgA: dv/arf (female)
nAkcalM h a n A : / p h y A r kAthA: a g a i n , from t h e v e r y
beginning

nnAsAla/hilaca K.pAlpAsa/
lightening
P.hablAsa
pAkwAtca bAlca hut
peN cul- huslu: cul-/^ul- to swing
phakaca lapca butterfly
bAicula: gwa: a small piece of paper used
to balance a flying kite
hare hae lA: hAe hea?eH wild goose
b eta:si K.ghA:ma: long log fixed in a chariot
P.dhA:ma the front part of whica is
bent up, and is painted or
masked with the face of
Beta_: 1._Bhairat) god.
"bwAtyApa n^la khu bwA: heron
bhundru K,.bhulukha owl
P,,nhyAka: jhAngA ••
mAtA-kAla:li alumata the lamp fixed on a lofty
bamboo pole.
raAthalM yaknA: fast, quickly
rnAlAe khika: mugA: an open ground v/here people
.so for defecation
 228
B Meaning

malaha: ana: manner of sleeping stealthily

for a short period of time.

misa kAla: wife

mutu raari IwAhSca mAri dough of steamed r i c e flour

mwA- in\in-/v;-A- t o c o l l e c t (>one by one)
mhAsA kApa: forehead
lAbbu kisidwAmbA: b i g wave
laelama K.kApA: rainbow
P.bungA: dyA: ya
lA: saiiigu

lala ka-/ la:i ka- t o sv/im

dhAlAi-'J bwa-

v^aciW wAchS: moss

yai imu: ant
sAeguli gulimAri a kind of 3\feeetmeat
sAbuN sAmAe a type of ceremonial feast
swAlAe dhAki shallov/ b a s k e t made of
v/illow s t i c k s
nyAi^gv/a: k i K.gAeda k i : dung b e t t l e
P.khigwara k i
10. gAilPLK TiXTS
 229

10 Sample texts in Bhaktapur Dialect

and
their translation in English,

In this section six sample texts consisting of

narrative?, stories and conversations are provided \^ith the
free translation. B'irst three of these texts are also provided
with word to word translation. Sentences in the texts are
niiinhered and the translation of the sentences carry the
corresponding numbers.

Text No. It

khApAe bhAilA: dyA:

Bhaktapur -Loc bhAirAb god

God Bhairab in Bhaktapur

Informant: Mrs. Maneswari Amatya
Age : 85 years
Address: l6, Mangala Chen, Bhaktapur, Nepal.
Date of recording: 11th July 1981.

1. bhAilA: dyA mAdu nhapa

bhAirAb god be(existential)-ng. hab. formerly
2. nhapa Ajima chA-mha-fSiya ;JAkA jatra ka
those days Ajima one-cl-Gen only festival emph.
3. AlAe sAnsar dAkwA swA: wAlA
then world all see-hab come pa dj
4. kasi: BiswAnath nAN swAerka bijyatA
Kasi-iiOc biswAnath also see-purposive come(most hon)-pa dj.
5. bhAilA: dyA: sunanAN raha- mAsiu ni.
bhAirAb god any -A recognize-ng hb still
6. tA} FhikA: hA bhAilA: dyA: tA: rhikA:
tall quot.pt bhAirAb god tall
juya: wAlA hA
be-pap come-pa dj quot-pt
 230

7. betaliN cya: wAlA hX tAggwAekA.

turban-I wear-pa.p come-pardj quotT pt big-Adv.of manner
8. dAkwA siya sikAnAN wA chA-raha tA: rhikA,
all- Gen than (of all) he one-cl tall
dyA: julA hAN
god be-pa dj question tag
9. AlAe jwAsi tasi bA:jupisAN thAckA swAtA,
then astrologer predictor brahmins like this see pa dj
AntAdhyanAN swAtA
insight-I see-padj
10. su khe: wA?
who hon.pt he?
11. dyA: jioi ka wA
god be-N pa dj emph he
12. swAe malA, inhasi:ke malA waeta dhalA
examine need-padj recognize need-pa dj he-Dat say-pa dj
13. mha- si:kAlA
recognize (well)-pa. .dj
14. thAekA swAlA waeta
this-Adv of manner see-pa dJ he-Dat
dAthuilakA tAlA jwAnA ka
just in the centre put-pa dj,
dj, arrest-•pa do em]
15. bisya wani wA'
escape- N pa dj he
16. si:ka-kalA bhAilA: dyA
recognize (well)-pa dj bhAirAb god
17. kaJ jita si:ka
an inerj. expressing alertness I-Dat recognize-pa p
kalA gAe yaei
take-pa dj how (what) do-intr.
18. citA ka waeta
tie-pa dj emph he-Dat
 231
19. wA bisya wanetA sanA, AlAe waeta ta:rAN
he escape-Dat move-pa dj then he-Dat spell-I
citA ka mAntrAN citA ka thApakA
tie-pa dj emph spell-I tie-pa dj emph well

20. a: gAe yae Ji?

now how (what') do I
21. gAna wane gAna wane Jul A ka wAya
where go where go be-pa dj emph he-CJen
22. a: bisya wane mA-jilA
now escape be-ng, pa dj
23. a: sAkwAsinAN mha-si:ka kalA
now all-A recognize(well)-pa p take-pa dj
-bhAilA: dyA: thwA bnAilA: dyA: sika kalA
bhAirAb god this bhAirAb god know-pa p take-pa dj
24. AlAe gAe yaeu rAka: ka
then how (what) do say-pa p emph
25. chu yae malA, chu yae raalA
what do need-pa dj what do need pa dj
26. buya: hAe hk -buya:
carry (on arms)-pa p bring quot. pt -carryCon arms)-pa p
yAnke mAnjilA
take with be-ng; pa dJ
27. jhAn JhAn kwS: wanA tarAN citA
again and again down go-pa dj spell-I tie-pa dj
gAna wane mA-jilA jhAn-jhAn kwa: wanA
where go be-ng. pa dj again and again3 down go-pa dj.
28. jhAn-jhAn kwii wanetA swAtA kasi wanetA swAtA
again and again down go-Dat see-pa dj kasi go-Dat see-Pa dj.
28. a: chu yaeu?
now what do
30. gAe jwAneu
how hold off
 (Co t^

31. jwAne nAN mAchiN cwAne nAN mAchiN

hold also be easy-ng.hab live also be easy-ng.hab
32. a: chu yae nalA -a: chu yae malA ka
now what do need-pa dj -now what do need-pa dj emph
33. dhya: kae malA guraAesinAN dhya: kae
cut-pa p take need-pado some body-A cut-pa p take
malA dhalA hS
need-pa d^ say-pa dj quot.pt
34. dhya: kaetA swAtA cupi suyakeN
cut-pa p take-Dat see-pa dj knife with none

35. jatra swA: wA: pinke: cupi dAi

festival see-hab corae-hab pl.Loc knife have-N pa dj
la? mAdu
intr. pt. be-ng.hab
3b, ka: gAe yi: dhyAneu
interj. expressing distress how do-pap cut
jAkA he dha dhaN dha dhaN sAkwAsike malA
only emph say-pa p (rdp) all-Loc search-pa dj
-cupi dA: laV swA: ^ulA: mAru
knife have-intr. pt see-hab be-pa dj have-ng.hab
cAkku dA:la swAlA mAru
knife have-intr. pt see-pa dj have-ng.hab
37. a : chu yaeu ka
now what do emph
38. dyA: JhAn jhAn kwi: v/anA
god a g a i n and a g a i n dovm go-pa d j
39. AlAe Jyapu chA-mha-sike .1: chApu t a e
t h e n farmer one-cl-Loc sickle one-cl put-pa p
wAlA hX jalAe -1: chApu
come-pa dj quot.pt waist-Loc -sickle one-cl
40. ghai lAya: wA:iaha, che: mAwAse
grass cut-pa p come-hab-cl, house-Loc come-ng pa p
swA: wA: mha
see-nab coine-hab- cl
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41. ka Ae babuca,
interj.expressing faint hope Voc pt young boy of farmer caste
chAnke chu i: dA: la? cupi
you-Loc what sickle have-hab Intr.pt knife
dA: la?
have-hab Intr.pt
42. Aei i: chApu yaN
interj expressing sudden rememberence sickle one-cl.expt-pt.
dA: ka dhAka: bilA hS
have-hab take imp say-pa p give-pa dj o^uat pt.
43. kApa: chAgA: dani mha uli dani
head one-cl. be-N pa d;} body that mucy be-N pa dj
44. AlAe kApa: chAgA: dani dha-dhi: dha dhi:
then head one-cl be-N pa dj say-pa p. say-pa p.
kwAswA: wanA
downward go-pa dj
45. AlAe i: chApu kAya bAkAN sv/aettA
then sickle one-cl take-pa p immediately onom.of cutting
kilA hH bhAilA: dyA:ta
rash-pa dj quot.pt. bhAirab god-Dat
46. kiya wA kasi: waneta swAtA h5 kacakkA
rash-pa p he kasi-Loc go-Dat see-pa dj quat-pt. very quickly.
47. AlAe kalA gAna tAe
then take-pa dj where keep
48. a: ana khyAlAe wangu khyAlAe hakutyat
now there ground-Loc green ground -Loc throw-pa p
chwAtA hX
send-pa dj quot.pt.
49. wA dyA: taeta gAna tAe gAna tAe hakutya:
that god keep-Dat where put where put throv/-pa p
chwAtA ana ga: wanA ka
^.send-pa dj there oit go-pa dj emph
 23

50. ana bhAilA:- ga: dhalA ka

there bhAirAb-pit say-pa dj einph.
51. ana nAN kAyaJ nAN Akhe pati watchwAt ka
there-Ab take-pa p also that side-Loc throw-pa dj emph
52. Akhe nAN bhAilA ga: he julA ka
that side also bhAirAb-pit emph be-pa dj emph
53. a: ^wAne nAjilA gAna hAN? Akhe pati wa:chwAtA
now hold be-ng. pa dj where question tag that side throw-pa dj
54. Ae jujuN jujuN gwA:thae gwA:thae
like that be-inf(rdp) how many places-Loc (rdp)
bhAilA:-ga: puja yaeu dAeka: tAlA
bhAirAb-pit worship do make-pa p put-pa dj
55. kApa: chAgA: dA:, AkM bhAilA: dyA: ke kApa:
head one-cl, be-hab so bhAirAb god-Loc head
jAkA dA; hAla laha tuti raha mAru
only be-hab question tag. hand leg body be-ng hab
56. AlAe ka:si: wAN-sa kApa: mAru ka:si:
then ka:si-Loc go-pa dj if head be(existential)-ng-hab ka:si
57. Ohi: nepali-tA thAnAN jhi: ka:si wane
we i.incl) nepali-pl this place-Ab we ka:si go
dhAkA wani
say-purposive go-Npa dj
58. Ael kApa: t\^A:ta: chupeN
an interj expressing surprise head leave-pa p hip
ma: wAlA ka nepali-tA chupeN ma:
search-hab come-pa do.napali-pl hip Bearch-hab
wAlA dhai hi
come-pa dj say-N pa dj quot pt.
59. Ae dhAyaN chu yae?
like that say-pa p emph what do

60. hyagu saN wane ma: de:ke wane ma:

at any cost go need-hab. god-Loc go need-hab
 235

6 1 . ana a : rae;u kApa: tuN chuNa: tAlA hi

t h e r e now a n o t h e r head emph fix-pa p p u t - p a d j ci^uot p t .
6 2 . kApa mA-rAe-kA tAyA: tAe mAjyu: hS
head without put-pa p put be-ng-hab quot-pt.
6 3 . chA-mha nyA-mha swA-mha pi-mha Ma-mha khu-mha
one-cl., two-cl., three-cl., four-cl., five-cl.six-cl.,
bhAilA: dyA: khu-roha dA:
bhAirab god six c l . be-hab.

Snglish Translation (free):

1. There was no god Bhatrab e a r l i e r ( i n B h a k t a p u r ) . 2 . I n t h o s e

days o n l y t h e f e s t i v a l of Ajirna (used t o be c e l e b r a t e d ) . 3 . Tnen
t h e whole world used t o come t o see ( t h e f e s t i v a l ) 4 . Viswa-
n a t h of Kasi too came t o see ( t h i s f e s t i v a l ) . 5 . No one could
s t i l l r e c o g n i z e God B h a i r a b . 6 . I t was r e p o r t e d t h a t God Bhairab
was v e r y t a l l . 7 . I t was r e p o r t e d he came by wearing a b i g
t u r b a n 8 . Being a God, he was t a l l e s t among a l l , was n o t he?
9 . A s t r o l o g e r s , p r e d i c t o r s and brahmins t h o u g h t (about him)
w i t h t h e i r i n n e r knowledge, 10. "Who he may be 1 1 . He must
be a God", they g u e s s e d . 12. "He must be examined and r e c o g -
n i z e d " , they said. 1 3 . He was r e c o g n i z e d ( a s God). 14. They
sawChim) i n t h i s manner, e n c i r c l e d him and a r r e s t e d him. 15.
They warned "Uiemselves "He may e s c a p e " . 16. xhey r e c o g n i s e d
him a s God B h a i r a b . 17. God (Bhairab t h o u g h t w i t h i n h i m s e l f )
"They have r e c o g n i z e d me, what t o do.'" 18, (They) t i e d him.
( 1 9 . As he t r i e d t o escape t h e y t i e d by a s p e l l - he was t i e d
w e l l by a s p e l l , 20. "»fliat should I do now?" (.Bhairab t h o u g h t )
2 1 . He thoughf'where t o go'.' 22. Now he could n o t e s c a p e . 2 3 .
A l l came t o know t h a t he was God B h a i r a b . 24. He though "what
t o do?" 2 5 . They t h o u g h t , "what should be done? What should
be done" 26. They t h o u g h t of c a r y i n g him on arms , b u t i t was
n o t p o s s i b l e . 2 7 . Being t i e d v/ith t h e s p e l l he could n o t go,
( s o ) he went down and down. 28) By going down a g a i n and again
 236

he tried to go to Kasi. 29. *Vhat to do now? 30. How to hold

him off. 31. It v/as not easy to hold him, it was not easy
to watch him (going away) 32. Now what need to be done, now
./hat need to be done, now what need to be done 33. (The portion
.that is above the ground) should be taken by cu:ting, some
body suggested. 34. (They) tried to take it by cutting,
but none had a knife. 35. '^ill there be a knife with people
who came to see festival? No, there will not be. 36. ^/hile
thinking of as to how to cut it searched all (to find out)
if (some one) had a knife (cupi), (they) continued the
search, but none had it 37. *s/hat to do now. 38. The -^od
went down gradually. 39. Then a farmer came with a sickle
on his waist. ^Q, After cutting the grass without going
home he came to see the festival. 41. (They said), "Oh,
farmer-boy, do you have a sickle or a knife?' 42. "Yes, I
have a sickle, take it" saying so he gave it (to them). 43.
Only the head and the ttody are left out. 44,rfhile(they
./•ere) saying that only the head and body are left out, (even
the head and body were gradually going down. 45. Then
immediately after they had taken the sickle they rashed God
Bhairab. 46. Being rashed he tried to go to i^asi. 47. They
took (the head) but where to keep (it), 48. It is reported
that they threw it away on open green ground. 49. (Not knowing)
where to keep the God (they) threv; it away, and the spot
(where it is thrown) became a pit, 50, They named it as
Bhairab-pit. 51. By taking from that spot (they) threv/ it
to another side again. 52. It caused to have another
Bhairab-pit. 53. Not being able to hold it off they threw (it)
to another side 54. It being so happened they have made in
so many places the Bhairab-pits to be worshipped. 55. ^od
3hairab, therefore, had a head only, is it not so? It
does not have hands, legs and body. 5b. Then if one goes to
Kasi there won't be (the) head (of Bhairab) in Kasi. 57.
./e, the Nepalese, go to Kasi, 58, It is said that (the inhabi-
tants of i^si) say that the Nepalese came to search for hip
 237

l e a v i n g t h e head b e h i n d . 59. ./hat t o do even i f t h e y

say s o . 6 0 . At any c o s t v/e should go t o Kasi t o v/orship aod
B h a i r a b . 6 1 . I t i s l e a r n t , a n o t h e r head i s f i x e d t h e r e .
6 2 . I t i s n o t good t o keep ( t h e body) w i t h o u t head. 6 3 . Ong^
two, t h r e e , f o u r , f i v e , s i x - t h e r e a r e s i x B h a i r a b s Cin
3haktapur)

Text No 2 IchApA-e biska*. . i a t r a

3haktapur-Loc Biska f e s t i v a l
Biska f e s t i v a l i n Bhaktapur

1. raaraj ya inhyaepui-J dA:

k i n g - g e n daughters be - e x i s t
2 . wA miiyae ya dthCL'. - sa dyAnibAlAe
t h a t daughter-Gen say-hab i f . sleep-N pa dj time-Loc
nhasAisI sArAp nyAmha pya! wAi
nose - Ab. snake two-cl out come-N pa d j .
3. p y i wAlA ki Maigu
o u t come-pa dj t h a t bite-inf
4. AlAe nhyA: v/AyaS cv;Ani. wA sArAp nyAnha
then sleep come-pa p continue-N pa dj t h a t snake t w o - c l
auI:sAN ma: jjui
h i s s i n g l y s e a r c h - h a b continue-N pa d j

5. wA jwAlAN calA dhaewA waeke: dwa:

she subconscious-Ab f e e l - p a dj say t h e n she-Loc inside
wani ka
go-N pa dj emph
6. a: wA biya: chwAe malA
now she give-pa p send (in marriage)need-pa dj.
7 . a: wA Atltie j u - y e - k a : ..sunanAN k a i rnft-khutA-
now she l i k e t h a t b e - a f t e r any one-A t a k e b e - ( e q u a ) n g . pa dj
biya mAjilA
give-inf be r i g h t - n g . p a d j
 238

8. wA bi nyAmha sunaN syai -—...^ AlAe ,tini

those snake two-cl who-A kill-N pa dj then only
kanya dan biye julA dhAka: si:kAlA
bestowing in marriage give be-pa dj say-pa p know-caus.pa dj
9. AlAe rajatAe kaeraAca-tA sA:ta: sA:ta: hAi
then kings' sons call-pa p call-pa p bring-N pa dj
hS ukheN kae mAca-tA sA:ta: hAi
quot-pt that side-Ab boys call-pa p bring-N pa dj
hS ukheN kaemAcatA sA:ta: hAi cheN tae
quot pt (rep) house-Loc put-pa p
tAi hS nApAN thyAni:
put-aux. N-pa dj quot pt. together with causes to sleep.
10. wA maharani ya nhyA: wAlA ki pya: v/AlA
that princess-Gen sleep coae-pa dj after out come-pa dj
11. pya: wAewA huI:kA ma: jui
out come after hissingly search-hab continue-N pa dj
12. napAI'J cwa: cwS: raAesita raja ya
to,iether v;ith stay-pa p continue-hab cl-Dat king-Gen
kae yata Hal
son-Dat bite-N pa dj
1$. wae nAI-I wae nAN nhyA: wAlA
he/she-Gen also he/she-Gen also sleep come-padj,
NatA HatA dhae-wA sitA ka
bite-pa dj, sleep-padj say-after die-pa dj emph
14. marani (raj kuraari) ya nhyAlAN cae-wA bi
princess-Gen sleep-Ab wake after snake
dwa: wanA hanAN sunkA cw5: wanA
inside go-pa dj again quietly live-hab go-pa dj.
15. nhiN-nhiN Ae jAkA julA nhiN-nhiN ka
daily like that only be-pa dj daily interj-expressing
a: mA-jilA raja ya kae mattA
destress now be-iig.pa dj. king-Gen son finished (died)
 239

16. kAnAe khunhu j^i bAlAe sithAN

the next day be-N pa dj time-Loc funeral ceremony
yAI^Jke raalA
take need-pa dj
17. nhiN-nhiN kuta*. dAeka: tAi nhiN-nhiN
daily coffin make-pa p put-N pa dj daily
kutA; dAeka: tAe ma: hA. rajata
coffin make-pa p put need-hab quot.pt. king-Dat
18. nAki:ju Ajima burimha juya: pya: v/AlA,
nAkliju Ajima, old woman become-pa p out come-pa dj
hyu: julA hX.
ronm-hab be-pa dj quot.pt.
19. hyu: ju: bAlAe rajkumar wAla hAI^
roitm-hab, keep .moving-hab. time-Loc prince come-oa dj quot.pt.
20. rajkumar sA:ta nimta yatA v/AlA
prince call-pa p invitation do-pa dj come-pa dj
AlAe lae napA latA
then way-Loc meet-pa dj
21. 'Ae babu Ae babu chi-puN gAna waneu? chipuN
Oh (dear) boy (rdp) you(hon) where go you (hon)
gAna waneta wAyaV'
where go-Dat come-pa dj
22. "khA: thAe ra^a-N minta ydtA
"well, like this king-A invitation do-pa dj.
23. mAharani (raj kumari) byaha ya: yANke
princess marriage do-pa p take with
dhAya: wane-gu dhalA
say-pa p go say-pa dj
24. wA burimAseN sjm:
that old woman know-hab.
25. "Apa mAnu: wanA Apa mAnu: phutA"
many men go-pa dj, many men finished
 240

25. chi-puN wanegu-sa a: jiN chA-ta

you(hon) go if now I-A one-cl.
dhae yae khA: -la?
say do be(equa) intr. pt.

27. 'khA:' dha-lA hH

be(equa) say-pa dj quot.pt.
28. j i - N cupi chA-pu biya: chwAe chAn-ta
I-A knife one-cl. give-pa p send you-Dat

29. r a j k u n l a r i dyAn - A dhae-wA bi

princess sleep-pa dj immediately after snake
nyA-raha piha: wA-i
t\^o-cl out come-N pa dj
30. wA bi nyA-mha pyi: v;-A-lA Ihae-wA
those snake two-cl out come-pa dj immediately after
chA dyAne mA-jiu
you sleep-inf be-ng.hab
31. chA dyAn-e mAte cwa: cv/S
you sleep-inf. prohib stay-pa.p stay imp
32. mAtA dalukhAN tApuya: ti raAtA syae-mAte
lamp basket -I cover-pa p imp.pt lamp extinguish-prohib
33. chA sucukas cwa: cw5
you hide-caus-pa p stay-pa p stay-imp
34. 'napAI^' dyAne-mAte' dha-lA hS
together sleep-prohib say-pa dj quot.pt.
35. 'dAe» dha-lA hi
'yes' say-pa d j quot p t .
36. AlAe cupi chA-pu bi-lA
then knife one-cl give-pa dj
37. cupi kalA ka
k n i f e t a k e - p a dj emph
 241

3 8 . bhAgbAti-N cupi byugu tae tA-lA hA

' bhAgbati-A knife given keep-pa p keep-pa d j quot p t .
39. ka AlAe ma: ju-lA hA
well then s e a r c h - h a b keep moving-pa-dj quot p t .
4 0 . wA r a j k u m a r - t a napAI^ cwa; cwA:
t h a t prince-Dat t o g e t h e r s t a y - p a p s t a y pa p
dA: la? Nae-ta swA: ju-lA-lA, mAru
be ( e x i s t ) i n t r . p t . b i t e - D a t s e e - h a b be-pa d j c e n t , be n g . h a b .
4 1 . sucuka i cwa: cv/AnA
hide-pa p s t a y - p a p s t a y pa dj
4 2 . AlAe rajkxaraari-ya nhyA: wA-ya: cwAnA
then princess-Gen sleep come-pa p c o n t i n u e - p a dj
43. bi-ya ma: ju-lA
snake-Gen search-hab keep moving-pa dj
4 4 . ma: ju-juN ju-juN ju-juN t A : r h i - y a : wAlA
search-hab keep moving-cont. become-big-pa p come-pa d j
4 5 . huiNsAN sA: dAtA h5
hissingly sound have-pa dj quat-pt.
4 6 . rajkuraar-ya nyi: cwAnA h'K
prince-Gen l i s t e n - p a p c o n t i n u e - p a dj quot.pt
4 7 . ka thwA l a tAirhiya: wAlA
i n t e r j . e x p r e s s i n g c a l a m i t y t h i s emph. become-big pa p come pa dj
4 8 . j i t a Nai AbAsyA
I - D a t b i t e - N pa dj certainly
4 9 . mAtA u l a : swAe malA ka
lamp open-pa p s e e - i n f need-pa dj emph
50. A|imaN mAtA u l a : swA AlAe waeta sya
Ajima-A lamp u n c o v e r - p a p s e e - i m p . then he-Dat k i l l - i m p
dha:u cupi b i y a : hiftgp dhAyA: AlAe
say-i^kcJa k n i f e g i v e - p a p b r i n g - h a b say-pa p t h e n
 242

§1-r mAtA ulas swA; bAlAe thAthae

lamp uncover-pa p see-hab tirae-Loc so much
tya: wAlA h& kwAthae he
become-big-pa p come-pa dj quotrpt soom-Loc emph
mAnhyAnkA tA:rhiya: wAlA hA
contain-ng.adv-raanner.become-big-pa p come-pa dj quotrpt
jhAn waeta Nae-ta sanA
moreover he-Dat bite-Dat try-pa dj
53. nAkeu ka
hit-im:f emph
52. dliAma dhAm pala: chwAtA hi phukAN pala-pila
repeatedly chop-pa p send-pa dj quot pt all chbp-pa p (rdp)
sya: bila
kill-pa p give-pa dj
53. wA AjimaN uli dhae mAhA: -sa mAsyutgu
that Ajima-A that much say-pa p send-ng.hab if knov/-pa p
wA he nAkliju Ajima-N dhA-ya: hA-ya: (^s«^ ^^'^;^
that very-emph nAki:ju Ajima-A say-pa p bring-pa p.
54. kwAtha-e phukA-N jaekA tAya: tAlA hS
room-Loc all emph fully put-pa p put-pa dj quot pt
55. AlAe ha:sA: rAtA
then taking voice have-pa dj
56. wae nAi^ .nhyA: mA-v/A-lA wae n^N nhyA:
he-Gen also sleep come-ng.pa dj she-Gen also sleep
mA-wA-lA hale malA hal-a: cwAn-A
come-ng. pa dj talk need-pa dj talk-pa p live-pa dj
57. AlAe ana a:thpAriya-tA tae tA:gu dA:
then there watchmen keep-pa p keep-hab be-hab
pine a:thpAria-tA
outside watchmen
 243

5 8 . Ae thAu r a j kiimari thae

I n t e r j , e x p r e s s i n g s u r p r i s e today p r i n c e s s - place-Loc
kwAthae IchalhaCouN dA: hala: ^. , T . , ,
room-Loc t a l k e r - p l . be ( e x i s t ) hab t a l k - p a p c o n t i n u e - h a b
dA:
be ( e x i s t . ) h a b .
59. thAu rajkumar mAsi: dhAkA dhA-ya: A.nisM
to-day prince die-ng.hab say-pa p say pa p they-A
Ana:j yatA
guess do-pa dj
6 0 . AlAe r a j a t h a e dhas wane ma: diiAkA
t h e n king p l a c e - L o c say-hab g o - i n f need-hab say-pa p
suthAe h e dha: wan-A hS
moming-Loc emph say-hab go-pa dj q u o t - p t
6 1 . AlAe thAu yaN raAharaj, mAharaj rajkumar dA:
t h e n today emph oh k i n g , oh k i n g (voc) p r i n c e b e ( . e x i s t ) h a b
mA-si: diiAkA dhAya: dha: wanA
d i e - n g hab say-pa p say pa p s a y - h a b go-pa d j
6 2 . ka wAlA ka raja
i n t e r j . expressing pleasure come-pa d j eraph king
nAIM wAlA ka
a l s o come-pa dj emph.
6 3 . a: t i n i ji-lA ka dhA-kA dhA-ya:
now only be-pa d j emph say-pa p say pa p
6 4 . ALAe kAnya-dan nimta bi:gu julA,
t h e n bestowing i n m a r r i a g e i n v i t a t i o n g i v e - i n f b e - p a dj
bilA ka
g i v e - p a dj emph
6 5 . AlAe bya: yaigu julA ka
t h e n m a r r i a g e do-N pa dj be-pa dj emph
6 6 . AlAe chu y i : gAe yi: chu chu j u l A dhalA
then what do-pa p how do-pa p what what b e - p a dj say-pa d j
 244

