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Dynamic Behavior of Stand-alone Wind Turbine Generator System with Wind

Turbine Performance Deterioration

Article  in  Wind Engineering · May 2008

DOI: 10.1260/030952408785363485

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 Dynamic Behavior of Stand-alone Wind Turbine
Generator System with Wind Turbine Performance
Deterioration
by

Tetsuya Wakui, Ryohei Yokoyama, and Hiroyuki Arase

R EPRINTED FROM

WIND ENGINEERING
VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008

M ULTI -S CIENCE P UBLISHING C OMPANY

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T EL : +44(0)1277 224632 • FAX : +44(0)1277 223453
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W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 PP 265–284 265

Dynamic Behavior of Stand-alone Wind Turbine

Generator System with Wind Turbine Performance
Deterioration
Tetsuya Wakui, Ryohei Yokoyama, and Hiroyuki Arase
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Osaka Prefecture University
1-1 Gakuen-cho, Naka-ku, Sakai-shi, Osaka, 599-8531, Japan
E-mail: wakui@ese.me.osakafu-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
It is necessary to establish an autonomous condition monitoring for small-scale stand-alone
wind turbine generator systems, which are mainly utilized in regions with no electricity. As
a first phase of its development, dynamic behavior of a system with the performance
deterioration of a wind turbine is investigated using a dynamic simulation model. In the
target system, a straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine is mainly operated at a constant tip
speed ratio, i.e., a maximum power coefficient point, without an anemometer from the
viewpoints of the simplicity of system configuration and the low system cost. Numerical
analyses show that the performance deterioration of the wind turbine causes a significant
decrease in the power generating capability during operation due to a deviation in the
operating point of the system from a maximum power coefficient point. Furthermore, a
system characteristic that is closely linked to the performance deterioration of the wind
turbine and can be estimated during operation without an anemometer is identified.

NOMENCLATURE
A Swept area of wind turbine m2
a Fourier sine coefficient
b Linear equation coefficient
CP Power coefficient
CT Torque coefficient
J Moment of inertia of wind turbine generator system kgm2
KNV Gain of rotational speed to inflow wind speed rpm/(m/s)
M Total number of computed torque coefficients
m Index for number of computed torque coefficient
n Rotational speed of wind turbine rpm
PB Proportional band %
R Rotational radius of wind turbine m
s Laplace operator
TI Integral time s
TNV Time constant of system s
t Time s
V Inflow wind speed m/s
266 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

X Tip speed ratio

()' Deteriorated value

Greek symbols:
ρ Air density kg/m3
τ Torque Nm

Subscripts:
D Desired value
F Friction
G Generator
L Load
max Maximum value
T Wind turbine

1. INTRODUCTION
Large-scale commercial wind turbine generator systems are being used worldwide because
of global environmental issues. It is also important that small-scale stand-alone systems be
utilized in regions with no electricity. However, the maintenance of such systems becomes
difficult due to less accessibility. Thus, if their operating conditions are autonomously
monitored by themselves, their reliability can be strikingly improved. Condition monitoring
methods for large-scale commercial systems have been developed [1–3]; these methods are
mainly based on the measurement of vibrations, temperatures, and electric power output and
their signal processing. However, in small-scale stand-alone systems, the installation of sensors
for the measurement of these signals causes a significant increase in the system cost.
Therefore, autonomous condition monitoring without additional sensors is strongly required.
Vertical axis wind turbines are known to be highly suitable for small-scale stand-alone
systems because their power generation mechanism is not affected by the inflow wind
direction, and their generators, gear boxes, and controllers can be set at low heights. In
particular, a straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine with a large solidity is considered to be
one of the suitable vertical axis wind turbines owing to its self-starting capability. Thus, the
authors aim to develop an autonomous condition monitoring for a small-scale stand-alone
system that use a straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine. Although various types of failures
can occur in a system during operation, this paper focuses on the performance deterioration
of a wind turbine that is the most important concern in a system.
The performance deterioration of lift-type wind turbines such as the straight-wing vertical
axis wind turbine is mainly caused by an increase in the blade surface roughness due to
pollution, icing, etc. Chakroun et al. reported the influence of blade surface roughness on the
aerodynamic characteristics of an NACA0012 symmetrical airfoil [4]. Freudenreich et al.
reported the same for a DU300-mod thick airfoil [5]. These reports clarified that the increased
blade surface roughness causes an increase in the drag and a decrease in the lift of the airfoil.
Furthermore, the performance deterioration of horizontal axis wind turbines due to an
increased blade surface roughness was also reported [6–9]. These studies focused only on the
deterioration of the power output of systems operated at constant rotational speeds. However,
many modern wind turbines, whether used in large-scale commercial systems or in small-
scale stand-alone systems, adopt a variable speed operation that includes a constant tip speed
ratio operation for a high power generation capability and a smoothing effect of the output
fluctuation. The author has confirmed that power generation capability of wind turbine
generator systems, which use vertical axis wind turbines and a horizontal axis wind turbine,
under a variable speed operation is significantly affected by their dynamic behavior in the
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 267

