Baroque and Rococo in Latin America (Art Ebook) PDF

PAL KELEMEN
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IN TWO VOLUMES
VOLUME ONE, TEXT
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BAROQUE AND
ROCOCO
IN LATIN AMERICA
:
BAROQUE AND
ROCOCO
IN LATIN AMERICA
by Pal Kelemen
In Two Volumes
VOLUME l, TEXT
SECOND EDITION
DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., NEW YORK

Copyright © 1951, 1967 by Pal Kelemen.
All rights reserved under Pan American and International Copyright Conventions.
No part of this book may
be reproduced in any form without permission in writing
from the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connec-
tion with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.
Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don
Mills, Toronto, Ontario. Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company,
Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC 2.
This Dover edition, first published in 1967, is an unabridged and corrected republica-
tion of thework originally published in one volume by The Macmillan Company in
1951. New to this edition are a Preface by the author and a detailed List of Illustra-
tions.
Parts of the text and some of the illustrations were used by the author in his book
Battlefield of the Gods; Aspects of Mexican History, Art, and Exploration (English
Copyright 1937), in articles for the Bulletin of the Pan American Union, Boletin de la
Union Panamericana (Copyright 1941, 1942 by the Pan American Union, Washington,
D. C), Art in America (Copyright 1944 by Art in America, Springfield, Massachusetts),
El Palacio (Copyright 1945 by the School of American Research, Santa Fe, New Mexico),
Gazette des Beaux-Arts (Copyright 1944 by Gazette des Beaux-Arts, New York, New
York), Magazine of Art (Copyright 1942 by the American Federation of Arts, Washing-
ton, D. C), and the Encyclopaedia Britannica (in press).
The brief quotation from The Selected Writings of John Marin, edited by Dorothy
Norman, is reproduced by permission of the publisher, Pellegrini & Cudahy (Copyright
1944 by John Marin).
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-29056
Manufactured in the United States of America

Dover Publications, Inc., 180 Varick Street, New York, N. Y. 10014
T.o the millions of innocent and undefended children, women,
and men, from the English Channel to the delta of the Danube,
who were tortured and murdered by nations posing as cultured
and Christian in the greatest massacre the world has ever known
PREFACE TO THE DOVER EDITION
.... —«aHfr« "
S,'ixce the first appearance of this book, the appreciation of colonial art in Latin America has
passed through various phases. Even the terms Baroque and Rococo —which caused raised eye-
brows when the title was first made known and brought advice that it be changed to something
less associated with the ridiculous and effeminate —are now common expressions.
Baroque and Rococo art in Latin America had for quite a while its enthusiasts, who delighted
in those monuments standing in a picturesque, frequentlv dramatic ambiance. Artists, writers,
photographers, museum men, and collectors were here also the avant garde. World War II and
its aftermath increased the number of Americans who were reluctant to go to Europe and so
"discovered" the other Americas. Airplane travel has enlarged the circle of aficionados, and a
number of countries, with improved travel and lodging, are doing much to facilitate the enjoyment
of their colonial glory.
On the campus, the growing interest in the anthropologv, historv, and sociologv of our
Southern neighbors has expanded also to investigation in the field of art. It should be pointed out,
however, that some thirtv vears ago in the United States onlv five institutions, two of them
women's colleges, listed regular classes in art historv in their catalogues. Then, when the population
explosion affected the campus, in many cases there was neither tradition nor experience in the
teaching of art historv. The shortage of teachers was alleviated partly by the influx of Central
Europeans, whose education was based on the strict principles of the first vears of our centurv.
It is understandable, though regrettable, that in the effort to bring the elusive blend of stvles of
colonial Latin America into teachable form, Latin American art was forced into the readv-made
pigeonholes of European art historv. Attempt was made to tame this splendid bird, born in the
freedom of lush tropical valleys or on the slopes of snow-capped volcanoes, to fit the displav of
stvles of a sophisticated, self-centered, dank continent.

While World War II was still being fought on all fronts, at a meeting on Americanistic studies
more than a half dozen scholars spoke on projects related to those presented in this book. Since
that time, however, in spite of a great apparatus and benefits on hand, almost nothing has been
produced. Obfuscation and atrophv took over. At the same time, a widely advertized encvclopedia,
fired by the spirit of the Good Neighbor policv, solicited articles from leading scholars for their
new edition, on the colonial art and architecture of a number of Latin American countries. The
contributions were dulv delivered, but even in the most recent edition of that publication, they
were not included.
[vii]
PREFACE TO THE DOVER EDITION
Meanwhile, a large public has been growing who recognize that the value of Latin American
Baroque and Rococo lies in its unique character, which grew out of this hemisphere, out of the
temperament, imagination, and craftsmanship of its native population, whether white, mixed, or
Indian. It has its own beguiling charm and unsuspected power.

The libraries are looking for books and the museums for educated curators who can explain
and evaluate this newly found and refreshing wealth of material. It is hoped that this corrected
edition of Baroque and Rococo in Latin America, actuated bv continued demand, will help bring
this art into a clearer focus.
Norfolk, Connecticut PAL KELEMEN

September, 1966
[ viii ]
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Art— a something that exists completely within itself— gives of itself only
to sensitive people— for they approach it rightly. ... I would suggest
(as an exercise) that sometime you take your two eyes along with you
—and leave your intellect and your friends' intellects at home— you might
without these handicaps begin to see things that would surprise you.
The Selected Writings of John Marin
B 'aroque and Rococo are almost strangers in the English language and sometimes carry
a disparaging implication, though Chippendale, Chelsea, and Georgian, offshoots of these styles,
enjoy widespread popularity. Michelangelo, Cervantes, and Bach expressed the Baroque age;
Scarlatti, Moliere, and Gainsborough, the spirit of the Rococo. And the list of distinguished
names is long not in the arts alone. Many of the principles which govern the humanities and
sciences of modern life were established in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the epoch
of the Baroque and Rococo.
Before the First World War these centuries still conditioned much of the social and ar-
tistic climate of Europe. To one, like myself, who grew up in the golden twilight of a Eu-
rope that vaunted her civilization, Baroque and Rococo provided a living background. Then
the Austro-Hungarian Empire was full of palaces and churches built or refurbished in the Ba-
roque age of Maria Theresa. Early travels in Europe— only Czarist Russia, Bourbon Spain, and
the Sultan's Turkey required passports— acquainted me with the rarely graceful Rococo of
the Asam churches in Bavaria and the playful pavilions around Versailles and brought me in
touch with champions of the Baroque and Rococo. In Vienna, where I stayed often, Alois
Riegl and his disciples had already analyzed the problems of these styles, and in Munich another
pioneer in the field was then expounding his theories— Heinrich Wolfnin, whose classes it was my
good fortune to attend.
The First World War greatly enlarged my horizon. In Transylvania the horses of my squad-
ron were bedded down in the stables of Baroque manor houses, and I saw with anguished heart
a Rococo mansion on the Polish plains— in which I had slept yesterday— going up in flames
from Russian cannonading. When stationed in Turkish Novibazar, I was awakened each morn-
ing by the muezzin's call from a nearby Moslem minaret. In northern Italv the hills and plains
of Friuli and Veneto were an open-air laboratory for the youthful art-historian. There in the
castle of Pagnacco, before a group of officers, I gave one of my earliest lectures— on the art
styles of Italy— using as illustrations art pieces gathered from the neighborhood.
In those agitated years I witnessed from inside the military cordon the last coronation of a
Habsburg in Budapest and saw the embers of the Holy Roman Empire blaze up for the last
[ix]
time. Gilded Baroque coaches swinging on leather straps and drawn by milk-white horses
rolled past, carrying the court ladies in the splendid costumes of their forebears. Behind the king
rode the highest born of the land in the banderium, looking, in their velvets and damasks fringed
with fur and their plumed shakos, as if they had stepped out of a gallery of ancestral portraits.
Their mounted hussars in braided gala closed the ranks, each bearing the standard of a "shire."
Arciere guards followed on foot, wearing their cream-colored capes lined with scarlet, tall pat-
ent-leather boots, and silver helmets with streaming white horsetails. The spirit may have been
decadent in this final act of feudal Europe, but the art was magnificent and virile.
The last months of the war took me to parts of France and Belgium, where new impressions
were added to those gained beyond the Alps. Bruges, with German howitzers parked beneath
its plane trees, lay under a veil of mourning. Little did I dream as I walked along the streets
of Ghent and army wagons rumbled across its bridges that, decades later, research on Charles V
would bring me back to the birthplace of the first Habsburg emperor to mount the throne of
Spain.
In the mid-io2o's an ambition to study El Greco— then not yet a household word— to explore
his Greek soul and persistent Byzantine leanings, took me to Spain. At that time Spain's monu-
ments stood intact and her fragrant gardens were in full beauty. The last Bourbon king still
sat on his shaky throne, though dominated by his dictator. Palaces and galleries, churches and
monasteries, all were open to study. In Toledo I watched the full moon sharpen the contour of
the Alcazar as Greco had painted it. And in a tower of the Alhambra, perched above Granada,
I wrote a litany on the pale dust vibrating over the autumnal landscape and the elongating
shadows of passers-by in the late September afternoon.
Indeed, shadows of apocalyptic portent were spreading over the world when I made my
first trip to Spanish America in the spring of 1933. I did not feel a stranger there. I went to
Mexico and Yucatan to study the remnants of their pre-Columbian past. But even while con-
centrating on the indigenous masterpieces of America, I was forced to pause before the stu-
pendous art of the Spanish colonial period. Very soon the great and many differences between
the art of the Spanish motherland and that of her former colonies made themselves felt. The
farther I traveled, the more I became aware that the artistic production of the first century
or so under Spanish administration— which resulted in a conglomeration of transplanted styles
—is surpassed by more original manifestations on this continent. For the Indian and mestizo
craftsmen and artists had yet to pour their imagination, their tremendous artistic talent, and
their ancestral skills into the service of the new religion. Their efforts flowered in Latin Amer-
ica in a period which coincided with the spread of the Baroque and the appearance of the Ro-
coco. Just as the tulip bulbs we bought from Holland produced within a few years a changed
flower in our Florentine garden— as a result of different treatment, soil, and sun— so the many
elements of the Baroque and Rococo which were brought over from Europe went through a fas-
cinating transformation.
Within a month or two it will be forty years since my first essays on art appeared in
print. The first two decades of this period were spent in Europe— and I have no wish to forget
what this background means to me. But for the last two I have lived in the United States.
[x]
While nations that posed as cultured and Christian were torturing and murdering millions of
innocent and undefended children, women, and men, from the English Channel to the delta of
the Danube, in the greatest massacre the world has ever known, the Americas were offering
me a new field of research full of inspiration.
Until recently the art of colonial Latin America either has been treated in a most per-
functory manner, merely as an appendix to that of the Iberian Peninsula, or ignored. As a rule,
the more a building, statue, or canvas resembled a European prototype, the greater reverence
it was accorded. With many writers a blind spot apparently blacked out the powerful non-
European sources in this art, while others tried to cover them up or belittle them. However,
in those very countries that have the most exciting colonial art— .Mexico, Guatemala, Ecuador,
Peru, and Bolivia— the majority of the people are not of the white race and even after more
than four hundred years do not speak much Spanish. All too little has been done to under-
stand the language (much less the psychology) of the Indian; there is today not a single sci-
entifically reliable grammar of any South American Indian tongue; even for Quechua and
Avmara, which are spoken by millions of people, most of the grammars and dictionaries avail-
able were written by seventeenth-century missionaries.
Further, certain misconceptions, which originated in Europe in the romantic epoch of dis-
covery, are perpetuated in a number of misnomers. The Caribbean Islands are known as the
West Indies, when thev are thousands of miles away from India, and the redskin population
of the American continent is called Indian, although it has long been established that this race
is in no way related to the populace of India; Spanish writers still refer to these regions of
the New World as "the Indies." Somewhat similarly the term Latin America is open to criti-
cism, for it is used to denote a territory where even today European stock is in the minority.
In my survey of pre-Columbian art, I was faced with the presentation and evaluation of
indigenous cultures, each of which had woven into its artistic fabric its own individuality. In
the colonial art of Latin America, the warp is continuous throughout— from California to
Chile; but through the weft runs the originalitv of local talent, making for considerable diver-
gencies.
In this volume are gathered for the reader generallv interested in art some of the aesthetic
achievements of seventeenth- and eisrhteenth-centurv Latin America which demand attention