57. kha kanA ka thAe thAe julA

fact tell-pa dj emph like-this like-this be4pa dj (rep)
68. ji thAe laS wAya bAlAe thAe burimha
I like-this way-Loc corae-pa dj time-Loc like-this old lady-cl
chAmAeseN thAe thAe dhalA (rep)
one-cl-A like-this like-this say-pa dj
69. dha: dha: the ya: biya
say-hab say-hab like do-pa p give-pa cj
70. bi pya: wAlA
snake out come-pa dj
71. ji mAdyAna inA-dy5.:se cwI:cwS: bi pya:
I sleep-ng-pa-cj sleep ng.pa p live-cont-r snake out
v/AlA huI:sAN ma: OulA ji-ta Nae-ta
come-pa dj hissingly search-hab continue-pa dj I-Dat bite-Dat
72. Nae-tAN bAlAe Ajima-N biya: hA:gu
ready to bite time-Loc Ajima-S give-pa p bring-hab
cupi-khAN pala: biya dhAma dhAm pala: biya
knife-I cut-pa p give-pa cj continually cut-pa p give-pa eg
ka
emph
73. 'syabas' dhalA ka raja-N
'well done' say-pa dj emph king-A
74. a: chAn-ta kAnya-dan biyeu rajkumari
now you-Dat bestowing in marriage give inf. princess
dha-lA ka
say-pa dj emph
75. AkiN kAnya-dan bilA ka
therefore bestowing in marriage give-pa dj emph
76. ma: ma: the ya-tA ka
need need like do-pa dj emph
77. ukiN wA bi-yau phukkAN kuca-kuca phukAN swatA
so that snake-G^en all pieces-rdb all join-pa dj
 245

7 8 . phukAN b i -yau hAnAI^ mha gAe gAe cwAnA

all snake-Gen a g a i n body how how look l i k e - p a dj
(swA: bAlAe ) nyA-raha nyA-mha (dA:)
Cwhen examined) t w o - c l two-cl (be-hab)
7 9 . phukAI^ wA kapalAN niseN chupeN thyAnkA phukA
all that head-Ab from tail upto all
sv/atA hi
j o i n - p a dj quot. p t ,

80. u k i t a laikAu kapAtAN mwArAe ya-tA ka

that-Dat suited cloth-I cover do-pa dj emph
8 1 . kapAtA-N mwArAe yaNa megu sulA
c l i t h - I cover-pa p another sew-pa dj
8 2 . AlAe wA na:g thi tuN cv/AnkA dAeke
t h e n t h a t snake l i k e emph looklike make
maJgu n a : g theN tuN dAekAlA
need-|iab snake l i k e emph make-pa d j
8 3 . Al^e wA gAe yae malAV gAe kyAneu?
then t h a t hov/ do need-pa d j hov/ show-inf.
8 4 . wA thane malA wA kyAne malA hAlepAta:
t h a t l i f t - i n f n e e d - p a dj t h a t show-inf. need-pa dj festoom
kyAne malA
show-inf. need-pa d j
85. si male - malA kapA tAeta si malA
wood search-inf .need-pa dj cloth put-Dat wood search-pa dj
86. a: jAngAlAe gul: sima yaN tAtA:mau
now forest-Loc forest-Loc tree expl. pt. tall-cl
dAi hAla?
be(exist)-ij pa dj question tag
87. waeta laikAu sima kae hi
that-Qat suitable tree ^ake-pa p bring-imp
 24B

88. sima kae liAya: uki: khaeu

tree take-pa p bring-pa p that-Loc hang-inf.
yae malA ka
do-inf need-pa dj emph
89. AlAe Ajima-N dha: dlia: theN ya:gu liN
then Ajima-A say-hab say-hab as do-hab because of
kyAnegu yanaJ tA:gu
show-inx. do-pa p put-hab
90. chu jatra swAeV biska jatra swAe - bl 3I—-va •
what festival see-inf. biska f e s t i v a l see snake die-after

English t r a n s l a t i o n (free) :
1. A king hau a daughter3(to say about) the daughter, t>;o snakes
come out of her nose v/hen sme sleeps 3. After coming out
they b i t e (the man by her) U. She w i l l be sleeping, then those
tv/o snakes v/ill keep searching n i s s i n g l y for (a man to b i t e )
5. In sub-conscious stage after her sleep they enter her body
6. i^Jov/ she should be.bestov;ed i n marriage, 7. i'^'ov/ a f t e r being l i k e
t h a t no body w i l l take (marry) h e r - ( i t ) i s not r i g h t to give her
(av/ay i n marriage) 8, They announced (made people know) thaz the one
v/ho k i l l s both the snakes v;ill get married to h e r . 9. I t i s
reported t h a t they w i l l i n v i t e the p r i n c e s from t h i s or t h a t
country, keep them i n the house and l e t them sleep \7ith the
p r i n c e s s , 10, v/hen the princess f a l l s asleep (the snakes)
come out 11. ..'hen they come out they h i s s and search for the man
to b i t e 12. They b i t e the prince by her s i d e . ^3• Both f a l l
a s l e e p , (the snakes) b i t (the prince) and (the pi?ince) died
a f t e r the b i t e . 14, J u s t before the p r i n c e s wake up the snakes
entered her body and stayed there q u i e t l y . 15. I t hapoened
so d a i l y . I t i s not good ( t h a t ) t h a t the prince d i e s . I6. Next
day they need to hold funeral ceremony 17. I t i s said th:it
they need to make a coffin every day for the king. 13. MakT:ju
Aji.aa i n disgLiise of an old v/oman came out, and kept roaming'.
 247

19. rt'hile roaming, i t i s reported a p r i n c e (.also) came.

20. (He) came on ( k i n g ' s ) i n v i t a t i o n , then met NakI:ou Ajima
on h i s way (to the palace) 2 1 . (Ajima asked) 'oh boy, oh boy,
where do you go? you came here to go v/here' 22, 'v/ell, king
i n v i t e d me. 23. with the purpose of g e t t i n g married with the
p r i n c e s , and taking her (.home) I go ( t h e r e ) 24. The old woman
knov/s 25. (ohe said) "Many men went, many men were finished
26. I f you go now I t e l l you one t h i n g , w i l l you do t h a t ?"
2!?. (He) said "(I) "do" 28. Ajima s a i d , ' I w i l l give you a knife
and send you' 29. t/hen the princess sleeps t^^^o snakes come out
(of her body) 30. You should not sleep a f t e r they come out. 31.
Don't s l e e p , keep av/ake. 32. Keep the lamp covered by a basket,
d o n ' t extinguish the lamp. 33. 3tay by hiding yoursilcff 34.
Eton't sleep v/ith h e r " . 35. ' Y e s ' , he said 36. Then (she) gave
(him) a knife. 37.(He) took the k n i f e . 38. (He) kept (with
himself) the knife Bhagbati had given him. 39. I t i s l e a r n t t h a t
(the snakes; kept searching for him. 40. (They; v/ere searc-iing t o /
whether he was staying by the p r i n c e s s ) , ^but he) v/as n o t ( t h e r e )
4 l , He stayed hidden. 42. The p r i n c e s s continued to sleep 43.
fhe snakes kept searching (for the p r i n c e ) 44. while searching
(the snakes) became big 45. I t i s reported th-:t t h e i r h i s s i n g soimd
i s heard. 46. The p r i n c e kept l i s t e n i n g i t , i t i s l e a r n t
47. 'Look, these became b i g . 48. I t i s sure, (they)v-;-ill b i t e mei
49.(1) should uncover the l i g h t and see them" 50. Remembering
wh-.t Ajima had asked to do ( i . e . , to uncover the lamp, see the
snakes and k i l l them, and vi^hy Ajima had sent him by giving a
knife) he uncovered the tamp and the snakes became so big
t h a t they can hardly be contained i n ( t h a t ) room. I'loreover
they t r i e d to b i t e him, 51.(He said to h i m s e l f ) ' h i t (them)'
52. He chopped them repeatedly, and k i l l e d them f i n a l l y .
53. If Ajima might not have told him t h a t much (everything)
might have 'oeen remained unknov-m to him; I t i s because of what
NAlci:ju Ajima had said 54. I t i s reported t h a t the room
remained f u l l of (the chopped p a r t s of the snakes)
 248

55. I t heard (from out side t h a t some were) t a l k i n g ( i n s i d e the

room) 56. He also was awaken, she also was av/aken, they have to
t a l k , and continued t a l k i n g (each o t h e r ) 57. Then watchmen were
kept outside the room. 58 "Look, some body i s t a l k i n g i n s i d e the
p r i n c e s s ' s room", (They said) 59 "Today the prince did not d i e " ,
2hey guessed 60. saying t h a t i t should be reported to the ^ing
t h a t very morning they went to r e p o r t the king. 6 1 , "your
Majesty, your i-lajesty, today prince did not die¥, they went
and reported the king. 62. The king also came t h e r e 6 3 .
'Now only i t became good,' (he s a i d ) , 64. She was decided to be
bestowed i n marriage, (for t h a t ) i n v i t a t i o n s were given.
65. Then they v/ould be united i n marriage 66. He (the prince)
was asked to t e l l what did he do and what had happened 68.
He t o l d ' i t happened l i k e t h i s , . . . 6 8 . "ifliile walking on the
way I came across an old woman who t o l d me t h i s and t h i s " , (he
n a r r a t e d ) . 69."I did accordingly. 70. snakes came out 7 1 . I did
not sleep while I was not sleeping snakes came out, and kept
searching iflor me while h i s s i n g l y to b i t e . 72. i-Vhen they were
about to b i t e me I chopped them v/ith the knife given by Ajima",
he s a i d . 73. ".'/ell d o n e ' , the king s a i d , "74 Now ( I ) bestow the
p r i n c e s i n marriage to you" (he added). 75. (He ) t h e r e f o r e gave
h e r i n marriage (to him) 76.(They), did whatever should be done.
77. (They) so, joined a l l the chopped pieces of the snakes.
78. itien they examined as to v/hat type of body w i l l be formed
(out of L,hem), they found tv/o bodies. 79. I t i s l e a r n t (they)
joined from heads upto t a i l s . 80, They covered them with
s u i t a b l e clothes 8 1 , They sewed a f t e r they covered, 82. They
should be made to look l i k e snakes, they made as they should be.
83, Nwk what should be done to them. How to display(them)?
84. I t should be r a i s e d high, i t should be displayed, festoons
should be displayed. 85. wooden poles should be searched for,
(they) need them to get clothes hung on them. 86. Tall t r e e s
may be i n the f o r e s t , may not be? 87.(The king ordered)>
•'Bring the t r e e s s u i t a b l e for-tham" 88. Arrangement should be made
to bring the t r e e s and to hang (the snakes cov-red with clothes)
on them 39. I t was made to be displayed as (the prince) had done
every thing whatever Ajima had asked to do. 90. ./hat f e s t i v a l to
see? biska f e s t i v a l to see - i.e.V a f t e r the death of the snake.
 249

T e x t No. 3

dtiAu p h i - y e ~ g u
I n f o r ; n a n t : - i-irs Laxrai Jnaju

Age:- 3B y e a r s

Aadress:- 5 yacnhen, 3na.:tapur

D a t e of r e c o r d i n g : - 25 J u l y 1 9 8 1 .

u : 1 tnv/A j u j u - dliAu phi-ye-gu tiirika ^Ae kiiH.:

triis king-curd make-inf .adj method hov; be(ecua)nab

chAk^: syAi^ia: biya: disA

once teach-pap give-pap hon p-c.

3:2 JuJu-dhAn baMakA pM-ye-ta la?

king-curd w£ll make-inf-Dat intr pt.
3 saij swJ^.ya: s\/Aya: ka gApae gA:-u
s i z e see-pap see-pap e.aph-pt hov/ much b i g cl-adj.
.'aa:-u gApae gA^-u rna:-u
n e e d - h a b v . s i x . he.'/ much b i g c l - a d j n e e d - h a b . v cfx
4 py/tTina nhyAn-gu d.iieke-ta cal
f o u r manas contain-adj s f x rnake-Dat expl:pt.
phachi duru ma: ka
u n i t of e i g h t manas a i l k n e e d h a b euiph
5 . cyamna duru daeku-daekuW sank-sankui^^baeku-daei:u-.
e i g h t manas milk boil-cont. stir-cont. boil-cont

yae-bAlAe cai Athe he oy^imna yae-u /.a

do-Loc expl.pt about emoh f o u r manas do-ini-det
hAla
intr pt.
6 v/A pyxi..ina eCnae-bAlAa b h i n - k A jAltA-K
that f o u r manas say-Loc v/ell o n l y - a m )h
Jui-ka hiila
be-iroa dj-euvph intr pt
 250

7 spesAl juju-dhAu jui- bAlAe p h a c h i - ya

special r o y a l curd be-i-p-i. d j - l o c . e i ^ h t man.^l3-•-Ien
cai guli ma: dha:-sa nyAana
expl p t hovf much need-hab say-hab i f tv/o raanas
jAkA baki ya:sa AlAe j u j u dhAu jui -ca
only r e s t do-hab i f then r o y a l curd be Kpa c j e.noh
8 uki: nAnkya: chv;A:ra, sukurnel tAya: ciil
t h a t - L o c coconut d a t e s , cardamom p u t - p a p marking
t^^ya: dae-ke-u sanKa: sanka: d a e - k e - u ka
put-pap b o i l - i n f stir-oap s t i r - p a p b o i l - i n i a-yoh
9 nliya-.3U he sar^s th-i-la chA-c;u-li: ma:ph'.7A-ya: tAl-A
a n y - c l emph even pot o n e - c l - L o c soak-pap pu':-pa d;
jhi ca-ya-u bhara ma: dhae-u m.^ru
expl p t c i a y - G e n - a d j p o t need-hab s a y - a d j b 3-n.-^ hab
10. a: u-ki: tAe-u
now t h a t - L o c p u t - m n f . d e t
11 u - K i : tAya: thAe-KA thi-ya: sv/A-tA, hnla
t h a t - L o c put-pap l i k e - t h i s touch-pap see-pa d j , . *j,t
12 nhapaij uli-ti-ti ."t^^lA, AlAe han^W u l i
f i r s t l y t n i s much about p u t - p a dj then a ^ a i n t h i s much
JAIA, nanAIJ u l i tAlA, d^Jcke li:pa
p u t - p a d j , a g a i n t h i s much ou'c pa dj finally
te:u ka
->ut-inf emph
13 mAtlAb chA-kii-lAil mA-tA-se tasi-tasi
so t o say (.all) a t a time p u t - n g pap time a f t e r time
tA-rJa: bi-ye-u ka
add-pap g i v e - i n f - d e t emph
14 AlAe swA-iZii: ya: tAya: bi-ye-u
then three-times do-pa p p u t - p a p g i v e - i n f . - d e t
15 .-ilAe cai thAekn thi-ya: sv/.-i-t-i
then exjl pt xnis iike-Adv- toucn-pa p see-pa dj
 251

16. t h i - y a swAe-oAlAe bliAca bhAca kv/a: kv/a: ttiGi,;

touCii-pa p see-Loc a little hot lil:e
cv/A-W . bAlAe diiAu-ousa tAya bi-ye-u
be-hab-Loc curd-seed p u t pa p ^ive-ini.

17. driAu-pusa t-^e rmyA: riAi.Kya:, chv/A:ra, h.ila

curd-seed p u t - i n f b e f o r e coconut d a t e s c.t.
tuivra t u k r a thAe kaju chu-chu- tAe
small p i e c e s l i k e t h i s cashev/-nut what v/hat p u t - i n f
ma:-u khA-: Ae tA-ye-u
need-hab"be-hab - l i k e t h a t p u t - i n f .
18. AlAe dhAu- pusa tAe-tA thAe-lcA t h i - y a
then curd-seed put-Dat l i k e - t h i s - a d v touch-pa p
sv//i-tA
see-pa dj
19. kv/a: kv;a: dha: bAlAe dhAu-pusa tae bi-ye-u ka
l i t t l e v/arm be - Loc c u r d - s e e d p u t - p a p g i v e - i n i eiiiph
20. AlAe chA-u thAla nliya-oU-li-r^' sa-N u-ki:
then one-cl pot any-cl-I e;aph that-Loc
tA-ou-lA hAla
cover-pa d j c.t.
21. j h i : bhv/athA: bhithA: chu dA: dA:-u-li-iJ
Ve-Gen l o o s e clothes what be(exist)hab be-hab-that-I
tae tA-i
put-pap put-i\ipa a j
22. niiapa ... c«I c i k u l a bAlAe sa sare s a : t
previous t o t h i s expl v / i n t e r -Loc if half-sevon-(seven
a:th ghiinta 'tAe ma: a: bAmha
and h a l f ) e i g h t hours keep-inf need-hab.no-; s'xniner
ju:li-i\' sare tin gh-uita
be s e x i s t ) h a b - c a u s e - I h a l i - t h r e e i, t h r e e & h a l f riours
t H : - c . sa sa-i cv/An-i:
put-hab i f become t a s t y - p a p continue->Ipa dj
 (Co i-j

2 3 . thikkA taim-Ae li-kae bi-ya: di-sA

aue -time-Loc take out-pa p couiplete-pa p h o n - p t

24. AlAe v/A bhlkti:ca j a e - k a : . ghAu-oAlAIchA

then that few minutes after u n i t of tv/enty four
ti ja-i
minuates \,here fev; minutes only) about pass-i.p;.; dj
theN cv/i4n-kai lika*. sa-ii chuW he
like feel-after t a k e o u t - h a b if-eraoh a n y t h i n g a.vph
ju-i mA-Khu
be-xjpa dj bei,equa)-ng h a b .

2 5 . -uii-u- l i p a cai bhAca phAe v/A: thae

that after expl ,a l i t t l e v/ind come-hab place-Loo
tae bi-ya ^^^^-^
put-pap co;nplete-pa p hon.

26. AlAe spesAl ohAU phi-ye-ta' chu y a e - u d.ia s a :

tnen s p e c i a l curd :nake-inf-Dat what d o - i n f say i f
duru nyA-pha: hA-lA, h A l a ? - ny.i-)ha
milk two ohas (1 pha«8 manas) b r i n g - p a dj c . t . t\TO ohas
duru cai Athe he hin-nyAiina ti baki
milk e x p l . p t about e.iiph ten-two manas about rest

ya: ya: pyi-cnana jAlti v/an-kA

do-pap f o u r manas r e d u c t i o n (by e v a p o r a t i o n ) 3 0 - h a b - a d v
su-yeu ka
boil-inf emph.

27. AlAe sukmel tAlA suiimel tae

then cardamom p u t - p a dj cardamom put-inf
diii4i-ka: saHl^-u saHk-uh sattk«u saHk-u-i^ dack-A-lA
be dona-pa p s t i r - cont s t i r - cont b o i l - p a dj

28. dae-ka: AlAe v/A patrA-e A-thek'-tuh

boil-pa p then that pot-Loc that-iike-only
 253

swA-ial: ya-Na: tAeu ka

t n r e e - t i m e s do-pa p put-inf. e.iiph

J: 29. chA-kAlA-N tA-lA dha-e-v/A cnu ju-i

one-adv-emph p u t - p a dj say-inf-after v/hat be-Wpa dj?

B: 30. diiAu ichwau-k-e tliaku-i ka

curd cool-caus-inf be d i f i i c u l t - i ^ i p a dj emph
3 1 . lAssa dA-i mA-khu ka
saturation have-i^pa dj b e - n g - h a b emph

32. s a - i mA-r:hu ka A-pae-sAkiU^I

b e - t a s t y - i » p a dj be-ng-hab emph that-much-adv

J l . 3 3 * chA-kA: tA-ya: gu-li minet di-ye ma:

once put-pap hov;-much :ainute s t o p - i n f . need-hab

3: 34. pan-dA:s pan-dAs

five(to)ten five(to)ten
J: 35. AlAe wA mae garAe ya-e ma:
then that husk-Loc bury do-inf need-hab
la-ki: mwa-:
whether or need-ng-hab
B:36. mae garAe ya-e ma:
husk-Loc bury do-inf. need-hab
37. ma-.aiii-e garAe yaNa: sv/A-kA: tA-e
nusk-Loc bury do-pao three-times put-inf
oAlAe ya-N ja-e-kA dA-i, hAla ?
time-Loc empn full-adv have-Npa dj q.t.
3 3 . me:-u riKabi-i dnAu chA-u cAm-ca tA-lA,
a n o t n e r - c i p l a t e - L o c curd one-ci spoonful pu^-oa-dj
duru bhii-ca t/l-lA, v/A phitAe ya-iJa:-li
niik little put-oa dj t h a t s t i r do-pa p - a f t e r
j'.vailA lu-yeu mA-khu xi sv/A-phuti
continiious-onom p o u r - i n f . be-ng-.iab eraph t h r e e drops
 254

tAeu ka
put-inf. emph
39 priUi-;kA-N onyAgA: tA-pu-i-u cam mi-lchAe
a l l -emph b o w l ( s ) cover-inf-adj expl fire-Loc
p.U%: kv/ak-kA tae bi-ye ma:
keep n e a r t o t h e f i r e - p a o warmly p u t - p a p g i v e - i n f need-iiab

40 kAlai^ tA-pu-lA hAla'i' 'EA-pu-i dnim-ka: ^aa

bowl c o v e r - p a dj q.t. c o v e r - i n f be d o n e - a i t e r .lusk
cnA-ma-K pha-yek-e-u ka
one l a y e r of h u k s - I c o v e r - c a u s - i n i emph.
41 ma mA-tA-:-sa-N su ni: tA-e ma-:
husk n g - p u t - h a b if-emph strav; emph p u t - i n f need-hab

iiinglish T r a n s l a t i o n (free)
Curd making
1
J: 1. Please tell me once ho\r this royal curd is made.
B: 2. You mean, to make curd v/ell? 5. It depends upon how
oig C^iOv/ big) one needs i.= the size of the bowl) 4. I'o make
one (bov/l) containing four manas of curd, eight ;aanas milk is
required 5. By stirring most frequently it must be boiled
down to about four manas, understand? 6. .I'hen we say (to
reduce to) four manas it v/ill be (resulting in) good curd
only 7. i^'or special royal curd if (somebody) asks as to how-
much the eight manas oi milk should be ooiled dovm, xz is up
to tv/o manas, then that v/ill be royal curd 3. By put'cin ;
coconut, da-ces, cardamom in thar uniik), by marking the
boiler, and by s'cirring frequently it must be boiled. 9. clay-
aot is not essentially required, any pot even that of steel
v/ill do, ^only> they must be put in water (for some time)
10, y^ovf to put milk in that (pot). 11. After putting m tnat
\.one; snould test it by touching like this. 12. r'irstly that
much, then again that much, again that much, (and) finally that
1 royal curd is the best type of curds
 255

;:iuch(milk) should be put i^oaured) 13. >^o to say, rnilk

v/ithout pouring a l l a t a time should be added .;radu-:;lly
1M-. milk should be poured xhrea times 15. ihe vrarmth of
tne ;nilk siiould be t e s t e d by touching ( i t ) l i k e t h i s . l 6 .
t e s t i n g by touch, v/hen (the :ailk) i s s t i l l a l i t t l e v;arm
the curd should be put. 17. before putting the curd-3ee(^,
small pieces of coconut, d a t e s , cashev;-nut, and otiiers,
what vone) needs to put, should put l i k e t h a t , understand?
13, Taen i t should be t e s t e d by a touch before vone) )uts
curd-seed. 19. -.hen i t i s s t i l l a l i t t l e v/arm c-ur-d-seed
should be p u t . 20. rhen th;.;.t should be covered by any po:,
unuerstand? 21 i,ihat again) v/ill be covered by loose clothes
one has 22. Previous to t h i s C:3eason), t h a t i s i n the v/inter
one should keep ( l i k e t h a t ) for seven and half to eigat
hours. Nov/ i t being summer i f one keeps for t h r e e and half
hours ( l i k e t h a t ; (the curd) becomes very t a s t y 23. Please
take i t out i n due time. 24. -i-ven i f you keep for a l i t t l e
more '>,time) nothing ha:ypens ( i t vion't be spoiii^. 25. After
t h a t please Keep i t in an a i r y ol.^ce ,iawhile 26, fhen to make
special curd v/hat should be done i s to bring sixteen manas
of milk, b o i l i t dovm to twelve manas by l e t t i n g four mianas
to be reduced by evaporation. 27. ihen to put cardamom., then
a f t e r cardamom i s put i t much be boiled by s t i r r i n g c o n t i -
nuously. 23. After the milk i s boiled t h a t should be poured
i n a bov/i i n theee i n s t a l m e n t s .
Jt 29 .fTiat nappens i f one puts a l l a t a time?
B: 30 I t v/ili be d i f f i c u l t to get the curd cooled dovm. 31. I t
v/on't be s a t u r a t e d . 32. I t •.^ron't be so much t a s t y .
J : 33 Once i t i s ooured, for hov/ many minutes one should v/ait?
3; 34 five (to) ten (.minutes;, five
Ji 35 Then t h a t ;bov/l) should be buried i n husk or uot?
B: 36 I t should be buried i n husk. 37. AfY.er the bov/i h' ving eeen
buried i n husk, when the milk i s soured i n i t i n three i n s t a l -
ments the milk w i l l come f u l l to the brim, v/on't i t ?
1 a small quantity of curds used to i n n e r c u l a t a nev/ patch
i s called 'curd-seed'
 25G

33. One spoonful of card and. a little milic stirred in a

plate should be put in the milk not in a big continuous
flov;, but as three drops. 39. All tlie bo-/els incluaing
tne covers should be •./ar.-ied by fire, and used v/han they
:jre warm. 40. The clay bov/l (v/ith milk) should be covered
(by loose clothes), having been covered (it) should again
be covered by a layer of husl:. 41. ^ven if the hush is
not used, at least strav/ should be used.

Text ivO. 4 :.• i; .

c a v a bhara, v/A iiaiuihatA
Informant : i^h'-s T u l s i m a y a Prajapati
Age : 59 y e a r s
Address : 12, Bwaiachhen, Onaktapur, heoai.
Date of ^ .'
recoraing:: ^ t h S e p t . 1981

J: 1 . a : j h i : c a - y a g u t n a l a - b a l a b i s A y a : cn>'i.kA: kha I n a e .^a.