response to the variations in the inflow wind speed [10–12]. Thus, for a system under a variable
speed operation, the influence of the performance deterioration of a wind turbine on the
dynamic behavior during operation is required to be clarified.
The authors have also discussed a suitable control method for the constant tip speed ratio
operation of a small-scale stand-alone system that uses a straight-wing vertical axis wind
turbine [13, 14]. The results of these studies have illustrated that a system without an
anemometer and employing the load control in proportion to the square of the rotational
speed possesses a high power generation capability and can generate the smoothing effect of
the output fluctuation. In addition, a stand-alone system without an anemometer has an
advantage in terms of simplifying the system configuration and reducing the system cost.
Hence, the purpose of this study is to develop an autonomous condition monitoring without an
anemometer for a stand-alone system employing the aforementioned load control. In its first
phase, this paper discusses the influence of the performance deterioration of a straight-wing
vertical axis wind turbine on the dynamic behavior of a system through numerical analyses
conducted using a dynamic simulation model.

2. STAND-ALONE WIND TURBINE GENERATOR SYSTEM

2.1. System Overview
Figure 1 illustrates a schematic of a stand-alone wind turbine generator system. The system
consists of a straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine, a generator, a battery, and a controller.
In this system, the wind turbine converts inflow wind power into mechanical power, which is
in turn converted into electricity by the generator and used to charge the battery. This study
focuses on a straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine used in stand-alone systems. The
specifications of the wind turbine are listed in Table 1. These have been specified so that the
wind turbine possesses a self-starting capability regardless of the inflow wind direction.
However, they are not necessarily optimized because the objective of this paper is to clarify
the influence of performance deterioration of the wind turbine on the dynamic behavior of
the system.

Straight-wing
vertical axis
wind turbine

Rotational
speed Battery
n

Controller G

Generator

Wind Mechanical Electric

power Wind power power
Generator Battery
turbine

Figure 1. Schematic of stand-alone wind turbine generator system

268 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

Table 1. Specifications of straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine

Item Value
Rated power output kW 2.1
Rated wind speed m/s 15.0
Diameter m 2.0
Height m 2.0
Swept area m2 4.0
Blade airfoil NACA0021
Strut airfoil NACA0012
Solidity 0.5
Number of blades 5
Number of struts 10
Chord length of blade m 0.1
Chord length of strut m 0.08

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

-0.05
0 1 2 3 4
Tip speedratio

a)

0.40

0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00

-0.10
0 1 2 3 4
Tip speedratio

b)
Figure 2. Dimensionless output characteristics of straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 269

Figure 2 presents the computational results of the output characteristics of the straight-
wing vertical axis wind turbine under the normal condition without any performance
deterioration using the dimensionless parameters defined in eqns (1–3): tip speed ratio X,
torque coefficient CT, and power coefficient CP.

2π
nR
X = 60 (1)
V

τT
CT = (2)
0.5ρ ARV 2

2π
nτ T
CP = 60 (3)
0.5ρ AV 3

The generated torque of the wind turbine in response to the inflow wind speed and
rotational speed is computed using the multiple streamtube theory [15, 16]. The summary of
the computation model has been described in our previous paper [13]. This turbine has a
starting torque coefficient of 0.02 and a maximum power coefficient of 0.3 at a tip speed ratio
of 2.0 under the normal condition.