for their beauty and originality, irrespective of dates and names. I have tried to present a
humanistic subject in a humanistic way and have avoided "scientific" terminology whenever
simple terms would suffice. For the reader's convenience the present-day names of cities and
countries have been used, although care has been taken also to mention the colonial designa-
tions. Often the use of a modest magnifying glass will increase his enjoyment of the illus-
trations. To avoid overcrowding the text with cross references, the illustrations from each site
have been grouped together in the Index.
Much of the research for this volume was done and a considerable part of the material
was collected while I was working on my
pre-Columbian survey, and bv the summer of 1947
the first draft and the illustrations were more or less complete. It was then, upon rereading
[xi]
my statements and conclusions, that I realized that, after five trips to various parts of Latin
America, a review of my impressions of Baroque and Rococo in Europe would be extremely

beneficial. Thus the following spring I flew to Lisbon. The medieval sonority of Tomar was
well balanced by the sunny Rococo of Braga. I found the radiant atmosphere of Seville un-
changed, but Toledo, with half its profile blown off during the civil war, was a great shock,
and I could not warm again to Granada, the city which had murdered its own poet. In Cen-
tral Europe I saw with new eyes the regional variations of Baroque and Rococo, and a stay in
Belgium confirmed my inferences concerning Flemish prints.
During the years in which this volume was in preparation, I had many stimulating and
helpful discussions with scholars who knew little or nothing about the subject yet who recog-
nized its freshness and originality. Bernard Berenson, on his terrace at Settignano overlooking
the valley of the Arno, discussed with me the subtle apartness apparent in an art which drew
from other sources than the Greco-Roman civilization. In the barren room of a professor at the
war-ravaged University of Budapest, Tibor Gerevich pointed out folkloristic tendencies in the
regional Baroque and Rococo of Europe similar to those in Latin America. Leo van Puyvelde,
in his sunny modern villa in a suburb of Brussels, clarified some iconographical problems of
Latin American colonial painting by linking it to lesser-known works of Flemish painters and
engravers. In Lisbon, surrounded by masterpieces of Portuguese Gothic and Baroque, Revnaldo
dos Santos brought into focus parallels between the Rococo in the Oporto and Braga region
and that of Brazil.
Space does not permit individual mention of all the officials of the various governments,
universities, museums, and libraries, the many ecclesiastics, archivists, photographers, and con-
noisseurs who facilitated my research. Therefore I request them to accept, in this collective
acknowledgment, the expression of my sincere gratitude and the assurance that nothing can
efface for me the color and flavor of those many delightful meetings.
Another group gave me assistance in such measure that public credit is due them:
From the Division of Cultural Relations in our State Department: Albert H. Gerberich,
first in Bogota, then in Washington; Howard Lee Nostrand, in Lima; James H. Webb, Jr.,
in Tegucigalpa; Jacob Canter, in Managua; Juana Vogt, in Mexico; and Hershel Brickell and
Francis J. Colligan, in Washington.
Also from the United States: Elsie Brown, Lewis Hanke, Albert S. Fisher, Jean Rich-
mond, in Washington; Mrs. Frank B. Freyer, Denver; Hans Tietze and Erika Tietze-Conrat,
G. E. Kidder Smith, Elizabeth du Gue Trapier, Beatrice Proske, New York; Erwin Raisz,
Cambridge, Massachusetts; Mrs. Dorothy W. Terrell, Norfolk, Connecticut; further, for special
courtesies offered, the United Fruit Company, Pan American Airways, the Grace Line, and
Panagra.
In Mexico: Manuel Toussaint, Jorge Enciso, Justino Fernandez, Abelardo Carrillo y Gariel,
Federico Hernandez Serrano, Heinrich Berlin, Anita Brenner, H. H. Behrens, Dr. and .Mrs.
Joseph Lengyel, Mexico City; J. German Patiiio D., Ignacio Herrera Tejeda, Queretaro;
Manuel Leal, Guanajuato.
In Guatemala: the late Jorge Ubico, President of the Republic, J. Antonio Villacorta
[xn]
C, Jongh Osborne. In Honduras: Tiburcio Carias Andino, former President of the

Lilly de
Republic, Federico Lunardi, Tegucigalpa; Dr. and Mrs. Wilson Popenoe, Zamorano; Grego-
rio F. Sanabria, Comayagua. In El Salvador: Emeriterio Oscar Salazar, San Salvador. In
Nicaragua: Luis Cuadra Cea, Managua; E. R. McGuire, Leon. In Santo Domingo: Walter
Erwin Palm, Ciudad Trujillo.
In Colombia: Antonio Rocha, Gregorio and Guillermo Hernandez de Alba, Teresa

Cuervo Borda, Miguel A. Rodriguez, Bogota; Ramon C. Correa, Tunja; Manuel Maria Bue-
naventura, Cali; Jose Maria Arboleda Llorente, Jesus M. Otero, Popayan. In Venezuela:
Carlos Manuel Moller, Caracas. In Ecuador: Nicolas Delgado, Carlos Manuel Larrea, J. Al-
berto Mena C, Juan Gorrell, Bodo Wuth, Quito; Mr. and Mrs. David Basile, Cuenca.
Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, former President of the Republic, Rafael Mar-
In Peru:
quina y Bueno, Albert A. Giesecke, Alberto Santibanez Salcedo, Pedro de Osma, Adolfo
Cristobal Winternitz, Lima; Rafael Larco Herrera and his sons, in Hacienda Chiclin; Victor
M. Barriga, Arequipa; Jose Uriel Garcia, David Chaparro, Luis A. Pardo, Cornejo Bouron-
cle, Cuzco; Jose M. Franco Hinojosa, Juli.
In Bolivia: the late Cecilio Guzman de Rojas, Humberto Cuenca, F. Diez de Medina,
Luis Herzog G., La Paz. In Argentina: Mario J. Buschiazzo, Buenos Aires. In Brazil: M.
F. de Andrade, Rio de Janeiro.
In Spain: Diego Angulo Iiiiguez, Madrid; Cristobal Bermudez Plata, Enrique Marco
Dorta, Antonio Sancho Corbacho, Seville; Jose Gudiol Ricart, Martin Almagro, Antonio
Rumeu de Armas, Barcelona. In Portugal: Mrs. Herbert Scoville, Azeitao; Joao Santos Simoes,
Tomar. In Hungary: Rudolph Bedo, Budapest. In Belgium: Mrs. F. C. Legrand, Brussels;
Frank van den Wijngaert, Antwerp. In The Netherlands: M. A. Vente, Zwolle.
I was fortunate enough to have a scholar in each field consent to give my chapters a
critical reading. I benefited greatly from their criticism and suggestions, but the responsibility
for the text is mine alone.
Harold E. Wethey, of the University of Michigan, read Chapters i, 5, 10, 11, 15, and
parts of Chapter 3; he also generously put at my disposal the manuscript of his recently pub-
lished book on colonial Peru as well as an exhaustive paper, now in press, on colonial Bolivia.
Robert C. Smith, of the University of Pennsylvania, reviewed Chapter 14 and parts of Chap-
ter 3; he also furnished me with many exquisite photographs on Brazil. For data on these three
countries I have relied largely on the works of these two scholars. Alfred Neumeyer, of Mills
College, a WolfHin pupil like myself but of a later decade, read Chapters 2, 4, 7, 9, and 12.
John Mc Andrew, of Wellesley College, read Chapter 6 and parts of Chapter 3; Verle L. Annis,
of the University of Southern California, parts of Chapters 3 and 8; Carleton Sprague Smith,
of the New York Public Library, Chapter 13, which was seen also by M. A. Vente of Zwolle,
The Netherlands. Martin S. Soria, of Michigan State College, looked over Chapter 12 and
checked on some data for me during his extended Latin American survey trip. Finally, my
gratitude is due Elizabeth Wilder Weismann who was able to send me the proofs for the
text of her book on sculpture in Mexico just before my manuscript went to the publisher.
My good luck held in obtaining the co-operation of two others, friends ever since they
Ixiii 1
were associated with me in the preparation of my pre-Columbian survey. Edward C. Wolf
left his tusculanum on the Virginia shore to lend his remarkable artistic sense and great tech-
nical knowledge to the arrangement of the photographs. Helen B. Hartman assisted me with
unparalleled loyalty; with her fine feeling for the language and her editorial knowledge she
made a definite contribution in the final draft of the manuscript. The styling of the bibliog-
raphy and the compiling of the index are largely her accomplishment.
My wife Elisabeth accompanied me on all the trips; she was with me when we had to make
comfortable a Maya hut in Yucatan or travel by muleback in the High Andes or hunt Flem-
ish prints in the Royal Library at Brussels. She made a great number of photographs, fre-
quently under trying circumstances— practically half of the illustrations in this volume were
hers as well as hundreds of study pictures; the quality of her achievement speaks for itself.
From the first typescript through page proof— a long and arduous way— she supported me with
untiring spirit and intellectual alertness. She contributed many pertinent observations, and the
musicological part of the chapter on organs is mainly hers. But she not only participated in
the physically tiresome and mentally exhausting work— she shared with me in full measure the
thrill of discovery and the experience of beauty.
Norfolk, Connecticut PAL KELEMEN

April, i$fi
[xiv]
2 2
CONTENTS
1 The Colonial Scene i
2 The Artistic Climate 1
3 Cathedrals 24
4 Christ in the New World 48
5 Colonial Colombia 59
6 Some Mexican Gems 75
7 Religious Dramatis Personae 105
8 Earthquake Baroque 122
9 Sculptors of Quito 137

10 Viceregal Peru I: From the Pacific to Arequipa 151
11 Viceregal Peru II: From Cuzco to the Atlantic 171
1 Unknown Painters 1 97
13 The Splendor of Colonial Organs 225
14 Rococo in Brazil 239

15 The Woodcarver's Language 256
Postscript 271
Bibliography 273
Index 289
[xv]
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BAROQUE AND
ROCOCO
IN LATIN AMERICA
1
THE COLONIAL SCENE
S,'ince the advent of Christianity, no single Mexico and Central America, with Mexico
event in the history of mankind has produced City as its capital. It was known as Nueva
such tremendous changes in the world as the Espana, or New Spain. The second, the Vice-
conquest of the Americas. A territory many royalty of Peru, established in 1544, governed
times as large as Europe was opened up to the all Spanish possessions in South America and
material exploitation of, principally, Spain and had its seat at Lima. In 17 17 this viceroyalty
Portugal, and in the process millions of na- ceded territory to the new Viceroyalty of
tives in the Western Hemisphere became in- New Granada, comprising Colombia, Vene-
doctrinated with the Roman Catholic culture zuela, and, later, Ecuador. In 1776 what is
of the Iberian Peninsula. today Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uru-

