BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY

Geology being a study of the Earth, the materials of which it is made, the structures of those
materials, and the processes acting upon them is broad enough to be divided into branches. There are seven
main branches and five allied branches of geology. The main branches of biology are:
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
Physical Geology is the study of the Earth’s rocks, minerals and soils and how they have formed
through time. Complex internal processes such as plate tectonics and mountain-building have formed these
rocks and brought them to the earth’s surface. Physical geologist study current processes, like volcanoes,
earthquakes, erosion, weathering, and glaciers. They use their understanding of historical geological
processes to take place, as well as utilizing new technologies. Earthquakes are the result of the sudden
movement of crustal plates, releasing internal energy that becomes destructive at the surface. Internal heat
and energy are released also through volcanic eruptions. External processes such as glaciations, running
water, weathering, and erosion have formed the landscapes we see today.

MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is the systematic study that deals with the characteristics of minerals. Minerals are basic
unit with different rocks and ores of the earth are made of. The mineralogy has more scientific branches
such as the following:
1. Crystallography studies crystal forms. In example, forms in which the minerals crystallize, as
well as their internal structure, relations and distribution of atoms, ions or ionic groups in the
crystal lattice.
2. Physical mineralogy is the study of physical properties of minerals, such as cohesion (hardness,
cleavage, elasticity, and density), optical, thermal and magnetic properties, electrical
conductivity, and radioactivity.
3. Chemical mineralogy is the study of chemical formula and chemical properties of the minerals.
4. Environmental mineralogy studies complex and very different conditions of the origin of
minerals, understand element behavior in ecosystems, natural and industrial effects of minerals,
and mitigates potential contamination problems.
5. Descriptive mineralogy deals with the classification of minerals into groups based on their
common properties, mostly chemical and structural properties.

PETROLOGY
Petrology is the most important branch of geology in Civil Engineering point of view. It is the
scientific study of rocks that deals with their composition, texture, and structure; their occurrence and
distribution; and their origin in relation to physiochemical conditions and geologic processes. It is
concerned with all three major types of rocks which are igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary. Petrology
includes two sub disciplines which are the following:
1. Experimental petrology- involves the laboratory synthesis of rocks for the purpose of
ascertaining the physical and chemical conditions under which rock formation occurs.
2. Petrography- study of rocks in thin section by means of petrographic microscope (an
instrument that employs polarized light that vibrates in a single plane). Petrography is primarily
concerned with the systematic classification and precise description of rocks.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
Structural Geology (also called geotectonic geology) is a scientific discipline that is concerned with
rock deformation on both large and small scale, dislocations and disturbances under the influence of
tectonic forces. Its scope of study is vast, ranging from submicroscopic lattice defects in crystals to fault
structures and fold systems of the Earth’s crust.

Historical Geology (Stratigraphy)

Geology aims to establish Earth’s history from its beginning up to present and climatic and geologic
changes help to figure these things out, this is called historical geology. Historical geology’s most important
evidence from which geologic history can be inferred is provided by the geometric relationships of rocks
with respect to each other, particularly layered rocks or set of sedimentary rocks which is called strata, the
relative ages of which may be determine by processes like radiometric dating methods. Given such a
network of relative ages, a chronology of events has been gradually established in which the relative time
of origin of various geologic features is known. This is the main thread of historical geology—an ordered
sequence of geologic events whose occurrence and relative ages have been inferred from evidence
preserved in the rocks. In turn, the development of radiometric dating methods has permitted numerical
estimates of age to be incorporated in the scale of geologic time.

Paleontology (also spelled as Palaeontology)

Paleontology is a scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant
and animal fossils, including those of microscopic size, preserved in rocks and also concerned in biology
such as the life forms in ancient times, considering their structures, evolutionary patterns, relationship with
each other and with modern living species, geographic distribution, and interrelationships with
the environment. Paleontology is interdependent with stratigraphy as fossils contribute a major means by
which strata are being identified. Data gathered from paleontological studies helped petroleum geologists
in locating deposits of oil and natural gas. The occurrence of such fossil fuels is frequently associated with
the presence of the remains of certain ancient life-forms.