2 . thv/A c a - y a g u t n a l a - b i l a W g u l i n a p h a d A : ?

r": 3« J i i a r a y a - u n a p h a Ae Ka. 4 . . j h i : - u m a : l t h A e dyA: b h i n A ,

iibha: tv/Al.-i. d h a l - d h a : - s a -nuksani j u - i - u mA-.:hm, d.ibbi
d A - i - u , hA..? 5 . wa wAlA, ohAe v/AiA d h a l - d h a : - s a c n u s i
dhaev/A s u JUIA, ghaemv/A: j u l A , chv/ali j u l A , WA pyatA diial-
diia:-sa c a y a u b h a r a yAkv/A n u k s a n i j u i - u k a 6 . WH l a j h i :
s.-dJ ta:nv/A: jhi:sAl'J bxiara a n a b h a r a u y a cv/!S:thae lioha:-
i a b n a : -^thi*. jul^^ dilHl^:i•i d h a l - d n a : - s a AlAe a n a g.-i-e tAya
khA: Aen-vcu.i h A i n e b.;-i.e-u k a . ' / . AlAe ui'.i nu.csaui kiiane
.;ui.t'fc-^, AlAe u : i y a dAbbAl h e : dAiu k a , dAbbAl h e : dA: k a .
8 , u.:i xiakn-'ii-ja: jhvm:lak-'i. t . ^ e g u i i : thwAke thv/A py/u^igA:
-knAe chAgA: nAi'-, ba^ci mAra.e yA: k a •:..•. phuk^^i': h e r\.A.^\-j WA
py.-u<gii: ya.. bAcAe j u l A d i i a : s a wA pyA.^j,;^A: yaN nagA: JAka
d r i i - u - i i ni_-.A: h e dAya: v/aniu jolii Ka, dAbbAl v;Ae bAli^e,
h^ii^i 1 0 . u k i : chAku: h e mAru d n a : s a K j i u , cn.-iku; ca-l-ine h e
mArA.:H •c.-i.jjyae y A : k a . 1 1 . SAchi gA:knAe Cii-ig4: G-"^-^'^ i^Ari
 257

baici j u i y A : k a , chAgA: nAw rnArAe yA: k a , v/a v/A: phAo v/Aelca:

3: 12 gv;A:rLiu tAe nia: wAV 13 cAchi t^Ugu n^Uihu laV

P : 14 j h i : thAna j n i : h a k u b h a r a ya p i n i chA-rmu tAlA, KAiiHe

iUiuiihu Athei'-'l tApuya tAlA -nAu.^hiiN, khAraiii-ri tiipuyA t . w a - l i
u k i : cv/Ae hakn/ii'« k h r i r a n i pnukkA s u y a - s a y a n i v/A Ichuica
dliaeu - wA k h u l - ca^^ phukkA l u y d kAya k i y a AlAe nalm-U.
UKi b a a r a j a e k A t a n e u k a . 1 5 . AlAe riaAnAi, tApu^/^a-taouya, a:
tiiAe cv/Ae o h a r a J u l A, ki'/Ae tnAna pv/a:ca criA-pv/a: ch.i-owa:ca
- t a i i n a ' cnApv;a:, xhi-uia cliA-pv/a:, thAnacnApv/a: t A y a - t i y a si
ciiAU, chAu, chAu t A y a , mi c y a k a : ciuya: u K i y a r a : pA-r, cv/Aa
ya bukiliu ica. IQ. pyAiiiiu tAe ma: 17 ciiA-nhu tAeu HAIJ dA:,
sv;Annu tAe nAi» dA: .:a. 13 sv/A-ixau txVlA d^iae.-/A pulanca/A
j u l A ria. 1 9 . AlAe ciiAuliu tAlA dliaev/A v/aland.vA J u l A k a .

J : 2 0 . AlAe chAnhu tAe^^u v/A sv/.^liu t A e g u l i ' : p a : /.aV

P : 21 v/A p a i you i ^ a mAlcliu k i sv/iunnu t A e u i i o h a c a cnu.si

mhAncaiu, m a : l cv/Ae tAe d A i u , ch/mhu t A e u i i 2 2 . Al-^-e
h a k u b h a r a y a t a gAe y a e m a : ? 2 3 . thAu hyaukA u t A , hyaukA
u t A , hyaukA thAu u y e u , hyaukA uya t h a n e u , AlAe IhaJieu, AlAe
thanA dhaev/Ai^I AlAe j h i : v/aNu g h a e dA:ni, nAv/Au k a , ciisAh
s i : mAkhu k a , bAndel ya g h a e dhaeu n i l 24. chikAois^u^;
s a v/A l a h a t A N j a h e iiAi ::uikhu - j y A : n a b e l i h e y a i m.VKhu
ka-nAv/A:u ka 2 5 . V/A gnasAk n i n^V.-/Auli-h v/A kvva l i s e
I h a H a l i s a : p b u y e u ka v/A oharakhAe 26 -ilAe b u l . i dliaev/A-<
ohAca t a c i n A . 2 7 . AlAe u k i t a chu y a e m a : ? 23 t A : l A e
thv/A t A j j y a u j u l A Ka b n a r a n i , thv/A t A j j y a u he hiara
julA-thv/A t A j j y a u h e b h a r a cakAlAii c a k l a k A tae,;^u 2 9 . v/A
t a e d l i u n k a - d h i n k a Al.^e cv/Ae n i chv/ali phulck^x missukil
phukkA tv/A-tv/A t h u l a : b h a r a ya dyA:ne tAeu k a . 30 v/A
cnv/ali t h A o a e j a e k A tAeu k a , thApae jac.CA k u c h i phikA
chv/ali t A e u . 'y^ u.ii tAlA diiaewA u k i : haknAk V/A b h a r a phukk.xi
nhapa-'« t A : i A e b:i.-s.puika tuieu, AlAe uk.i: cv/Ae-cv/Ae ukhe nxUi
g,'/.ituika, u k h e nAN gv/Atuika t-^^eu ka 3 2 . ha'uiAk c a e t t A yA:
m a n gv/A: t h e k cirja cv/Ae vAkwA su-H b a : l a k A thAe thi:k.-i.r-'
 253

tu.'. p u y e n k a y5, u k i su-N ;>uya-p''.ya u.ii *. ha.cn-i-. h a s a - r i

t u y a : .chAEani t.'inn.-i y a : t n e u k a . '5k. AlAe tAunA 3^a h.-zA:
h e p-,v'a: h e mArAekA k h A r a n i tAe diiun.i. diiaev/A t A : 1.^.9 t.ijjyau
o h a r a ya pv^aiA-u th.-in,;. cUT.thui l a k a - l i k a th.inan^U\ mi c y a k a -
c i k a b i y e u ka 3 5 . -•^lAe d u n e ya a i c ^ - A j-i-KH VA-I dAlcv/;-i. c h v / a l i
.'iu ' c y a r A i l a , AlAa ^cu nyaccukA wAi ka 36 n h a p a c i u s i b-Vila-
tAlAe b u l l u k A ku wili 3 7 . AlAe c n u s i phutA diiaev/Ai. oriaca
n y a c c u s e cw.^n-CA KU v/.-a ka 3 ^ . hakn.^J r a : p cArkA-a ju^/a
c,;'Aiii:ka - "thAu taAu r..-jiAe ya i i b h a : t i a n ' c u - . r a : p c^i.::k-^e
j u y a c"v7a cv/.-iiM- xc.4aritux. mi c y a k a n t u k bhara, I h A - K a : han.ui
caAxiie tAe ka 3 9 . --i-lAa h a k u b u a r a ,jui ka 40 nyniCA: u y e .aa:
ka '.7.-1. 4l ayauliA ch-i^^^: u y a ' . l i AlAe l i p a chAIc.i: uyeu 42.
u-:iN v/^i t h i k A e ka 43 h a k u b h a r a dhaev/A t h i k A e Ka 4 4 . a:

prAjaipAti ujiai k a , T h i m i : nAi'j dA: k a , t h i i n a s u j m a r i IIAU

dA: Ka 45 i.nisA-il y a e jiv/A hiAKhu ka 46 a i j h i : h e "th^ma
ya ')\xa bv/Alache ya puu p r A J a : p A t i pinsAi- iinisAi- JA,C^ y a e
jiv/A k a .

J : 47 c h a e y a e niAJiu l A e ?

p : 43 a : v/A c h a e y a e mAjiu? - Bramha dhAva niAiSiu sristi

y a e t a thwA dunepis^i-w JAKA y a e j i l A ka 4 9 . AlAe v/A
3rAriha rAka sv/Aeta b i y e ma? 50 loayapinsAN j h i : s A - W c h i k pin-
t h a e hAe malA dhAicas c h i k o i n s A - i i k a e o y u : u m^^hu n i v/A
51 ji;iiise-i^' BrAJiiha k u o i y a : wAlA, c a i j y a yai.aha j u l A ,
oyiUiKeu nAN j u l A , phukAw' k a , c h i j h i i u BrAmha hAye n a l A
ka-iiirAniha hAe a a l i b A l A e chikpisA-i'^i k a e u mAkhu V/A Bramha.
5 2 . m i j A n t A e t a kuoiKa hAeu, -aijj^uitAeta kubilca hAya: wA
bramhunM! p r A - J a : p A t i dhAkA d h a e k a : , p u j a y a k a : ch-iKhe
nAiJ j A l A - d i i a r a h a e k a : , caAkhe riAi'^' d u r u d n a r a h a e k a : , K U : S
ya siiiiiA: t i K a : l i gAna tAe ma:u khA: v/A cemAe j^i^^yA
s a l a e j h i : s A - i . h e 'cAe y a n e u - j h i :sxii\' h e tAe y a n e rnaiu k a .
5 3 . ukii\, -.rA:aha s r i s t i yaipuA QrAja:pAti rAkA dliaya cwAe
yapurJ p r A j a : p A t i nAi'; p r A j a ! p A t i .uiUiihu, i h i m i ya ouW p r a j a : o A t i
'Li^i p r A j a : p A t i :aA.chu-thilna ya puii p r A j a : l A t i ka
 259

J: 34 iinisA-r'i dAeke he rnAjiu ka?

r^: 55 dAeke he rnAjiu 56. i.nisew dAeiii: he .xiAkhu
J: 5(' dAei<.u:sa?
P: 53 dAeKi:, i:riisAi\[ dAekAsan^^I'] iiuiu j y a lA^'^Ae :nA^u: 59 AL-iS
j h i : s A - i j he iiirAnuaata ^Ana khA: i^a c a l thyilnkA yanKe ma:
6 0 . tiiAna j h i : t h a e haknAw gAe yae raa: . 6 l . bayapu.., j u s i j u ,
brarnhu, a c a i j u , t i w i c a , nAuca, hArek n h n e t a - c y a t a j a i t
t.-i.ya: thAna gAndyA: i,thae) d e : k e v/Ai, wAsA: j u , iAouH
pnachi tAya: puja y a : v//d. 62 sAbuN ninyA^u d^iaiu ka, .iinyii.ku
ckiaisaiJ hinriyAku t a e hAi m^khu ka 6 3 . khui:u ohachi Athe
he hAi ka o4 t u : ciki-u^^i chAph^Al'J t a e hAi ka 65 CAta:.nari
niiiiiyAii t a e hAi k a . 6 6 . AIAG WA oayapini phu.iK^ biclhi
sidiiAyalni j h i : prAjaJpAti BrAaha dAekurnha dhACii j i izaeyata
n i a: chipuN bA:ju piSA-N puja yaNa: chisA-ri nAiJ jv/.-i^Ja:
V;A:U, ga j\vAi>Ia: v/A:u, b e t a l i jwAife: v/A:u pau.c.-ill j i k a e y a t a
t i : i i i : tva

rhglish t r a n s l a t i o n Ciree; :
r^ottery rnalcin;; and th_e_ 'op}~^ter^
J : l Let us d i s c u s s on p o ' c t e r i e s . 2 . Hov; g a i n f u l i s t h i s
profe,::sion.
s:':3 -rain on p o c t e r i a s i s l i k e t h i s ( a s foliov/s) 4 . I f t^:e sun
s h i n e s , and v/eather f a v o u r s us g a i n v / i l l be doubled, no
l o s s i s caused, understandV 5 . I f t h e jurnin^:, m a t e r i a l s
vfuel; c o n s i s t i n g of the s t r a w s and w h e a t - s t r a v / s a r e >__renche(
because of r a i n ana v/ind v/e s h a l l h::ive t o b e a r a g r e a t
l o s s . 6 . I f s u n - l i _:nt i s v/ell r e f l . c t e d on v/nere v/e ba^ce
t/ie p o c t e r i e s v/e can t a k e a l l t n e p o t t e r i e s out i,of die
p i l e ; v/ithout any damage t o tae..i, and e x n i b i t tne::i i n f r o n t .
7. »/aen t h e r e i s no chance of damage, t n e ^ a i n v/iil be
.louoled, d o u b l e , of c o u r s e . 3 . The pott3ri=rS t h a t •/.;
re.-iove from t h e r)±'Le and keep i n l i n e may so::ietimes be
so dam'-ged t h a t n o t a s i n - l e out oi four can be s a v - a .
 260

9. oometii.ies when a l l tae four are saved tne p r o f i t ---/ill

be not of fiVe only but of ten ^ o . g . , the p r o f i t i s double;
10. 3ometimes i t so napoens t h a t nox a sin,/le -./ill be
saved 11. i t i s because of r a i n and v/ind t h a t on? oux
of nundred may be saved, or a l l the hundred may tia
damaged.
tf: 12 For hov; many days you need to Keep them?
13 I s i t not for a ni^uitV
?i 14 ;/e the p o t t e r s of biaci; .•)0"i:teries keep the p o x t e r i e s
for a day i.doing nothing/ rJext day we cover then /ith
ashes, and again by av/eepin,-, the ashes by a ion;', r.andled
implement c a l l e d Knuica, v/e out -uhe p o t t e r i e s in plenty
over them. ^'D, xhen covering them by straw, and s e t t i n g
f i r e beneath by pushing a piece of tire-v;ood in each
of so many holes provided here and tnere we get tne p o t t e r i e s
aoove bailed by the heat produced. l 6 , j-t .riust be kept for
four days. 17. Baking for a day also i s t n e r e , and Dakin-'
for throe days also i s t h e r e IS. v^hat i s oaked for three
days i s !:novm as oulayd-.-/A 19. t i e n the p i l e baked for a
day only i s knov/n as walanowvi
J: 20. There .uust be difference betv/een those oa^ed for a
day and those baked for t h r e e days.
P: 21 The matter i s not of difference but of econo.aising the
fuel as i n puiand.'/A many pots can be ad'.i.ed above, but in
v/alandv/A.. 22. v/h-it i s about the blacl: potteryV 23 fo-day
baked i?Ed, h.ving baked l i k e t h a t tney should be taken ouz.
After tney are taken out they (should be rubbed) 07 an i l l
s.nelt green g r a s s , you .aay not Knov/ t h a t i^v/lir/c is) .'.no-.m.
as ooars' g r a s s . 24. 00 i l l smellous i t i s tn-zt i_ you
are \,xn our place) you v/on't take morning anJi :rii nt -aeal
wit.i your hands Ctnat day) 23. According to t h e i r neat the
hot pots s^iould be taken out of the j i l e , and rabeea
mucn jy tne i l l smelling ^g-ass. 26. n f t e r jein-; raboed
 261

they should be p i l e d awhile 27. After t h a t \/hat should

be done to them? 26. The orofeen pots shoulci be i-:-id on
tne ground i n a c i r c l e . 29. Then the v^neat str-v/s t h r t are
broicen i n t o small pieces should be s c a t t e r e d a l l alon;.
the broken pots above 30. The straw-pieces ;aust be
piled t h i s high - the h e i g h t of a cubit 3 1 . After they
are p u t , the pots should be Kept upside down a t the
bottom and then other pots should be l a i d on t h i s and t h a t
side 32. The p o t t e r i e s being t i e d v/ell i n t o the shape of
JJA:mari. 33 By fanning the f i r e by straw and a f t e r scooping
the ashes out by v/innov/ing t r a y one should put them above
the p i l e abundantly 34 After putting the ashes i n p l e n t y ,
and . without l e t t i n g any hole i n the p i l e burning f i r e -
v/ood should be ootraded up to the middle throu:,h the holes
i n the broken oieces of the ' ) o t t e r i e s . 35. -tlien the heat
comees the straw and v/heat-stra'.7 to be burnt i n t o ashes
the smoke becoiaes c l e a r 36. -^o long t h e r e be more f u e l ,
ihe smoke (they produce) w i l l be dark and d u l l . 37. =«1i.-n
the fuel i s finished then the smoke becomes c l e a r 38.
.<xien the heat becomes i n t e n s e l i k e the sun of these days
(.summer), when i t i s so i n t e n s e , when the f i r e i s burning
continually the p o t t e r i e s should be l i f t e d and kept a s i d e .
39. Then they v/ill be black p o t t e r i e s . 40 They snould
be baked twice, 4 l . Once they are baked red and well
done tney should be baked again 42. They a r e , th^^refore,
costly 43. iiy name i t s e l f the black p o t t e r i e s are
c o s t l i e r . 44. Wow, P r a j a p a t i ^ s ( p o t t e r s ) ' a r e there in
Thimi and they are aere i n ^ujmari t o o . 45. They are not
allowed to do ( t h i s work) 46. Nov/, we the P r a j a p a t i s
of t h i s 3\/alaCi-ihyen l o c a l i t y are allov/ed to do ( t h i s
work)
J: 47.. '^hy (they) a^e not allo\/ed to do ( t h i s v;ork)?
P: 48 ./,iy they are not allov/ed,you mean?. The people of t h i s
l o c a l i t y only are allowed to do the v/on: of creation of
 26."^

3raniha 49. 'j-'o v;ho:a should v;e give t h i s •.•/hic:i i s called

3rarnha 50 Braiimins and v/e should bririf^ t h i s l.hra:naa)
to you, but you shoulc not take i t 5 1 . '^'e corn-c; carrying:,
oramha, you are the h o s t . Let i t be b i r t h or death p u r i -
f i c a t i o n or any thin^^; e l s e , you may nead our 3ra..Tha.
-it the time when we brin;'. i t , you are not to touch i t .
52. Sein^ c a l l e d P r a j a p a t i , and ^ettinr; worshioaed oy a
Bralimin by shov/erin,;; v;ater on one s i l e and :ailiv on the
other, ana boin^• ^iven ku:s ( s a c r i x i c i a l ;~rass ox the
Hinuus)-made vennillion mark on t h e i r foreheads our .a i e s
tnamselves should carry i t to ja^yashalaCthe place of
s a c r i f i c e ; and keep there where i t should be. 53. P r a j ; -
p a t i e s , the c r e a t o r s of Branha a r e , t h e r e f o r e , n e i t h e r
the p o t t e r s of Tliimi nor those of upper side ^ i . o , ,
^ujmari i n 3naktapur), but they are of t h i s i o c a l i t y only.
J: 54 They should not make ( i t ) , i s i t not so?
P: 55 They can never do i t . 56. i t i s nev^r done by the.n.
o: 57 i^what h?ppens) i f ishey do?
P: 58 Tney may make, but what thay :aake c a n ' t be used
<in r e l i g i o u s observances) 59. •''"e ourselves saould carry
t h ' t 3ramha to the place concerned 60. ./h-:t should be
done here again ;you knov/?) 6 1 . ihe hosts together with
seven or eight c a s t s of people v i z . , J o s h i , oraa.iin,
acharya t i n i c a , barber e t c . come here to v/orship Lord
^anesh v/ith a p a i r of c l o t h e s and eight manas of SJIOUN
ta s e t of ceremonial food. 62. Though i t i s said tney
should bring t^.-zenty four manas they do not bring t /enty
four manas. D J . They bring around eight to tv/elve manas.
64. They oring eight manas of .austered o i l too op. They
twelve p a i r s of cAta:mali ;a paper tnin wafer; ob. Tnen
a f t e r the branmins f i n i s h a l l t h e i r r e l i g i o n s functions,
you ( t a e h o s t s j as v/ell as the brahmins v/orship :ay son
regarding him as tne c r e a t o r of Bramha, allow him to wear
"che snawl and turban you brought.
 2G3

I'ext uo. khApAe tuLJabhAbani ya s t h a p A n a

(^•ii^stabllshment of l u i . i a b h a b a n i i n 3:ia-:taTDur. i^eoalj

inior.nant i'ir. J a s u d e v r ' r a s a d Joshi

.i.ge 37 y e a r s
Aadress 1 3 , iiiv/alachinen, B h a k t a p u r , hepal
i^iducation r i . . i . ^u-eo^raphy) Pii.j-, r e s e a r c h scholar
D a t e of Recording: 20th o e o t . 1931.

J. 1. thAu K.lnAe j h i J b i o a d c h . m : ciiu dA: l A e d n a : s a y a e

cv/S:puM nijinu: t A s e t u l A j a ohAbani .•.--•irijinAl tuli^.ja
ohAoani Amimha d h a i u , yAlae cv/Aipisi: jirniiiiia h3
t u i r t j a b h i ^ b a n i v^4.rijinAl diiaiu
2 . tArA b a s t A b i k tui.ijaoli.VDani khAoA.
'j. tul-ija bhAbani ya ^ b a i r A e ) chu dA: l.i.e d h a : o a d-ik
iihapaij tnv/A tnrt:ne oai-dia ^•'ornAesinAi',^ h A : u 11:1^^^ v/A
t i i A : n e oaKhe diM.iia d n a e u d^:
4 . .il.-i.3 t h A : n e pi.khs d i k e dxiuAali v/.i t u i e j a o ^ i . i b a n i
prA-:At j u y a : w a e t a cliu dhalA hS d h a : s a v/acta 'Jita
thuja:u thriGAe y.-iiiki k i ( b a : l a k A y a d niAut-i) j u g u thas.-Le
ki ch^^ku dhae.naiii ka. chAku ca ga:mhuya s'.i.Uu bAich.itae
a n a chu niAsiu thei-i p y i : v/Ae ma:
5. \7A j u l A d h a : s a V/A thasx-ve j i t a han-'ul s t h a p - u i a ya ch-.ka
6. v/A khwA:j t A l a s ya-yai^i ya-yai-J yAnku:u b^i.kh.i.tAe a :
gu^u t h a s A e tulA.ja b h . i b a n i dA: ana V/A orAinu: yau che
h S v/A
7. AlAe a n a c a ,2a:iahu3''a swA:u bAidi^tAe v;A /;:u"u I'xn.ie
dha:u khA: v/A h e r u : p yau thya'ckA a n a .ailAo j u l . i .
3 . .nilAe j u y a : l i l i p a br.'i:nuta c a i n e thv/A c h e tv;A:ta b i u ,
jiiviisAIJ t u l j a b h A b a n i you ;,i^indi:r c)Ae':ou dh.i.k.1. dh ^ l a .
9 . d h a : u b.iida--ac-ie br.^-Mu: .lan.ij .a-iju:
10. ;nanHe .n^^juya: j.^b-i.rrj->.stii-l v/aeu che lithui^a: ana
rnAndi : r ''Ae -uu
1 1 . .iiiindi: r dAekuu b^i.^h-itAe v/A br.i;iihua.ii'. a t z - n h ^ t y a ya-ia
sita
 2G4

12. at.iAiiatya y a : s i u ya juya n i t i r l aiaa rnuicukA^. Pya.

i;fA.eu bAkhAtAe l./AhA chAgA: dA: ka tA; g-./Atu Iv/.^a
chAgA:
13. v/^ ho thasAe v/A brAahu-nAiJ orAahA hAtya y a : u cihaou . : i s i n
yau cliiarAna xiAthrirl AlAe ana cA:rAe p A t t i bAu v/ae y.i;i.:iu
diiaev/A dA: ka aiia v/A b : i u : t t h a e
14. bnut p r e t ya ruo/ie C".7A:U ya n i t i i i gurnAesinA.. v/-i Iv/.-JiJl
ca:iiile he inii.te dhaiu, guniAesiiiAii v/A IV/AIIS ca:iiila v/ane
.na: diiaiu
^•J, Iv/^i."! c a : h i l a : vmniu

^f,lis£L-^:an^latiQn; establishment ox •xuln:ib.i..bani in -.h-ktaour

1. tdhsit disputable claim v/e have these days i s t h a t the inaa-

o i t a n t s of ivath.aandu claim t h a t o r i g i n a l iulajabnabani belongs
to them, and the i n h a b i t a n t s of Patan claim tiiat t h e i r I'ulaja-
bnabanl i s the o r i g i n a l one. 2. But r e a l •y.original) I'uljabha-
bani l^is ot) 3:iaktapur. 3. .-hat i s reported i s th-,t the ..lan
vmo arou;-,:it i t f i r s t uiere) i s said to have i a i J i t dovm
tov/ards .the upper side Coi -inaiztapur}. 4. Having l a i d i t
do\m t a e r e \,tov/ards the uo )er side of 3haktapur), i t i s l e a r n t
t h a t luiajabhaoani appeared bexore him and i n s t r u c t e d him to
carry her to a .otiier pi .ce v/here a f t e r digging uo to a cubit depth
something i^v/hat the thing i s I could not remember -'Yell)
shoulc. come o u t . 5. '-i-f i t happens so r e e s t a b l i s h me t h e r e '
(she s a i d ) , o. iXiring tne course of searcn i t i s reported
they ca.ne across a house \.\/nere rulaoaonabani i s residing
now; oeiong co a -^ranmin 7. After excavation they found
tiiere, exactly tne same t h a t had "oaen p r e d i c t e d . 8, People
in a group said to tne ^rahmi.-i, "leave t h i s house, v/e construct
Unere; a t e lole for j-'ulajaohAbani" -', The Jrahmin refused ± t .
10. i n s o i t e of h i s refusal they forcioly dis.iantled h i s house,
and b u i l t a temple t h e r e , n . During the time of construcxion
 26 5

the i-irahi'iin coramitted suicicle. 12. Because of h i s suicicie

there i s a big stone lying o u t s i d e the main entrance of the
main courtyard (of ancient royal palace) 13. .J'ith the concept
t h a t the -irahmin had committed suicide on t h a t very s ;ot
\\,\hieri i s l a i d ) on every fourteenth day of lunar :.ionth
offering i s made to tne e v i l s p i r i t . 14. As (the sxonej
r e p r e s e n t s an e v i l s o i r i t , some s t r i c t l y p r o h i b i t to go around
i t v/nile some o t h e r s say one snoula go Jpoumi around i t .
15. ^ien go around i t ;,the stone>i.

Text 1^0. 6
eka:rAsi brAtA kAtha:

informant: i-irs Ratna haya BasoKala

Age : 68 years

Address: : T A : r h l : b y a s i , Bhaktapur, Nepal

Date of r e c o r d i n g : 11th June 1982.