2.2. Operating Method of Stand-alone System

2.2.1. Overview of Operating Method
This stand-alone system adopts a variable speed operation that can be divided into two
operation modes: a constant tip speed ratio operation as the main mode and a constant speed
operation as the safety one. At low and medium wind speeds, the system is operated at a
constant tip speed ratio so that the maximum power coefficient is maintained regardless of
the variations in the inflow wind speed. At high wind speeds, the operation of the system is
switched from the constant tip speed ratio operation to the constant speed operation to
ensure blade safety. The desired rotational speed nD and generated torque of the wind turbine
τTD in response to the inflow wind speed V in a steady state are given by

 VX D

2π R (Constant tipspeed ratio operation)
nD =  (4)
 60
 nmax (Constant speed operation)

and
τ TD = 0.5CT ( X D ) ρ ARV 2 (5)

respectively, where

 2.0 (Constant tipspeed ratio operation)


X D =  2π n R (6)
 60
max
(Constant speed operation)
 V

Figure 3 illustrates the desired operating point of the system derived from eqns (4–6) that
indicates the relationships between the torque, rotational speed, tip speed ratio, and power
coefficient.
270 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

400 Wind speed m/s

Wind speed m/s
20 15 20

Rotational speed rpm

15
10 300 nmax

10
5 200

5
Switching point of
100
operation mode

4 3 2 1 0 50 100 150
Tip speed ratio Torque Nm
0.1
n < nmax

Power coefficient
Constant tip speed
0.2 ratio operation
n > nmax
0.3 Constant
speed operation

0.4
Figure 3. Desired operating point

2.2.2. Load Control Method

In order to operate the system at the desired point shown in Figure. 3, the load to the wind
turbine is required to be adequately controlled in response to the variations in the inflow wind
speed. In this system, the load torque of the wind turbine is controlled based on the rotational
speed, which has a lag characteristic to the variations in the inflow wind speed, without an
anemometer. This method has a high power generating capability and a smoothing effect of
the output fluctuation [13, 14]. From the relationship between the rotational speed and the
generated torque of the wind turbine at the desired operating point in the steady state shown
in Figure. 3, the load torque τL is derived as follows:

2
 2π 
 R
τ L = 0.5CT ( X D ) ρ AR  60  n2 (7)
 XD 
 

This equation indicates that the load torque is proportional to the square of the rotational
speed. Although the actual operating point of the system often deviates from the desired one
because the wind turbine generator system possesses a moment of inertia, it is confirmed that
the load torque derived from the desired operating point in the steady state is applicable to a
transient state [13].
For a constant speed operation at high wind speeds, a feedback control of the rotational
speed is introduced. A proportional plus integral (PI) controller is employed for the feedback
control. Thus, the load torque under the constant speed operation τL is derived as follows:

100 τ max  1 
τL = ( n − nD ) + ∫ ( n − nD ) dt  (8)
PB nmax  TI 

In any operation mode, the load torque of the wind turbine τL consists of a driving torque
of the generator ƒG and a friction torque of the rotational shaft τF. Thus, the driving torque of
the generator is derived as follows:
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 271

τG = τL − τF (9)

The necessary armature current for actualizing the driving torque is calculated by using
the steady-state characteristic of the generator, and it is regulated by a transistor installed
between the generator and the battery.

3. COMPUTATIONAL METHOD
3.1. Overview of Dynamic Simulation Model
The detail of the dynamic simulation model for analyzing the dynamic behavior of the system
has been described in the previous paper [13]; thus, only its summary is described in this section.
The dynamic simulation model is constructed on the basis of a quasi-steady state
assumption of the system components, including the wind turbine and the generator, because
the dominant factor in the dynamic behavior of the system is the response characteristic of
the rotational system with the moment of inertia. Thus, this model is composed of two
elements: the steady-state characteristics of the system components and the dynamic model
of the rotational system. The rotational speed in a transient state can be obtained by
numerically solving an equation of motion of the rotational system by using the Runge-Kutta
method. The validity of this dynamic simulation model has been confirmed by comparing the
results obtained by the model with experiments conducted on a Darrieus-type turbine [17].

3.2. Computational Conditions

The computational conditions for analyzing the dynamic behavior of the system are described
in this section. First, the specifications of the rotational system are listed in Table 2. The friction
toque characteristics of the rotational shaft have been specified so that the starting wind speed
of the wind turbine was 2.5 m/s. Second, the load torque is manipulated within the range shown
in Table 3 in order that the behavior of the system at starting and stopping the load control is
smooth. The conditions of the cutout and actuating emergency brake are also listed in Table 3;
the cutout threshold was determined using the electric power output at the cutout wind speed

Table 2. Specifications of rotational system.