The Conquistadores, arriving on the Amer- guay became the Viceroyalty of Rio de la
ican mainland during the early sixteenth cen- Plata. Panama, closely tied up with the trans-
tury, found here a remarkably high civiliza- shipment of treasure from the Andean High-
tion which, having developed in isolation, was lands to the motherland, was for a time under
very different from their own. So powerful the administration of Peru and was later trans-
were the tribal kingdoms and empires that it ferred to New Granada.
took vears to bring about their final subjuga- Portugal's holdings in the New World were
tion, even with the use of the horse, steel consolidated into a single colony, later a vice-
weapons, and gunpowder, all of which were royalty, Brazil. Itshistory and artistic devel-
unknown to the natives. opment differed from Spanish America's and
will be discussed in Chapter 14.
1
The supreme authority in the Spanish col-
onv was the viceroy, under whom a gigantic
For the administration of the vast territory bureaucracy flourished; all civil and military
in the New World after the Conquest, the matters came under his jurisdiction. Spiritual
Spaniards established two viceroyaltics, one power was entrusted to the Roman Church,
north of the Isthmus and one south. This form represented by its secular clergy and conven-
of government had already proven itself use- tual orders. Through these two channels— the
ful to the crown of Castile in Aragon, Valen- and the religious— the Spanish way of
civil life
cia, Sardinia, Sicily, and Naples; Venice had ap- was introduced into the New World.
plied it in the Levant, and Portugal in the Ori- The viceroy ruled in the king's name and
ent. The first viceroyalty in the New World his power was almost absolute. All officials
was created in 1535 to rule what is today were nominally answerable to him. He was
I
l]
BAROQUE AND ROCOCO IN LATIN AMERICA
responsible for the collection of the "royal To facilitate military and civil administra-
fifth," the king's share of the bullion from tion, the immense territory within a single
the mines, as well as for the other taxes. viceroyalty had to be subdivided. Military dis-
Since the Spanish crown claimed a share of tricts, called captaincies-general, were organ-
all Indian treasures, the viceroy was obliged ized, and audiencias, or supreme-court dis-
to maintain a diligent search for hidden wealth tricts, were established. This high court had
in the wrecked temples and undiscovered legislative, judicial, and executive functions
tombs of the pre-Columbian past. Tribute was and powers, and against its decisions, in cer-
paid by the Indians to both the crown and tain cases, appeal could be carried only to
the church, just as it had been to the hier- the crown. Because of the distances and the
archy in pre-Columbian times, in grains, dyes, arduousness of travel, affairs often went unat-
herbs, and other produce of the land, as well tended and crimes unpunished for years.
as in blankets and manufactured goods; later The arrival of a viceroy in the colony was
they paid in money. a major event, and the towns along his route
Early in the seventeenth century the manu- of travel arranged elaborate receptions. It
facture of armaments and gunpowder, the must have been a long and tiring journey even
latter needed also in great amounts for min- for a Mexican viceroy, but for one whose
ing, became one of the few industries per- duties called him to Lima it was little short
mitted in the colonies, and it too was under of an ordeal. With good winds the journey
the supervision of the viceroy. Mints for hard across the Atlantic took from four to five
currency, which were established near the weeks. The where pro-
trip to the Canaries,
great silver mines, were controlled by him. visions were taken aboard, was made in about
In some cases he even interfered with details a week. Shortly thereafter the food was apt
of individual life. Remonstrating against the to deteriorate and the danger of meeting cor-
mode affected by the women in Lima, one sairs increased. The viceroy's quarters were
viceroy forbade them to go about so closely an alcove in the poop, where the ship's motion
veiled, and this same official also decreed bet- was least felt; a curtain was hung across the
ter and more adequate garments for the In- front to afford him privacy. On arriving at
52
dians. Portobelo he, with other distinguished per-
The was under the control of
military also sons, traveled in a small boat up the Chagres
the viceroy, and he was responsible for the River and then had a day's ride across the
fortification of important ports. In the early Isthmus on horseback or by mule litter to
decades the army consisted largely of adven- the city of Panama. From here he took an-
turers with commissions from the king; later other vessel, built on that side of the conti-
it became a more professional organization. nent, to Paita, Peru, a journey of nearly six
The officers as a rule were European veterans, weeks. Finally, after another six weeks, with
not always Spaniards, and the ranks were many stops at intermediate cities where he
made up mainly of Creoles (Spaniards born held audiences, he arrived at Callao, Lima's
in the colony) and of mestizos (native-born port. To accord all possible outward recogni-
of half white and half Indian blood). Some tion to the authority of a viceroy, he was
men enlisted voluntarily, but most of the sol- crowned upon ascending to his high office,
dierswere drawn, as in contemporary Europe, the center of picturesque and luxurious—
42
through levies on town idlers, vagabonds, and though often tedious— ceremonies.
deserters. Despite the rule of segregation, Some of the viceroys were intelligent, so-
mestizos entered companies made up of whites ciallv awake, and aware of their great respon-
and in less-favored border garrisons Negroes sibilities. But a goodly number of them were
even became officers. opportunists, educated for the military, seek-
[2]
THE COLONIAL SCENE
ing their own advantages. And what advan- contemporary road in Europe. This disparity
tages existed in this new land where favors was due in part to the fact that the upkeep
were paid for in gold, silver, emeralds, and of the roads was entrusted to the civil author-
pearls and where a vast reservoir of Indian ities of the various districts; the work was
and Negro slave labor stood at the disposal done by Indian forced Guatemala
labor. In
of feudal landholders. until recently Indians who were unable to pay