1, AlAe \vA n a r a n dy-t^: wA dAityA syae mAphAya b i s y a v/anA,

guphae dubv/atA k a . 2 . v/A b i s y a wangu v/A dHityA-niiij s,/ae
cv/a:c/AnA 3 . 'v/A huka: gAna v/anA J u i -f. thv/aeta mAsyase:
C'/^ine mxikhu' dh-JcA v/A l i u wa:mha julA ka 5. AlAe l i u v/A:bAlAe
naran dyn-vz-Ail (dhalA) jiw syae phAi m^ikhutA, a : j i th.^ia
cn/ikA: dy^ineu, AlAe d a : v/ane bAliie \7aeta jiN phA:sa sya he
syae ti'mi 6 . nlAe v/A dAityA yari v/A guphae he dubv/a
v/anA ka V/A n a r a n dyA: cv/a:cv/ii:thae he 7 . dubv;a: v/5:bAlAe
naran dyA:ya: CAttwaWa: yaukA dya cvr^nA 3 . "thv/^dta thAna
he syaeu ka kA* hAka-nika V/H uAityA ya ya^.' thA«kA Uiara^'I
dyA:ta dya:cwA; bAlAe) syae jAkA tA.: nAlAe v/aegu sArirAe
nAii kAnya ca-uuha p y a : V/A1A k i dibyArnha, d a a t t h e : ba:la:r.iha.
y . AlAe AsAnkhArAiM b a : l a : m n a kAmya ch^^nha p y a : v;A:bAlH.e yall
v/A d>-i.ityA yai^J syae lumanA ka viae. 10. k^\nya k e : mi;:ha v; nA
 266

ka v/ae 1 1 . iUiwAl. gAnanAl-j v/Ayamha chA? g u i i ba:la:-

atha chA? gAe cv/Aifeiha chA? 1 2 . Ahv/AI gx^a t h v / a e t a j i syae
dh^ViiA wAyaiiiha j i iiAi-i, uhul cnA k h a : b A l A e ji s a : b he ;;M-VIA
j u l A k a ' h . U i a - h i k a d h a l A . 1 3 . n a r a n dyA; ya mhutuN p-ya:
v/A:.nlia kiuiya k h a : bAlAe wA ^/•ae thv/A y a e mAsilA ka v/.L:. l4.
AlAe ' j i chA l i s e iV/aeta v/Ayamha' d h a l i i ka v/A n a r a n dyA: ya
lahutuW pya:v/A: inAse: 1 5 . AlAe dAity-inAi'I 'chA.j l a j i t a chu
s y a i hA^'v, thv/Aet;:. nAl'I j i s y a e t a v;Ayamha' r A k a : dlialA k a .
lb. 'ka chAnta jiiJ syaeu' dh 1 A ka kAnyA nAiI 1 7 . 'kasa sya:
sv/A' di-u-ika-dhika WA-J j h A : tAn-zar h A y a - h i y a v/aeta v;A n a r a n
QyA:ta s y a t a sanA Ka V/AI;. 1 3 . AlAe v/A k.myaN 'chA l i s e iha:
I h a : jAk.i l v ; a e u , a:au n A t h i y a r jv/.-^ne :arite' 19. 'cn.i. yar; h--^il
Kyatitiuse c".7A:iiiha hA.i, nan^i-A' b a i l a . i . i a -i.-inya hx-i..., c-iH;ita
jii^ ch-ithu daeb...lAe s y i : ca'v7-'i.eu ica' diialA ka v/AiI. 2 0 . v;-ii
iCrtiiya ya yaA ' c n A n t a jii^' rn.^syase: c h a e cwAne^ vdhAk.-i.; caati:
laiiKH chAthu j-Uw-i d a : b . i l - i e yai« c-ituv/a: v/an^i hJ. v/A ril. caett-i
SriJiv^.iA p i ; : a e - p a : i a e s a e t t - i . S.U.AA .i^iku d n y a : b i l A hA .-/H kAnya-
nxiiM ./^-i d A i t y A t a . 2 2 . A l n e s y a ! b i l A , AlAe s i t A I h a ? 25.
' chAii j i t a chu s y a i , chAnta s y a e u rAiiA j i i i s y a e h e daunA'
2 4 . sunkri. cv/A:cv/An/I li^ 2 5 . AlAe n a r a n dyA: nhy.ilAu c a l ^ k a .
2 6 . nliyAlAiNi c a : billAe, thAekA ^^i: sv/A: bAlAe v/.-i dAityA ya.-
cAttuwa: cv/.'inA, s i - i a : cv/^iiiA. 2 7 . "^^iv/Al jita s atA v/A:;;iha
s y a : t A l . i ;:a" dh.^ya: d a : v/^ya: thAek-^. t h u k h e : u l c h i : sv/AtA:
2 6 . -7A cAtu v/a: cv/iincv/A:bAlAe sv/.-ie h e £ y a : p u s e chaiA 29.
AlAe v;A k A n y a t a n a r a n dy.U/Arl dlial.V h 5 ' AhA \.\n.\rQ., thAna C":A
gAthe g.inan.-i.A wAyamha chA?' 30. ' ' j i t a thAjau-thAjau j u l A " ,:
diiAk.-i. v/A n a r a n dyAv/A.- Icha kanA k a . 3 1 . AlAe v/Al: '".i-ijurta
s y a i d-TAkA j i c 7A:cv/a::;iha, h A j u r t a s y a i dhAk.A j i CV/A: cv/a: .iha,
hAjui"ta s y a i dhAkA c h i j u nihAe-nA:! j i p y a : v/nya-mha 3 2 . a:
h A j u r k e : j i h bArdan rAr.-h'xne r n a n i ' rli-V'-i. dhalA k-:. v/Ai::. 3 3 . --^e
d h a : b A l a e .i.lAe 'AhAl j i chA khi^i-Ia As.inkh--i.r-i.jl k h u s i julA

3 4 . ch.^nta chu bArclan k a j v/A b i y e jul.-i' dh.-ikA v/Aiv dJhalLA k a .

35. ' "Chv/Ail y a - i a : SUA SUA h e chA:aha cv/i'kne cha:2;u -nAkhutl thv/A
dAityA-nAx\ yak'a: 3^ d a s h e bhAta:bhANgA j u y a : thv/Aeta syae
 267

he dn-H.ka j i cv;A:cv/a:niha. 37. thv/Ata rjiN syae mAoliutA. 38.

..i-iphi^ya: J i guohae dv/a: v/Aya: j i dya cv/a:niia.". 39 'chAnta
r^upha d./a:v/A:bAlAe v/Aii IchaA 4 0 . ch/^ita v/Ai; syae ta-i.
4 1 . j i cIiAinha oya: v/A3Aa3uliN..." 42. "ka dha:gu b i y e k.^.i.L;
dha:gu j i y e ' rhAka-rhika 4 3 . ukhunliu ya e k a : n i s i .:liA:la v/Aiu,
v/A k.'viiya ya nai^i ka 44 \JA kAnyata v/A naran dyAv;Al; 'chAiI dha:gu
o i y e ' diia: bAlAe', ' j i t a chuN ae m-jA: h A j u : r , j i g u
nail ya thv;A e k a i r A s i lorAtA cv/A:puN nn^'^agu p a : p ya*. saiJ kAtAe
juya v/Anka' u l i jAk^A phv^ime dlial^i ka v/AII. 4 5 . A t h e dha:bAlAe
' k a , CAAiI dhaJgu t A t h a s t u ' dhAka: naran dyAv/AN v/aeta u l i
bArdan b i y a thAkugit-ka.

Text No. 6
i:in,;:;li sh T ran s i -1 t i on:

o t o r y relatin;A t o t h e f a s t i n g on ekadAsi ('Ae e l e v e n t h day i n

a f o r t - n i g h t of a l u n a r c a l e n d e r /

1. Lord i-iarayana n o t being a b l e to k i l l t h e demon ran av/av

and rushed i n t o a cave 2 . The demon v/as v/atching h i s escape
3 . '•.'/here could he have gone t h e r e ( i n t h e cave) 4 . I v/on't
l e a v e t h i s p e r s o n a l i v e ' saying so he chased him. 5. 3eing
chased (by t h e demon) Lord -^arayana i^said t o h i m s e l f ) ' I
v ; i i l not be a b l e t o k i l l him, nov/ once .i. v / i l l s l e e p h e r e , t h e n
vihexi I v/ake up i f I can, I v / i l l k i l l him' 6 . Then the demon
ran i n t o t h e cave where Lord rlarayana v/as s t a y i n g . / . :ihQn
he ran i n t o t h e cave Lord xJarayana vias l y i n g f l a t on t h e
ground and s l e e p i n g a t e a s e . 8. 'v;hen t h e demon v;as about t o
k i l l saying ' ^ 1 ; v / i l l k i l l him h e r e i t s e l f ^Lord Jarayana
\raen he v/as f'-st a s l e e p j a most b e a u t i f u l d i v i n e v i r g i n cam.e
o u t of Lord iMarayana's boL'y. 9. .'Tien t h e extre:nely b e a u t i f u l
 263

v i r g i n came o u t , t h e de.non f o r g o t to k i l l (hir.i) 10. His eyes

v/ent t o h e r . 1 1 . He s-?_id, 'ohoI v/here did you come from
hov/ b e a u t i f u l you a r e , Hov/ do you IOOK l i k e I 12. Oh! I
have come t o k i l l t h i s ( g o d ) , b u t I am too much l u r e d vnien I
sav/ y o u ' . 1 3 . He did n o t icnov; v/hat t o do \/hen he saw t h e
v i r g i n v/ho came o u t of Lord i^arayana's mouth. 14. ' I came t o
f i g h t with y o u ' , s a i d ^the v i r g i n ) .mo came o u t of Lord Hara-
y a n a ' s mouth ^3• i'he demon s a i d , 'hov; w i l l you k i l l me, I
have come t o k i l l even x h i s Cgod,' l 6 . ' A l l r i g h t , I K i l l y o u ' ,
s a i d t h e v i r g i n . 17. 'Do, i f you c a n ' , s a / i n g s o , and a f t e r
b r i n g i n g a sv/ord he even t r i e d t o k i l l Lord Narayana 13.
The v i r g i n ( s a i d ) , ' l e t us have hand to hand f i g h t , d o n ' t nold
t h a t v/eapon' 19. The de'non s a i d , "you a r e a v i r g i n very
d e l i c a t e and b e a u t i f u l . I k i l l you by a s i n g l e blov/' 20. ^he
s a i d , "vrhy should I l i v e v/ithout K i l l i n g you", and ave such
a s t r o n g blov; on h i s c h e s t t h a t he f e l l f l a t t o t h e ground.
2 1 . By t a k i n g ( t h e sword) o u t most promptly t h e v i r g i n ) c u t n i s
neck s h a r p l y 2 2 . She K i l l e d him, he d i e d , i s i t n o t soV
2 3 . (The v i r g i n s a i d ; , "Hov/ v / i l l you k i l l meV ( o u t ; i k i l l e d
you, and f u l f i l l e d my oromise, 24. ohe remained i>there) q u i e t l y ,
2 5 . Taen i-.ord I'iarayana ,roke u p . 26. mien he woke u p , and
v/atched ^ a l l a r o u n d ) , ^ae saw) t h e demon l y i n g f l a t on t h e
ground, and dying 27. 'Onol t h e demon v/ho came t o k i l l me
i s oeing K i l l e d ' saying so ( h e ) stood up and c a s t h i s g l a n c e
i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s 2 8 . TP'iat v.dead body of xhe demon) l y i n g
f l a t on the ground v/as i n t h e most "terrifying c o n d i t i o n .
2 J . i t v/as r e p o r t e d t h a t Lord Warayana t h e n asked t h e v i r g i n ,
*0h v i r g i n , v/here did you come from?' 30. He (Lord uarayana)
n a r r a t e d "oucii and such nad happened to me".
3 1 . •^he s a i d , "^ainK.in^ t ' l a t he '^demon) may K i l l you, I 'came
out of your oody, izejt ..lyself v/atching you :)2. -.ov/ i h:..ve
t o ask you a boon'' 3 3 . men she s a i d so ^.than i n i t s
 263

r e s p o n s e ; he (j-.ord i-larayana) s a i d , "Oho I ':;.:.i very --lad t o

see you. 3 ^ . i g i v e you w h a t e v e r boon you ash f o r " 35.
\rie c o n t i n u e d ) , "-jecause of t h i s demon, n o t a sin-^le p e r s o n
could v e n t u r e to l i v e 3o. As t h e vhole c o u n t r y .;as d e s t r o y e d
by him I had been trying, t o k i l l h i a . 37. \,But) I coul..' n o t
k i l l nirn. 3 ^ . -^'Ot bein,^ a b l e t o i c i l l him I en'uered t h e co.ve
axid stayed n e r e slee^in;;;" 3bJ. ' h e sav; you ^nterin-^ t h e cave
;>o.ie s a i d j 4 ^ . he '.-ras even about t o k i l l you h^. I t i s
because of my corning out (of your body) t h a t . . . ' (siie s a i d ) .
4 2 . he i,Lord x^arayana) s a i d , "v/ell, I j i v e you v/hat you ask
f o r ' . 4 3 . iikadasi i.the e l e v e n t h day i n a f o r t ni;dit of a
l u n a r c a l e n d e r ; t h a t occured a fev;, days b e f o r e v;as a f t e r
th^at v i r £ ^ i n ' s same. '-1-4. Aiea Lord harayana ask.ed t h e v i r g i n
t o ask any boon v;hich she l i k e d , she s a i d , "I d o n ' t need aciy
.;iy Lord, except t h a t on e k a ^ r A s i , t h e d a t e named by my name,
a l l t h o s e v/ho v ; i l l be on f a s t should be r e l i e v e d from any
kind of s i n " . 4 5 . .^len she s a i d so Lord -jarayana g r a n t e d h e r
r e q u e s t by r a y i n g ' l e t i t be s o '
) mltLi t«(
 332

--kAnAe adv these-days

thAk-' vi7 go back after complet-
ing some task (aux)
(dhAya: thAk, 'return
after completing the
task of saying)
thApak adv nicely
thAlae-kwAlae n act of decorating the
dead body before it is
carried for cremation
thAsi n pine-tree
thA:(-wA) prn self
—Che n married woman's parent's
house
thAsr n caste
thala n pot (S, thAlA)
—^bala n pots etc
thaibhu n special plate used in
ritual rites and cere-
monies
tha- vt rub, brush (=thAku:(-li)
n a kind of brush made
of willow-sticks for
combing purpose ;, weavers'
hard brush
tha- vtl print
~ku: n printing press
—sa n a wooden block
tha- vtl play musical instrument
(thai) tha- vtl weave
~jya n weaving
tha- vil be stopped, be detained
khwAN— vil be stained
thae n place
thaku- vi2 be difficult (»thaku adj
difficult)
thakwA n palate (S, thAkwA)
tha(g)une adv last year (S. thA(g)une)
thaN n pillar (S,, tha:(-raA)
thaciN n door-head (s, cwA khAlu:
(-kA)
thacuku:(-li) n upper latiSh
than- vt4 wake
hA— vt4 mention (S, nhyA—)
than- vt4 cause sb to leave his
seat or residence
than- vt4 erect, raise
kuN— vt4 cause disturbance (lit*
'cause smoke to raise high')
leN— vt4 uproot
than- vt4 fill up
 333

pwa:- vt4 eat much (lit,'fill up

stomach*)
SwA- vt4 keep inside^ preserve
than- vt4 nominate sb as a candidate
in an election
than- vt4 prepare and provide
ku~ vt4 prepare and provide a
large quantity
thapAN n festival of establishing
sword representing
durga^ white pumkin
representing demon Mahi-
sasoor^ and puja pots
called thapeN during
Vijaya festival
thapuja n a special puja
thapeN n a set of Puja pots loca-
ted in thApAN festival
(cf dhanaNca)
thama n ridge beam (S« thAima)
thama n head of the house-hold
(S. hama)
thasima n pine
~ y a simta n Pine-cone
thi:la n the month of Marga-Pauaba
(December-January)
thi- vt2 touch
—kkwA adj all that are touched
— ;kA adv very closely (s, likkA)
thi- vtl pour out liquid from one
vessel to another
thi- vil shine
—kA adv brightly
thi- vil be too much salty
thikAe adj costly
—bAnja:(-1A) n a grocer who sells the
things at higher price
thiki n a wooden or an earthen
pot for keeping curd or
fermenting pickle
thikkA/thyakkA adv exactly
thiN/theN pt comparative particle mean-
ing 'like*
thiN pt as (phAya thiN ya-
do as one can afford)
thitipa/chechipali n oalf of the leg(S, pila
kwA)
thimi n name of a village in
Bhaktapur
thil- vt5 smear the floor with cow-
dung (=thil-a* n 'act of
smearing•; thila-thila ^
act of smearing (baby talk))
 334
thu- cl • verbal classifier used
with the verb denoting
sudden and momentary
action
thu- vi2 be felt by touching
ca— vi2 have sexal feeling (lit.
(night to be felt)
thu- vt2 cook (rice)
tyApA~ vt2 ferment (to make.wine)
pAlkAe— vi2 develop liking for
thu- vt2 understand
thu- adj Demonstrative base
denoting proximate
(«thu-A»thwA•this thing•)
—kathAN adv this way
—-gu prn this one (in aniro)
Niku— n black sacrificial animal
without any bodily difect
-mha prn this one (anim)
-li adj this much
-(g)si:/-:si: adv this year
—li this much
thu- adj denoting masculine animal
—ca n he calf (S, me: ca,
'young buffalo' dwA: ca^
•young bull)
--me: n he-buffalo
.^sa n bull (cf dwAhA sa)
thuwa:(-1A) n owner
thu:(-li) n roll
thu:ca n blowing pipe for kindling
thu:ca n shuttle
thu:r n a mound of earth, a
Buddhist moaument
thekan n address 7, certainity
—bakan n certainity
theN/thiN pt comparative particle
meaning 'like'
the:/khe: pt honorific particle used
in asking for sb's intro-
duction (ana su the:/khe:«
who Ibe is)
-the pt as (dha:the ya-« (Jt)
do as (you) say)
thyAn- vt4 cause sb to sleep
thyAn- vt4 rea^, arrive (=thyAH adj
•arrived' ;, thyAN lya*
(-khA) 'ordinal number•)
kA adv up to
thya- vtl fold up
—saphu(:) n foldable book
—su n crease
 335
thya- be included in an organiza-
tion ; be legitimate as
children ; spouse be adopted
thyak- vt7 admit into an organization,
adopt (=thyaka adj'adopted*)
—AN adv authentfically
thyaka n wine-cask
niraN- n wine cask with a capacity
of one mana
thyakkA/thikkA adv exactly
thwA pl:n this (see thA-/thu-)
thwA- vt2 pluck (flower) ; disconnect
pasa— vt2 search for a man to accompa-
ny oneself
li— vi3 to get tack (relapse)a dis-
ease
thwA- vi3 be hatched
thwA- vi3 be faded away (as of colour)
thwa- vtl kick ; spoil relationship
of people

dA: (=dAhA(-nA)) h trunk as of a tree or a plant

dA/dAe pt responsive particle meaning
•alright'
dA- vi3 be (existential) (=dA: 'is'
(hab))
usaNmA— vi3 be sick (used in negative
sense)
—su n example
khwa:— vi3 be dignified
nasA:— vi3 be lovely
nhae— vi3 be prestigious
bha: (-wA)— vi3 be trustworthy have the value
of
ma: ca: (-1A)— vi3 be controlable
mukta— vi3 be able
lAs(s)a— vi3 be saturated
lya: (ca:(-lA))— vi3 be countable
—si n proof
— s i pAu n certificate
si:(-wA)— vi3 be distinct and clear
—su n example
hae— vi3 be approachable(S, nhyae-)
dA- vi2 fall down
kv/A: (-1A) — vi2 be fallen down
 336
khu:(-lA) — vi2 splinter (s) to be stripped
off from utensils
tya— vi2 be burnt into ashed
twa: — vi2 be broken as thread, rope
etc-
pwA: (-lA) — vi2 for the clothes, shoes etc
to be tattered
bw:(-lA) — vi2 for the fuels to be over
burnt
dA- vt3 have chance to (aux)(^nAe
dA, vt3 'have chance to eat')
dA- vi3 have
gyAsu— vi3 have weight
dipa— vi3 have a break of work
nygA:(-1A)— vi3 have good memory
ma: — vi3 have mind to do sth ;. be int-
vi3 erested in (S, mAn—)
li— have means or way to do sth
dAe/dA pt responsible particle meaning
'alright'
dAek- vt7 make
dAk nhapaN adv first of all (S. dAklAe nha-
pa:(-nA))
dAkkAe adj mostly (superlative)
dAkwA prn all
—siya sik(A)nAN pt more th^an any one (S. dAkwA
swAya nA:)
dAkhinkali n goddess kali
dAnde/buigA: (-1A) n attic
dAb dAb n a small drum shaped like an
hour glass(^'kantaNdAb dAb')
dAbbAl adj double
dAbhu: (-li) n stage^i (S. dAbu:)
dArabhAtA n husband's elder brother
(S. dArbhAtA)
dArali/dandali n railing
dAra: j n drawer
dArwar nAnkya: (-1A) n nutmug (S, dArwAl nAn-kya:)
4dAl vi5 be broken into two
kuca-kuca— vi be broken into many many
small pieces as solid objects
ku:-ku:— vi5 be broken into many pieces as
solid objects
twA: — vi5 be broken into two as hard
lengthy object
twA:twA:— vi5 be broken into many many pie-
ces as hard lengthy object
twa: — vi5 be broken into two as thready
rope etc
twa: twa:— vi5 be broken into many pieces
as thread, rope etc.
baku:— vi5 be broken into two as solid
objects
 337

dAlAgu n special lamp to offer light

to god
dAlan n the lowest storey constru-
cted with pillers and with-
out wall inside
dAiin n ceiling, wooden beam
dAsAmi n the tenth day of the lunar
fortnight ; a festival or a
special worship that occurs
on the tenth_^day of Aswin
sudi (S. calA: (-nA))
dAsAhAra n a minor festival occuring
on the tenth day of the bri-
ght half of jestha
dA: s n. ten
da n year (S. dA)
da , n fat (S. da: (-khA)
dak AiTOi yfAwa: (-lA)) n brickmaker, mason
da- vt3 measure
—ku n tailor's tape-measure
—pu n measuring work
— p u ti n standard measuring rod of pat
—su n measurement
— s u kAlci n black betinum (gold smiths*
measuring and size cutting
scissors)
da— vt2 beat
—khi n piece of rope used to tie a
baisdle of rice- plants which
is thrashed against sth to
get the rice separated from
the stalks
—khuN n robber (S, -khu)
—khuNjya n robbery
kApa: (-1A) — vt2 repeat (lit, beat one's own
head)
kwA— Vt2 beat the ground or floor to
level it;,compact the floor
nugA: (-lA)— vt2 be sad (lit, beat one's own
heart)
likhA- vt2 break the furrows into small
pieces by a long handled
wooden hammec (S, lithya-
vtl ) (lit* later beating ;
cf hAkhA da-)
waN— vi2 be beateiin by rain (see 'waga-'
in ga-')
hAkhA- vt2 beat the soul by a long hand-
led wooden hammer called
'khAtaNmwAgA: (lit. first beat-
ing'.cf likhA da)
+da- vi2 be formed
 333
ki: — vi2 for the germs or insects
to be formed
twA— vi2 some edible thing to be
rotten (lit, maggot to
be formed in edible thi-
ngs)
dhu: — vi2 be dirty
nhi~ vi2 pus to form in a wound
wacin— vi2 moss to form (see 'wacin
ga-'in 'ga-') (S,V,*AthA:
(-nA) gA-)
da- vil be exchanged by mistake
—pa n mistake in exchange
la~ vil be mistaken in finding
out a way
da- vi2 boil
—si n boiling over
da- vi2 be sth snatched away by a
flying bird
da thu n middle
dan- vi4 be cheap (=dA: adj 'cheap'
dAn-kA adv 'cheaply*)
NacA:(-1A)— vi4 be wanton
dani n charitable person
da:kh n grape
dhyacA: (-1A)— vi4 for the way to be too much
muddy
naN vi4 be famous
lu— vi4 be satisfied with
dan- vt4 construct
da kA:mi/Awa: n mason
dhAlAN- vi4 celebrate a religious func-
tion
du— vi4 be strong internally
dan- vi4 stand up
jhwataN— vi4 stand up uselessly
pi- vi4 be published ; be publicl*-
zed
bhulu:-sulu:— vi4 hair be dishevelled (consi-
dered to be beautiful)
(cf haji-haji cwAn-)
leN— vi4 be uprooted
dan- vi4 stand as a candidate in an
election
dan- vi4 be done
cun— vi4 be reduced to dust
tiki— vi4 be dropped as liqued
pyAn— vi4 be well chopped
dandali/dArali n railing
dalu n basket made of willow-sticks
(S, dala)
—ca n small basket made of willow
sticks
 339
—ma n Eucalyptus tree (S, dal-
ca ma)
dalcini n cinnamon
—ma n Cinnamon Cassia
dari n beard
da:kh n grape
da:g n spot
di- vtl stop
—si n a festival celebrated in
the month of January to
mark the change of dire-
ction of sun's movement-
—pu n halting place ( a small
station)
Che—(-che-li) n ground floor
—sa n direction (a terminal)
di- vi2 be (existential - hon);,
sit down (hon)
dhAN— vi2 sleep (hon)
di- vi2 be (hon. aux, used after
pa p as dha-ya (:) di-^
'say (hon)')
di- vil tingle
dik- vt7 lay down
dikkA adv sad
digi n special room in a Buddhist
monastry
digu n act of worshipping acco-
rding to the consecretion
or following the classical
initiati_on of sacred spell
(K, nhilcA: (-nA) P. nhekA:
(-nA)
dijan n design
dipA n crematorium (S, dyApA)
dibya adj celestial, devine, heaven-
ly
dilae khapa n panalled shutter
dilae pAu n panel
dilla n the month of Ashadh-Shrawan
(June-July)
du-/dun- vi2/vi4 collapsed as house etc
(S. dun-)
du- vt2 set fire to
mi~ vt2 distil wine
sl- vt2 burn fire wood in a hearth
or a grate
dugAN adj of two, containing double
of
—chi n unit of tv;o fold more
—kheN n egg with two yolks
—sAli n 'sAli' of double size(see
sAli)
 340
duga: (-tA) n spinal cord
—kwAe/tisA; (-1A) n spine/ backbone
—pha n upper back (S, jAnpha:)
—mha n back of the body
dugu n goat
dugu dyA:(-wA) n tutelary diety (S, dyAwa
dyA:)
ducu:(-li) n inner frame of door or
window (S, ducu:(-li)
ducu;(-li) sprouts
dun- vi4 dive
dun-/du-. vi4/vil collapse as house etc(S,
dun-)
dune adv inside
dupa:(-tA) n cross-read of two or more
ways
dupwAlA:ca n guard (Spowge) (S, twAri-
ya)
dubasa n lining (S, dubsa)
dubli n spouted earthen veisel in
which alcohal is collect-
ed during distillation
dumhAdyA: n frog faced goddess (S, bya-
ngini)
duvi:(-lA) n a kind of skin disease cau-
Ged by the lack of pigment
duru n milk
—pi:(-1A)(ca) n nipple
—pwA:(-1A) n breast package of rnilk
duru ga n shawl with two layers (S,
dwAnga)
duwa:(-1A) n gate
mu: (-1A) — n main gate
dusi n millet
—puwaca n seeding of 'dusi'
duswAja n special rice cooked xn milk
to feed bride-groom in
wedding ceremony or to sm.a-
11 baby in rice feeding ce-
remony
dekha n consecretion
desi bAraN n Prunus amygdalus
de:ina n plate (Buddhist word) (cf
bhu )
de:(-sA) n country
de:gA:(-1A) n temple
de:pa- ad j left
dyA:ne adv above
dyA- Pt pu, above
—pa n upper part of a sleeve
—lasa n bed-sheet (S, tAnna)
dyAn- vi4 sleep (=dyAn-a adj 'sleep-
ing' )
 341
— a kwAtha n bed-room
— a mhAn(g)sA n dream in a sleep
—a-lasa n bed (S« dAsAna)
dyAVv'AN n piece of yellow cloth to
coyer dead body (S, dyA-
wA:' (-nA))
dyA:(-wA) n god
—kwAN n decorated large clay-pot
filled with wine to the
brim worshipped as god
—dhANpA n a small clay jar regar-
ded as god
— la n fisherman caste ; keeper
of idol of god or godde-
ss in a temple
dya- vil bear a loss
—pAN n act of bearing a loss(S,
dya pA: (-nA))
dyagiN n big mound in a field (S,
dyagi:(-nA))
dyanca n mound of earth built ar-
ound a field
dyasAli n safety matches (S, de:
sAlai)
dwAn- vi be mistaken
dwAbi n earth w©rm (K. dAmbi ; P.
dAlAmbi)
dvjAmbwA: (-lA) n round elevated portion
dwAsAlla n woolen shawl
dwAhA sa n bull (S. dwAlnA/thu sa)
— s a ca n he-calf (JfdwAhAca)
dwab A:(-1A) n an earthen vessel in which
steamed rice is fermented
to make beer
dwab swaN n Jasminuro qrandiflorum
dwalu- vi be excessively sweet (=dwalu
adj Very sweet (undesirably
sweet))
dwa:(-1A) n frying pan

dh

dhArpA n clay jar

dhAu n yogurt
gwA:(-1A)- n yogurt in a clay-bowl
juju- n best type of yogurt
i na:— n yogurt of inferior quality
 342