Item Value
Moment of inertia J kgm2 11.84
Static friction torque Nm 0.250
Kinetic friction torque Nm 0.238
Viscous friction torque coefficient Nm/rpm 11.05*10-3

Table 3. Operating range of load control system.

Item Value
Start rpm 60
Stop rpm 15
Operating mode change nmax rpm 280
Cutout kW 2.85
Emergency brake rpm 300
272 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

of 20 m/s. The proportional band PB and the integral time TI for the constant speed operation
were 2.75% and 0.5 s, respectively. Through a numerical analysis, it is confirmed that the system
employing these control conditions exhibit a stable behavior. In addition, the discrete time for
solving the equation of motion of the system was 0.01 s.

4. PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION OF WIND TURBINE

This paper focuses on the performance deterioration of the straight-wing vertical axis wind
turbine due to the increased blade surface roughness, which is caused by pollution, etc. First,
the influence of the increased blade surface roughness on the wind turbine performance is
investigated. Then, the performance deterioration of the wind turbine is modeled for the
dynamic simulation model.

4.1. Influence of Blade Surface Roughness on Wind Turbine Performance

Chakroun et al. investigated the aerodynamic characteristics of an NACA0012 airfoil with an
increased blade surface roughness through wind tunnel tests [4]. The result is summarized as
follows: the lift coefficient decreases with an increase in the blade surface roughness at angles
of attack smaller than the angle of stall; the angle of stall increases with the blade surface
roughness; and the drag coefficient increases with the blade surface roughness at angles of
attack smaller than the angle of stall. Thus, the output characteristics of the straight-wing
vertical axis wind turbine are computed using the aerodynamic characteristics of the
NACA0012 airfoil investigated by Chakroun et al. [4].
The computational result, i.e., the relationship between the tip speed ratio and the power
coefficient is shown in Figure. 4; the specifications of the wind turbine are the same as those
shown in Table 1, except that the NACA0012 airfoil is employed. “Smooth” and “P80” in this figure
denote the output characteristics of the wind turbine employing the NACA0012 airfoil with a
smooth surface and a roughness of 200 µm, respectively [4]. Obviously, the maximum power
coefficient decreases markedly due to the increase in the blade surface roughness; however,
the tip speed ratio at the maximum power coefficient is hardly influenced by the blade surface
roughness. Moreover, the no-load tip speed ratio, at which the power output of the wind turbine
becomes zero, is also considerably decreased by the increase in the blade surface roughness.

0.10

Smooth
P80
0.05
Power coefficient

0.00

-0.05
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Tip speed ratio
Figure 4. Influence of blade surface roughness on output characteristic of straight-wing vertical axis
wind turbine
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 273

0.20

0.15

Power coefficient
0.10

0.05

Smooth
0.00 Rough

-0.05
0 2 4 6 8
Tip speed ratio
Figure 5. Influence of blade surface roughness on output characteristic of horizontal axis wind
turbine (Ref. [7])

Further, the relationship between the tip speed ratio and the power coefficient, which was
obtained from the experiment conducted by Musial et al. [7], is shown in Figure 5; the wind
turbine was three-bladed horizontal-axis-type with a diameter of 10 m and was operated at a
constant speed. Its performance measurement was conducted without (“Smooth” in Figure 5)
and with (“Rough” in Figure 5) leading-edge roughness added to the blade. Although this wind
turbine type is different from that shown in Figure 4, the blade surface roughness has a similar
influence on the output characteristics of both types of wind turbines, except that the tip speed
ratio at the maximum power coefficient is slightly decreased in the case of the horizontal axis
wind turbine.