Government by viceroy continued in New their taxes could work them off on the roads.
Spain until 182 1, with a roster of fifty-nine The condition of the local roads leading to
names; in Peru until 18 17, with forty; and in outlying towns, villages, and great estates de-
New Granada and Rio de la Plata until 18 10, pended largely on the needs of the region and
with fourteen and eleven respectively. Of on the enterprise and means of those whom
these 124 functionaries only four were Amer- they served. After mid-eighteenth century the
ican born; the others eitherwere Spaniards standard of the Royal Highway was con-
or weredrawn from European aristocracy and stantly improved, and its curving line lay
often were relatives of the reigning house. across the green landscape like an endless rib-
Three members of the Lemos family were bon. It was more than broad enough for two
viceroys in Italy in the seventeenth century carts to pass. Generally it was paved with cob-
188
and a fourth held a similar position in Peru. blestones set by hand; in some of the tropical
In the beginning the length of a viceroy's countries the surface was of gravel. The pave-
tenure was not explicit; sometimes it lasted ment, as uncomfortable as it was for the trav-
for life. Later it was limited to five years, but eler because of the constant shaking and rat-
this rule was not always adhered to. Few vice- tling, proved a boon in the rainy season, for
roys remained in the colony after their term without it the roads would have been quag-
of office expired; more than a hundred of mires. Often in mountainous terrain the surface
them returned to Spain laden with riches, was sloped toward the center to guide off the
where they added considerably to the glam- water of torrential downpours. 191
our of the Spanish grandee.
By early seventeenth century in the colony, Side by side with the civil administration
there were more than two hundred cities and of the viceroy another system, nearly as pow-
57
many villas, or towns. The system
com- of erful, was in operation— that of the Roman
munication between the main centers was Catholic Church. With the Conquest came
called the Camino Real, or the Royal High- the various orders of friars— the Franciscans,
wav, which often followed the network of Dominicans, Augustinians, Mercedarians, and,
roads laid down by the Indians in pre-Colum- later, the Jesuits and Carmelites. Monasteries
bian times. Eyewitnesses of the Conquest re- were constructed for the conversion and in-
port highways with sluices and causeways in struction of the Indians. The first buildings
the Aztec and Maya empires, as well as bridges were modest and often temporary. Frequently
anchored across mountain torrents and tunnels mass baptisms were administered before im-
carved through living rock bv the Incas to provised altars. But in an amazingly short
establish communication over the Andes. Be- time in both viceroyalties substantial edifices
tween the two Inca capitals of Cuzco and By
arose. early seventeenth century the New
Quito the road was said to be broad enough World is said to have had seventy thousand
for six horsemen to ride abreast. 47 The state churches and five hundred convents of the
and quality of the Royal Highway differed various orders. In most cases the earlier
according to the region it traversed; some- churches and monasteries, as well as the eccle-
times it was little more than a mule path and siastical and civil palaces, underwent repeated
sometimes it was comparable to the average alterations and enlargements.
31
The Spanish church was, in a sense, a na- nished through his own channels. No Spanish
tional church, a hotbed of royal proteges and king ever set foot on American soil, and the
bureaucrats. The King of Spain nominated the royal camarilla often had to check and double
bishops and other ecclesiastics by papal con- check because of the spying, the charges and
cession. So absolute was his control in religious countercharges that riddled colonial politics.
matters that not even papal bulls or briefs In 1 55 1 Charles V authorized the establish-
could be circulated in the New World with- ment of two universities in the Americas "with
out the sanction of the Council of the Indies, the privileges, exemptions, and limitations of
thatarm of the Spanish crown which ruled the University of Salamanca." In 1553 the
upon American affairs from its Renaissance Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico
palace in Seville. All ecclesiastical positions opened its gates and twentv-three years later
in the colonies were licensed by the king, to the University of San Marcos in Lima. Some
whom all possible data on an aspirant had of the early professors in these institutions held
to be submitted. Once a priest was in the the highest degree obtainable from Spanish
colonies, permission for him to sail back to universities. The subjects taught were theol-
Spain depended on prelate, diocese, and, in ogy, scripture, law, canons, decretals, rhet-
52
final instance, on the crown itself. oric, and the arts— logic, metaphysics, and
Visitors to the colonial empire wrote in physics— all in Latin. In 1576 a chair for In-
astonishment of the vast holdings of the dian languages was established, as these were
church. In 1620 the convents in Lima, with recognized as vital to the propagation of the
their related properties, occupied more ground faith. Attendance seemingly was open to those
than all the rest of the city. Alexander von mestizos and Indians who could qualify,
Humboldt reported after his visit to Mexico chieflv descendants of highborn Indian fami-
( 1 803-1 804) that in some provinces as much lies and relatives of ranking officials. But in
as 80 per cent of the arable land was in the places such as Lima, where Spanish social
control of the church. The property of the prejudice was ingrained, the right of students
individual cleric as well as that of the church of pure Indian blood to attend the universities
was exempt from taxation. Secular priests was disputed; a settlement in the Indians' fa-
were paid in tithes, 10 per cent of the income vor was finallv made there in 1697, but less
of the whites and 10 per cent of whatever than ten vears later this privilege was re-
produce of the Indian originally derived from voked. 74
Europe, such as wheat, cattle, silk. When serv- The Roman Church of the Americas was
ing on large estates, priests received salaries a majestic machine but frequently managed
in addition to fees, gifts, and bequests. 122 bv weak humans. Many of the prelates were
With the passage of time two classes of earnest and sincere personalities. The secular
white religious personnel emerged: those born clergv was of very mixed quality and often
in Spain and those of Spanish antecedents born corrupt; immoralities of many kinds existed in
and educated in the colonies. The antagonism the monastic orders, and embezzlement was
between these two important groups of so- not uncommon. This uneven qualitv of the
ciety began to make itself felt in the second priesthood was due in part to a lack of good
half of the sixteenth centurv— by which time seminaries. The Council of Trent— that long-
the number of Creole priests and friars had est of church conventions, from 1545
lasting
increased appreciablv— and continued well be- to 1563— decreed that every diocese must have
yond the colonial epoch; in some instances it at least one seminary for the education of the
is perceptible even todav. Many of their quar- oncoming priests. Yet throughout the colonial
rels were carried to the king, who had to relv period there were many dioceses in the New
for his final judgment on information fur- World without seminaries. Bv royal decree
[4]
THE COLONIAL SCENE
82
even* village was supposed to have a primarv alone yielded three million pesos. In Lima
school; but it was left to civil authorities to in 1743 Don Juan de Loyola v Haro, an el-
erect and finance them and the order was derly gentleman and relative of St. Ignatius,
never fully complied with. Special schools was arrested on a flimsy charge of a Negro
were established for the children of Indian slave that he was practicing Judaism. But even
caciques and others for mestizos, including if the accused was finally acquitted, the sum-
the illegitimate children of priests and friars. mons and trial could ruin him, especially if
The church had charge of all hospitals, which he had to endure a trip from some remote spot
were always too few in number and in con- to the tribunal of the Inquisition— a dangerous
stant need of funds and supplies. 50 overland journey perhaps of hundreds of miles
Although Pope Alexander VI— Rodrigo Bor- through wild territory on horseback— and, on
gia, from the Spanish family of Borja— had arrival, a detention of unknown duration. A
early declared the Indian a human being pos- French writer described the activity of the
sessed of a soul and thus capable of admission church in the Spanish colonies with the phrase:
to the Roman Catholic faith, a later pope ab- "I plunder you, I crush you, I kill you, but I
50
solved him of heresy, ruling that he was not save you."
gente de razdn— intelligent and rational enough The administration of church and state in
to be held responsible for his acts. Bishop the New World operated under many handi-
Bartolome de las Casas (147 4-1 566), an en- caps. The Spaniards were affected by the try-
lightened churchman of the Spanish colonial ing conditions of high altitudes and tropical
empire, considered this latter judgment a great climates here and bv the unheard-of power
58
injustice to the native population. However, and fabulous wealth suddenly placed in their
this ruling had its advantage, for at least tem- trust. The tremendous distance from the moth-
porarily the Indian escaped the discipline of erland and the vastness of the colonial terri-
the Inquisition, though it was later applied in tory made a rigid control of the lazy and
those districts where idolatry persisted. often unscrupulous bureaucracy impossible.
The Holy Office of the Inquisition first func- Indeed the task was well-nigh unachievable:
tioned in Lima in 1569, in Mexico in 1571, and officials were supposed to foster a healthy com-
in Cartagena in 16 10. Bv this last date it was mercial development in the colonies yet not
solidly established throughout the New World, compete with home industry; to maintain a
where it continued to operate until about steady flow of bullion; to exploit the wealth
1820. Its investigations were concerned espe- of the colonies to the full vet keep them eco-
cially with freethinkers, Protestants, Freema- nomically and politically dependent on the
and converted Mohammedans and Jews
sons, motherland. 75 So long as the Habsburgs re-
who had reverted to their former faiths. mained on the throne of Spain (15 16-1700),
Antonio de Mendoza (r-1552), viceroy first the viceroys to the New World were standees,
of Mexico and later of Peru, ordered the trial who in general co-operated with ecclesiastic
of several clerics and friars who instead of authorities but whose main purpose never-
instructing the Indians had devoted themselves theless was to bring in the vast revenues due
to the acquisition of wealth and, with cer- the crown.
tain bishops, had returned to Spain laden with The accession of the Bourbons inaugurated
silver. The Holy Office has been accused of an attempt toward a better administration, and
misusing its power for political reasons. Those viceroys eager for reform introduced a new
with disquieting popularity or suspicious riches spirit. This change produced clashes with the
sometimes were called up, their wealth con- church which extended even to the pope; for
fiscated, and the accused tortured or even put in the interest of efficient co-ordination the
to death. In 1649 the auto-da-fe of Mexico church often had to give way to the state. In
[5]
the front ranks of that struggle stood the So- The white population was concentrated in the
ciety of Jesus. The Jesuits, though they had cities and towns; the Indians were segregated
started their work in the New World some- in special suburbs or in villages of their own.
what later than the other monastic orders, had The overwhelming disproportion of native
risen rapidly to a most influential position. population to white changed little during the
They excelled not only in the pacification and centuries of colonial administration. Numeri-
conversion of the Indians but also in their cally and traditionally it was still an Indian
educational, agricultural, and industrial enter- world, and over it a layer of Spanish culture
prises. An unyielding international organiza- was superimposed. In the first decades few
tion, they came into conflict with the vigor- white women crossed the ocean, and even
ous civil administration. Simultaneously with later, when conditions were more favorable,
the action taken against them in Spain, came the number of white families was infinites-
their expulsion from the Spanish colonies in imally small against the millions of Indians and
1767. They had been expelled from Brazil the number of mestizos. Though baptized in
eight years earlier. droves into the Roman Catholic faith, their
ancient cultural traditions could not be exter-
minated. Though new plants were introduced
by the Spaniards, the prehistoric ones— corn,
Everyone in Spanish America was condi- beans, potatoes, and squash— remained the sta-
tioned bv the two gigantic institutions of ple foods. Though new implements for house-
church and state and had to make his way hold and agriculture were imported from Eu-
in a society which was stratified into numer- rope, the girdle-back loom and the planting
ous layers, each set apart by its own distinc- stick were not discarded. The Indian's dress
tive garments. At the top stood the descend- took on new elements in imitation of Spanish
ants of the Conquistadores and just below colonists but even today in districts where
them were the first settlers and their de- twentieth-century "overall-ization" has not en-
scendants; these two groups made up the tirely replaced his picturesque costume he still
cream of Creole society and often stood in op- wears an untailored garment.
position to the Spaniards recently arrived from Arable lands, when not owned by the
Europe. On the one side the most ignorant church, were often in the hands of the en-
Spaniard held himself superior to any Creole, comenderos, together with a right to the labor
and on the other, in retaliation, the Creoles of certain of the Indians on the property.
made fun of the Europeans; in Mexico they These feudal lords, usually knighted, num-
nicknamed them gachupines, for their pointed bered about four thousand at the end of the
city shoes, and in Peru, chapetones, from the sixteenth century. Some estates were worked
gastric disturbances that generally befell a by Indians in the mita system of forced labor.
foreigner before he was acclimatized to the As is usual under such circumstances, the
country. Below the white groups were the treatment of the worker varied, depending on
mestizos and the varying grades of mixed the landowner and his staff. The service most
blood, the Negroes, and at the bottom the dreaded by the Indian was that in the obrajes,
Indians, who greatly outnumbered the total the cotton and woolen mills. This industry
of all the others. Their number at the time was among the few fostered in the colonies
of the Conquest has been estimated at from and was run on the principle of a prison. The
twelve to sixteen million; more recent calcu- workmen were forced to live under intoler-
lations would have this figure cover Mexico able and inhuman conditions on the premises
alone, and the total Indian population of Latin among criminals and the mentally and chron-
124