pa:(-tA)- n yogurt in clay-shallow pot

—pusa n a small portion of yogurt
used to innoculate a new
patch
—swaN n a kind of flower
dhAka(-wA) adv with intention, intentionally
(S. dhAka:(-wA))
dhAka (-v/A) pt quotative particle (S. dh-
Aka: (-wA))
dhAka:(-1A) n a belch
dhAki/swAlAe n big shallow basket made of
willow-sticks (S. dhAki)
dhAkiN n flap ; screen
dhAtur n Datura stramonium Linn
dhAtteri pt interjection expressing mild
displeasure
dhAn n riches
dhAni adj rich
dhAnus-ban n bow and arrow
dhAngA n process
dhAnca swaN n a kind of flower
dhAnyaca n coriander (S, dhAnya)
dhAma:dhAm/dhAra:dhAr adv continually
dhAlA:(-khA)pAu n list of contents
dhAliN n beam (S, dhAli:(-mA))
—ka n long piece of wood used at
the top in the partition
wall (which remains tight
to the beam)
—pakha n roof working as shade out of
the window
twa: — n end of a beam visible out-
side the wall
dhA:(-1A) n drain, canal
dhA: ca n ladle (S. dhAwA:(-lA)ca)
dhA:riN adv quickly (S. dhaili:/dhalmAe)
dha- vt2 say
—kwA adj as much as one says
—theN adv excellently (lit, as one
says)
ikumAku— vi2 feel giddy
usi— vi2 feel difficult ; feel dis-
gi sted
khA khA— vi2 feel a bit bitter in taste
gheN-gheN— vi2 be displeased
cAcA-- vi2 feel a bit sweet in taste
cAcA-pA p A — vi2 have the mixed taste of a
bit sweet and a bit sour
in taste
cA; cA:--- vi2 be wanton
ciku-ciku— vi2 feel a bit cold
cwAe-cwAe- vi2 feel oneself great & clever
and behave lifrfly *
 chA-chA— for the grains to be not
well cooked
jhA(: )-jhA( :)(-lAl—vi2 be illuminated with light;
be prominent, be altract-
ive
pA-pA-/pau-pau— vi2 be slightly sour in taste
—pu n saying
mimi— vi2 be deeply black in colour
1A11A(=1A:1A:) vi2 become very glad
lumu-lumu— vi2 feel luke warm
wau-wau-- vi2 be slightly green in col-
our
sl: si:— vi2 be intoxicated
he-he— vi2 be slightly red in colour
(=hyau-hyau)—
dhae n bed-bug (S. dhAe)
dhae ki pt conjuctive particle 'supp-
ose'
-dhai/-yatA pt emplatic particle
dhaka n special cloth originally
woven in Dhaka, Bangaladesh
dhaku phAe n storm (S, gwA: phae)
dhapa n fog, miet
dhatu n native music which is very
pathotic
dhatu n metal
dhatheN adv really (lit, as one says)
dhan- vi4 accumulate
ci:(-wA)— vi4 be or become small (=ci:
dhAN adj 'small' ci:dhAN-
kA adv in a manner of making
small)
du— vi4 be strong and weightjify (=du-
dhAN adj 'strong andweighty;
du-dhAN-kA adv'in a manner
of making strong*)
phu— vi4 be gratified (=phu dhAN ad'J
gratifying or gratified;
phudhAN-kA adv in a grati-
fying manner)
li— vi4 lean on (=li-dhAN-sa n'su-
pport')
lu— vi4 be satisfied (=lu dhAN adj
'satisfying'; lu-dhA^-kA adv
*in a satisfying manner)
dhalAe n pomegranate (S, dhalAe)
dhalApAca n small clay-jar
dhanaNca n a metallic wire urn used in
religious ceremonies (S,
dhalca)
dharAna n concept
dha: cl V verbial classifier occuring
with verbs of washing.
 344
rubbing, treading, and
kneeding
dha:(-1/r) n blade
(dhalA)dha:sa(ni) pt quotative particle meaning
'(the fact) is that'
(dhalA); dha:: sa pt conjunctive particle'if
(lit. 'if said')
dhin- vt4 push
dhink- vt7 eat (in undesirable sense)
dhi:(-1A) n shutter
dhu n tiger
dhuitya: ca n a kind of bird
dhuku:(-ti) n store-room
dhukman n anxiety
dhuN n incense-stick (S. dhu:(-nA))
dhuchi adv an indefinite length running
from one end to another
dhun- vi4 be completed aux (dha-ye
dhun-'for the work of sayi-
ng to be completed*
nA-ye dhun- 'for the work o f
eating to be completed)
dhung(A)ri n a kind of flower shaped
ornament worn in the centre
of the ear
dhupae n wound incence-stick
dhu-sa n mane
dhu-si n hump
dhusi-si n sorea robusta (S, dhu:si)
dhu:(-1A) n dust
dhu:(-li) cl V verbial classifier denoting
the number of times one
comes or goes, or carries
the load from one place to
another
dhyAkAe n rag
dhyAkAe aadj ragged
dhyAn- vt4 cut
dhyApA n dwarf woman (S, bhyAgA;(-tA))
dhyacwA n satire (S, dhyacu)
dhwA!ma n father's elder brother's
wife ; any respected old w o -
man.
dhwA- vi3 be slightly touched
dhwA(g)gi- vil rot (=dhwA(g)gi- adj'rotten)
dhwAN n fox (S, dhwX:(-nA)2
dhwAN n drain-pipe (S, dhwA:(-nA))
dhwAbi cAkhuca n mag-pie (S, dhwAbi cA-kh-
unca)
dhwAbya n washerman
dhwA: n line
dhwArdu- vi2 come across sb by cance
 345

dhwA:bwa n father's elder brother

any elderly respected
person (cf tA;ribwa)
dhwae n flag
dhwaka n gate
dhwaNwa:1 swaN n Hippeastrum vittaluni

nA- vt2 eat

—khiraM adj gluttonous
—pu n manner of eatting
—sa n food
—suwa adj one who is habituated to
eat delicious food only
kilAN— vi2 be eatten by the insects
ku: — vi2 remain tired (lit. eat hard
piece)
khAtAN— vi2 be rusted (lit. be eatten
by the rust )
khi—/ghae— vi2 be dishonest (lit. eat stool
/grass)
ghwAN—/Iha:- vi2 be punished (lit, eat beat-
ing/hand)
ci— vi2 be obliged (lig. eat salt)
la— vi2 be troubled much (lit, one's
meat to be eatten by sb)
Iha:—/ghwAN— vi2 be punished
nA- vi2 be sharp as knife
nAu n hollow stands in wax-made
idol
nAu n ashes
nAu(ca) n barber(S, nAu)
—ni: n female barber
— p A sA n saloon (S, pAsA:(-.lA))
nAu nr nine
nA(g)u n star
tuphi— n comet
nAk- vt7 chop
nAkAli adj artificial ; copied ; not
of good quality
nAkiN n old lady
— j u Ajima n goddess Ajima
nAkcaN adv again : from the very begi-
nning (S. ha(k)nA: ; chAsi:-
nise:)
 34S
nAktini adv just now (P. nAkA:tini)
— y a puN adj tender-aged
nAkha n festival (S, nAkhA: (-1A))
—cAkha n miner festivals
—tya n festival feast after the
main day of the festival
nAgu n star
—pucA:(—lA) n constellation of stars
nAN n Nepali cloak (S, lA:(-nA))
nAN pt emphatic particle 'also'
nANsagAr n Ammonium chloride
nAtuN/tuN pt emphatic particle meaning
'only'
nAnkya: (-lA) n coconut
nAni n court yard
nApAkAthi n reed ( 8. nhaepA:(-nA)
kAthi)
nApaN adv together (S, napA:(-nA))
nAlu(:) n flesh (S. nAlu:(-khA))
nAllA adv manner of burning the fuel
with weak blaze and be
reduced to the ashes soon
nAlla/nA:]a n seedling of oat (S, nA:la)
—SWAN cA:rhe n miner festival of sowing
the oat-seeds that occurs
on the 14th Aswin sudi
which is clelbrated under
vijaya festival (S, nALla
sAna/sAne cA:rhe)
nAhAr/nA:r n threading tap
nA:s n wall plate
nS n scent
na pt imperative particle mean-
ing 'take* (only when the
object to be given is with
the addresser (cf/ka/'take '
when object is near to the
addressee)
naekhiN n proclamation
—bajAN n butchers' musical team ;
musical team for procla-
ne tion
naku u n penis
na (g)une adv the year before the last
year (S, nAgune)
naN n name
nanica n vulva (euphemistic term)
nanibeti swAN n a kind of flower
nanga adj naked
napha n gain
nayA: n hero ;, the chief ; main one
naran dyA: n Lord Narayana
 347

nali n wrist
nalu n Hibicus Cannabinus L
nawA ghae n Mintha Sylvestris (S.
nAwA: (-1A) ghae)
nasA: (-1A) n art of being liked by others,
attraction
nasi (ca) n vulva of a small girl(cf pisi,
bhAkku, masi^ ma:l)
na: (-khA) n water
—^Agha n stone made water container
in goldsmith's shop
--ghae n Taxus baccata (S, lA: swa:)
—jA: n waiter-level
—(ya) pArbA: (-lA)n tide
— p a : (-tA) n water container in a work-
shop
(ya) bhAmA:(-lA) n whirl-wind
bhete— n mud (S, bhyatA na:)
—si n root of Taxus baccata (S, lA:
si)
na:g n snake
—pAncAmi n miner festival of worshiping
: snake on the fifth Shrawan
sudi
—beni n twisted carving in the shape
of the snakes (S. -beli)
na: gwA:(-1A) n decorative carnice
nlnl n father's sister
ni- vtl grind*count
n work of counting or grinding
—jya after
-ni/-li pt
pt still, da-ni 'there still is'
-ni emphatic particle khA:ni,
-ni pt
•sure it is'
nikanAN adv so much (S, nakA:(-nA))
nikuthu n bid ck sacrificial animal with-
out any bodily defect (S. nik
khur)
vi2 be powdered (=nicu adj powd-
nicu- ered ;, nicu-kA adv*well ground)
(S, nAcu-)
nm- vi4 be good for health (as edible
things)
bdimta n invitation
nila:(-1A) n girder (S, nina:)
nisiN adv since (S. nise: ; B. farmers'
speech 'lisiN')
nisla:(-khA) n offering of beaten rice and
a piece of sweetmeat to a
Brahman in memory of dead
forefathers
 343

nisu- vi2 be thin as lenthy object

(=ni8u adj 'thin' ; nisu-
kA adv 'thinly') (S. nAcu-)
nx: n twenty
ni: (-1A) n foundation
ni: pt emphatic particle 'before
anything else'
ni:ci: (-1A) n orthodox, manner of saneti-
fication in day-to-day affairs
ni:si: (-1A) n occasional sanetification
as of death-purification etc
ni:hA: n Melia azadirachta
+-nu- vi2 be
ae— vi2 be too much
tya— vi2 be tired
pya— vi2 be flexibly tough
ya~ vi2 deep-rootedly as stomach-
ache
nuksani n loss (S, nwAksan)
nugA: (-1A) n heart
—pa n chest
-sya :(-wA) kuti n a miserly fellow
nun- vt4 shallow
nun- vi4 be tired of eatting the same
type of food every day
nepa: (-1A) n Nepal
nepali n person from/of Nepal
newa: (-r) n Newar caste
newari adj anything that belong to the
Newars
nyA- n two
nyAn- vt4 listen
nyAn- vt4 ask
nyAl- vt5 wind strands (S«nil-)
nyAl- vi5 be tired (=nyA: adj tired ;
nyA: khwa:, n tired looking face)
nya n spinning wheel (S, yl^: )
nya n iron (S, nft)
nya- vtl buy
nya- vil be dashed against^ callide
ya:-- vi chariot with an idol of god
to be pulled to the aimed spot
—kAtaN n chisel to level the iron
—ki n nail (S, nAki: (-nA)
—gwA: ca n ring rod (S, nAicu:^aii
—tu:(-li) n thin pointed iron-rod
—twa]cA: (-1A) n flat anvil (S. ikke)
— p a si n siTB lllpear with hard speaks
in its flesh (S, dhA: pasi)
—laca n fire turner (5, nala)
nyak^ vt7 corner, taunt
nyacu vi2 be clear (=nyacu adj 'clear*;
 349

nyacu-kA adv 'clearly')

(S, yAcu-)
nyan- vi4 be experienced (S, nAn-)
nyapha n trousers : drawers(S, nyApha)
nyal- vi5 be melted
nyalu vi2 be less tasty(=nyalu adj
•less tasty'
nwA- vi2 be-come sharper
ci- vi2 for the food to be iboo much
salty
mi- vi2 for the fire to be glown
nwA- vi3 be pricked
—ku:(-li) n a wedge
—kapA n a hearth rag (S.—kapA:(-tA)
nwA:(-1A) n bamboo pole used to carry
a swing
nwA: kAthi n pipe for hubling (farmers'
speech nwA:chi)
nwA:ca n mangoese (S, oAwAica)
nwA- _ vtl rebuke for rubukee's goodness
~khA n sound advice
-khwAN ad j one who do«s not care for
any rebuke ; rebuke-proof
nwa- vtl play with a small baby or
a pet being enticed by it
nhAe n seven (=nhAe-: n*seventyv
nhAekAN n looking glass (S, nhaekA:
(-nA))
— jhya :(-lA) n glazed shutter^
nhAepA n ear (S, nhaep^A: (-nA))
—pui n ear-wax
nhAenhu n soft secretion (serum) of
the ear (S, dhunhu:(-li)
nhAebi n centipede
nhAku__ n temple (bodily part)
-sa n side-lock
nhAs(A)la n lightening (K, pAlpAsa P,
hawAlAsa)
nhAsi adj swamp
nhae n nose
— p w a : (-1A) n nostrils
— b A l a :(-tA) n pleat -
nhasi n blood coming out of the
nose
nhasi n ridge of the nose
—kuti n person with flat nose (i-d-
with less ridge of the nose)
nhakAN n sticking nettle (S, nhaekA:
(-nA)
dyA— n non sti<eking nettle with
large leaves (S, kisi nhaekA:)
nhacA: (-;LA) adv a moment before
nhan- vi4 be totally demolished
 350
nhapa adv previously
—lakA adv firstly
nhi n pus
~chi n root of the pus
nhi n mucus
nhi n day (=nhi-N nhi-N adv •daili')
-nhu n day (used with numeral adjectives
as nyA-nhu^ 'two days'; swA-nhu,
nhu- vt2 'three days'^
4—nhu- vi2 tread
tin— vi2 sth to come out suddenly
thara— vi2 jump
pi~ vi2 be trightened suddenly
bhA— vi2 grief to be burst out
nhu: (-wA) adj cock or hen to be frightened suddenly;
~da n new
nhyA- vt2 new year _
kApa:(-lA)-- vt2 mqbh
wa— vi2 kill
become too much angry (lit.clatter
nhyAn- vi4 the teeth)
nhyApu n be contained
brain
nhyAl- vi5 smile, laugh (=nhyAl-a n 'a smile',
' a l a u g h ' ; nhyAl-e n ' a c t of smiling/
iti iti— vi5 laughing'; nhyu: adj 'smiling/laughing)
manner of laughing a bit midly, and
repeatedly (cf hArA-hAr^—)
itititiN- vi5 manner of laughing a bit mildly, and
continually (cf hArArArA)
phisikkA- vi5 smile a bit and stop again as if one
has not smiled (cf musAkkA--)
phisi-phisi- vi5 smile repeatedly (cf musA-musA—.)
phisisisiN- vi5 smile continually (cf musA-hAN—)
musAkkA- vi5 smile once most pleasently(c£ phisikkA-
musA-musA- vi5 manner of smiling pleasently repeatedly
mwAsA(hA)N— vi5 manner of smiling pleasently Ccirtti*\u^U,\^
mwA:(-1A)- vi5 laugh with bad intention of killing
or spoiling sb
wasyakkA- vi5 smile unconsciously
wasya-wasya- vi5 smile unconsciously repeatedly*..
wa syaN- vi5 smile unconsciouily continually.,,
hArA hArA- vi5 laugh loud repeatedly
hArrrA- vi5 laugh loud continually
nhyA:(-wA) adv before
nhyA:(-lA) n sleep
nhya- vt2 kneed (s, nha-
nhya- vtl wear under garments shoes i; gloves
nhya- vil start moving, start flowing
CWA~ vil become standard
duru- vtl milk
nhya(k)kwA adj/adj any much
P
pA n bamboo (S, pA: (-thA))
 351
~-ki: n nails made of bamboo sticks
—culi/chwAN bamboo-shoots
pAca n she-calf (3, saca)
pA- vt2 cohabit
pAu- n letter
pAkwA: ca n hut (S. bAlca)
pAchim n west
pAta (=pta) cl n nominal classifier used with
nouns denoting small round
objects or marks
-pAttiN pt per (ch'e kha pAttiN chAmha
chamha, 'one person per ho-
use 'J
pAtluN n pajama, pantaloons
pAtya:r n belief «.
pAtwa : (-1A) n lenjthy flag (S, pAta:)
pAthu:(-li) n Polygonum molle D, Don
pAnchi n bird d
pAnjAraN cA:rhe n a Buanist festival occuring
on the 14th Bhadra wAdi (S,
j ugA: cA : rhe )
pAnyA:(-li) n metallic laddie to scoup out
the cooked rice (cf cAt^n)
(S, pAnyu:)
pAnna n emerald
pApilaN mec n Mentha piperate
pArk- vt7 patch; recover less
pArkal n Gompa s s
pAr ja n people
pArbA: (-tA) n cliff
pAlAkhA adv for a moment
pAlAN n die; puncting platnA)
pAla n spinach (S, pAlA:)
PAX'S :ti n name of a locality (S, pAn-
Auti/pAuti)
pAl"a:lApte n leaf of lotus plant
pAle swaN n lotus
pAsA n shop (S, pAsA:(-1A)
pA:ka n Brassica nigra (Linn) koch
(seed)
pA:(-lA)kha:(-1A) n wall
pA:chi r. half of a mana
pA: ma: n pradhan caste
pa n pile (S, pA)
pa n axe _
paca n yellow clay (S, pAca)
pati n mosquito (S, pAti)
pa:cA:rhe/pe sa cA:rhe n a festival occurinCj on four-
teenth chaitra v;adi (farmers
speech lAkluN cA:rhe)
cl n nominal classifier denoting
pa sv/t^etmeats, bakery, bricks.
 52
tiles, paired objects, leaf of a
door, feather and axe
Cl V verbial classifier denoting time to
smear medicine^ or to paint the colour
pa n feather
pa- vil differ
ta— vil be far in distance
dhA: — vi2 stand with legs apart
pa- vtl
pa- vtl bet money at a game
pa u- ^ vi2 be sour (=pau adj 'sour')
—ghae n Oxaliscorniculata Linn
-pae- adj adjectival base denoting shape, siz«
and quality in extremity
A-pae-ji-gu of that much standard
thA-pae-pu-gu of that much thickness (as lenthy objec
gA-pae-pa-gu of how much big size(as a flat object)
(•pae* besides certain adjs, will rec-
eive all the nominal els)
pauju n anklet
paka n a stitch made on a cut skin
pakha n eaves
kwAsui-- n sun-shade (s, kwAswA:--)
pakhe f>o(. towards
pacu- vil be smooth (=paGa adj 'smooth')
pacu- vi2 be completely done
par— vi be divorced
pachai n
paju n maternal uncle
pata n flat object
li— n back part of a garment
hA— n front part of a garment (S, nhyA—)
patiN n finger (S» pAtl: (-nA)
angu— n ring finger
kanchi— n little finger (S# sika-)
dAthu— n middle finger
bura-- n thumb
mahila— n index finger (s, cwAla-)
patrA n calendar
pan- vt4 stopf obstruct
i—/hA— vl4 feel suffocated being suddenly
attacked by air or water
pan- •^'i be near to the fire for warmth
pangra n Aesculus indica (comb.) Hk
panjA n cage (S» pAnjA:(-lA)
papu n wing is, pApu:(-ti)
payAN n a cultural item observed on tenth
Aswin sudi under Vijaya festival
(S, payA:(-lA))
para:(-tA) n quick silver (S, pala:)
 353
pal- _ vt5 cnop
pv.'Ampu-/dv7A k a - / vt5 raake long mounds of earth
mna k i : j y a - beUveen temporary channels
for cultivating th^- plants like
potatoes, chillies '-_;tc, ,
priyae- vt5 cut the brick on b,.,t/i sides tor
decor^^tive construction
^;hyae kuN-- vt5 cut tne brick into a corner ror
unsernetrical construction
mathAK— vt5 spade the ground for leveling
purpose ; make furrov/s in plain
p a IAN n sacred food taken after a fast
pala:bi n Butea monosperma (Lam) iYuntze
pali n sole of the foot
p a l ( i ) j a : ( - t ) :swaM n jxythrina indica
pa l e a n wick burnt in a snallov.' oertnon
cup
palu n ginger
palu adj pungent
pas a n friend
-cA:rhe/pa:cA : rhe n a festival occuring on 14th
C:iaitra wAdi
pasA:(-1A) palmful v;ith both the palms
held together
pa s i n pear
pa s ( u) k a n five coloured threads in one
unite S, pAs::ka)
p a : jch n preparation
pa :p n sin
pa: 1 n tent
pi n umbilical cord
pi/pyA- n four ('pi' is usea in recita-
tion v.'hereas ' pyA-' is used ivith
nouns)
pi cl n nominal rdp clacsifier used with
nouns denoting cleavers, butcn-
ers' knife, trowels, umbilical
cords
pi- adv out
—ne adv outside
—bA:(-1A) n outside layer
pi- vtl plant
— jya n planting
pi- vt2 wait
—v;a: ( - 1 A ) adj one v>;ho waits
pi- vt2 unstitch
pi" vt2 smooth out
gviee— vt2 smoth out moustaches; be happy
chae— vt2 decorate
j hv; A e — / d hv/A e — vt2 be scr-'tched by stri
thA- vt2 comb up as nair
dh\vAe—/jh'wAe— vt2 be scratched by sth
 354

bAliN— vt2 set sb free from an evil

spirit (by smoothing out nis
body by raustered seed, rice
flour, small pieces of yreen-
berry etc* .
vt2 cleanse out
pi- vt2 pusn aside
du— vil for a per.oon lookin'j out of
a windovj or standing on a
thresh hold to go inside and
become invi^-ible
jv;Ae pi- vt2 look angrily
bhA pi- vt2 eat (non)
bha: p i — vi2 feel (=bha: pa: adv 'tninking
that')
sAp-pi— vil be afraid too much (lit. voic;
to be pushed inside)
pikhalkhu n place just outside tne bound-
ary of the house
DicA n rheum of the e\'es {'3. picA:
(-1A)
pica n shallow basicet made of vvillov.'-
sticks
picu vi2 be Smooth (=picu adj smooth)
picya- vil shout sharp out of fe.-r
pija n foam.
pit(t)A n bile (3, pittA)
—mheca n bladder
pitamber n yellow silken clot.i
— sv;aN n a kind of yellow flov;er
pipi n Piper longum L(s.pipi:(-1A))
—khuna n medicine prepared by cooking
pipi
pibA:(-lA)/piwA:(-lA)n exterior part
pirA:(-lA)ca n bracelet-rod •
pira/krwApu n wooden seat
pila n old type of wooden box
X,awA : (-1A) /bibA: (-lA) n exterior part
—tha: n exterior pillar
pi:li/.maeli n husband's brother's v-;ife
pi:(-i) n forty
piyek- vt7 cover the eyes with hands;
deceive
pi SI n vulva before attening x^uborty
(cf bi^Akku, ma:l, masi, nasi)
^i: th campus; place where 'shakti'
'an epithet of gouri) is est-
ablished
pu n pip
—sa n seed
—v;aca n seedling of padd'y
pu- vt3 sweep
kwA— vt3 sweep down
 355
vt3 sweep up
wA alb's— vt3 sweep early in the moving
before to do anything
pu- vt2 uproot
thwA— vt2 for the bad things to be saved
after complete selection is
done ; fade away as green lea-
ves, flowers etc-
—pu: adj bad
pu- vt2 blow, flute, fan
suruN— vt2 whistle
swaN— vt2 whi sper
hwAp—/hvjA;: — vt2 suffer from whoop when sth is
stopped in wind-pipe
pu- vt2 cover with a lid
kAe-- vt2 scratch
tA—li n cap
—sa n cover lid
kwApsaN— vi2 lie down on the ground facing
down side
khwa: pa:(--tA) — vt2 v.'ear mask; be ashmed
ghAe- vt2 embrace
ghvA- for the cowry, pots to be
upset down (P, ghwA:-)
tA:(-kA)- vt2 cover (S, twA:-)
thA— vt2 be upsided(=thA pu: kwA pu: n
'sexual activity')
bl-iA— vi2 be overturned;
bhA: — vt2 bow down (P.bhwA: (-IcA)-)
pu cl for leqfthy objects; literary ar
compositions, seeds in rdp form
pu± cl non unit classifier used to
denote a very small tuff of
fine lenjthy objects(cf. pwae)
, ^ ) ^
cl.qu quasi unit classifier used to
denote a smiall amount of
coagulated substance like nose-
mucus, curds etc (cf. pae)
puk- vt7 fry in oil or ghee (=puka adj
•fried')
pukhu;(-11) n pond
puN n painter caste
pucA:(-1A) n group, herd
puja n worship
—ku(-thi) n room for prayer and worship
—bhA:(-lA) n plate for worship
putu n lace
putukkA adv manner of coming too much pus
out all at a time when the
wound is pressed
putu-putu adv manner of coming the pus out
in large quantity repeatedly
 356

putututu adv manner of coming the- pus

out is large quantity cont-
inually
puthM-j/KatlriAN kA- vi2 be pricked by tliornc
jun- vt4 v.'ear c l o t h e s
pyA— vt4 be sticky(=pyA-pun-kA adv
'tightly')
pun- vi4 be inflected v;itn contagious
disea.->e
kV7A — vi4 be over cooked as rice
nun- vi4 be posi^essed by an evil spirit
puntu:(-li) n cloth v;ith weft
pupuca -n domestic cock or hen (baby
talk)
pure ad ' complete(=oura-M adv 'complet-
ely' )
pul- vt5 pay back/ step acress_, join ano-
ther party
tyangra— vi5 somor sault
phA: - vi5 be upsided dov;n
malcha- vi5 be tumbled down
mu:(-1A)- viS change the sleeping position on
the bed
pulaN ad j old
—dwA n potteries piled up (to be)
baked for three days
pu 1 i n knee
pulu n special mat
—kisi n man covered 'with pulu mat ana
masked resembling elephant
pulu pulu ki:(-lA)n fire fly (an insect '.vhose tail
is lighted at night) (K. gui
X_^ui gera P, pui pui Ke:la)
pus a n seed
pusta n generation
peN n hip
—pa n buttocks
pencis n pliers, r^inc'-rs
pesta n pesta
pe: (-1A) cl qu quasi unit classifier used to
denote a handful ediole thing
blent with side-soup-prepara-
tion
pyA/pi n four
pyAca:(-1A) n base for potteries
pyAn- vc line up ; stretch tight (as
rope, chain, thread etc.)
tA— vi4 be straight
ti— vi4 be sth well done
tillA- vi4 for tne body bjfore death Jje
stretched
dhu— vi4 for the body be stretched
after long work for relaxation
 357
vt7 kick
pya- vil be soaked
pyak- vt7 soak
— sa n a piece of cloth uS'.-.;d b^' a
'Woman in her bath
pya- vtl plait
pya-kiN n staple (lit leech-nail)
pyakliAN n dance/ drama (i. pyaka^:(-nA)
—mugA:(-1A)/ n actor or actress in a play
mvjA: (-1A)
~ihu- vi play a drama; dance
pyasi n leech
pyacyakkA adv manner of splashing once
pyacya-pyachya adv manner of splashing repeat-
edly
pyacyaN adv manner of being splashy con-
tinually
pyataklcA adv manner of falling
pyata-p^yata adv manner of falling with less
stress repeatedly; manner of
raining slightly but rex-:eat-
edly
pyatahaN adv manner of fading away gradua-
lly; manner of being disabled
continually
pyattA adv manner of beating slightly
with one hand only
pyanu- vi2 be unoreakable but very sticky
like chev7ing gum
pya: J n onion
pyu:ca/kAllya n bracelets
prasi n sari
pv/A 1A: n roof
__—pa/upa n roofing tile
pv.'A n hail
pv;A ( - l A ) n blister (S, pwA:)
pwA p\\'A;ca n ballon
pv^AkA n leavened boiled rice kept for
fermenting into beer
pv/Al^/khali ad j empty
pwAN n big alcoholic container es^j-'.^-
cially designed for lamas
pwAta n tax on land-property
pwAtasi n a Icind of clay-cccker
pwAn- vt4 ofEer personally
pvv'Ank- vt7 pour out from one vessel to
another
pwAnga n a kind of v/ind-instrument
pwAl- vt5 strip off; di'^^close crime or
secrecy
pwAlyaha ad j one v;no tells tales about sb
pVv'.Asimi n a creeping edible bean
pwAstigAN n nutritive sweet
 358
pwAhisa/ja hisa n leqt
ithy peace of cloth used
as seal between the boiler
and another pot in which
distilled alcohol is colle-
cted
pwAhela n the month of rjoukh (jan-Feb)
pwA: (-1A) cl n nominal classifier used with
nouns denoting soft packets,
brests, blisters etc.
cl nu Non-unit classifier denoting-
bundles of soft materials
like clothes, paper etc which
are covered from all sides,
pwArcuN n rice-flour
pv;A: siN n witch; a lustful supernatural
female being who is supposed
to seduce man
pwa n stomach (3, pwa;(-thA))
pwae cl qu quasi unit classifier used to
denote slightly large luft or
bundle of things like hair,
thread, teys etc. (cf. pui)
pwakA:(-1A) n small pit on ground (cf ga:)
kuti— n pit into which the grains are
pounded by kuti-pistle
pwateca n turnip (3, pwatya)
pwa:(-lA) n small hole on surface (cf hwA:
pwa:(-tA/lA) cl n nominal classifier coming with
mAtA 'light' & pwa; 'hole',
(with pwa: it is reduplicative
as chApwa: pwa: 'one hole')
pwa:ca n seedlings of paddy