4.2. Modeling of Performance Deterioration of Wind Turbine

On the basis of the investigation in the previous section, the performance deterioration of the
straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine is modeled for the dynamic simulation model. The
different types of performance deteriorations observed in the wind turbines due to the
increased blade surface roughness are summarized as follows: a decrease in the maximum
power coefficient and decreases in the tip speed ratios at the no-load and the maximum power
coefficient points. In order to model these features, first, the torque coefficient of the wind
turbine under the normal condition without any performance deterioration is expressed as
approximate functions of the tip speed ratio as follows:

 M  ( 2 m − 1) π  X 
 ∑ am sin  1 −  ( X < Xmax )
CT ( X ) =  m=1  2  X max  (10)

 b1 + b2 X ( X ≥ Xmax )

where Xmax denotes the no-load tip speed ratio; am denotes the Fourier sine coefficient, and b1
and b2 denote the coefficients of the linear equation, whose values are identified based on the
torque coefficient characteristic computed using the multiple streamtube model by the least
squares method; and M denotes the total number of computed torque coefficients in the range
lower than the no-load tip speed ratio. It was confirmed that the output characteristic
calculated from eqn (10) coincides very well with the computed one.
274 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

Second, the output characteristic including the different types of performance

deteriorations, i.e., the relationship between the deteriorated torque coefficient C' T and the tip
speed ratio X is expressed as follows:

 CP' max  X 
 CT  X D'  ( X < X D' )
 C  X 
CT' ( X ) = 
p max D

 CP' max  X − XD  (11)

 CT ( X − X D' ) max + X  ( X ≥ X D' )

− X D'
' D
 CP max  X max 

where CT denotes the torque coefficient under the normal condition calculated from eqn (10);
'
CPmax denotes the maximum power coefficient under the normal condition; and CP max , X D' , and
'
X max denote the deteriorated maximum power coefficient, tip speed ratio at the deteriorated
maximum power coefficient, and deteriorated no-load tip speed ratio, respectively.
Considering the investigation in the previous section, this paper employs the three types of
performance deteriorations of the wind turbine for the numerical analysis as follows: (1) Case-
A that is the normal condition, (2) Case-B where the maximum power coefficient and no-load
tip speed ratio are decreased by 30% and 10% as compared to those in Case-A, respectively,
and (3) Case-C where the maximum power coefficient, no-load tip speed ratio, and tip speed
ratio at the maximum power coefficient are decreased by 30%, 20%, and 10% as compared to
those in Case-A, respectively. These deteriorations are listed in Table 4. The output
characteristics for the three types of performance deteriorations calculated from eqn (11) are
illustrated in Figure. 6. In the following numerical analysis conducted using the dynamic
simulation model, the generated torque of the wind turbine is calculated from eqn (11).

Table 4. Deterioration condition of wind turbine performance.

Case-A Case-B Case-C
C'Pmax CPmax 0.7CPmax 0.7CPmax
X'D XD XD 0.9XD
X'max Xmax 0.9Xmax 0.8Xmax

0.4
Case-A
Case-B
0.3
Case-C
Power coefficient

0.2

0.1

0.0

–0.1
0 1 2 3 4
Tip speed ratio
Figure 6. Three types of performance deteriorations of straight-wing vertical axis wind turbine
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 275

5. INFLUENCE OF PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION OF WIND TURBINE ON

STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTICS
The influence of the performance deterioration of the wind turbine on the steady-state
characteristics of the system is examined. The computational result under a constant inflow
wind speed is regarded as the steady state. Figure 7 presents the rotational speed and electric
power output to the inflow wind speed in the steady state with the three types of performance
deteriorations; the electric power output is computed considering the mechanical loss due to
the friction torque of the rotational axis and the loss of the inner resistance in the generator.
The rotational speed in Case-A corresponds to the desired value shown in Figure. 3, while
the rotational speeds in Case-B and Case-C are lower than that in Case-A; in particular, the
decrease in the rotational speed in Case-B is remarkable. The influence on the electric power
output is similar to that on the rotational speed. It should be noted that the deterioration in the
electric power output in Case-B is more serious than the deterioration in the maximum power
coefficient. This is a result of the shift in the operating point of the system. In order to explain

400

Case-A
300 Case-B
Rotational speed rpm

Case-C

200

100

0 5 10 15 20 25
Inflow wind speed m/s
a) Rotational soeed

Case-A
3 Case-B
Electric power output kW

Case-C

0 5 10 15 20 25
Inflow wind speed m/s
b) Electric power output
Figure 7. Steady-state characteristics of the system with three types of performance deteriorations
276 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