America number close to twice that amount. ically ill. Only on Sundays and holy days
[6]
THE COLONIAL SCENE
might they be let free for a few hours and did in that of the West Indies, tropical Cen-
then only if their behavior had been impec- tral America, or Brazil. In Spanish South
cable; the overseer, too often cruel and brutal, America, where they were employed mainly
60
was the judge. in the lower altitudes and along the coast,
As a rule the family of the encomendero their number approached three-quarters of a
52
lived in town, sometimes quite a distance million. The viceregal Rococo splendor of
away, in order to enjoy the more civilized Lima made the most picturesque use of the
aspects of life, but the overlord and his Span- Negro, from the lavishly caparisoned lackeys
ish or Creole staff had to stay on his property who marched before the university rector on
for at least a portion of the year. Here they all festive occasions to the coquettishly ar-
had their Indian mistresses— a custom common rayed washerwomen of private households.
also in Brazil with Negresses— which explains Lima, as a colonial capital, offered a most
in part the large percentage of mixed blood brilliant scene. Hither came, by endless mule
throughout Latin America. caravan, mineral wealth from the Andes, and
Neither a white nor a Negro was permit- here, in the nearby harbor of Callao, landed
ted to live in the Indian towns; traveling mer- the commercial fleet— with its merchandise
chants could remain there for only three days. from the motherland to be exchanged for
In local matters the Indians governed them- ingots— and those other vessels which carried
selves. The affairs of each village were di- on coastal trade. To Acapulco, the Pacific
rected by a group of elders, whose authority harbor for Mexico, went Peruvian gold and
was based on birth or political astuteness and silver, and in return Lima received fine silks,
who lived at the expense of the rest. The gov- velvets, metallic fringe, damask, and taffetas,
ernor of the region was empowered to pur- which, coming from the Orient, were valued
chase merchandise in the capital for resale more highly than any others, even though
among the Indians. The idea behind this Mexico was accused of keeping the better
scheme was to distribute the artifacts of civ- quality for herself. According to one traveler's
ilization among the natives, weaning them tale, when the new viceroy, the Duke of
away from their former habits and increas- Palata, entered the Peruvian capital in 1682,
ing their productivity. But in practice the the street of La Merced for the length of two
system was subject to much abuse, and fre- town-quarters was paved with silver ingots. 54
quently an official foisted off useless articles Both men and women in Lima dressed with
on the Indians at exorbitant prices, exacting reckless extravagance, the men in brocaded
the same penalties for nonpayment as for fail- and embroidered waistcoats, with jeweled
ure to pay tribute. bands and buckles on their hats and shoes,
By the end of the sixteenth century the and the ladies in imported silks and muslins,
Indian population was decreasing alarmingly, with ruffles of Brussels and Mechlin lace and
not only as a result of mass flight into the stockings of thin white silk. Lima women
mountains because of cruel treatment but also were famed for their natural beauty, dainty
because of ravages wrought by European dis- feet, fine teeth, and flashing eyes. They dis-
eases hitherto unknown in the Western Hem- played their graceful figures untrammeled by
isphere. To carry out the various projects of hoops and stays and wore their hair unpow-
the Spaniards, especially in tropical regions, dered, bedecked with colored ribbons and
Negro slaves began to be imported. Some jewels. Even the slave had her ear-bobs and
two hundred thousand are said to have been was the love of perfume
bangles, and so great
brought into Mexico during the seventeenth that nosegays were doused with it. The man-
century. Negroes, however, did not play as ner of life in Lima was suave and polished.
great a part in the economy of Mexico as thev The noble houses boasted paintings from
[7]
Rome, tapestries from Flanders, furniture from allrestriction; the main reason for the encour-
Seville and Lisbon, from Potosi, gold
silver agement of that industry was the royal fifth
from Chile, and bric-a-brac from China/ 89 claimed by the crown. It was mining that made
There was plenty of opportunity for adven- Potosi, n,6oo feet high in the Andes, with-
ture and excesses; the afternoon siesta often out arable land and far above the timber line,
was given over to affairs outside the house- a bustling city of 150,000 before Buenos Aires
hold, and in the evening men and women went had outgrown the size of an outpost; Potosi
disguised for greater freedom. Social standing produced three hundred fifty millions in sil-
was adjudged, as in Europe, by the magnifi- ver in the first fifteen years of its existence.
cence of one's equipages; early-eighteenth- Its riches poured into Lima after a journey
century Lima boasted four thousand mule- of nearly fifteen hundred miles, and there the
drawn caleches. precious metals were exchanged for Spanish,
Nevertheless the economic life of the col- European, and the much-coveted contraband
onieswas hampered by the many restrictions Oriental goods. Immense revenues were pro-
imposed by Spain. The raising of sugar and duced also in Mexico. Before the end of the
cocoa was bound by strict regulation, some- colonial period the wooden machinery of
times favoring one region and sometimes an- Mexico's mint turned out some two billion
other. To protect producers in Spain, olives dollars' worth of coin; and another two bil-
123
could not be grown without a special permit, lion was exported in bars.
in spite of the fact that the colonists used To collect the royal fifth, the fleet sailed
olive oil in cooking, following the Spanish out from Spain every year, laden with goods
57
custom. As late as the early nineteenth cen- for the colonial trade. In 1561 it was found
tury, the wine growers of Cadiz, Spain, tried expedient for the vessels to travel with an
through a royal decree to stop the cultiva- armed convoy, reinforced and protected by
tion of grapes in the colonies in an effort to great high-pooped galleons. Generally the fleet
revive their diminishing export trade of sherry. divided in the Antilles, one section proceed-
Merchandise from European countries other ing to Veracruz, the other to Cartagena in the
than Spain was subject to high duties, and Tierra Firme (now Colombia) and eventually
local was limited to articles
manufacture to Portobelo, Panama. On the way single ves-
which would not compete with the industry sels were dispatched to lesser ports in Yucatan,
of the mother country. In addition Spain Honduras, Venezuela, and elsewhere. For the
forbade commerce between viceroyalties, return voyage the fleet reassembled at Havana
whether by land or by sea, and even between to clear for Spain.
different ports in the same viceroyalty— an Cartagena, the gateway to New Granada
embargo generally disregarded. Everything and South America, was one of the richest
that was produced in the colonies had to be and best fortified of the colonial cities. On
placed at the disposition of the motherland. arrival here the commander of the flota sent
Production was permitted in pottery, for a messenger ahead to Portobelo with dis-
which Puebla, Mexico, was justly famous, tex- patches for the Panama and
authorities in
tiles, especially cotton cloth and blankets, and the viceroy at Lima, which were forwarded
leather goods and furniture, which were often across the Isthmus and by boat down the
better made and always less expensive than in Pacific coast. Other messengers started over-
Spain. Ica, Peru, had a glass factory, and land to Lima, Santa Fe de Bogota, and such
church bells were cast in Arequipa, to be dis- intermediate stations as Popayan, Antioquia,
tributed to the most remote Andean village and Quito. To Cartagena, for shipment to
on the shoulders of the Indian. Spain,came the gold and emeralds of the
The mining of gold and silver was free from Colombian highlands and the pearls and tropi-
[8]
THE COLONIAL SCENE
cal products of the lush Venezuelan shores. The gold-and-silver-laden flotilla was a
Meantime in Callao the king's revenues had much-coveted prize of English, Dutch, French,
been accumulating from the great silver mines and other buccaneers. Its armed convoy, like
at Potosi, some three weeks' trip by muleback the harbor fortifications in the colonies, rarely
and ship. With this hoard Peru's Silver Fleet came up to requirements— a shortcoming often
moved north, stopping on the way at Trujillo reported but seldom remedied. Thus much of
and Paita, and eventually was joined by a the precious cargo either landed at a port
vessel with treasure from the Kingdom of other than that for which it was destined or
Quito. In three weeks they lay off Panama sank to the bottom of the sea, where it still
and began transferring their cargoes to mule- intrigues the imagination. The map of the
back for the hazardous crossing of the Isthmus. Spanish Main is dotted with crosses marking
The Isthmian highway remained a rough mule sunken treasure ships, and undoubtedly mil-
path, varying in width and condition with the lions in bullion and jewels lie scattered be-
terrain and the season, until the eighteenth neath the seaway between the New World
century, when a paved road was constructed. and Europe. But in spite of harassment and
Indeed it was a large order to build and main- losses, the convoys continued well into the
tain forty miles of such a road over mountains eighteenth century (galleons sailed to Carta-
and through tropical forest and swampland in gena until 1748 and to Veracruz until 1778),
the deadliest of climates. when privileged trading companies took over
On the occasion of the fleet's call, large the business. Between the fleet's visits, in the
fairs were held in every port. The one at sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, dispatches
Portobelo, as described by Thomas Gage in were carried twice yearly on light, swift-sail-
1637, lasted for fifteen days. Eight galleons ing caravels of sixty to one hundred tons, two
and ten merchant vessels put in at the port. for Mexico and two for Peru; toward the end
The little town, stewing in tropical miasma, of the seventeenth century the schedule called
suddenly sprang to life; prices rose twenty- for a trip every three months, calling at Car-
fold, and lodging and food were at a premium tagena (for all South America) and at Ha-
as merchants and traders from distant places vana, where communications from Mexico,
descended upon the port. Besides precious Central America, and the islands awaited them.
metals, a variety of colonial products from Originally these ships were forbidden to carry
the various districts were awaiting shipment either merchandise or passengers, but the rule
to Europe: indigo, cocoa, tobacco, and cin- was rarely observed.
chona bark from Ecuador, cochineal and tor- In the early years commerce with foreigners
toise shell from Middle America, vicuna cloth was prohibited; was permitted under
later it
from the Andes, dried meat, cordage, and special licenses, which also ensured protec-
leather from Chile, precious gums, and many tion. England and certain other European na-
kinds of rare woods as well as timber. Trans- tions were allowed to buy specified colonial
actions were consummated not in coin but in products but only at a stated port, a scheme
silver bullion weighed out in bars, which lay which gave all the intermediate profits of trans-
piled in the marketplace without danger of port and handling to the colonials. Some for-
theft. But many who had come to make their eign firms got round the regulations by estab-
fortunes never returned home or thev reached lishing houses in Cadiz, Spain, which held the
there only to die, for sickness overtook them monopoly for overseas trade to the Spanish
and epidemics broke out. On its way back the colonies during much of the eighteenth cen-
flotawas comprised of twenty-seven ships, tury. The English, who had a permit to send
having been joined by vessels from Honduras one ship a year to one Spanish American port,
and the Caribbean islands. 65 circumvented the authorities by replenishing
[9]
this vessel constantly through reloading mer- could graduate and open his own shop. Ne-
chandise from other ships which lay in hiding groes and Indians at were debarred from
first
nearby. All these restrictions resulted in such the guilds but later were admitted, though
widespread smuggling that by the end of the kept in the lower ranks; the rule was relaxed
eighteenth century half of the entire com- in the eighteenth century if not earlier, as
75
merce of Spanish America was illicit. Lima some artistic examples presentedin this book
reveled in Chinese porcelains, brocades, and will demonstrate. Most of the guilds were lo-
silks, in muslins from India and exotic spices, cated in the various capitals, where they were
the importation of which was expressly pro- grouped according to craft, each within a spe-
hibited. Sometimes a vessel was "blown off cial district if not on a single street. Silver-
course" on its way from the Philippines to smiths in Mexico had to have their shops on
Acapulco, Mexico, and it then unloaded its the streetnamed San Francisco— now the Ave-
cargo in a port much farther south, with con- nida Madero, the Fifth Avenue of the capital
siderable profit. Until mid-eighteenth century —so that they could be kept under the eye of
Buenos Aires was supposed to depend on the authorities who were responsible for the
wares brought across Panama, down the Pa- king's revenue.
cific coast to Lima, and then over the trans- The formed lay brotherhoods, or
guilds
Andean mule trail to the Atlantic. But it was cofradias, which through their industrial, eco-
not Ion? before Brazilian neighbors and a nomic, and often artistic prominence became
number of European traders realized the great important elements in the religious and social
profits to be had by landing in the small life of the cities. Their membership in gala
inlets of the Rio de la Plata, whence goods habit, with their decorated standards and guild
found their way more directly to and from emblems, formed a substantial part of any pro-
the merchants of Buenos Aires. cession or reception. The number of guilds in
Among such contraband, forbidden books the viceroy aides of Mexico and Peru was about
57
and prints were smuggled in by devious and a hundred; the best known were those of
ingenious means. A ship captain and his offi- the bakers, barbers, silk growers and manu-
cerswould bring packages on board and neg- facturers, saddlemakers, weavers, hatters, pot-
lect to list them in the official cargo; often ters, butchers, candlemakers, confectioners,
the contents of bales and boxes would not tailors, silversmiths, carpenters, shoemakers,
correspond to official declarations. Untold tanners, blacksmiths, and basketmakers. In
quantities of material entered the Spanish col- Peru even a guild for miners existed at one
onies in wine casks and demijohns, 53
method a time, abolished in 1779. Somewhat less in the
which the Spaniards might have learned from foreground but similarlv powerful were the
their earlier traffic with the Low Countries. lay sisterhoods, or sodalidades, which pulled
Harbor officials were instructed to question many strings behind the scenes. The various
the ship's master, pilot, sailors, and even some strata of society— white, mestizo, mulatto, Ne-
of its passengers whether it contained anv gro, and Indian— each had its own fraternities
images of saints, popes, or other revered fig- and sodalities.