.£h.

phA- vt2 receive in joined x-^alms of

hands or in a container held
in hand(s)
pa:(-1A)— vt2 perform the social or religi-
ous/that comes in turn w^^^V
bica: (-1A)- vt2 receive near relatives v;ho
come to express their sympa-
thy at the death of a fam.ily-
member
Iha: (-tA/-ti)- vt2 beg
phA- vt2 collect
 359
an j A — vt2 collect soot for mascara
or for a mark on forehead
phA- vt2 bear/ sustain
phA- vil be able
mham- vi3 be of good health
phA- vil be able to do sth (aux)
(dhaye phA-, 'be able to
say")
— c h i m phAtAlAe/ adv as far as lies in one's pov;-
— y a m phAkwA er
-t(A)lAe adv so far one can do
phAi n sheep
ba- n ram
ma- n ewe
phAe n air, wind
—kha n unreliable rumour
—l(iN)ca/niliNca n fluttering toy (S, phAeguli)
phAN cl nu non-unit classifier denoting
a bunch of bananas. As a
reduplicative adjective it i£
used to denote untidy hairs
priAtkiri n aluminium
pl-xArAk ad j different
phAlca n inn
ph^lana ad j some one whose reference hcs
already been made
phAlphul n fruits (cf sicaphuca)
phAsi n pumpkin
phA:(-1A) n plinth
phA:(-1A) cl qu quasi unit classifier used
for a chunk of meat
j:;ha n hog
—ca n pig
ba-- n male pig
ma — n sov;
pha n a mensure of eight manas
pha- vt2 split into; saw ; spoil
relationship between r^ersons
nAsAN— vi2 be half cooked
pha- vtl defecate
•i:(-lA)- vtl spit
khAi- vtl spit phlegm
khi- vtl make stool
cwA- vtl make water
pha- vt2 cover with a quilt
— N g a / s i l A : i-VdxA) n guilt
sAp-pha- vi2 be astoni-shed ( F. '^A: ^Vna-)
phaida n gain
be n loss
DhahixN n Randia Uliginosa (plant)
— k i : (-lA) n beetle
—duGu:(-li) n sprouts of'phaIcAN'
—saran n pickle made of PnakAH (...
-sAna:(-1A)
 360
phekA:(-1A) adj ernx3ty
phakaca n butterfly (S, lapca)
pih'cichi n.a. quantity of eight manas
phaper n buck-v.'h-at
jyharaca n chisel v.'ith broad blade used
to smqth out
phargun n february
plial- vi5 narrowly escape from a gocxl
or a bad event
phala n flake (-'j, phi'^la: )
pha s a thAk u : c a n brush made of v/ild ooars'
hairs
phasa nhusu aa J v/ithout essence
phi n thiclcness of an object
phi n sand
-ca n white dusty earth v/hich look
like suger
-pAu n mica
-SA:(-1A) n sandy area
pni cl.n nominal classifier usea m
reduplicative form for brooms
and fatness (of an object)
pni- ferment
phi- vt3 wear upper germ.ents
Acar j p h i - vt3 make the fjickle ferm^-nted. for
preservation
tam p h i - vt3 control one's anger
dhAu p h i - vt3 make yoghurt
phiurandi n spitoon ( 3. pi:iur ani)
philiN adv horizontally
phisikicA adv mr'nner of smilino once
phiei phisi adv manner of smiling repeatedly
ch.i niN adv manner of snuling continually
phisisisiN adv manner of slipping dov/n cont-
inually
phu- vil get finished; die
cAp— vtl break thread or thread li.ke
tilings into pieces (F, cA:p.iu-)
phu: r.'ha: n remnants
phul n arrogance
phuk. J\ prn all
p.huki: (-jA) n near relatives
priuti n drop
phungA n pillov;
phungAca si n wall plate (S. driA: cAiu:(-khA))
phusA n place aoove head
jjhetla n turban
pherkathAII adv again
phyA- vt2
phyAn- vt4 untie
ita:(-1A)— vt4 ma j;e a wick by v;inding a s^;un
thread
 3£1
vt4 Spin
i:hyAlu(: )(-]chA) n spinning V/IIGOI ( O , r-hy^iu:)
phya- vtl Iceep a3)^ide sth for sb
,;hya- vtl promise or declare solanmly;
phya- vtl take a mortagaged tning back
ti— vil see far orr distance
li— vtl over take
phyasu- vi2 be l o o S ' j ( = p h y a s u a d j ' l o o . '•)
X)hv;A- vt2 s o a k (=phv;A-sa n ' m i l d e w ' )
maN— vt2 s o a k Vvell _
prnvAnsi n j a c k f r u i t (w. p h A ; s i )
yt4 b e e ( = ohv..'7\-gii^ n "be: :ar'
phwA-sa^ n sth given to the
buyer by tlie shopkeej_;er in
concession of what he had
purchased a lot from him
bArdan- vt4 ask a boon
phwAsi n big c opper-boi1er
phv/a- vtl divert
hv«A— vtl spoil sb by guiding i.im wrong-
ly

bAidyA n physician (a professional

caste)
b;\u n demonolatory
b;-.eca n flute
bAeli/bAer n Z i z y p h u s ]u juba Ijam
bAesca n f i s h i n g hool: (r^. ioAlsi)
-bAkAM adv inTp.ediately a f t e r \ i : civ-giU
kAya bAlo^N vjaeta s w a e t t A k i l A ,
' i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r (hie) hau.
t a k e n th,e s i c k l e iie r a s h e d
him sharply') ( ;v.]o'\tn/"-.nA : )
bAkula n broad oean
bAkula: n a peace of paper used to balance
the flying kite (::, gv;a:(-kliA)
b^AkhAt n time
bA k h u mbA r i sw a 11 n a kind of flower
bAcc'i n Co rriaoe
bAc'nAla n tiie month of V a i s h a k i i - j e s t h a
(April-May)
bAchi adj half
bAjaN n Nicotiana tobacu.g
bA j a : r n market
cAji n beaten rice
~lhu- vt3 beat rice
 36v2
bAje: n grand mother
bAjrA n thunderbolt
bAjrA kArrr.i n plasterer
bAtai n quil
bAtta n box
bAthaN n herd of birds L animals
bAna n a supporting tj.e betv;een
exterior and interi.^r piilLrc
bAnja:(-1A) n grocer
bAnd': kvjAbi n cabbage
bAnel n wild boar
bArAph n ice-cream
hJ\ra : (-mA) n ground nut
bArkha n summ.er
bArkhi n ritual observing of mourning
by the son' or •..ife of a dead
person
—v,?A s A mourning apparel (S, -v;AsA:
(-tA)
bArdan n boon
b-'-rorii n a Bweet item
-hJ\ Ae pt connective particle 'on the
time o f , 'v/hen'
b^Mi n sacrifice
bAsAla n adze (S. bAsila)
bAsi/barla n flood (farmers' speech bAchi)
bAstu n thing
bAspAti n seed of peach
bAhA n shoulder (S. bv.'AhA)
b-^hAni n night
bAha:C-lA) n monastery
bAhi n a Buddhist sanctuary (3. bAni
(-li))
bA: b e e r - f i l t e r made of v/illo\v-
sticks
bA :khuN n pigeon (S. bAkhu:(-nA)
bA:;ju/ba jya n brahmin (hon), respected man
of superior C-J^ •te bajya)
•(cf bW^mhu)
bA::r n banyan
bA;; si n peach
—ma n willow-peach
ba n earthy ground
b'a::lhA n a measure of half peu lone
tenth of a kilogram)
ba- vi2 depart
bhi: - vi2 fruit compartment to be sep-
arated
bhu: -- vi2 be unicnotted as stitching lin-:
li — vil be late
GAm— vi2 ne cracked
.he — vi2 be hurt by sb's words (lit,
love to be separated)
 3C3
(=he-bae cA-bAe^ n v.'oros
used to hurt others)
ba- ad j denoting masculine animal
—phAi ram
baki: adj rest
bakha n story ( i, baj-:ii7\: (-r
bag la n lengthy cloth v/ith col-
oured stripes gen. red o-r
white and green designed for
waist-band
ba ja n a n y m>usical i n s t r u f n e n t
ba ju n bracelet
bajya/bA:ju n b r a h m m j any r e s p e c t e d !,;'Crson
of s u r j e r i o r c a s t e ( c f brAmhu)
beta si/bap si n p a r t i t i o n (•->. bA: s i )
ban- vt4 c o v e r v ; i t h {-hI\-:::3 n covc;r-
i n g s h e e t ; =bAna a d j cov^rred
w l t h l b A n a g a ^ ' a shav;! c o v e r e d
v;ith t r a n s p a r e n t cloth':-'))
tDapa s m a l l r a c k f i x e d above in-
dov;
b a p i kv/Ae n r i b s ( 5 , bApi kv.'Ae)
bapsl/bata SI n v;ooden partition {. , b 31 )
babu n affectionate young boy
—ca n young boy of farmer-caste
babu: a dj half cooked
baraca n c h i s e l v/ith broad b l a d e used
to smooth out metal .^r stone
objects p:^. bAla:ca)
bare n shakya caste (A, bAre)
bare mare ki:(-lA) n chrysalis (of a particular
insect/ golden in col-^ur)
bare hae n teal (S. lArriAe)
barca n c up
berdali n varandah (A, bardAli)
barinasya sdj of all the twelve liionths !•.* ;
tliroughout the year (found in
the compounds: 'gulax:!!;—me)
—Qulaph a kind of rose tr.at .\'loon
in all the seasons
—me special song sung in all tne
seasons
barla/bAsi n flood
bcrli n barley
bs l a n plank (S, bAla:(-t.A);
bala cA:rhe n a minor festival occuring on
the I'lth of marga w.Adi
ball n crops
baltin n metallic bucket
basa n a r t i s t i c c a r v i r i g ( ..b:\: "i/bvvAra )
bar; a n c a r p e t i n g i n h o n o u r of
p e r s o n , god c^r gciddes •
rjastAbik 3GJ a c t u a l / roc.l
bebT n arm.let
b a : (-1A) n l a y e r (A.bA:)
 3C1
oa:Q n vice
ba:j-ca n iiavjjc ( S , b a : j/cv;Ar-P>ri)
ba :"t n r h u ma t i s rn
ba:thA: n joker, 5 jcsc:i:r, a oulfon
ba: n n arrov;
ba:ph n ste^rr;
ba:m B a drunlike L-^rrcusri-)n r;-:u;-ic-
al instrument
ba:rha: n Nepali system o..' ritualiy
.^ confining a v,:irl in a G,:!.>•:
room before or immeaJ.ately
after her att-en.Ln'^ ^;ui:A-rt;^-
for ten cays Icny
—khya : n a genie wuc^ is sui-g-osed to
reside in the d^rk roun
•/here e girl is eonfinvjc dur-
in:,: ba:rna: ritual
bi/s7-\rAn n sn'fce
bv;];a (bisik? ) n a festival in ^ n.-::t.ayur
— sAngranti n tne first csy of Vsishski; v;nen
biska festival in dnakta^.ur
is celebrated (J, keai sJ''.:-
Ihu : )
oi- vt2 give^ pers--t
ku~ vt2 carry on shoulocrs (!••, }s.;d-)
jch_a_ s A — vt2 brcjod over eggs (f. Icna SVJA-)
OV;7-. e—— vt2 settle rriarrisge by the grof;::iS
party (lit. give nuts)
dv.'ApAM— vt2 blame
nhAepAM— vt2 listen (lit. give ^jar to',
pa : — vt2 give cfisrge to
:3v;A: ( - 1 A ) — / h .Ak- -•e vt2/vt7 rebuke
mAn — vt2 listen, be int':.-re: ted in (lit.
give mind to)
lai^sia— vt2 settle marriage fron; toe boy' s
party by giving swe-jts (lit.
give sv;eots)
luk(ulO— vt2 dive (f. liso!—); set -^ sun,
m.oon and other planLsts
hathya— vt2 cnallenge
bi- vil elapse as time; set as sun,
moon, and other planets
libha:— vil set as sun
tumula— vil set as moon
bi- vt2 complett- t n e v>/ork of doin.^ rzn
( t A N a : b i - ' c o m p l e t e t n e v.ork
of a d d i n g ' ) ( a u x )
bi- vt2 c a n s e ( a u x ) ( y a k e b i , 'C'";use
so t o do s t h ' )
bikuIT n outlet
bicAra n pitiable anirtiate
biche n scorpion
 365
bi jAkAnni/bi jAoAnni n a kind of ornament (o. b i j -
AkA.nni)
biiy^ak- vi7 come or C.Q (most hon; ./» rr'' i^-a-
vil)
oi jv;/\ :g n separation; bad coneition
bidhi n process
bibai n disease Criused by .ol^-ck •r;r-,._^ic
bibrd ri disputable claim/ controversy
birAvv'a n ";vidov;
bilAKru n tunal vvith the c:^r^ing of god
or goddess (G, bilA: (-nA )|-Au)
bil( 5 )(;A : (-1A) n bolt in a sill
bill n cockroacn
bisAye: adv about
bis(A)kAN n separation (=bis (7\) K-^N ad j
'separate')
bisthapAn n establishment
bisv/Anath n an efjithet of shiva^
bihi n blood of an animal '.vhich is
sacrificed to a god or goodess
bi:bAhA n nine types of seeds that are
burnt in a Hindus' sacrificial
rites
buN n land/ land-ijroperty (3, bu)
— jya n agricultural occup-. tion
DU- rub to make stn clean or smooth
n rubbing implement li.-ce sand-
paper
ba-. vil be cooked
oe— vil roe tired of waiting long
bhui j a — vil be v;ell to do (lit, rice to re
cooked on plate itself)
ba— vil get half cooked
nha— vil be well kneeded (lit. be cooked
by the Icneeding only)
bu- vil be defeated
cA: — vil be broken (as of thread or
thread like things)
lae— vt2 ridicale
bu- vt2 carry sb on arms
bu- vi2 be born (as of anim); be grov/n
(as of plants and trees); be
sprung (as of water)
leN-r-r vi2 float
buica n grass hopper
kwA:(-1A)— n locust
ghyA:(-1A)— n a kind of grass-hox:'per
jhyali— n dragon-fly
tAnkali— n wild grass hopi.;er vjhich is
comparatively bigger tnan
bAnkali buica
bAnknli— n a kind of v^ild grass hoppor
i;hich is smaller than tAnkali
buica
 3G6
pale y A : — n mantis
pha— n dark grey grass hopper
;-u — n a kind of grass hopper
buigA:(-lA)-/dAnde n attic (K, buigA:, b-'»igA: )
— t h a N / m A l a thaN/
jacuku n post
bukhu;(-11) n d r y l a y e r of t h e s k i n
budhi/burhi/buri n old Vi/oman
bunga:(-1A) n Spring-well
bubA:(-hA) n pulses
buraN jya n harvesting
burus n brush
bur ja khv/A: (-1A) n small t r y i n g p l a n e (S, bus khv/a;
(bhyAlAe)bul- vi5 be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h
bul- vt5 blend
bulu- vi2 be d a r k ( = b u l u adj 'dim, deark
or d u l l ' )
bekkv;A- vi2 be bent (P. be:kwA-)
beN adv slantingly
betali n turban
loeta: (-1A) si n long piece of wood fixed in a
charriot the front part of
which is bent up and painted
or masked with the face of
Betal Bhairab (K. c>h.^:ma : (-1A) ,
P. dhA:ma)
betv/a : (-kA) n stile
bell n supper, night-meal (hon) (cf
•alA:• )
besya n prostitute
be:t n cane
byAn- vi4 become untied
byAn- vi4 be purified of various impur-
ities
khAwA yae— vi4 for the family and other rela-
tives to be purified of menstr**
uation impurity ten days after
the ritual confinement before
or immediately after attening
puberty
jAv/A y a e — vi4 be purified of birth-impurity
du:(-kkhA) vi4 be purified of death-impurity
bya n width, breadth
—nchi adv rre nner of laying the brick on
breadth while constructing a
v;all
(kha) bya- vil confidential ideas be exchan-
ged among the known persons
—kkA ad j all
bya— vil be well washed (as of cloches),
be bleached
—kkA adv in well-v;3Ghed manner
 367
s\-]I-\ bya- vil slide down (used only v;ith
flat/ wide & long objects
like books, wooden planks,
v;aist-bands e t c )
byadha n hunder, fov.^ler
bya:(-ha) n marriete; custom of visitino
by carrying edible things to
a family v;hich is in bereav-
ement
~ku n load of edible things taicen
during bereavement-visit
bya:(-1A) n Aegle marmelos (L.)corr
brAtA n fasting
brAmha n god Ehamha
brAmha n brace & bit, auger, gimlet
( S, b/-.rme)
brAmhu (=brA'u") n brahmin in general (cf bajya)
bwA n lawn (alu bwA 'potato-lawn)
bwA- vt2 exhibit (=bwA-sa n 'anytliing
(to be) exhibited' bvA-sa
kuthi n exhibition-hall)
vt2 display outside
hA— vt2 display in the front side
bv;A- vi2 fly
urA: — for a meteor to fall from
tlie sky
raAn— vi2 for mind to be out of control
mikhe— vi2 watch (lit. eye to fly)
bliukhae— for an earthquake to occur
( 3, bh.v/Ald'iae— )
bv'A- vt2 order
jya — vt2 ask sb to do sth
bvjAek- vt7 fly, kidnap (caus of bwA-)
pAta: (-1A). vt7 fly a flag, v^rite tns top
Gtror.e of symbol for A i ( ^ )
in Devanagari script)
adv soon, fast (S, bvjae/yaknA: )
bv/A t ipa/bwA tyApa n heron (S, nyakhu bv,'A'.(-lA)
b\v-Atta n design (5, butta)
bv/An- vt4 invite (=bvvAna n 'invitation';
bwAna-pAu 'an invitation card')
bw An- yt4 read, recite (=bv.An-e adj
'reading'; bv/An-e kuthi, n
'reading room; library')
bv;Al- vi5 be stripped off; be unstuck
bwAla n he Ip
bv/A sA l a n carving depicting a flying
horse
bv:Asi n v/ooci-Gutters caste
b-vA: ( - h A ( .- l A . ) ) n shoulder
bwa- vil run f ast__ (=bwA-]cA adv 'fa;:;t'
(bw/\kA huirt, 'run f'-jt'))
 368
Iv.::-.— vil jump aovv'n
jhuNgru- vil jump dovm
c.u- vil rush into
dhAlAK-/lalaka-vi2 vil swin
nhyAlAM- vil f e e l s l e e p y b e f o r e one l i e s
i n beo: ( l i t , be tr2/;en f a ^ t
by s l - e i ) )
bv-,"a : j u n mother'.-: s-?conG or thirc
husband

bh

bhAilA:kuti part of a door or \:indo'.v

above a sill
bh-^il-A: a a: yit where jod ohaireb is
supposed to reside in Bh.al;-
tapur, Nepal
bhAilA: dyA; n God Bhairab
bhA u n son or younger brother's vvife
bhAu/blLAcca n cat (S, bh^u)
n ventilator in a roof (lit,
cat-hole)
bhAu(pu:ca) n blower
bhAkari n silo made of baniijoo or .-.•illovj
mat
bhAklcu n vulva of an old vjoman (of ^isi,
masi, nasi^ ma : 1)
bhAjAn n prayer/ hymn
—khAlA: n congregation of persous reci-
ting prayers
bhAtarbhANgA odj smashed
bhA t i:c a/bharea ad j a little
bhAtu panjA n railing (o, blrv^tu pAnjA:(-lA)}
bh7-.tci n air-blov^er
bhAttu n bird
—sv;AN n a kind of flov^er
-bhAnAN CGV v/ith the intention of
bhAnai n saying
bKAndAra n meal offered to the saints
bhAjri- vt2 eat (hon)
bhAbAsti n the day v;aen the masks of
nava durga in Anal'.t~^ ur are
broken down for remaking
bhAmca n bride in goneral
bhAm(b)A:(-1A) n large black be e ( S, .G r u••m b a : (-1 .H )
bha (: ) n :rice ( S, bha : )
 369
bh^.JlQN 3dv in an unc;rran-jed manner
bheJAM an earthen ver.sel j:or dry
fryincj of grain.-:
bhc j u n gentleman
bhang n Cannabis sativa
bhanta n brinjal
bhara n potteries
— jya n po ttery-ma king
bhari n cook {^. b'h.'inj.: (-1A)
bhalu n bear
bha : q n share
bha: b n feeling
bhi>:ha cheW n inn
bhin- vi4 be nicer (=ohin- .-•;:j 'nice';
bhin-kA ad v ' n ic •-1 y ' )
—tune n good-wish; congr^.tuj.-tion
—dy.'"^-.: n God bhimsen
— i.-u: (-li) n coral (lit. gooci be^d)
farmers sgeech ' ;4:i-a^ Aij ' )
vi4 weather to be good-
mAti-- vi4 mind to be free from grucge
and oad intention
bi:i: (-1A) n fruit-compart;r:ent
bllU n plate (cf co:m.a)
biva(=bhu : t ) n ghost, an evil spirit
— ju n a surname in Phakte^:ur, l-jepal
(lit. Mr ghost)
— sv.'aN Karium oleander (vnen it is
offered to a ghost by gutting
in a demonolatory) (cf ]-cAliri/=:
sv/ah")
b- n fly
—khica n the biting flies tiiat live on
animal body
bhuti n bean
bnutima: n flying kite (li. bhutumhli)
bhi,ithu: (-li) n hearth, oven (C, i^-hutu:)
bhun- vt4 wrap, cover with
bhundru/lata cAkbuca n owl (I\. bhulukna; r-, nhyZ-^ica:
ji-LAngA: )
bhusakha n tonsorial cerem,ony of dinaues
bhuyu phAsi n ash-guard
bhu:(-li) n stitching line
bhu: - adj Vihole (bound morpneme used
to gualify the noun pana,
'guest' only as _Ln bhu: p ana,
'hole fasnily as guests')
bhu:ki: n a kind of insect
bh?te na: (-kh/'i) n m.ud (. -
:;, bhyata na: )
biienca n ;aale euo's sisters' children,
fem.ale ego's jorotliers' child-
ren (3, biiinca)
 370
bhyAgA:(-tA) n clay-bowl
wAla— n big clay-};x>'.:l (S, wA: lae-)
bhya- vtl be equipped with (lit, put sth
in body)
bhwAe n feast
bhwAgtya n pomelo
bhwAN n paper
—swaN n BQugalnvi llfta fipetabilis
bhwAkhae , n an earthquake
—dakAimi n an unskilled mason
—dyA: ^ n God of earthquake
—sikAxmi n an skilled carpenter
bhwAthAca n vest worn under a jacket
bhwAnca n crucible
bhwAri n belly
bhwArkwA n an earthen big balky jar de-
signed as a wine-container
bhwA:su- vi3 rest either side of the body
against sth for rest
bhwArj pAtrA n R^tnla nfilis D. Don
bhwa:(-1A) cl qu quasi-unit classifier used for
a palmful of dry food like bea-
ten rice

roA pt negative particle

raAiju n lady
mAetulica n nightingale
mAi n affectionate girl or lady
—ca n girl or lady of inferior caste

1, After a huge disaster caused by an earthquake in 1934

even the unskilled masons, and carpenters were employed for

constructing the bmildings. From that time on the unskilled

masons and carpenters are named as 'bhwAkhae-dakA:mi* and

bhwAkhae sikA:mi respectively,

 371
mAina n mynah
mAusAm n weather
mAkA:(-lA) n a grate
t*a- n an earthen grate with three
separable containers one
above another used in wedd-
ing ceremony
mAkhmAl n velvet
—swAN n bachelor's button (a flower)
mAca n baby
mAjja n pleasure
mAta n lamp
—kAla:li n a lamp hung on a lofty pale
during diwali festival (S,
alumAta)
—cikAN n kerosene
--N puyegu thu:ca n blow pipe (S, lisArtAegu thu:
ca)
raAtakAlAN n centre punch (black smith's
tool) (S. dAthi Ian)
mAte n request (s, binti)
mAtlAb pt conjunctive particle meaning
'so to say'
laAthA n cloister
mAthaN adv quickly (S, yaknA:)
mAnA n chin (s, mAnca)
mAnu: (-khA) n person
mAna:(-khA) n thunder bolt (S, mAlA:)
mAnga:(-lA) n manhole
mAnta-pyasi n RfirhfirisflristfldaD C
mAntrA n spell
mAndA:(-1) n a circle; circumference;
cAndrA— n halo around the moon
suryA- n halo around the sun
mAmA:ca n meat-durapling
mAlAe n black pepper
mAlae n an open ground where people
go for defecation (S, khika:
mugA:(-lA)
mAla thaN(-mA)/ n post (K. buigA: tha: P, bAigA:
buigA:thaN/ja:cuku tha: )
mAleju n materraal aunt (S, raAlju)
mAsA n cough (S, musu)
mAsAla n mint, condiment
raAsin pwA:(-1A) n package of dry fruits (S,
mAsla pwA:)
mAhi n butter-milk
mA: n gum
itia n husk
hi— n fine husk usually used to feed
the domestic birds and animals
 37?