0.4
Load Turbine output
characteristic
0.3 Case-A
Case-B
Power coefficient Case-C
0.2

Steady-state
0.1 operating point
Case-A
0.0 Case-B
Case-C

–0.1
0 1 2 3 4
Tip speed ratio
Figure 8. Relationship between wind turbine output and load characteristics

this shift, the relationship between the power coefficient of the wind turbine and the
characteristic of a dimensionless load is shown in Figure. 8; the dimensionless load CPL is
derived by the following equation:

2π
nτ L
(12)
CPL = 60
0.5ρ AV 3

The intersection of the power coefficient and dimensionless load in Figure. 8 denotes the
steady-state operating point of the system. Since the load is controlled using eqn (8) for any
type of performance deterioration, the steady-state operating points in Case-B and Case-C
deviate far from that in Case-A, which is the maximum power coefficient point under the
normal condition. The power coefficient and tip speed ratio at the steady-state operating
point in Case-B are considerably lower than those in Case-A.
Moreover, the cutout wind speed is different for the three types of performance
deteriorations. In Case-B and Case-C, the system operate even at wind speeds higher than the
cutout wind speed in Case-A, because the cutout threshold is determined on the basis of the
electric power output.

6. INFLUENCE OF PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION OF WIND TURBINE ON

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR
It is indispensable to discuss the influence of the performance deterioration of the wind
turbine on the dynamic behavior of the system because the system is always in a transient
state during operation and the dynamic behavior of the system under the constant tip speed
ratio operation has a significant influence on its power generating capability.

6.1. Dynamic Behavior During Operation

Figures 9 and 10 present the computational results of the dynamic behavior of the system with
the three types of performance deteriorations for one day; the dynamic behaviors in Case-B
and Case-C are separately compared to that in Case-A. Field wind data were obtained
through observations conducted on an isolated island in Japan; the mean wind speed during
the computation was 7.6 m/s. The figures describe the relationships between the load torque,
rotational speed, and inflow wind speed that correspond to the observed wind speed (Figures
9-a and 10-a) and the time response of the inflow wind speed, rotational speed, load torque, and
electric power output (Figures 9-b and 10-b).
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 277

400

speed rpm
Rotational
Desired operating point

300

200

100 Case-A
Case-B

25 20 15 10 5 0 50 100 150
Inflow wind speed m/s Load torque Nm

a) Relationship between load torque, rotational speed, and inflow wind speed

Case-A Case-B
30
20
speed
Wind

m/s

10
0
400
Rotational

300
speed
rpm

200
100
0
150
torque

100
Load

Nm

50
0
3
Electric
power

2
kW

1
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time h
b) Time response
Figure 9. Computational result of dynamic behavior of the system for one day (Case-A & Case-B)

First, the relationship between the inflow wind speed and the rotational speed shown in the
second quadrants of Figures 9-a and 10-a is discussed. The system in Case-A has a circular
operating locus with a central focus on the desired operating point, denoted by dash-dotted
line, because of the moment of inertia of the system. At high wind speeds, the operation of the
system is suitably switched from the constant tip speed ratio operation to the constant speed
operation. However, the operating loci of the system in Case-B and Case-C deviate far from the
desired operating point; this is pronounced in Case-B. This is due to the shift in the operating
point, as described in the previous chapter. On the other hand, the operating loci in the first
quadrants of Figures 9-a and 10-a, which illustrate the relationship between the load torque
and the rotational speed, converge very well with the desired operating points for all the three
278 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

400

speed rpm
Rotational
Desired operating point

300

200

Case-A
100
Case-C

25 20 15 10 5 0 50 100 150
Inflow wind speed m/s Load torque Nm

a) Relationship between load torque, rotational speed, and inflow wind speed

Case-A Case-C
30
speed

20
Wind

m/s

10
0
400
Rotational

300
speed
rpm

200
100
0
150
torque

100
Load

Nm

50
0
3
Electric
power

2
kW

1
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time h
b) Time response
Figure 10. Computational result of dynamic behavior of the system for one day (Case-A & Case-C)

types of performance deteriorations. This is because the load torque characteristic, which is
not influenced by the performance deterioration of the wind turbine, appears in the first
quadrant. However, the positions of the operating loci in Case-B and Case-C are lower than
that in Case-A. Furthermore, the time responses shown in Figures 9-b and 10-b reveal the
decreases in the load torque and electric power output with the rotational speed. The
operation of the system in Case-B is always maintained as the constant tip speed ratio
operation due to the significant decrease in the rotational speed; however, the electric power
output of the system is quite low.
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 279

Table 5. Computational result of power generating capability.