94
ures which might evoke ridicule.
Those crafts and industries which out of
necessity had to be permitted in the New
World were placed under the same rules as In all the capitals of Latin America im-
the Spanish guilds. Each guild had a judge to mense power and wealth were concentrated.
see that all ordinances were observed. An The viceroys, with their large and splendid
apprentice had to produce a "masterwork" retinues, vied with the archbishops, whose
and undergo a severe examination before he households were often equally lavish, in a pre-
[10]
THE COLONIAL SCENE
tentious imitation of life at the royal court balmed the body with unguents, powders, and
in the mother country. The reception to a varnishes. Then, clad in the mantle of the
new vicerov was rivaled only by the obsequies Order of Santiago and adorned with many
accorded to him if he happened to die in decorations, the remains lay in state upon a
office. The passing of the Marquis of Casa bed of carmine under a crimson canopy, a
was such an occasion.

Fuerte, Juan de Acufia, standard at the foot and lighted tapers about
This nobleman was born in Lima in 1658, but it. Respectful throngs filed past it while four
after his thirteenth birthday he spent much hundred Masses were said in especially erected
time in Spain, where he was trained for a mili- booths.

tary career. A favorite of Philip V, he was The burial took place the following Sun-
appointed governor of Messina, viceroy and day. All along the route at each street cor-
captain general in Aragon and Majorca, and ner palisades six feet high were erected to
in 1-22 viceroy of Mexico, where as a Creole hold back the crowds. The funeral procession,
he was enthusiastically received. He is best almost a mile long, contained nearly all the
known for the beautification of the capital, officialdom of New Spain, the order of their
especially the Alameda, with fountains and precedence painstakingly observed. Eighty fra-
trees and for the reconstruction of the mint ternities took part, with standards and insig-
and customhouse. He was instrumental in ac- nia, each member bearing a scepter and a
quiring from Macao, the Portuguese colonv taper. Next came Indian delegations, their
in China, material for the magnificent bronze leaders bearing long staves of office. Then
grillewhich was cast in Mexico and set up followed the colleges, in their dark robes with
in 1730 in Mexico City's cathedral. 58 Acufia vivid bands and banners, and the many reli-
was also watchful of morals in the parks gious orders with crosses and candles. A mi-
and on the waterways of Xochimilco. He raculous was accompanied bv the
crucifix
prohibited masks at carnival time and reformed metropolitan clergy, dressed in crimson man-
the festivals to conform with Spanish custom. tles, laces, and blue tippets. After them were
He patronized classic Spanish plays but also the catafalque and the members of the vice-
enjoyed an occasional comedy by a good royal household, who were followed bv two
Mexican playwright. In his time part of Belize unshod horses bearing the dead grandee's
was retaken from the English and colonized heraldic symbols. Behind these came members
with settlers from the Canary Islands, groups of the lesser courts of New Spain, the staff
of whom he sent also to Texas. 41 of the university in full regalia, representa-
When the people learned that the great tives of the roval treasury, and the archbishop
viceroy lav dangerously ill, at the age of sev- in appropriate magnificence. The procession
enty-six, they began general prayers for him. was closed by a guard of infantry and cavalry*
At nightfall the last sacraments were admin- with reversed arms. At the end rolled the
istered bv the archbishop and a bishop, and coaches of mourners draped in black, led by
he expired shortly after midnight. Then the that of the dead marquis. It took over three
churches began to toll the hundred strokes hours for the funeral cortege to reach the
of the passing bell and the artillery to fire its cemetery. 73
four hundred and seventv-seven salvos. Early This description, as well as the details of
the next morning the high court convened to life in Lima sketched earlier, gives an idea
verify the death. Later the royal provision for of the pomp and circumstance which at-
the succession was officially examined, and as tended important events in the colonies, and
customary the choice fell on the archbishop. such fanfare was echoed throughout Latin
Meantime the most skillful surgeons em- America.
[u]
2
r<SH
THE ARTISTIC CLIMATE
F
A OF an understanding of the Baroque and
or
Rococo in Latin America, several factors and
merely seamen and
workers, artists,
merchants
and scholars. 22
but mosaic
In this quarter
influences affecting the artistic climate there painters born in the Orthodox
faith on the
have to be taken into consideration. The de- Greek Islands or in the Balkan hinterland still
velopment of the various art styles in the Old worked on panel or canvas in the Byzantine
World and especially the conditions peculiar tradition. This Veneto-Bvzantine school per-
to the Iberian Peninsula must be reviewed, as sisted well into the seventeenth century, as
well as the entirely strange cosmos of the is testified by the surviving pictures in the
New World onto which European art was church of San Giorgio dei Greci and its chap-
grafted. ter house, both built bv Lombardi. Through
Greek
these piazzas and rios echoing with the
1
tongue, theyoung unknown Domenicos Theo-
tocopoulos roamed before, by way of Rome,
At the time when artistic activity in the he reached Spain and fame. Venice, for all its
Americas began to unfold (about mid-sixteenth fast tempo, commercial activity, and lavish
century), art in Europe showed a complex manifestations in art, literature, music, and
picture. Italy was still leading all Europe. In drama, could not entirely uproot the old
regions separated by comparatively short dis- Byzantine tradition.
tances, such as Tuscany and Venetia or Lom- The disciples of Bvzantine art seldom signed
bardy and Rome, people speaking practically even their masterpieces. They subordinated
the same language and confessing the same their individualities to orthodox expression,
faith had already gone far along the road to- while the artist of Renaissance Italy was de-
ward producing strongly regional styles. veloping a self-expression so strong in its
In Venice— until the discovery of the New characteristics that many of his works— even
World the hub of international commerce- without a monogram— betray the master.
Titian, Tintoretto, Veronese, and the Bassano Earlier both the Romanesque and the Gothic
family were supplying oil paintings for Ren- had manifested such regional differences that
aissance palaces and churches, built perhaps the Romanesque of Spain can be distinguished
by Sansovino or the Lombardi brothers. Here from that of Central Europe and Portuguese
also, a few blocks from the thousand-and-one- Gothic from the English. But the Renaissance,
night's splendor of St. Mark's, lay the Borgo as a powerful humanistic movement, burst the
dei Greci, with its considerable Greek popula- bounds of regionalism and implanted the spirit
tion—four thousand in 1550— among them not of individuality everywhere.
[12]
The Iberian Peninsula, off the main thor- out of this diversity and in addition shows a
oughfare of artistic interchange, had a distinc- certain time lag when compared with the rest
tive artistic past of its own. The foundations of Europe, so that Seville was building its ex-
of some of its buildings had been laid when quisite Gothic cathedral in 1506 when in Italy
it was a Roman province. Later the Visigoths Bramante (i444?-i5i4) had already arrived at
made their contributions. And still later the the expression of purest Renaissance.
Moorish occupation, which in the southern The Renaissance in Spain, delayed by the
portion of the peninsula lasted for seven cen- long-drawn-out warfare against the Moors,
turies, left its indelible mark. Certain ele- did not take hold until after their final expul-
ments from the art of the Near East which sion bv Ferdinand and Isabella. Charles I of
reached other parts of Europe secondhand Spain, born in Ghent and brought up in a
16
through the returning Crusaders or were Flemish environment, succeeded his grand-
filtered in through Venice came to the Span- father to the Spanish crown in 15 16, the first
iards firsthand through the art and architec- Habsburg on the Spanish throne; three years
ture of the Moors. later he was also made head of the Holy
The Moorish tradition continued side bv Roman Empire, as Charles V. At that time the
side with European artistic influences. When Holy Roman Empire included nearly all of
Granada fell (1492) the military grip of the German-speaking Central Europe, the Low
Moors on Spain was broken, but the deep Countries,Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Bohe-
imprint they had stamped on Spanish life mia, some districts of eastern France, and much
remained, whether in medicine, in arithmetic of northern Italy. To the Spanish crown be-
—with the exchange of the clumsv Roman nu- longed Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily, scattered
merals for the Arabic— in ceramics, or in archi- provinces of North Africa, and the vast new
tecture. The crescent-moon standards with colonies of the New World.
their streamers of horses' tails may have de- The administration of the huge Habsburg
parted across the narrows of Gibraltar, but properties meant unremitting
toil, but at the
the Moorish civilization had infiltrated into same time an unprecedented opportunity was
Spanish life and many Moors converted to offered for intellectual and artistic exchange
Christianitv staved in Spain. among many different countries. Although
A converted Moor was called a "mudejar" the title of emperor passed from Charles to
by the from the Arabic meaning
Spaniards, the Austrian branch of the family, the Habs-
"vassal." Later thisterm was applied to that burg dynasty remained on the Spanish throne
art style which showed Moorish characteris- until 1700 and at the head of the Holv Roman
tics, for the most part in its treatment of Empire more or less continuously until that
brick, wood, and tile. The brick of the Span- empire was dissolved in 1806. In addition,
was thinner than that of con-
iards frequently through personal union and alliances by mar-
temporary Europe; wood was used and orna- Habsburgs ruled the kingdoms of
riage, the
mented in the Moorish manner; and the ce- Hungary and Poland, with their dependencies.
ramic work of Spain and Portugal— even of Such extensive holdings— a veritable cauldron
Italy— shows kinship to the famous majolica of European nationalities— under the control
ware from the island of Majorca, long a of one family functioned as a vast market for
Moorish colony. the exchange of ideas, from the Slavs on the
At the close of the fifteenth centurv no east to the Gauls on the west and from the
country in Europe had an artistic soil more Scandinavian borders to the Mediterranean.
diversified, layer bv lavcr, than that of the All over Europe the versatility of the indi-
Iberian Peninsula. The distinctive florid Gothic vidual artist during the Renaissance contrib-
style of both Spain and Portugal developed uted much to the increasingly personal ex-
I
'3l
pression of that style. Architect, painter, and covers in general the first half of the sixteenth
sculptor of note might be embodied in one century, but its decorative ideals made them-
person. Such versatility did much to break selves felt not only in the succeeding classi-
down the barriers between the various cizing period but also even in the Baroque.
branches of the arts and to make the whole Spain found her way slowly out of the long
stvle integrated and pictorial. Certain artists domination of Flemish and Italian models to
attained a superlative command of their craft artistic self-assurance.
38
When Charles V—
and expressed themselves with a virtuosity whose connoisseurship is documented by his
that would have seemed impossible in the pre- continuous patronage of Titian— abdicated in
ceding decades. The painter experimented suc- 1556 in favor of his son Philip II, an interest-
cessfully with extravagant forms and daring ing paradox existed there: Spain, one of the
perspectives. The
twisted column divided into most powerful countries of Europe, was artis-
three segmentswhich were variously decorated tically behind not only the other Habsburg
can be found in Raphael's work, and Veronese crown lands but also other sections of the
made use of it in several of his murals; this Old World.
form appears in three dimensions notably in By the time Spain had made the Renaissance
Bernini's baldachin for the high altar at St. her own (mid-sixteenth century) a new style,
Peter's in Rome (about 1627-1633). Also the the Baroque, was already incipient in Italy,
which reached its height with
jeweler's art, the Germanic lands, and the Low Countries;
Benvenuto Cellini— who was also famous as a in Rome it found its ideal climate and its most
sculptor— made use of the Renaissance vocab- talented early artists. The word "Baroque" is
ulary. Objects that combined gold and silver said to from the Spanish barrueco,
derive"
with pearls, other jewels, and intricate enamel meaning "a pearl of irregular form"; some
work revealed the creator's talent in the han- authorities * trace it back to the Yisigothic
dling of material, shape, and color. and others to the Latin verruca, meaning