-ma pt benlbic^tive particle

siye— let sb be dead
bhine— let sb be prosperous
ma adj denoting feminine animal
—phAi n ewe
mae n Phaseolus Munqu rftdiatus
(black gram)
mae ka n strong thick thread
maenu: IcAtaN n chisel used to level the
pitted parts
mae-phwA- vt2 rebuke derogatorily
maka(:) n monkey (s, makA:(-lA)
makAca n spider (S, makA:(-lA)ca)
—ja: n spiders• web
makAsi n golden ornament generally
worn by the female farmers on
their ear-lob in patan (S,
makA:(-lA)si)
makulica n a kind of ear-ring with a
flat moving circle inside it
maku vi2 be tasty (like coconut, gro-
und-nut, wall nut etc,)(=ina-
ku adj 'tasty (like coconut
etc.)
makule n old type of measure that
contains a little less than
two manas
makwA adj as much as one needs
makha n hen
kuku:(-li) — n brood hen
magA(:) n mahout
matAN n first floor in a building(S,
roatA:(-nA)
matya n respected old man (S, a:ju)
mathAN adj plain
~kapA n plain cloth with warp (e.g.,
without weft) (S, mathA:
kapA:(-tA) (cf 'puntu')
madhi/ma rhi/mar i n bread, sweets, pastry, dumpl-
ings
man- vt5 boil
raan- vi5 be swollen
SAkl ma:punhi n minor festival that occurs on
the full moon day of November
mana n a unit of volume containing
one mana
manik n ruby
mane pt meaning
mama n mother's younger sister (S,
cirma:); father's younger
brother's wife (S, kaki)
mara:j n king
marka n calamity (S. mArka)
martwAlca n screw driver (S. martwAil)
marpa n fried bread stick
marbAlica n ear-ring for girls
 373
mar si n name of a kind of paddy
gwara— n a kind of marsi paddy
cAkhu— n a kind of marsi paddy
chwAta— n marsi paddy of small size
jadwA— n a kind of marsi paddy
tAgA:(-lA)— n bigger type of marsi paddy
thwAsra— n a kind of marsi paddy
sAla:— n a type of marsi paddy that
ripens in three months
sanga— n a kind of marsi paddy
haku— n a kind of darkish marsi paddy
marhi/mari/madhi n breads »weets^ pastry^ dumpl-
ing
--kArjjai n baker/ confectioner
cAta— n pancake made of rice-flour
(S, cAta:(-nA) mAri)
ghA: — n loaf
caku~ n any kind of sweet-meat
dusi— n dough of steamed millet flour
rautu—- n dough of steamed rice flour
(S, IwAhAca-)
yA: — n dumpling with meat or ground
pulses^ or jaggery and sesame
(=yA:marhi punhi, n 'yA;marhi
taking festival occuring on
the full-moon day of December';
yArmarhi ma n 'crab apple')
lakha— n gigantic sweets made in the
shape of conch shell, discus
mace, lotus flower (the shapes
of the weapons of God Narayana)
labja cuN- n steamed dough of maize flour
(S, kA:ni cu: mAri)
mal- vi5 need to do sth (aux) (ma: adj
necessary)
du: — vi5 need to mourn sb's death
mal- vt5 search for (=ii»l-e adj of
research as inraal-ejya, n
•research work')
rnalahaN adv manner of sleeping stealthly
for a short period of time
masi n vulva in general (cf nasi, pici,
bhAkku, raa:l)
massaeb n respected teacher
ina:dyA: (-wA) n God Shiva
—swaN n Canna hybrida (S, ma:dhi: swi:)
ma:l n goods
ma:l n vulva (derogatory) (^cf bhAkku,
masi, ma:l, pisi, nasi)
Li seasonal song sung in the
ma:l sri mouth of Aswin (September)
(B, farmers' speech 'marsi')
n fire
mi
 374
— n a : ga: n furnace (S, mi:nA: ga:)
mi- vt2 sell
mikha n eye
—ga:(-lA) n eye-socket
—gwA: (-lA) n eye-ball
—picA:(-lA) Vii;. rheum of the eye
—phusi n eye-brow
—bAgA:(-1A) n bridge of the nose (bridge
between eyes (S, nhatika)
-~ya nalca pupil (S, mikha ya nanica)
— y a si eye-lash
raikhuNca n young hen (before it starts
laying eggs)
micA: (-1A) n Triqonella foenum qraecuro
micki swaN a kind of flower
mijAN n husband (S, bha:tA)
—roisa n spouse
min- vi4 be felt (=jhu-miN n 'uncons-
ciousness' )
kaiyaN— vi4 feel too much grief
khAssA— vi4 feel uneasy in the stomach
out of hunger
khulu-khulu— vi4 feel great grief in mind re#*
peatedly
khulululu— vi4 feel great grief in mind con-
tinually
cinkA— vi4 be pricked deep in mind sudden-
ly (cf tikkA')
ceN-ceN— vi4 feel itching repeatedly
tikkA— vi4 be pricked (not deep) suddenly
(cf CinkA)
thirikkA— vi4 feel the sensation of a thorn
like protrusion once by rubb-
ing one's hand over it
thiri-thiri— vi4 feel the sensation of a thorn
like protrusion repeatedly by
rubbing one's hand over it
phuN phuN— vi4 gasp repeatedly
waiyaN- vi4 have a mild tingling reeling
all over the body (as in a mild
electric shock)
seN seN- vi4 feel horripilation
minet n minute
mim(i)ca n small biting insect generally
found on birds in surmier season
(K« bhali:ca)
mimica n plate like thing made of willow-
sticks used to stew rice and
dumplings (S, libi:(-nA)
milaca n an earthen cup
misa n wife (S. kAla:(-tA)
thya:mha— n legal wife
 375

mA-thya:mha— ll concubine
l i thu(mha)— n second wife
hAthu ( m h a ) — n first wife (S, nhyAthu)
—raijAN n spouse (S, kAla: bha:tA)
-misiN/rriAchi pt particle meaning'-much*
as in thuli misiN*this many
much (S, thuli raAchi)'
mi:(-lA) n fenugreek
niuche n uterus
mu- vi2 be pepped up (as of grains)
be blasted (as of bomb^ gun-
powder, pressure cooker
etc.) be burnt out (as of
cremation fire)
muyek- vt7 hit violently (=muikA ad^
violently
muk(k)AN pt emphatic particle meaning
•only' (all without excep-
tion) ilAi mukAN tArkari sa:
mAju: / *-curry made of all
radish only i» not tasty')
rauja n suck (S, mwAja)
mukhyA adj main
mutu m a r i n dough of steamed rice-flour
(S« lwA:ca mAri)
muthA: bala n eaves board (S, mhu:dA:si)
rauntAla n kumquat
mundri n a small ring studded gene-
rally with a pearl or coral
worn on one earlobe
murti n idol
mul- vt fold & stich the edge of a
cloth
mulu n needle
—pwa: n eye of the needle
musA n pistle of a kuti (S, musA:
(-tA)
musi n rafter
musu(:) n Lens esculenta S, musu:(-li)
rausya n soybean
—kA:chi n soft soybeans in pods (S,
mwa: kA: che)
tAgA:(-lA). n grey soybeans which are com-
paratively bigger (S, tA:gA:—)
mahila— n white soybeans of medium
size (S. tuyu:-)
haku— n black soybean
mu:(-lA) n Phaseolus munqo Linn (green
grain)
mu:(-1A) adj main
mu:(-lA)swaN n a kind of strongly sweet-
scented flower
me- n song
 376
me (-cA) n tongue
—GwAka n tip of the tongue
~ha n root of the tongue
mewa n papaya
me: (-sA) n buffalo
khA— n he buffalo who will be made
highly intoxicated and wild
b<afore it be sacrificed to
Nava Durga in Bhaktapur
—chyAN n Trapa bispinosa Roxb (lit,
buffalo's head)
thu— n he-buffalo
ma— n she- buffalo
me:(-wA) adj others
me:c n chair
me:th(A) n the flat top part of a pillar
me:na n sedan chair
mwA-./sin- vt2 collect one by one as of grains
(S. wA—/mun—)
vt2 contract into furrows as of
sari
rowAgA:(-1A) n hammer (S, mugA:)
rawAthi kAtaN n levelling chisel
mwAsA n cough (S. musu)
rawAsAm n mossarabi(cassea abus)
mwAhA n halucination
mwAhAni n vijaya-festival
rawAhAni n fascination
—sAlaN n an earthen plate on which soot
is collected by burning a lamp
beneath
•sinA: n blacKi mark of soot put on fore-
head
mwA:(-lA) n half-rupee coin
mwA:(-lA) n head
—Ihu- vi3 take bathe
swA—— vi3 take bathe Aftey deathnews is
conveyed
rawA: (-lA) n crowd
mwA: j n entertainment; pleasure
mwA:(-hA)ta circumferential area of the
end of a sleeve or a leg of
trousers
mwa- vil live, survive
mwaese pt particle meaning 'let it be*
or 'it does not matter*
rawa:l- vi5 not to need (ng. form of mal-,
'need')
mhA- vt2 ask for more of a thing(s)
that is already given
rahAkaN n Euryale ferox
mhAe n land-cultivator; one who culti-
vates land for others (cf tA:
si:)
 377
—nayA:(lA) n main cultivator among other
cultivators
mhAekha n peacock
mhAetha- vtl carry the corpse to the cre-
mator ium(=mhAe tha: pa: n
turn of carrying the corpse
to the crematorium)
mhAsA n fore-head (S. kApa: ( - I A A A ) )
-mha cl classifier for animate
-mha pt anaphoric particles (anira)
t^sita baNla:mha misa khA:,
t sita is a beautiful womar?)
mha n body-
—gA:(lA) n girth of waist
—puja n self worshipping festival
that occurs in November
mhai pu- vi2 feel unpleasent
mhan- vi4 dream
—(g)sa n dream
dena— n dream in a sleep
mhali:ca n chemeleon (K. rahali kaeca^
P. nhali-mhali ca)
mhal- vt5 Controls preserve (=mhala-
sala n*preservation of clothes')
mhutu— vt5 control diet
mhasu ad j yellow
tnharri adv very much
mhigA: (-lA) adv ye sterday
mhi:g adV the day before yesterday
mhit- vt6 play
(ga:) nahu- vt2 dig out
pAm— vi2 be cracked
phAe— vi2 for the stitching line to be
broken apart by internal pre-
surre
mhu- vt2 erase(=qa(ihu-sa, n eraser;
duster'
mhu- vi2 come out with great force
(as of water from a broken
pipe or blood from a severed
artery)
khi— vi2 suffer from diarrhoea (lit,
sbool to be sprouted)
chwA~ vi2 push out like water from a
burst pipe
(Iha:) mhu vt2 raise hand to beat sb
mhukAN n mu shroom (S, rahukA:(-nA)
kS (-thA) n thorny mushroom (S, kA: mhukA:)
ghae(-cA)— n grass mushroom
ghyA:(-lA) — n edible soft mushroom
jiti— n an edible mushroom
mae— n an edible mushroom which is
greyish-white in colour
 378

wau— n green mushroom

sae— n Tibetan mushroom (S, sAe
mhukA:)
mhutu n mouth (=mhutu-si, n 'Itps')
mhu(:) n fist (S. mhu:(-li)
mhe n gunny sack(=mhe-ca n'pocket')
mhyae n daughter
—ca n male's ego brothers' daughter;
female's ego sisters' daugh-
ter
-mAca n female in general
mhwA: (-1A) n lead graphite (S, mhA:)

ttmm^immm

yA- vi2 be possible (aux)

yA- vi2/vt2 be liked, be loved; like,
love (=yA: tyA: n love)
— y a pu adj lovely
— y a pukA adv in a lovely manner
yAka n warp
yAkkwA/apa: adv too much/ many
yAkkwai n tool used in making a cylin-
drical pipe a foot long and
an inch in diameter
yAHa:(-1A) punhiN n a festival occuring on the
fuil-moon day of Bhadra (S«
yAnya: punhi:)
yANla n the month of Bhadra-Aswin
(August-September) (S, yA:ia)
yAnk- vt7 take with (S. yAn-/yAnk-)
jhumiN-- vi7 go somewhere unconsciously
(lit, be taken by unconscious
stage of mind
yAnk- vt7 percolate
kha: — vt7 percolate water through ashes
yAl- vt5 'level the grain at the top
of a measuring pot'
kwA— vt5 level the grain down at the
top of a measuring pot.
yAl- vt5 surgically excise a circular
portion from body
yAl- vt5 whil husking move the winn-
owing pan side to side and
round and round to separate
bigger grains from the small-
er ones
 379

yAla n patan city in Nepal

yAla:mukhu: swaN n Gardenia jasminoides
yAmmaN pt interjection expressing sur-
prise and fear (lit, ol mother)
yA: (-1A) siN n big lengthy wooden pole
ya n Kathmandu city in Nepal
ya- vtl do
AhA— vtl think
alA: — vtl eat (most hon)
ani- vtl bow dowD^S, Ani-)
isa-thisa- vtl punish severly
usi-USi- vtl rub gently
jhwa— vtl seize sb's hair steadily and
leave violently
titi— vtl stroke a baby to make him/her
sleep
titi-papa— vtl preserve sth with great affe-
ction
tha-tha— vtl jerk as of cloth, carpet, mat
etc to let the dust fall down
from them
tha tha matha— vtl seize steadily and move viol-
ently
nagA: tugA: ••- vtl make fun of sb by saying this
and that
nirata— vtl invite
ni:-(-lAj— vil pretend to have a bath by pu-
tting water with some other
substances in armpit & navil,
on head and face
ni: c i : — vtl follow the orthodox practive
of purification in day to day
affairs
ni:si— vil sanctify a house
pa IAN— vtl take cereal breakfast
pa : — vtl make less, reduce
phu: (-1A) — vtl blow with mouth
phu: pha:(-lA)— vtl exercise black magic act as a
treatment for certain diseases
bica: (-1A)— vtl look after, think
bhae— vil make a gesture with a hand,
head or eye
bhanga bhanga— vtl tap the soil with long handled
hammer to make the seeds cov-
ered by soil after they are
scattered (S, titi-)
lu: la: (-1A) — vtl exorcise
waetyA: phwaetyA; - vtl neglect
sAna:T-lA)— vt2 wash face or take bath before
morning meal (hon)
sAma:— vt2 make up* dress hair
swaha— vt2 squander away, destroy, burn
to ashes
 380
hebae- cAbae- vtl speak or act in a way that
hurts a person's feeling or
dignity
ya- vtl do (aux) (occur with verbs
borrowed from other langua-
ges only)
khurkAe- vtl scrape
garAe— vtl bury
ghwAtAe— vtl rub
phitAe-- vtl stir
milAe— vtl arrange; mix
rwAkAe— vtl stop
yaica n ant (S.irau: (-11)(cf« kumica,
sApanica) _
yau vi2 be light (=yau adj 'light')
yakA: (-tA/-lA) ad j alone
yakca adj alone (P. yakArca)
yakwA n arm-pit
yaN pt emphatic particle to particu-
larize sth out of many as in
'dhAu la ba:la:, 'so far as
the curd is concerned it is
good' (cf. yata) (S, la/ja)
yata/dhai pt emphatic particle used to
particularize one out of many
(cf, yaN)
yatakkA adv manner of stumbling slightly
yata-pyata adv manner of being fatigued
re/peatedly
yata-yata adv manner of being fatigued in a
joint-loose fashion
yataN/pyataN adv manner of hanging or being
hung in an undesirable way
continually
yan- vt4 warp a loom
yantaN-pyantaN adv manner of swinging loosely r e -
peatedly
yarpa n squint-eyed man
yaliN n squint-eyed woman
ya: n festival with a procession
yard n recollection; rememberance
yuN n turquoise (S, yu:)
ye:k nr one
ye:k dAm adv completely

rAkchya n protection
rAjswAla n menstruation
rAtnA n gem^ precious stone
 381

rAngA n colour (B. potters' speech lanca)

rAnna/rAnda n trying plane
rAbAr n rubber
rAsA/rA:8 n joy« pleasure, charm; Julce«esse-
nces flavour/
rAhAr n Calanus Indlca
rAhAr n araent desire; pleasure
raches n a demon
raja n king
rajkumar n prince
rani n queen
ra:mtwArla n lady's finger (a vegetable)
ra:g n classical song
ra:g n triangular pieces of trouser bene-
ath hip
ra:p n blaze# heat
ra:s n heap
rlkabl/riXapi n plate
rlblr/na:JA: n transparent water-pipe with water
inside used to know the groun^lv-
vel (S. 1A:JA:)
rudrachyA Flaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaerln)K.
schum
ru:p n shape
rencu n spanner (wrench)
rwA:nianc n hori pilation
" ; ' • ' ' " . • ' " : ,
nn
lA- vt2 harvest
-lAe pt then (wAN chu dhalA lAe^ 'what he
said then 7)
lAl n radish
-8i n radish-seeds
-SIA:(-U) n dry slices of radish
-ca swaN n Impatiens balsaraina
lAuka n bottle-guard
lAka: (-mA) n shoe (S. laka:)
—putu n shoe-lace
catti— n slippers
lAkaN 81 n wall plate (.•• laka: si)
lAkhu n thimble
lAggu adj habituated in bad habit
lAgnA/sait n an auspicious time to perform sth
lAcca n sleeve (S* lAnca)
lAchlmi n goddess of wealth and prosperty
—puja n oneof the main days of diwall fes-
tival occuring on thelSth kartic
wAdl (Novanber)
—swaN n a kind of flower
lAjJa n shame
 382

lAtai n big bobbin used for kite-

flying
—ca n bobbin
lAda/lApa n fore-arra (s, lAppa)
lApte n leaf
lAbu n big wave (K, kisi dv/AmbA: (-1A)
lAli:(-lA) ca n garlic like green vegetable
lAwAN n cloves
—swAN Quamaclit pennata (clove shaped
f lowef)
lAsa: goldsmith's burnishing stick
lAs(s)a n saturation
lAspAs n intermingling
la n way (S, lA)
—ca n path
pyAduga:— n cross road of four ways (S,
pyAka lA)
—bwA n corridor
la ft interrogative particle
la n meat
—(yagu)ti n broth
—guji n wrinkles
la- vta spread out (bed, mat, carpet
etc.) __
—sa n matress (=dyA lasa n 'bed')
la- vil be, occur
ilAe— vil be in£time
ilAN— vil be leisurely
kati— vil be gainful (=katila: adj
'gainful, katila: pakA: n
•one who makes his profit in
any possible way')
—kAN—AaciM/
nati-kAN—/siti-kAN— vi get sth free
gA: — ( g A l — ) vil be tightly shut as door
gyAsu— vil be weighty
gwA:— vil be round in shape
gha:— vil be wounded
Na— vil slip out (lit, catch a fish)
cak(A)— vil be round in shape (=cak la:
-gu adj round; cak la-kA adv
'shaping into a round circle')
cu: (-1A)— vil get sth by chance when one
needs the same
jwA: (-1A) — vil be of the same size, style or
quality
jhwA:— vil be in queue, be in chronolo-
gical order
ta: (-1A)-- vil be arranged, be provided for
te: vil for the eye to be sharp-sighted
thya- - vil for the goods to be too much
sold; have sufficient income
 383
to meet the expenditure
dyAth(A) — vil be upper-handed
dhAkAN— vil be in the prime of youth
dhisi— vil be strong
nap (A ) - vtl meet
pakhAe- vil happen to be in time by
chance
pyAkuN- vil for sth to be square in shaxje
bAku— vil be unbalanced
ba: — vil be handsome, be beautiful
(=ba: la-kA adv'beautifully')
la— vil be on o n e ' s way to some
place
laN~ vil be stout and handsome or
beautiful
syAl— vil for the goods to be strong
or of good quality
hakA: vil for sth to be lengthy
hap(a) vil be first (=hap(a) lakA:'for
the first time/'in the be^ini-
ng')(S, nhapa—)
la- vtl/vil deceive/be deceived
kwa: kwa:--/ vtl deceive sb badly
jhangA—/dhwAN.
dyaN— vil pass a day or days v/ithout
food
la: s(A)liN/kapus (A)liN n moulders' longhandled pincers
laeku: (-li) n royal palace
lae pAu n reed __
lae phakaca n bat (S, cikJ^: lapa)
1ae-lama n rainbow(K, kApA:, p, BuNgA
dyA: ya lA: sali:gu)
lak- vt7 snatch i^way(=laku-luku, n
plundering)
cwAttukA— vt7 snatch away in a scraping
mannee
lak- vt7 cause sth to occur
lakhAe n demon
--pyakhAN n demon-dance
lakha-ki:(-lA) n rope used for pulling water
from a well(S, lakhi)
1 akha pwA: (-lA) hae tA:
mha n son or daughter from the first
husband taken to the second
husbands house to riside there
permanently
lagi: pop for
lachi n court-yard
lata cAkhuca/bhundru n owl (K, bhulukha; P. nhyA
kha": jhAngA: )
lanca n painting clay
lan- vi4 wait for
jhasu— vi4 wait for the time being
hi hi- vi4 weep with frequent pause of breathim
lan vi4 be cured
kwA- vi4 be decreased as a disease
lan- vt4 weigh
 384
lanthuKU s^-/eN n violet ('•, ryruiuhAKu: swa: )
la(b) ja n maize, corn
—syA:(-1A) n maize-cob
duru— n milky maize
labha n garlic
lamphwA:(-lA) swaN n a kind of flower
lali gura:s n Rhododendron arboreum
lal patya n Euphorbia pulcherriina
lasa n cushion bed or seert
lasa-kv/AsA n wel-cpme/ reception (3, lAsA-
kusA)
laha (-tA)/lha:(-tA) n hand
--pa n palm
—dv/Ala n middle of the palm
—mhu:(-li) n fist
lahure swaN n Dahilia hybrida
la: (-1A) n saliva
-li/(-ni) pt particle meaning'after' (ji ja
nAe dhunka:li/ni khApAe wane,
' I go to Bhaktapur after taking
my meal')
—pa adv afterwards
li- adv after, back
—chyAN n occipit
—pa adv afterwards (=dAkkAe lipa, adv
last of all, finally)
—pata n back part of the upper garment
-li n pair (hinyali cAta:marhi, twelve
pairs (24 in no.) of pancake
made of rice flour)
li- vtl chase
11- vtl uproot
(pAN)li- vil be sided v;ith _
liuN n mud plaster (S, liu:)
-liN pt subordinate conjunctive particle
denoting cause meaning 'as'
lici n Nephelium litchi
lithu n second wife
Ilbha:(-1A) n sun (S, nibha:)
lis AN n solder
lisA:(-1A) n answer
Use adv with, together with
li: (-1A) n brass
fu n gold
—kArmi n goldsmith
-tiki swaN n orchid (yellow) (S. lucu>:A:
(-1A) swa:)
—saha n gold plated objects used in a
charriot
—swaN n bird shaped golden ornament worn
on woman's plaited hair
lu n rope used for tying field-fence
made of sticks (S, nAu)
 385
Xu- vt3 •prout
In* vt2 drag witli foroa aXoag tha grouad
•••« a tcowtX
lu* •12 rlaa (pXaaata aad atara)
lukuMcl^ •dv Maaaar of aatlag or dolag aiXaat*
Xy oaoa at a ti»a
luktt-Iuku •dv naaaar of aatXag or dolag slXeat**
Xy rapaat«dXy
Ittku Miha dyAi n a aaaXX w»oth atoaa touriad la tha
awaapiag ground aad woratalppad aa
biddmi ahlva Ood
lukiiM Miaaar of noarlag ahawX (XukuH gaN
ayAya« *^matr ahavX with haada la*
aldoM
luknAni mnX n iMigBoXla (S« XwAkha)
liddM n alda 4oor (s« XwAkha)
mat{ml^)mm n mala gato
*«lclAlttt (o^cA) a tlir«al»«lioXd
luaaklcA •dv •aaaar of Xlftlag aona walghty thlag
vary oaaiXy
luott^Xiiett adv naaaar of oarrylng with rapaatad
Motloa of what la aarrladi naaaar
of waXklag Xlko a sparrow
Xueea a a rogiMi# rtianaXaaa paraoa
lupu n
la««iaii«> vt4 raawalMir
«-U a
lll««MM»» vt4 forgot
XUBNI* vi2 faaX warn (oXtaMi adj'wam?)
Xusi a aalX
Xuai a platXa
Xttsiea a abort Iroa rod with a polatad aadlag
to dig frouad to fix a atlok upright
oa tha grouad
XyA-» vt2 aaX«8t
^r-iy« a saXactloa
XyA« p a * vi2 fXoat
XyAikat Ml/XyAt •iM a prostltata (s« XawAi ali)
Xy^khA a aoeouat (wXy^khAN adv'ooasldarlag aa9
XyMftM a youag naa (8* XyaaaOiA)
Xyaitt a youag lady
xmw vi2 ba aiiltad (»XwA«kA adv^la a aultabla
naaaai?)
XwA« a dlaaaaa
tAt— a apldanle, aarloua IXXoaas
XliAB«» vi4 baeona tlrad of aattlag aaott typa of
XwAM/gliAsa a
food ovary day ( s . aua->)
•Ida dlah
XfdUOl («>tA) a •toaa
--kAtaii a profaa^loaaX ^••ta of thoaa Who
work oa atmioa^ seoXptor
 386
—Hoa n mortar
—hlti n stone-'tap
IwA: ca:MA) n £uneral custom o£ giving sha^e
to kapali mendicaat^ and feed-
ing the near relatives in lion-
our of tbe expired one(s)
Iwa- vil fight, dash against
—pu n dispute* quarrel* fight
— p u thA—/—thAl- vi2/vi5 start fighting
*->pu khlca n one who is fond of quarreling
(lit. fightdog)
Iha- vtl converse* talk («kha Iha ba
Iha n conversation* dialogue)
bhAiBca— vtl propose marriage from the gr-
oom* s party
mhutu—• vtl rebuke sb by using derogatory
words
sasAo- vtl breathe
Iha- vtl pay a share* contribute
lAj(wA)—. vtl submit
->pAM n contribution
Iha- vtl pr#88
ga:(-lA)—. vtl fill up a pit
du— vtl mix old cooked rice with fresh-
ly cooked rice
dyA— vtl put sth above sth
nhyAlAN- vU forget
Ihan- vt4 lift (S* ihwAn-)
IcApa:— vt4 be bold (lit* lift one's head)
lha:(-tA)— vt4 be ready to beat
Ihan- vt4 repair
Ihasa _ n Lhasa in Tibet
—IwAhAca n sharpening stone
Iha: (-tA )/laha (->tA) n hand
lhu(i)k- vt7 help sb to place a load on his
back and help him up with it
Ihukuca n top of the head(S» cAsu pwa:)
Ihuku-lhuku adv manner of modding head repeat-
edly
Ihucl n Berberis aristata
Ihusl n a kind of fruit
IhyA- vt2 copy
—Jya n act of copying
IhyA- vt2 shift
—Jya n act of shifting
IhyA- vt2 crawl
IhwA- vt3 VCMBit
— k A phakA lwA« n cholera
pi— vt3 take out
IhMAn* vi4 be fat (»lhwAM* adJ *fat(S»
IhwA:)*
 387

vAe n mad man

-cai(-i<MA) Ichica n nad dog
WA pm he
«A- vl2 come
gyaseN—- vl2 have %flerd feeling
roAca kuhaN— vl2 have premature birth
dit— vl2 be inherited as property of
a childless
na*- vl2 be 111 smelting
idiyA: — vl2 feel sleepy
nhyA:8A:->- vl2 snore
pwA)cAo-> vl2 for fermenting of beer to get
properly smelt
11— vl2 come out
lljyaN— vl2 be rebounded; step back
llhaN— vl2 be back
ha— vl evaporate^ for steam to come
hu:(-lA). vl2 be whiaslcal
WA- vl2 come to do sth (aux)
thyAnkA: (-1A)— vl2 arrive
<1A:— vl2 come to be«-become
na:— vl2 come to adopts come toclalm
svrA:(-lA)— vt2 come to aee« visit
-wA pt after* nAe%«A, * after one eats'^
dhae wA * Immediately after (one
says)
WACU vl2 be blue ("wAcu ad J* blue")
wAnda n stalks of thrashed paddy with
their grains not fully seprated
wAlaslma n the holy fig tree (s. wAnglAt
slma)
wAla n a kind of paddy
—bAjl n beaten rice made of wAda paddy
wAsA n clothes (s. wAsA:(-tr5
wAhA n silver
— t i k i swaN Q orchid (white) (S« wA: cukA:
(*1A) swa:)
—bu n flower of radish
wA:(-lA) Q pancUw made of pulses
wAskhl n a piece of rope used to tie a
bundle of paddy plants to be
thrashed against a flat piece
of wood or stone to get the
grains separated from the stalks
(S* da khl)
wAfca n file
wa n toothy teath(S« wa)
duru— n milk teeth
^dhA: (-wA)— n molars (S* nAegu wa (S« dhA:
(-wA)'canine*)
 388
—khl n gums
wa n paddy
lcA:)ci— n paddy separated £ron the stalks
finally
—pi:jya n act of planting the paddy seed-
lings (S, slna Jya)
— p i jya kusa n ralncloak made o£ leaves fixed
by the flat pieces of bamboo
sticks (s« slnaJya (ya) kusa/
pAe kusa)
— p i Jya swaN n Laoerstranla Indlca (S« slna
Jya swat)
pu— n a kind of rlce« on all In size
puthA-Zhalcu* n paddy remaining on the stalks
after the first thrashing (S«
haku wa)
wa n tooth
—tun* vi4 have an acldle feeling on the
teeth after taking sourthlngs
wa n rain
•—phuti n rain-drop
sasl— n dlzzle (s. sAsl-)
wa- vtl order« comnand
jya— vtl order sb to do sth
wa- vtl act upon« use
kutl— vtl pound grains In Kutl
cAtu— vil lie flat on the ground(s*
cAtta—)
chwA-- vtl throw down
JwAsa—• vtl use arms and weapons
pAu— vt2 repair thi roof of a building
onhutu— vtl use derogatory words while
rebuking others
Iha: (-tA)— vtl beati move hand at one's conv-
enience
wa- vtl waste
bAu— vtl offer demonolatory to ward off
an evil spirit
wau- vi2 be green (farmers* speech wamu)
(«wau adj *green*)
—^a n green vegetables
—bhAttu n parrot
waka dhit(-kA) n Jaw (S* waku dhl:)
wak-wak wAigu ItiAe n nausea
waclN n moss (S. wAthA:(-nA)
wacu vl2 be blue (vwacu adJ 'blue')
-oswaN n a kind of flower
wattu waN adv Manner of calling continually
wan- go to do or after doing sth
wan- vl4 go; fade (as colur)/ die
kutaH— vl4 fall down (S, kutu:—)
ga:~ vi4 get the space hollowed; get the
utensils pitted
 389
CAtu wa:<«» •14 fall flat to the ground
du Iwa: — ¥l4 rush In fast
dwa:— Vl4 enter
pyi:/pltai:— •14 go out
babu<(-ll)-> •14 be half cooked
blsya*- •14 escape (S* blsyii: (-nA)
mikha- •14 be tempted by
melAe-— •14 Ladopt a husband without inarr«>
lege (S, pAei^<-)
nAu laelAe-— for a neteor to burn up while
falling
la:— •14 happen to b e
llak» •t4 chase
supa:(-lA)— •14 for the liquid to b e reduced
being evaporated while boil-
ing I t .
wan- vt4 go to d o sth (aux)
lea: vt4 go to take sth
yaj— vt4 go to d o sth etc*
wal* •t5 blend
— a wala n act o f blending together (babf
talk)
wal— vt5 d o thorough study to find out
sth
du—. •ts study deeply
wallA ad^ wrlnggling maaner
valan dwA n potteries friled up to bake or
be baked for a day
wasA n medicine (S* wasA:(-lA)
was! adj stale
—ba n floor that is not swept In the
morning
wa:(.lA) n fence around a plot (s. walA:
(-OA)
wa:ta n willow sticks to stir the grains
or pulses while parching them