Power coefficient at
Generated Effective electric
steady-state
electricity kWh/d power coefficient
operating point

Case-A 8.26 0.248 0.296

Case-B 2.77 0.0832 0.109
Case-C 5.95 0.179 0.207

6.2. Power Generating Capability During Operation

Next, the power generating capability of the system with the performance deterioration of
the wind turbine during operation is evaluated. Table 5 lists the computational result of the
generated electricity and the effective electric power coefficient of the system with the three
types of the performance deteriorations for the same day as that in Figures 9 and 10. The
effective electric power coefficient is defined as the ratio of the generated electricity to the
inflow wind energy throughout the day and corresponds to the energy conversion efficiency
of the system. The power coefficients at the steady-state operating point are also presented in
this table. The difference in the power generating capability—the generated electricity and
the effective electric power coefficient—with the three types of performance deteriorations is
almost the same as that in the power coefficients at the steady-state operating point, i.e., the
power generating capability in Case-B deteriorates more than the performance deterioration
of the wind turbine itself. This result indicates that the dominant factor in the decrease in the
power generating capability due to the performance deterioration of the wind turbine is the
shift in the operating point.

7. SYSTEM CHARACTERISTIC LINKED TO PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION

OF WIND TURBINE
The numerical analyses in the previous chapter clarify that the performance deterioration of
the wind turbine has a significant influence on the relationship between the inflow wind speed
and the rotational speed. However, this influence cannot be detected in our system because it
is not equipped with an anemometer. Even in a system with an anemometer, it may be
extremely difficult to accurately detect this influence because of the measurement errors in
an anemometer. On the other hand, our system can evaluate the relationship between the
rotational speed and the load torque, which can be estimated from the steady-state
characteristic of the generator and the electric power output without a torque measurement.
However, the performance deterioration of the wind turbine cannot be detected from this
relationship because this relationship in any type of performance deterioration converges
very well with the desired operating point, as shown in Figures 9-a and 10-a. Hence, it is very
important to identify the system characteristic that is closely linked to the influence of the
performance deterioration of the wind turbine on the dynamic behavior of the system and
can be estimated in this system during operation.
The most prominent influence due to the performance deterioration of the wind turbine is
the shift in the operating point. The steady-state operating points at a rotational speed of 200
rpm with the three types of performance deteriorations are shown in Figure 11. Due to the
performance deterioration of the wind turbine, the inflow wind speed is considerably
different among the three cases. The difference in the inflow wind speed at a constant
280 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

240
Steady-state operating point

220 Load torque

Rotational speed rmp 200

180
Wind turbine generated torque
Case-A (V=10.5 m/s)
160
Case-B (V=14.6 m/s)
Case-C (V=11.8 m/s)
140
30 35 40 45 50
Torque Nm
Figure 11. Steady-state operating points of system with three types of performance deteriorations at
the same rotational speed

0.4

0.2
of turbine – T /∂n Nm/rpm
Rotational conductance

0.0

–0.2

Case-A
–0.4 Case-B
Case-C

–0.6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Rotational speed rpm
Figure 12. Relationship between rotational speed and rotational conductance of wind turbine

rotational speed causes a difference in the rotational conductance of the wind turbine ; this is
defined as the gradient of the generated torque of the wind turbine to the rotational speed.
The relationship between the rotational speed and the rotational conductance of the wind
turbine with the three types of performance deteriorations is illustrated in Figure 12. The
rotational conductances of the wind turbine in Case-B and Case-C are less than that in Case-A.
In particular, that in Case-B has a negative value. The authors have confirmed that the
rotational conductance of the wind turbine has an influence on the response characteristic of
the system [14]. Figure 13 presents a block diagram of the system, which was obtained by
linearizing the minimal deviations of the inflow wind speed, rotational speed, turbine and load
torque, and performing a Laplace transform for them. From this block diagram, the transfer
function of the rotational speed to the inflow wind speed is expressed as follows:

∆ n( s) K NV
= (13)
∆V ( s) 1 + sTNV

The gain KNV and time constant TNV in the response of the rotational speed to the variations in
the inflow wind speed are
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 281

