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In algebra, letters are used to stand for values that can change (variables) or for values that aren't known
(unknowns). A term is a number or letter on its own, or numbers and letters multiplied together, such as
-2, 5b3c , 2b
Terms having the same variables are called “like terms”. Only like terms can be added or subtracted. A term
is made up of factors. Term 2xy has three factors 2,x,y; Constant term (say 5) has one factor.
Co-efficient - a numerical or constant quantity placed before and multiplying the variable (e.g. 4 in 4x 2).
Coefficient is of two types. Numbers form Numerical coefficients and symbols/letters literal coefficients.
Example: In 2xy, 2 is the Numerical coefficient while xy, the letter(s), is the Literal Coefficient.
An algebraic expression with finite number of terms in which the variables have only non-negative integral
powers is called a Polynomial. (Exponents cannot be negative or fractions in a polynomial; But there is no
restrictions on the coefficients. Coefficients can be negative and fractions or decimals).
5
Examples of Polynomials:5 x 2−8 x +7 ; 3 x 3 + x 2−9 ; 5 .4 y 3 +9 y 2 + z ; 2 x 3 y 2 +9 x y2 +7 xy ;
3
Polynomial with one term Monomial 5b3c , 2b, 2ax/3y , k2 are examples
Polynomial with two terms Binomial m + n , a2 + 2b , 5x3 – 9y2 , -11p – q2 ,b3/2 + c/3 , 5m2n2 + 1/7
Polynomial with three terms Trinomial x + y + z , xy + x + 2y2 , -7m5 + n3 – 3m2n2 , x2/3 + ay – 6bz
Every real number is a constant polynomial. A non-zero constant polynomial has no zero (e.g.
0
5=5 x =5 ×1=5 for all va lues of x ¿
Every real number is a zero of zero polynomial p ( x ) , where all the constants are 0. ( 0 x 2−0 x+ 0 )
whatever value x is given, the polynomial value will be zero.
The degree of a term is the sum of the exponents of the variables, and thus is a non-negative integer.
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of its individual terms with non-zero coefficients.
The leading term is the term with the highest power, and its coefficient is called the leading coefficient.
The Degree for a polynomial with one variable, like x , is the largest exponent (or index) of that variable.
3 2
3 x +5 x −9 is a Polynomial of one variable x with degree 3. Polynomial 4 x is of degree 1.
2 x 3 y 2+ 9 x y 2 +7 xy ; Degree of 1st term is 5, 2nd term is 3, and 3rd term is 2. The polynomial has a degree
of 5.
The value of a polynomial f (x) at x=a is obtained by substituting ‘ a ’ in the place of ‘ x ’ and
denoted by f (a) .
Functional Notation
f ( x ) means, function of x; f ( y) means, function of y ; f (x , y) means, function of
x∧ y ;
If a quantity depends on the value of another quantity, the first quantity is said to be a function of the second.
E.g., The distance travelled depends on the time taken, then distance is a function of time.
2
E.g., If y=3 x + x−5 , the value of y varies with the value of x . So y is a function of x .
Division of Polynomial: If p ( x ) ∧g ( x) are two polynomials, where g( x) ≠ 0 , then we can find
polynomials q ( x )∧r ( x) such that
p ( x ) =g ( x ) ×q ( x ) +r ( x ) ; wherer ( x )=0∨degree of r ( x )< degree of g(x ) .
Factorization is the process of converting an algebraic expression as a product of two or more algebraic
expressions.
An equation involving one or more variables each with each term having an exponent of 1 is called a linear
equation. E.g., ax +by +c=0 where a ≠ 0, a .b ,c are constants ;
A linear equation with two variables gives a straight line when plotted on a graph. E.g. y = mx + b;
−b
ax +b=0 is the general form of linear equation in one variable, and has a unique solution. x=
a
Pair of linear equations in two variables taken together are called simultaneous linear equations. The
solution of simultaneous linear equations is the ordered pair (x, y) which satisfies both the equations.
a1 x+ b1 y + c1 =0 and a2 x+ b2 y+ c 2=0
a1 b 1 −a
1. Has unique solution (where both lines intersect at one point (x,y)) if ≠ (slopes are
a2 b 2 b
different)
a1 b1 c 1 −a
2. Has NO solution (where both lines are parallel) if = ≠ (slopes are
a2 b 2 c 2 b
same)
a1 b1 c1 −a
3. Infinitely many solutions (where both represent the same line) if = = (slopes are
a2 b 2 c 2 b
same)
Simultaneous linear equations can be solved by plotting a graph (or) substitution (or) elimination.
Quadratic Equations
The equation of the form a x 2+ bx+ c=0 where a ≠ 0, a .b ,c are constants is called a quadratic
equation.
Two ways of finding the roots of a quadratic equation: 1) Factorization Method 2)Application of Formula
Factorization may not always be possible and so formula can be used to find the roots;
−b ± √ b2−4 ac
The roots of a quadratic equation a x 2+ bx+ c=0 are
2a
2 2
b −4 ac isthe discriminant ; If b −4 ac =0 , then roots are real and equal
ie .,+ ve
If 2 ), then roots are real and unequal (equation has two distinct roots)
b −4 ac >0 ¿
ie. ,−ve
If ), then roots are imaginary (as it involves √ −ve number )
b2−4 ac <0 ¿
2 2
By completing the square method a x + bx+ c can be turned into a(x +d ) +e where
2
b b
d= ,e=c−
2a 4a
b b2
m= ,n= −c
2 4
−b −( coefficient of x ) c ( constant term )
If α ∧β arethe two roots ,then α + β= = ∧αβ = =
a ( coefficient of x 2) a ( coefficient of x 2 )
Cubic Polynomial
3 2
If α , β , γ are the roots of a cubic polynomial a x + b x +cx + d=0, then
2
−b −( coe fficient of x ) c
α + β+ γ = = and αβ + βγ+ γα= and
a ( coefficient of x 3 ) a
−d ( constant term )
αβγ= =
a ( coefficient of x 3 )
3 2
p ( x ) =x −3 x + 4 x−70 ; Look for zeroes, which are factors of 70 (
αβγ is 70 ; so a root could be 2,5,7 ¿ ; Using trial and error method, you can find that p (5 )=0 ; By
Factor theorem we know that ( x−5 ) is a factor;
Divide p ( x ) by ( x−5) using long division and get the other factor ( x 2+ 2 x +14 ) . You can try to
factorize the quadratic equation further if possible
Cubic polynomial can also be factorized, if possible, by applying the splitting method
p ( x ) =x3 −23 x 2 +142 x−120
3 2 2
¿ x −1 x −22 x + 22 x +120 x−120
¿ x 2 ( x−1 )−22 x ( x −1 )+ 120 ( x−1 )=( x−1 ) ( x2 −22 x +120 )
x−12
x( x−12)−10¿
2
¿ ( x−1 ) ( x −12 x−10 x +120 )= ( x −1 ) ¿
= ( x−1 ) ( x−12)(x−10)
If an expression remains the same after interchanging the variables x∧ y , it is a symmetric expression.
2 2
f ( x , y ) =f ( y , x ) ; Examples: ax +ay +b ; a x +bxy +a y ; The sum, difference, product and
quotient of two symmetric expressions is always symmetric.
Odd and Even Functions (symmetric functions) - Note that most functions are neither odd nor even.
function f is even when f (−x )=f ( x ) for all values of x ; ( graph of f is symmetric w . r .t y axis )
function f is odd when f (−x )=−f ( x ) for all values of x ; ( graph of f is symmetric w . r . t origin )