About 1500 it became the mode for Span- "wart." It was first used by the scholastic
ish aristocrats and high ecclesiastics to order writers— in a poem quoted by Antonio Abbon-
carved marble tombs from Genoa, and Ital- danti in 1627— later it appears in the works of
ian sculptors often accompanied their works Louis Saint-Simon (1675-1755), and still later
3
to Spain. Such carving may have been an it was taken over into art history.
early source in Spain of motifs from the The Renaissance had been a self-conscious
Italian Renaissance— the putti, medallions, gro- age and Baroque evolved, in part, out of the
tesques, the swags and garlands of flowers and tendency to revolt against its rules, which
fruit, and the candelabrum columns— which had become pedantic, and a desire to try out
were adapted by Spanish builders with little new possibilities. It is impossible to confine
sense of Italian architectural principles but an art style between two arbitrary dates, one
with a remarkable feeling for their decorative for the beginning of its course and another
24
value. for the termination. The roots of the Baroque
Considerably later the name "Plateresque" can be traced beyond Michelangelo, who is
was given to this early flowering of the Ren- often called its originator; before him the
aissance in Spain. The style is now believed trend to break the classical forms was already
to have been applied first in architecture when in evidence.
the artisans showed themselves plateros en The world then was inclining more and
25
yeso (silversmiths in stucco). In the spread more to make of life a drama and of drama,
and persistence of its many motifs, however, life. It was a world of extreme contrasts, of
the influence of the Renaissance jeweler should arrogant magnificence and hopeless misery, of
not be overlooked. The Spanish Plateresque carnal indulgence and ecstatic asceticism. The
[14]
coronation of an emperor or a viceroy, the lishments in the motherland. After generations
birth of a roval child, the wedding of an arch- of foreign artists and even artisans had been
duke, the funeral of a high dignitary— all were accepted, Spanish talent and ingenuity now
occasions for elaborate architectural settings, took hold and created its own Baroque, with
with baldachins, tribunes, triumphal arches, accents in its architecture on the heroic, the
and, when appropriate, catafalques. Such festi- complex, and the ostentatious and in its sculp-
vals of jov or mourning lasted for davs. The ture and painting on the mystic, the ascetic,
preparations in the illusionistdc field called for and the larmoyant.
artists ofrenown and were equaled onlv by Although the Baroque style developed out
those of a sartorial or a culinary nature. There of the Renaissance it presents a marked con-
were theater performances requiring compli- trast to it. The Renaissance manner is distin-
cated machinery, waterfalls, fireworks, floats, guished by a clarity of composition and a tran-
parades, and all kinds of artful devices and quillity of line; the Baroque, bv a massivity
tricks of perspective and illusion. of composition and a mobility of line. The
Thus Baroque was not merely an art style careful subordination of the decorative ele-
but a mode of living; it was the last grand ments in the Renaissance changes with the
spectacle of feudalism, and it also heralded Baroque into a compact and vibrant com-
the dawn of the epoch of the common man. plexity, inwhich the emphasis is not on the
It spread to the farthermost corners of Europe, organization of the detail into the whole but
disregarding religious boundaries. It mani- on the impact of the total impression.
fested itself in the arts, literature, music, and In addition to the ebullience and floriditv
drama and in many facets of everyday life, of its effect. Baroque can be recognized bv
in Sweden as well as in Poland, in England certain general characteristics. There was in
and the Low Countries as well as in France. this period considerable complication of the
The Council of Trent had remonstrated ground plan, a show of virtuosity in construc-
against the all-too-pagan representations of tion—in the use of octagonals and ovals both
Renaissance painting and sculpture— the nudity, in plan and in certain members, such as
the carnal subjects, the unorthodox and over- cupolas— and an increased interest in interior
familiar treatment of religious figures— and lighting. Also, the exterior was less indicative
prescribed in detail the religious iconography of interior structure. Side walls were kept
of the Counter Reformation. Since the service rather plain, and ornament was heaped on
to religion was still a major function of art the facade. The stress on classic proportion
these directives were instrumental in bringing was relaxed and a new pictorial emphasis took
about in certain schools of painting and sculp- its bv vigor of rhythm
place, characterized
ture an emphasis on the ecstatic; and since the and boldness of detail. Columns and pilasters
development of Baroque coincided with the often lost their function and became purely
immense expansion of the Jesuit order decorative. Columns were coupled into pairs,
(founded by the Spanish-born Ignatius Lovola frequently twisted, and hung with wreaths
and recognized officially in 1540) it is often and garlands. The classic triangular pediment
identified with that militant institution. was broken; sometimes its slanting segments
Spain also adopted the new style. Economi- were reversed to flare outward and sometimes
cally at that time the country was approach- they were replaced with scrolls. Sculpture
ing its zenith; into it was pouring the immeas- was called upon to adorn window frames;
urable riches of a new world, and much of consoles, capitals, balustrades, and finials were
the gold and silver mined in faraway America brought forward to embellish all suitable
bv Indian and Negro slaves served to enlarge space.
and embellish both civil and ecclesiastic estab- Especial attention was given to the setting
[ '5)
and the grouping of buildings. The surround- gardeners, pastry cooks, and even the masters
ing terrain was laid out for an impressive of the kitchens.
approach, with terraces, esplanades, and flights In the Rococo the interest of the decorative
Monuments, fountains, and even cas-
of steps. system— until then in general divided evenly
cades were arranged to climax harmonious between the horizontal and the vertical— made
vistas. The villas of royalty and aristocracy a distinct shift toward the vertical. There was
in Italy furnished principles and formulas a return to a clearer, definitely classical de-
which were used beyond the borders of that sign, made visible through a regrouping of
country. On the islands of Venice and on the decorative elements. Surfaces were left plain
mainland of Venetia, on Isola Bella in Lake and the contrasting ornament became thinner
Maggiore and on the shores of Lake Como, and more flowing. Blank panels were framed
lavish formal gardens which drew the water's sometimes with only a slender pendent garland.
edge into the composition served as prototypes The inner fields of panels were elongated and
for Baroque landscaping. exchanged their gold for color; flowered pat-
It is important to note the continuance of terns in various hues came into favor.
an undercurrent, an academic, classicizing In painting and sculpture, too, the Rococo
trend, which persisted throughout the seven- produced a liquidity of color, a lightness in
teenth and eighteenth centuries until its ulti- the composition, and a delicacy and grace of
mate resurgence into the neoclassic. line, frequently obtained bv the use of tenuous
elements and reduced dimensions. Even in
The evolution of the Rococo out of the Rococo gardens the change is noticeable, for
Baroque is interestingly exemplified in France. the bulk of vegetation was lightened, clean-
When Louis XIV turned toward the indul- cut airv perspectives were opened, and grace-
gence of eye, ear, and palate, Italians were ful sculpture was applied for gaiety of effect.
invited to France to refine and elevate the The term "Rococo" is said to derive from
standards of court and country. The Sun a combination of the French words rocaille
King's mother was a Habsburg, and through and coquille (rockwork and shell). But such
her the Baroque gained new ground in the a modern garbling of syllables would indeed
French court. With Louis' death in 171 5 the be exceptional in an age famous for its literary
five-year-old dauphin became king, but state precision and the purity of its language. Con-
matters were in the hands of a regency and sidering Italy's great contribution to this style,
the tradition of pomp continued. The mother the word roccioso (rocky) would seem a
of the youthful Louis XV, a princess of Savoy, somewhat less distant root. It is worth noting
doubtless introduced some of her taste pref- that while no French word ends in -co, the
erences. A young artist from Turin, her home, Italian has for art styles: classico, gotico,
arrived in Paris in 1723 and under the name barocco. The implication is that from the
of Juste Aurele Meissonier rose to a leading Baroque garden with its contrived rockeries
position as architect, sculptor, and designer. and grottoes— an Italian word from which
The royal court and the aristocrats employed grotesque is derived— were brought indoors
Italian painters, sculptors, and architects. And its characteristic rocks, shells, marine figures,
in addition from inexhaustible Italy came the and ferns and moss as motifs for decoration.
actors of the Commedia dell' Arte (with their Allegedly the term occurs first in Stendhal's
paraphernalia and their modes for the ladies Voyage dUtalie.
to follow), singers, dancers, musicians (as In Spain in 1700 the Habsburg line was
immortalized by the Flemish-born Watteau), succeeded by the Bourbon when a grandson of
hairdressers, milliners, dressmakers, tailors, Louis XIV was placed on the throne, and in
the makers of candles and fireworks, the the following era the Baroque gave way to
[i«]
the Rococo. The royal summer palace at European and were attuned to his tempera-
Aranjuez, near Madrid, a showplace since the ment.It was a religion that was stabilized not
sixteenth century, displays the evolution of onlv in its ecclesiastical administration but
taste. As early as 1576 it was mentioned as also in its spiritual scope. Its dogma was su-
one of the wonders of the world. The aspara- preme; and for the regulation of those who
gus and strawberries grown there were famous; tried to leave the prescribed path, the Holy
cotton, too, was cultivated, in one of the first Office of the Inquisition was instituted.
botanical gardens of Europe, and the collec- The Indian, on his part, was not the "savage
tion of animals there included specimens of dog" that some chroniclers would have us be-
exotic origin as well as European. 29 The lieve. He also had built for himself a world
entrance to the palace is Baroque, with its which in manv of its concepts was remarkably
wide porte-cochere and its high curving pedi- civilized; though he did not know the use of
ment surmounted by statuary. Baroque too is the wheel and had no iron tools, his stone
the magnificent staircase inside, at the foot temples stood more than a hundred feet high
of which a coach and four could draw up and were decorated with polvchromed carv-
with ease. Most of the furniture, woodwork, ings of human, animal, and geometric forms.
bronzes, tapestries, and porcelains of the in- Even todav the remnants of his ruined cities,
terior were manufactured in Spain. The Ro- ravaged by the jungle, climate, and man, awe
coco is exquisitely represented by a unique us with their grandeur, maturity of planning,
masterpiece, the Porcelain Salon, produced in and artistic sensitivity. Although our under-
the Buen Retiro factory in 1763. This entire standing of pre-Columbian art is hampered
room is faced with large panels of lustrous bv our Greco-Roman concept of beauty,
porcelain, a bower
polvchromed flower
of nevertheless we feel its strange power. Much
and fruit patterns enlivened with birds and of the Indian's potterv compares favorably
little animals, amid which human figures, with ceramic products of contemporary Eu-
about one-third life size, are grouped in pic- rope; one region achieved even a vitreous
turesque Chinese garb. glaze. Woven materials, sometimes more than
Baroque flourished at a time when com- a thousand years old, have been taken from
merce with the Near East was quite regular graves with colors still rich and vibrant and
and profited from the richness of form, color, present a variety of weaving techniques that
and workmanship current in xMohammedan is yet to be matched. Whereas Europe had to
countries. Rococo reached full bloom when wait until the sixteenth century and Benve-
the Christian world was in frequent commu- nuto Cellini for the rediscovery of the lost
nication with China and her neighbors. The wax process, the pre-Columbian Indian dis-
grace in the fine arts of the Far East, the hues covered this complex method of metal casting
and patterns of the silks, the colorfulness of and produced by it ornaments in gold, plati-
the wallpapers, the perfection of the porcelain num, and silver of rare artistic refinement.
—all further enlivened the Rococo stvle. But not merelv in the arts can pre-Columbian
America hold her own; in the intellectual
field, also, the native American made out-
standing achievements. The Maya's calendar