∂n

Inflow wind Turbine Wind turbine-Generator Rotational

speed – torque speed
Vs TT(s) 60 N(s)
T
+
2
∂V +
– sJ
Load torque
TL(s)
L

∂n

Figure 13. Block diagram of system under constant tip speed ratio operation

∂τ T
K NV = ∂V
(14)
∂τ L ∂τ T
−
∂n ∂n

J
TNV =
60  ∂τ ∂τ  (15)

L
− T
2π  ∂n ∂n 

respectively, where J denotes the moment of inertia of the system. The time constant
calculated from eqn (15) is regarded as that of the system. The relationship between the
rotational speed and the time constant of the system is shown in Figure 14. For all the three
types of performance deteriorations, the time constant of the system decreases with the
increase in the rotational speed because the rotational conductance of the load ∂τL/∂n
considerably increases with the rotational speed. The time constant of the system at a
constant rotational speed in Case-B is considerably larger than that in Case-A owing to the
negative rotational conductance of the wind turbine in Case-B. Further, the time constant in
Case-C is slightly larger than that in Case-A.

103

Case-A
Case-B
102 Case-C
Time constant s

101

100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Rotational speed rpm
Figure 14. Relationship between time constant of system and rotational speed
282 D YNAMIC B EHAVIOR OF S TAND - ALONE W IND T URBINE G ENERATOR S YSTEM
WITH W IND T URBINE P ERFORMANCE D ETERIORATION

10

Rotational speed rate rpm/s

Case-A
6 Case-B
Case-C

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Rotational speed rpm
Figure 15. Relationship between rotational speed and its rate derived from simulated dynamic behavior

Considering that this system without an anemometer cannot evaluate the time constant of
the system, this paper has focused on the rotational speed rate ∆n/∆t, which is closely related
to the time constant of the system and can be estimated in the system during operation. The
relationship between the rotational speed and its rate derived from the simulated dynamic
behavior of the system during a month in winter is shown in Figure 15; the rotational speed
rate calculated every 1 s was organized using the bin method where the bin width was 10 rpm.
The rotational speed rate increases with the rotational speed in any type of performance
deterioration of the wind turbine. Moreover, the rotational speed rates in Case-B and Case-C
are lower than that in Case-A; in particular, the rotational speed rate in Case-B is considerably
low. Thus, the rotational speed rate is closely linked to the influence of the performance
deterioration on the time constant of the system, as shown in Figure 14.

8. CONCLUSION
As the first phase of development of an autonomous condition monitoring without an
anemometer for a stand-alone wind turbine generator system using a straight-wing vertical
axis wind turbine, the influence of the performance deterioration of the wind turbine on the
dynamic behavior during operation has been discussed. The system is mainly operated at a
constant tip speed ratio, i.e., the maximum power coefficient point, without an anemometer
from the viewpoints of the simplicity of system configuration and the low system cost. The
following conclusions are derived through numerical analyses conducted using a dynamic
simulation model:

• Due to increased blade surface roughness, the maximum power coefficient and no-
load tip speed ratio decrease markedly. Based on this result, the performance
deterioration of the wind turbine is modeled for the dynamic simulation model.
• The performance deterioration of the wind turbine has a significant influence on the
operating point of the system—the relationship between the inflow wind speed and
the rotational speed. However, this influence cannot be detected because this
system is not equipped with an anemometer.
• The shift in the operating point of the system due to the performance deterioration
causes a significant deterioration in the power generating capability during
W IND E NGINEERING VOLUME 32, N O . 3, 2008 283

operation. The power generating capability may deteriorate more than the
performance deterioration of the wind turbine itself.
• The performance deterioration also affects the response characteristic of the
system. The rotational speed rate, which can be estimated in this system during
operation, is closely linked to the influence of the performance deterioration on the
response characteristic of the system.

These results suggest the possibility that by utilizing the rotational speed rate, the
performance deterioration of the wind turbine can be detected without an anemometer. The
performance monitoring of the wind turbine based on the results in this paper will be
discussed in a future study. In addition, it should be noted that this conclusion is derived using
the dynamic simulation model based on a quasi-steady state assumption of the system
components. Thus, we plan to conduct a verification experiment for operations under a
turbulent wind.

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