Economic Geology
It is a scientific discipline that deals with the distribution of mineral deposits, its importance and
value to the economy, the economic considerations involved in their recovery, and an assessment of the
reserves available. Economic geology deals with metal ores, fossil fuels (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, and
coal), and other materials of commercial value, such as salt, gypsum, and building stone. It applies the
principles and methods of various other fields of the geologic sciences, most notably geophysics, structural
geology, and stratigraphy. Its chief objective is to guide the exploration for mineral resources and help
determine which deposits are economically worthwhile to mine. Specialists in economic geology often
assist in the extraction of the mineral commodities as well.
The allied branches of Geology are as follows:
Engineering Geology
Engineering Geology or Geological Engineering is the scientific discipline concerned with the
application of geological knowledge to engineering problems—e.g., to reservoir design and location,
determination of slope stability for construction purposes, and determination of earthquake, flood,
or subsidence danger in areas considered for roads, pipelines, or other engineering works.

Mining Geology
Mining geology is a branch of geology that provides geological information about mines, shafts,
and placers. A Mine Geologist is specifically responsible for studying the relationship between geology and
ore formation with the aim of locating mineral resources. This is related to the regular geological
documentation of mining operations, which involves making geological sketches of the walls of mining
excavations, formulating descriptions of the walls, making laboratory studies of rocks and mineral samples,
and compiling composite geological plans and cross sections on the basis of the information obtained.
Some Typical Duties of a Mine Geologist
 Investigate the composition of the earth’s surface
 Ensure that minerals are extracted from mines, pits and quarries in such a way that maximum profit is
obtained with as little damage to the environment as possible
 Study and examine the minerals as they are extracted to assess their quality
 Identify risks for natural disasters such as mud slides and earthquakes
 Collect samples of natural resources through drilling and other methods
 Locate and estimate mineral ore deposits and prepare geological maps, charts and reports concerning
mineral extraction
A Mining Engineer is interested in the mode and extent of occurrence of ore, their association,
properties and the like. It is also necessary to know other physical parameters like depth direction inclination
thickness and reserve of the bodies of efficient utilization. Mining geology deals with mineral exploration
which is known as a complete sequence of activities. It ranges between searching for a new mineral prospect
(reconnaissance) and evaluation of the property for economic mining (feasibility study). It also includes
augmentation of additional ore reserves and resources in the mine and total mining district.

Geophysics
Geophysics contributes to an understanding of the internal structure and evolution of the Earth,
earthquakes, the ocean and many other physical phenomena. There are three of the most popular branches
of geophysics including:
1. Petroleum Geophysics
This is specialized in the acquisition, processing or interpretation of seismic data. Its study focuses
in the physical aspects of the earth using a range of methods, including gravity, magnetic, electrical
and seismic. An individual will play a vital role in the oil and gas industries by creating a picture of
what lies below the earth's surface.
2. Environmental Geophysics
Environmental geophysics is a relatively new field. It is primarily used to identify, map or predict
the presence and potential movement of surface water and groundwater and to identify contaminants
in the soil within the upper 10 to 50 m of the Earth's surface. It can also be used to help locate sites for
underground waste disposal, examine archaeological sites or even assist the police in their
investigations of possible burial sites.
3. Mining Geophysics
Mining geophysics is responsible in collecting precise data by using many sensitive different
instruments to help them locate minerals. Like petroleum geophysicists, mining geophysicists often
work in teams which include geologists, engineers and support technicians. These teams plan the work,
collect and interpret field data, and evaluate the economic potential of their findings. Mining
geophysicists will often spend time working in remote areas and living in bush camps.

Geohydrology
This is also called hydrogeology. Hydrogeology is the study of the movement and storage of water
in the crust of Earth and other rocky planetary bodies. Hydrogeologists study the location, movement, and
quality of water formations that are below the surface of the Earth. Their research is used for construction
projects, aquifer protection, and for the safe disposal of hazardous waste, among other uses. One of their
biggest responsibility is to: a) investigate ways to test water to be sure it is safe to drink; b) check licenses
of people who construct wells and supply water to others; c) inspect and/or help locate wells for safe water
supplies; d) help people understand the interactions between soil and other geologic formations and
groundwater; and e) study groundwater flow in different parts of the state.

Geochemistry
Geochemistry studies the composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects of the Earth.
It examines the distribution of chemical elements in rocks and minerals, as well as the movement of these
elements into soil and water systems.
Some Work Duties of Geochemist
 Plan scientific studies, visit field locations, and collect samples
 Analyze samples, either in the field or in the laboratory
 Contribute to natural resource use and environmental management policies
 Guide oil and gas exploration using aerial photographs and geological data
 Help predict the occurrence of earthquakes
 Develop remediation plans to clean up toxic waste sites
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