SA- •12 know

khS- •12 know how to talk; be •ery talk-
ative
dhu:-: n an occupational cast of chemists
SA« •12 for the faults to be borne
jwae Jwae* vl2 for fruits to be borne is excess
on a plant or a tree
SA- ^ •12 for the grains to be completely
dried up (S» swA-)
sAu n cow-dung
 390
mmpm/akppm m eowdiiag^caka
tltmgiili B a kiad of awaat <s» guiliMAri)
•Ae piTMi m taadoa (8« «Jla awaa)
•McAlttM ptn a U (S» aAkAlai)
aAki B Raadia aliaAaoaa (root)
« - « • • puiihii(HiiAi n aiaov fa#tival oaeosiag oa
U«li kartie audi imaa teilad
aAki aad bollad awaat potatoaa
axia fcakaa
•SMI (tUM) i* anphatio partiela naaaing*oBly*
•MQui 'm deuk%
SkSktA m OOBSk
SB^Hgraati m firat day of a aoBth(s^ aXt ihui)
SMigfaA « aaaoeiatioa
SfttMt a xoad
8A1t%fcl%©<?i.._:i '«
•fttAs (*]A) a
•AtaNea a ki%a
•Atfea a par^Md graia aada i a t o flour
Mid takaa aa food
SAttA fA ring
sfttni a
•Adda •«i of tha blood
aABai(«aA) a featli naal (lioB)f
aAn>sp a
aAiiJ«At9 a ahaaea
aAmiAi(*lA) a ^aat
aApaaioa a anall rod anta (ef kuadca*
yaioa)
•AvM# vil ba too Mitti a£rai4
aAphAi adj auaaaaafttl
aAptoa adj elaaa
aAbaM n oasaanaial food ooaaiatlng of
paaealBa of puXaaa^ aoybaaa*
baatae riaa# reaatad «aat«
vaqatabXaa^ anall p&aooa of
glagarC^* aAaAa)
aAUNNoa adj t a r r i b l a algtat
aAbha B •Bating
aJ^Mi B mtlkmmv^^ liairMdraaaiag
aAxdi a ooldaaaa
aArjyaatA p* aaiphatia p a r t i a l * aaaaiag
' i a e l a d i a g a l l * aothiag a x ^ a *
dad*
aAl% B hor aa
•MagA' B atabl*
•-cyAi a grooai
b a •• '• a atallioa
aa«- a »»ra
a A l l pa a c l a y p l a t e uaod i a r i t u a l oara->
•oBiaa
aAlali (-mA) a bard e b a l k (s« a A l i t )
•AUM adj fuaaral (s* aABai(-*U))
 391

—-guthi n funeral association

s(A)la: (-khA) cl*v verbal classifier used to
denote the nunber o£ serving
at disttit interval in a
Buddhist feast*
sAll: (-khA) n a shallow earthen cup
sAwa: (-1A) n taste
SAsA n #i£e*s parent's house (S,
sAsAx (-1A))
8US(A) by n wife's father (S* sAsA: Abu),
husband's fatibiMr (S« ba:ju}
8As(A) ma: n wife's saother (S. sAsAxroa:)
husband's mother (s, maju)
SA:(.1A) n sound, voice
aA:khl n a kind of rope
sAt t* vt6 call
sAspl n Acorus calamus L
sa n hair
tim-- n body-hair (S* cimi sA)
—gu n small broken piece of hair
(S, -gu: (-li)
»-swaM n a kind of flower (s. mAru:
swat) (hair like flower)
sa n oow
dwX:—> n bull (S« thu sa)
—gA: n cow-pen
•-ghyA:(-1A) n cow's clarified butter
si khuA: slN n water-chestnut
si jhyax(-lA) n curved window
sasA n breath (s* sasAt (-1A)
sasi n nit
sa« vil become tasty (asa: adJ 'taste-
ful')
—kkA adv tastily
—khwa:(-lA) n gesture to indicate good taste
—khwalAN adv with pleasure (S* khwa lA:)
«-nhutu n one who wants to eat tasty
things only
sa-« vt2 add
li— n additional food or dishell
kwA— vi2 go dowm as a pan of a balance
due to the weight that is
kept on it
bwAla-» vl2 revenge
ma— vi2 be recovered as capital inves-
ted in business
sait/lAgnA n an auspicious time to perform
sth
saettA swettA adv sharply
sakhA n brown sugar (S, sakhA:(-lA))
sakhAl ca n a kind of green vegetables
saN (ni) pt *if'sentence qualifier
 392

-saN (->8a nAN) pt subordinate conjunctive part-

icle meaning *although'
satlka n hair ribbon
.^waN n Salvia splendens
sathuca n braid (S* sArbAt)
—tisa n lace-llke silver ornament viiorn
in hair in ritual wedding called
sAdaM adv always
san- vi4 be in motion
san- vt4 try to do sth
uli-uli- vl4 be restless* be unsteady for
ants etc*to crawl on body.
usl- usi- vi4 start moving slowly in repea-
ted|[ manner
usiM- vi4 start moving slowly in a con-
tinious manner
phltlHkA—/phiriWcA—vi4 move slightly a bit and stop
again (-phitikkA/phirikkA he
mA sen* vi4 remain stead*£ast«
or not to move at all)
p h i t i - p h i t l / p h i x i - p h l r l - vi4 flutter repeatedly
(onom)
phititill-Zphixirirl- vl4 flutter continually
(onom)
san- vt4 establish* lay foundation
(S« swAn*)
jA«g— vt4 lay foundation for building
construction
nA(l)a— vt4 sow oat seed during puja festi-
val (S» nA:la swAn-)
sapar n cow-festival (S« saparu)
sapMA n wonan's lock of hair tied into
a single knot (S, sApA:(-lA)
saphu n book (S. 8Aphu:(-li)
sabuN n soap (S« sabu: (-nA)
Sana n crops
—Jya n act of harvesting the crops
sarkl n professional caste of shoe-makers
sal- vt5 pull
ICWA— vt5 pull down
tliA— vt5 pull up
ma- vis for the capital invested in
business to be recovered
ll— vt5 withdraw
curAt sal—> vt5 muolke cigArette ( s , twAn-* drink *)
sa:(-lA) n f e r t i l i s e r ; manc^re
sat (-1A) n knuckles
sa:p adv too-much
sa:bil n shovel
sa:mi n an occupational caste of oilman
(S« saeml)
 393

81 n fire-wood, wood
— p u : (-ti) n wooden flake (S« si pAu)
— k l : (-U) n termite
—kwalpuM jhangA: n wood peckers
(-lA)tA
—gwAN n log, sturop
—dhu: (-1A) n saw-dust
81 n louse
ca cakAx— n round lice found in animals'
bodies
pya(:)8l-» n sticky louse found catties* body
si- vil die («8ii K 'an evil spirit';
si: adj 'dead', sixdin, 'death
aniversary*)
tl— vtl squeeze
mlkhao ti—- vtl close eyes
si- vi2/vt2 know; to be kno%m
ip«N*thipaN wk- vt2 be highly perplexed not knowing
what to do 7 (used in ng sense
only)
mha«- vt2 recognise
«A yae thviA yae mA*-> vi2 not to know what to do (used in
ng sense only)
8i- vt2 gild, coat« electropate
8i-. vt2 fry (cf puk-« hi-yek)
sikadhali swaN n a kind of flower (s. cikA:(-nA)
dhali swat)
8iku adj small
—mikha va2 snail eyes
sikhA n chain (S* sikhA: (-1A)
—ca n necklace
siN i^hh) n lion (s. sihhA)
sicu* vi2 feel cool (iciku adj 'cool')
sijA: (-1A) n copper
8iti tAkha}(-lA) n festival of taking pulsAcake
oceur/ing on the 6th Jestha audi
(s« sinkhAt)
8i-dbA. vi2 be done (»8idhA:- adj'completed)
8idha/8lrlh)a« uncooked meal offered to a brah-
min
sin*/Bi> vt4/vtX %#ear sari
Sln-/HMA» vt4/vt2 pick up grain one by one
8ina:(-lA) swaN n BuddieJa aaiatica Lour (S. sinae
swS:)
sinka n chopstick
singali n chestnut (S, syangwli)
ainca n parting line of hair on head
8izx:i n Sodii Ghloridum
8inhA: (.lA) n Vermillion mark on fore-head
(S. sinhAx(-lA)
siplA dyA: kAles jug-like water pot regarded as
god in Nawadurfa temple in Bhakt-
apur
 394

siphA: 8waN n a kind of flower

siiaM bhu n
endl (s« 8lrobA:sl)
slmAnti n cement
slina n tree
•—kAcca n branch of a tree
~ y a IcAcea- inAcca n twigs
.-khwAla n bark
8iini:(-khA) n bean-pods
—pu n bean (&• slmpu)
tArwa- n sword-bean
sinita n cone
thAslnaegu— n pine-cone
sinbAxsl n a kind of green vegetable
sirbAndi n golden pendant worn In hair
slr(h)a/sldha n uncooked meal offered to a
brahmin
slrha n the edge oC hording line In
the ^ o n t part of a coat
811- vt5 wash (*slla n *act of washing^;
slla-slla, act of washing uten-
sils (baby talk))
nwA— vt5 wash mouth after meal (S* n u — )
nwA 81la n sipping water before religious
cesemonles or meals
sllA t (-khA) /phanga n quilt
sllla n the month of Ma:gh - Falgun
(February - March)
.- cA:rAe n a minor festival occurIng on the
29th Magh
sllae n a kind of Incense
sllaeku: n a fine carving Instrument used
In Idol-maklng
slllm pwAlAca n rldgegourd (S* slml: pwA: lA:)
8llU n a holy place; a place of pilgri-
mage In Nepal.
"••mo n folk song sung In the mouth of
^ugust when people go to sllu
as pilgrims
slsAu n teak
slsaphuea n fruits offered to the god or
goddesses« or served In a feast
(S, slsaphiiAsa)
8l: v*cl verbal reduplicative classifier
used with the verb si-*fry'
8l:(-lA) n wax
8l: n head or parts of head of a sac-
rificial animal distributed In
the order of seniority to the
seniors of a family or of a
social organisation
 395

si:k n spirit
81 :t n dew
si:p n talent
su pm who
su n straw
—khuj (-11) n mat
su- vt2 sew;
—ka n sewing thread
— k a gwara n a ball of threads (s« suka gull)
—jya n tailoring
tu— vl break as decayed threads
su* vt2 stab
IwA:—/IwAs— vt2 eat (In bad sense)
8U-> vt2 Mlorn ear with ornaments
8U- vll boll as nllk
8U- vll shrink as clothes
—pa: n shrinkage as of clothes; redu-
ction of liquid by evaporation
•—wa:(-lA) n occupational caste of cooks
8A: — vll become low as voice due to
cold« fatigue
su- vtl collect 8th by pulling
ghAe— vtl gather together for oneself
su- vtl smooth out by a trylngplane
+ su- vl2 feel
1— vl2 feel pain Internally and conti-
nually
u— vl2 feel uneasy (as one breathes
In the smoke when chilly Is
burnt)
ca-8u- vl2 feel Itchy
+ su- vi2 become
cfawa—> vi2 become loose
phya— vi2 become loose
mha— vl2 become yellow (-mhasu adj
•yellow*)
sulpA£ca n whistle
sulkaz (-r) n tailor
suk-/su- vt7^vtl boll milk
suk(u)me:l n cardamom
8uk(u)bhAltu Q turtle dove
sukhu: adv dry or dried (used with aouns
denoting 'leaf* and *meat*
only)
sugAndhA n sweet scent
—>rat j n Pollanthus tuberosa
suN prn any body
SUNkA adv without doing anything else
sucuk- vt7 hede (S^ sul-Zsucuk-)
aujmarl n a locality In Bhaktapur
aujmukhl n sun-flower (s, suryA bhaktl swa:
8utlpalu n a kind of herb (S. sA:pl)
suthA n morning (S* suthA)
 396

suntAlasl n orange (s. sAntAlasi)

supae n cloud
surAl n Jug (S, surai; B, farmers'
speech *^suri*)
surpya n leech (s, sulpya)
surwa; (-1A) n trousers
su:(-li) cl classifier used with the layer
of bricks
su:l n colic
su:si n pine-wood
-se pt intensifying particle meaning
* too much*, as in mh%3u-se,
very yellowf, kyatu-se* 'twry
delicate*
-seN pt without (used in ng sense only)
mAsyaseN cwAbe mAkhu^ *I won't
leave (him) alive (lit, I won't
live without killing (him)
se:khAN n flu
8e:l n spring roll
sthapkna n establishment
syAn- vt4 teach« instruct, learn
—a adj taught, instructed
— a bhAttu n one who knows only what is
taught
— e kane n sound advice, instruction
syAn- vi4 be decayed
—khwa:(-lA) n a defaced person
8yA:(-lA) n marrow
—kAi n pimple
8yA» (-1A) n core
syala n liver (s. se)
sya- vtl kill
—jya n act of killing
sya cupl n butcher's knife (&• nae cupi)
sya- vtl extinguish, switch off
sya- vtl have a feast; drink (young
peoples* slang)
—Jya n eating and drinking
sya- vil have pain («sya: adJ 'painful'
•vefy dear')
«:pasa n bosom friend
-:lwAe n a disease having bodily pain
especially in the Joints
+ sya- vtl do
glwAN sya— vil stand on all fours
pa sya*- vtl believe
bwA-bwA/bu-bu—• vil Tub one's palms (farmers* speech
*bwAe bwAe«—*)
hi(s)sya— vtl ridicule
syakwA tyakwA/ n festival of sacrificing animals
to various gods and goddesses
celebrated under vijaya festival
which occurs on the 9th Aswin sudi
 ^ (^

397
syanghl n table-knife
syabae pt Interjection expressing appre-
ciation
srikhAndA a Satalum album Linn
n lungs
SWA n proboscis (S, swA: (-thA)
n Pencedanup qraveolers
8WA:iBa n a clay spouted beer container
swA Bit three
8WA* vt3 lookCcf khan-)
—-Inmi n a looker
—pu n flsanner of looking
-—sa n appearence
kMA— vt3 look down
tul-tui— vt3 watch repeatedly by hiding
oneself
thA— vta look up
au— via inter somewhere by the way
dhAllN— vi3 sleep (S. dhAlI:(-inA)
nAN->- vt3 taste (S. tikxr-)
phA— vi3 look back out of anger
bwae«— vi3 talk with sb with intention to
find out the secrecies
bhwae-bhwai— vt3 look at sb with too much anger
as if he is going to shallow
him
la— vt3 receive sb; to see sb off; to
wait awhile for sb
li— vt3 think before doing sth
l(a)ha— vt3 read palm; look at sb's talent
swA- vt3 watch over« attend in
swA- vt3 support financially
swA- vt3 guide, supervise
swA- vt3 try to do sth (aux) (JiN waeta
daeta swAya *I tried to beat
him*)
SWA- vi3 resemble with (thwA mAca bAu
swA:« 'this boy resembles with
his father*)
SWA- vi3 for the threads to be tangled
-«nugA:(-lA) n man with mental conflict; con-
flicted mind
swAgAN n omen; gj.ft with good wishes
(S. sAgA: (-nA))
kheM— n gift with an egg to eat and wine
to drink (non-vigitarian swAqAN)
dhAu— n gift with curd to drink (vigit-
arian swAgAN)
swAtlpie n tightening knot
swAduga la n cross-road of three ways (s,
swAka lA)
 398

swAl- vl5 imitate

swAseN adv directly^ right from
swAlAe/dhAkl n shallow basket made of willow
sticks (S. dhAki)
swAlanti n diwali festival (s. swAnti)
swA:pswA n anis«4d (S, 8wA:pswA: (-lA))
swa: nhA n staircase (S, swSne)
—baha n frame of staircase
swa- vtl link, fix
tA— vil be vertically erect (=tAswa:
n 'vertical erection of a
bamboo pole')
—kA adv vertically
tiN-- vil be horizontally erect as penis
dhA— _ vil stand with stretched body
nA—/ni~ vil be sweet-scented (lit* scent to
be linked)
bi— vil throw down (lit* sb to be
linked with floor)
swaettA/saettA adv sharply
swaka adj loose(as kite)
swakhA: n lime (S* sAkhwa:(-lA))
swaN n flower
—ma n plant
—ina:(.lA) n garland
->vra n flowery rice
swattu-swaN adv manner of coming, going, bring-
ing etc* without any interrup-
tion
swarakkA adv manner of eating or wearing fast
swara-swara/swara-siri adv manner of eating or wearing
(clothes) fast and repeatedly
swararara adv manner of sliding down continually
swaha adJ act of burning to ashes, act of
destroying

hA pt quotative particle meaning *it

is reported that'#
hA: pt responsive particle (non hon)
hAtne adv in front (s* nhyl^:ne)
khwa:— adv face to face
hA- vt2 bring
hA- vt2 employ sb/sth to convey sth
(aux) start doing sth (aux)
hAi n centipade
hAk—^A>wA:bi— vt7/vt2 scold, rebuke
hAN pt question tag meaning 'is it not
so ?•, 'understand ?•
hAN pt expletive particle
hAJu:r pt particle denoting extreme respect
 399
hAtl adj obstinate (S, hAtthl)
hAtta-lcAtta adj stout and strong _
hAthAN n soapnut (S. hA:thA:)
hAthlar n weapon
hAthu n n ego*s husband's senior wife
(c£ lithu)
hAthya n obstinancy^ insistence
hAdkAl« n hand vice (S, hAdkAl)
hAnsAra:(*J) swaN n Hydrangea macrophvlla
hAbAl jAhaJ n aeroplane (S, hAwai JAhaj)
hAlAt (-khA) n Hydrangea macrophvlla
hAla/lha pt interrogative particle mean-
ing is it not so 7« understand
hAlica n an earthen pot designed to
cook rice
hAlimall n parched grains and pulses
before or after offerring to
the god or goddess (cf chusya
musya)
hAiuwabecAn/h^luwabeli n percimnon (s« h^iuwabe:c)
hAlu: (-khA) ii powdered turiReric ,
KAe— n pieces of turmericf
—si n a kind of yellow wood used to
make furniture
hAsA- adj from the first wife, foster
(S* nhyAsu)
—-kae ll foster son
—mhyae n foster daughter
hAsAna n preface« pre-information
hA8A;(-lA) n question (S* nyAsA:^ cf lisA:)
hAt(.lA) n leaf
hA:l pt responsive particle (farmers*
speech) (cf* JyAiu)
hA:s pt responsive* particle meaning
'all right*
Hft a stean, vapour (S* ha)
hi n bee (S* ha)
kAicl— n wasp
—pwAx(-lA) n bee-hive
hi n root
—gAt(-lA) n base of a free (S« mwA:(-lA)
ha* vi2 be interested in (s* nhya-)
ha:ca n carpenters* chisel (c£« KAtari)
suki—• n small ha:ca
hae n duck (S« hAe)
•»ca n small duck
—SWAN n a kind of flower (that looks
like a duck)
—-pali svAN n a kind of flower that looks
like the sole of the foot of
a duck
bA: — n swan (s, bwA:-)
bare— n wild goose (S. lA:-)
ha- vt2 hu8k# winnow
—sa n winnowing tray
ha- vt2 steam (aha n 'steam')
 400

-pu n cooked rice

-si n an earthen pot with a big
hole in the centre of the
base with some holes aro-
und it used in distillat-
ion
pfwArC-lA)-- vt2 steam rice to make beer
ha- vi2 be shed as o£ leaves« fl-
owers^ tears, bloody water;
be uprooted as of hair«
ieather/ tooth
pui— vi2 worship an outlet or a well
as a mystical treatment of
certain diseases (lit. make
the clotted disease uproo-
ted)
swa— vi2 slide down as a lengthy
object
ha- vl2 be of certain length
acyac(ca)-/ci: cya- vi2 be short
la— vi2 be long
gApae—• vi2 how long to be
ha- vil be dashed against sth
luphiN— vil stumble
haek- vt7 ridicule, tease, make fun
of, trouble
ha- vi2 like (S, nhya»)
hal- pt *pardon (l could tact under-
stand)
hal pu- vi2 feel pleasant
hakANAiaknANAanAN adv again
hakA: n soot
halcA:(-lA) n length
haku- vi be black(vhaku adj black
—mAI n cicada
hakhi n carpenters* black-marking
thread used in marking strai-
ght line for wawing a log
hachika n sneeze
hachitu ghai n a kind of grass which causes
sneezing
hatha n part of loom that makes cloth*
compact
han- vt4 thread (as flowers, beads)
kathAM han— vt4 be performed saoothly or
systimatically as work (»ka-
thAN han-kA adv gradually,
systimatically)
han- vt4 respect (<«hAn-a n 'respect*,
hAn-a bAn-a, n 'decency')
(nAkh^ han- vt4 celebrate festival
 401
hanAN/hak(A)nAN adv again
hanca adv towards this night (s, hAnca)
hamA:(-1A)- n sesame (S, hamwA:)
haraN adj Qotorous
hal- vi2 cry
tututuN- vi2 go on saying the same without
any stoppage
para-para— adv go on saying related and un-
related facts loudly
makha-- vi2 for a man to be henpecked
(lit, hen to crow which is
considered to be a bad omen)
mu: — vi2 for the body to be thrilled
became of biting cold or too
much anger
hawa pani n climate
hi- n ten (s, jhi-)
hi n blood
hi- vt2 wash clothes
hija~ vt2 wash clothes (S, wAsAV-)
—jya n act of washing clothes
—ku:(-thi) n laundry
mAhi- n tolerate (used in ng» sense
only) WAN jita mAhi:^ 'he
does not tolerate me'
hi-kwAe n body joints
hi-kwA:ca n an earthen beer container
capacity of about 6 manas
hxN n Ferula alliacea (S, hi:(-nA)
hica-hica adv Zigzag (S, na:gbeli)
hiti n water tap
~ph\vA: (lA) n tap cock
—mAngA:(-1A) n upper platform of stonetap
hin- vt4 blend, stir
hintyaN pt expletive particle meaning
to express that sth happened
against one's own e*pectitlon
(wa wAl hintyaN, ^ I:: thaught it
will rain, but did not'^
hi: (-nA) cl v verbal classifier used to count
the act of blending chA hi: hine,
'to stir once*
hin- vt4 roll up
hi:(-nA) cl V classifier used to count tlie
act of rolling up« chA hi:
hine, 'roll up once',
hi-sa: (-1A) n thread of a screw
hi-sas (-1A) n lengthy piece of cloth used as
washer between two pots
hil- vt5 change, (=hil-a n 'act of chang-
ing; hil-a bul-a n 'exchange'
hil-a hisa n 'spare clothes'
hiu: adj 'changed' as in hiu:pa:«
'revolution'^
 402
akhA:(-lA) — vt2 transcribe
cA— vt2 get the thread of a screw
damaged
bhae— vt2 translate
hil- vt5 expose to the air or sun
hilaca/heraca n lightening (K.pAlpAsa; P«
hawAlAsa)
hu-/mhu- vt2 wipe out/ erase (farmers'
speech mhu-)
~sa n any thing that wipes out (e«g*
eraser^ duster, handkerchief,
towel etc*)
khwa: husa/khwa:}:(A)
sa n towel
Iha: husa n handkerchief
huH prn t h a t of far d i s t a n c e
—ka: adv there (in yonder p l a c e ) ( s ,
hu: kAftiA)
hupica n brooch (S, hu:p)
hubjya n act of carving round
hera n diamond
ca(=hela-ca) n lightning (that glitters like a
diamond) (K, pAlpAsa P. hawAl-
Asa)
he: pt emphatic, particle meaning
•very'/ 'same'
he:k- vt7 convince sb by telling a lie
(cf, musya gyAek-)
mAca— vt7 convince sb by telling hin/her
a lie (as if he/she is a child)
he:ku: n stick or rod used to move a
spinning wheel
hyA- vi2 be lured (=hyA: adj 'lured')
misa-/lyase-- n be lustful person as a man
hyA- vi2 be convinced by falsehood
mAca— vi2 be convined like a claild by
falsehood
hyAngwa:(-lA) n charcoal
n dung beetle (K. gAida ki:;
P. khigwara ki:)
hya- adj any
— g u kathAN adv any way
—b(A)lAe adv always
hyau vi2 be red (farmers' speech hyamu-)
(=hyau adj 'red')
hwA- vi2 bloom (=hwA: ad j'bloomed*)as in
hwA:nugA:/ 'open hearted person')
kwA— vi2 be faded av/ay as of green leaves
kAla: vi2 be sprouted
nugA:— vi2 be open hearted
phwAsa— vi2 for mildew to be formed, be
decayed
swaN-- vi2 be glad
 403

hwA- vi2 be dislocated

hwAn- vt4 patch (=hwAn-a adj 'patched')
hwAn- vi4 lead a married life
hwAnk- vt7 cause sb to pat6h sth^ cause
sth to be patched; the cere-
mony in a wedding which in-
volves the bridegroom decora-
ting the bride etc.
hwAl- vt5 hurl•sow by throwing the seeds
hwA:(-tA) n big hole on surface (cf, pwa:)
hwA: s n consciousness
hwa- vtl fry in oil
hwa- vtl throw dice or cowry for gambl-
ing; gamble
hwa- vtl mislead
hwa- vil be exposed to air
hwa- vil be very popular
hwataN adv manner of being ox:>en like a
deep pit
hwanakkA/hwarakkA adv manner of flaming up suddenly
hwana-hv;ana|' adv manner of flaming up repeatedly
hwara-hwara
hwananana/hwararara adv manner of flaming continually
up
hwantaN n idiot
hwasakkA adv manner of growing up very fast
hwasa-hwasa adv manner of growing up repeatedly
very fast
hwasasasaN adv manner of growing up continually
very fast
hwalu adj loose
 404

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