The Spanish conquerors came to America was more accurate than that of sixteenth-
from a world where Christianitv was fifteen centurv Europe. Not until the reform of
hundred vears old, where a powerful hier- Pope Gregory XIII in 1582 were the equinoxes
archy administered the firmly established reli- brought into adjustment in the European svs-
gion. Its rites, its iconography, its philosophv, rcm. Several pre-Columbian cultures had writ-
had evolved out of the mcntalitv of the ing and made scrolls of vegetable fiber or
[17]
animal skins on which the time count and mat- religion had to be destroyed, the temples
ters of history were recorded. Some of them wrecked, the "sacerdotes of hellish practices"
had literature, drama, and the dance— closer in slaughtered or driven away, the idols broken
imagination and poetry to works of the ad- and scattered or, if very large, buried out of
vanced nations of Asia than to those of the sight. In many cases the expertly cut stones
Christian world. Such surviving pieces of lit- of a pre-Columbian building were reused in
erature as the admonition of an Aztec mother the construction of Christian churches.
to her young daughter and the dramatized The first churches were simple barnlike
Inca legend of ancestors elevated to godhood structures, but they were soon replaced by
in Ollantaytambo make inspiring and reveal- more pretentious Here in the New
edifices.
62
ing reading. World the early colonial builder, whether
The cities of pre-Columbian America- priest or layman, was faced with a situation
compared by the Conquistadores to Seville for which he had no precedent in the Old
and Cordova— were spacious and clean, laid World. In Europe the architecture was com-
out according to plan, often with a fine feel- posed into a landscape that had been shaped
ing for topography; many of them had water by the hand of man. In America the builder
channels and sewage systems. Roads and cause- was confronted with a spectacular setting
ways connected one city with another, and little touched by human hands; gone were the
commerce in the busy markets was supervised temples from their high platforms, sharply
by special officials, who even checked the contoured against the tropical horizon, and
accuracy of weights and measures. the palaces with the ornaments on their roofs
The Indian's knowledge of natural historv polychromed or glittering with gold. Here
was so well developed that it was made use of the Christian architecture had to be fitted
by the Spaniards, who found it not only accu- into an untamed landscape.
rate but also detailed. Such plants as cocaine, The destruction of the social fabric brought
quinine, cocoa, tobacco, and curare were about by the Conquest was so thorough that
known and their stimulating and medicinal the new religion could not take subjective
properties utilized. hold on the Indian for many years. Though
These high pre-Columbian cultures came he had been defeated in battle and had nomi-
into clash with the European civilization of nallv accepted his conqueror's God, he could
the Spanish conquerors. Not only were two not immediately grasp the precepts of Christi-
absolutely different races involved but in addi- anity. For the European the Holy Land was
tion all circumstances of their manner of liv- a reality, as were the works of the Apostles
ing had developed after different patterns. The and the lives of the saints. And the powerful
Indian was subjugated by weapons of iron philosophical and economic movements that
and steel and by military tactics which con- had figured in the spread of Christianity were
founded him, and he became a peon in his all part of his background and tradition. The
own land. Italian woodworker who carved a crucifix
With the Conquistadores came the priests, was following a long line of precursors who
imbued with missionary zeal and bearing their knew what it stood for. To the Indian the
crucifixes, rosaries, censers, painted banners, crucifix had no meaning; he looked uncom-
and their books. On the one side was the prehendinglv at the images of the Virgin
paraphernalia of the new religion, on the other .Mother, Santiago on horseback, and other
were the temples reaching toward the sky, holy figures painted on the banners which
the spiraling copal smoke, and the life-size the Conquistadores bore. Even if he wished
statues of the gods of rain, maize, flowers, war, to embrace the new religion the whole mystic
and death. First, all evidence of the pagan and symbolic content of Christianity was out-
[18]
side his ken. For him the entire development see the devotion which the natives exhibit
of Christianity prior to the sixteenth century when at Holy Mass. Men, women, and children
are taught the holy orations in their mother-
was a sealed book. And above all else the
tongue. We, the conquerors, also taught them to
Saviour was not an Indian but of the same
keep wax candles lighted before the holy altars
white race as his subjugators and was not even and crosses, for before our arrival they did not
a triumphant war chief. The Inca Atahuallpa know the use of wax in making candles. We also
taunted the Spaniards— even when their pris- taught them to behave with respect to the rev-
oner—that their God had been put to death erend fathers, and when they came to their towns,
197 to go out and meet them and receive them with
by the very men he had created.
lighted wax candles, ringing the bells and giving
Because the Indian was totally ignorant of
them plentifully to eat. . . . They have also other
the intellectual and spiritual past of the Chris- holy and good customs, for on the day of Our
tian European he had to be educated. The Lady or of Corpus Christi and their solemn
tongues and thus dis-
friar learned the native feasts they go in procession with crosses and
lighted candles, bearing the image of the saint
covered what a different instrument was the
who is their patron or patroness, as richly dressed
soul of his charges. The catechism was tran-
as they can afford; and they go singing litanies
scribed into native picture writing to put the and other holy orations, and sound their flutes
alien concepts at least into a familiar visual and trumpets. 100
idiom. The were taught Spanish, and
children
pictures illustrating
Biblical history were But behind this impressive facade of ritual,
shown to them. The alphabet was adapted to there were many traditional practices and sub-
the native languages, and quotations from conscious reflexes that added up to a very
Holy Scripture appeared on church walls different religion from that of the European.
placed below Latin and Spanish texts. Furthermore, in time a considerable number
The Indian was accustomed to the rule of of the ecclesiastic personnel were Creoles,
a hierarchy from pre-Columbian times and to mestizos, and even Indians, and a change took
obedience to a higher authority. He needed place that had far-reaching religious and artis-
the ceremonial contact with those superior tic implications. Increasingly the Indian be-
powers on whom depended his harvest and came a fervent participant. Thus it became
the health of his children. His ancestors had possible for him to perform Christian acts of
offered fowl, maize, and flowers to the priest mercy and to have Christian visions. After the
of the sacrificial religion, and so he continued shock from the collision of two civilizations
the custom, bringing offerings to the Christian had subsided he was able to express himself
church. In bygone centuries his ancestors had again also in art.
rejoiced to burn copal before their idols and Since the success of the work of the Roman
carry flickering torches in processions, and it Church depended to a great extent on the
gave him pleasure to seehis son, as an acolyte, participation of the Indian, the priest or mis-
swinging the censer during Mass, and perhaps sionary could or would not protest too strongly
it made him still happier to participate in the against the transformation brought about by
various processions of the Christian calendar. Indian hands. He may have taken it as a sign
Bernal Diaz, that truly human chronicler of of success; if the Christian iconography took
the conquest of Mexico and Central America, on characteristics of the artistic and emotional
wrote with satisfaction in 1576: idiom of the natives without serious divergence
from dogma it could be interpreted as proof
Since the destruction of idolatry, by the Will that the Indian had submerged himself in
of God, and by His holy aid . . . there have
been baptised country all the natives whose
in this
the new religion. Today in Chichicastenango,
souls formerly were sunk and lost in the infernal Guatemala, representatives of distant villages
pit. It is a thing worthy to thank God on to gather to burn copal and murmur prayers on
[19]
the steps outside the church before entering the cities which had impressed them en route
in much the same way as the ancient Maya to the harbors whence they set sail for
did on the stairways of their temple bases. America. The intermingling of Romanesque,
Within this church the seed corn from the Gothic, and Renaissance elements which oc-
separate villages is laid out in rectangles on curred in the first century or so of colonial life
the floor and framed with flower petals and makes for a fascinating mixture. The com-
candles, forming a continuous pattern the pound character which resulted from this
length of the nave as it awaits the blessing of elastic application of styles prepared the way
the priest. In Pisac, Peru, conch shells blare for the distinctive Baroque and Rococo of
at the elevation of the Host. Latin America.
The yielding to the new religion was aided Amazingly small in proportion to the art
by the cofradias and sodalidades of mestizo production is the number of confirmed cases
and Indian membership. Often an Indian re- of renowned artists emigrating to the colonies
gion was without a resident priest and had —either from Spain or from other European
only a visiting cleric who came on muleback countries— who through their outstanding per-
from a distant valley. In the interim the leaders sonalities and originality might have set the
of the cofradia took over, performing many direction. In the various memoirs, treatises,
a dutv which in Europe was entrusted only and contracts which remain from the colonial
to the ordained clergy. period, thereis little mention of artists or art
Climate provided another factor for change. works going to America. The Flemish painter
Many church holidays in Europe had equiv- Simon Pereyns is one earlv exception; he came
alents in pre-Christian religions, intimately to Mexico in 1568, contributed to the decora-
connected in mood and spirit with the seasons. tion of the cathedral,and had many pupils.
In Latin America such holidays cannot evoke The paintings of Martin de Vos (1 536-1693)
the same feelings, for even the countries above are known to have been imported and to have
the equator do not know our succession of influenced the manner of painting in Mexico.
four seasons and below the equator the sea- The Italian Mateo Perez de Alesio was active
sons are reversed. Thus Christmas— par excel- in Lima toward the end of the sixteenth cen-
lence a winter holiday, presaging the return tury, and his son carried on his school of
of the sun— falls in South America in mid- painting. The sculptor Juan Martinez Mon-
summer. And Easter, which in Europe on the tanes (1 568-1649) contracted to execute an
threshold of spring is full of expectancy, in altar for Lima, Peru. Francisco de Zurbaran
South America comes when the crops are har- (1598- 1 669?) is reported to have sent some of
vested,when nature is at its drabbest and his canvases out on commission with a ship
27
coldest, when rain and fog are due on the captain. In the early eighteenth centurv
coast and the people are facing winter. Jeronimo de Balbas came from Spain and built
the Altar de los Reves in the cathedral of
Mexico City. About the same time and in the
3
same place Lorenzo Rodriguez (1704?-! 774),
In forming an aesthetic evaluation of Latin also an Andalusian, was active; his work on
American colonial art, we must not forget the Sagrario of the cathedral is especiallv
Romanesque, Gothic,
that a superb range of the noteworthv. Manuel Tolsa (1757-1816), a
and Renaissance was part of the background Spanish architect and sculptor who arrived in
of those who came to the New World: they Mexico in 1791, was another to achieve dis-
had in their mind's eye those buildings of the tinction there. However, the number of Euro-
homeland among which they had been brought pean artists of rank working in the colony
up, the churches where they had worshiped, are too few (even though many more may be
[20]
discovered through research) to have directed mestizo. Two centuries earlier the proportion
71
the entire artistic orientation of the vast terri- in favor of the Indian was considerably larger.
torv comprising the New World. In spite of Millions of the Indians there even today speak
the many Italian and Flemish artists who languages that antedate Columbus; as many as
worked in Spain no one would classify Spanish fifty separate roots exist.
art as a mere subsidiary of the Italian or Flem- The imagination and the expressive gift of
ish; and Latin American colonial art developed were not merely powerful but stub-
the native
in a not too dissimilar manner its own indi- born. The Spaniards brought over the same
viduality in the distant hemisphere. norms for art and architecture to all Latin
Throughout the colonial period in what- America, and, in general, colonial buildings
ever concerns the intellectual, artistic, and even can be classified within the framework of
sartorial fashions of Europe a time lag can be European architectural forms. Yet frequently
observed. Transportation was slow, and while in the various areas a shift of emphasis occurs
a new mode might sweep a viceregal capital which results in distinguishable regional styles,
with thearrival of a new viceroy and his suite especially in the decoration of the buildings.
the rhythm of new ideas moved with increas- And often in sculpture and painting the psy-
ing ritardando into the hinterland. By the chology of the Christianized Indian and the
seventeenth century the arts were flourishincr double heritage of the mestizo come even
on virile and articulate regional impulses; the more to the fore. No one who knows pre-
importation of European ideas and art prod- Columbian pottery will confuse a Maya jar
ucts continued throughout the colonial period, with an Inca; and an explanation of the great
but everywhere it met strong competition differences between Mexican and Peruvian
from the growing artistic independence of the colonial arts can be found partly in the dif-
Creole, the mestizo, and the Indian. ferent artistic abilities of the Indians— for in-
Nowhere else in the world was the religious stance, Zapotec and Aztec versus Mochica
iconography of one high civilization so suc- and Quechua.
cessfully replaced with another. In the early Mexico City, Quito, and Cuzco were built
years of the Conquest writers remarked on the on the foundations of pre-Columbian capitals
astonishing ability* of the Indian to copy any and from the first had a vast reservoir of
model placed before him. In fact, his repre- native craftsmen at hand to help erect the
sentation of the European was much more new cities. As the colonies grew in population
accurate than the European's of him. But the and wealth new towns developed and the
chroniclers do not mention that the Indian landscape was dotted with churches whose
was doing something else: he was also trans- towers gazed alertly into the alien landscape.
forming his image of the model according to In principle the towns were laid out on the
his own psychology. checkerboard plan of the Spanish colonial
It should be pointed out here that in those system, with one side of the central plaza re-
regions where advanced artistic cultures ex- served for the main church, another for the
isted in pre-Columbian times, colonial art is municipal building, a third for the military,
its most striking and original; in .Mexico. and the fourth for the governor's house. Span-
Guatemala. Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and ish building types served as models for the
Bolivia especially, many of the Indian artifacts structures, large and small. The work was
today have an ancient origin, many of them organized and directed mainly by Spaniards
unchanged in design and technique until or other Europeans, but by far the greater
recently. Statistics published in 1945 portion, not only of the masonry but also of
? 1VC tnc
population in these six countries as 10 per cent the decoration, was executed by natives. From
white, 30 per cent pure Indian, and 60 per cent the point of view of craftsmanship the Indian
[«]
had little to learn; he had reached a high level spiration but modifying the walls and arches,
with his own stone tools and the introduction as they built them, to suit their own taste.
of iron implements released his talent and gave In Europe the rising artist could study with
it a new impulse. When the times were ready his own eyes the masterpieces of every branch
for real magnificence, the natives were proof the arts. The mestizo and Indian, on the
ficientenough to produce it. other hand, who produced the major portion
In 1556 the Dominican archbishop Alonso of colonial art, seldom left their own districts
de Montufar wrote to Philip II of monasteries and had only scanty plans and meager models
in Mexico so grandiose that though only a to grasp at.
handful of friars were to be accommodated Colonial art in Spanish America is far from
in them they would be worthy of the Spanish being a mere transplantation of Spanish forms
city of Valladolid; of Indians called up in into a new world;grew out of the union of
it
gangs of five hundred to a thousand to work two civilizations which in many ways were
on the construction, without wages or even the antithesis of each other. Non-European
food provided; of the Indian personnel for factors were at work also. Thus it incorporated
such establishments, including gardeners, door- the Indian's preferences, his characteristic
keepers, cleaners, cooks, sacristans, and mes- sense of form and color, the power of his
sengers, some of them acting also as cantors, own heritage, all of which, as overtones,
acolytes, and musicians and all serving with- modulated the imported style. Furthermore,
123
out remuneration. The participation of the the different physical background contrib-
Indians and mestizos in the construction of a uted toward a new expression.
church or convent was an act of faith, just The Baroque style lent itself amazingly
as in the Middle Ages in Europe. In the colo- well to the fusion of these influences. A full-
nies the haughty attitude of the Spaniards and blooded Baroque spread to even the less ac-
Creoles toward menial labor kept them from cessible regions of Latin America and with its
any occupation which might result in loss of vast register of variations developed such re-
face. gional expressions as the "Andean mestizo"
It was a custom at this time even in Europe and the "Mexican poblano" styles.
for builders to solve many of their structural Throughout the colonial period two major
and decorative problems as a building pro- art trends are noticeable. The first manifests
gressed, with leeway left for extemporaneous itself in a painstaking copying and imitation
detail; not every figure, columnette, garland, of European models, primarily from Spain but
and rosette was worked out as a modern also from Italy, the Low Countries, and other
architect designs them for a blueprint, reduced parts of Europe. Such work was often servile
to scale. The plans of many colonial buildings and uninspired, though it might be satisfactory
in Spanish America, still extant in the Archive from the standpoint of both iconography and
of the Indies, gave only the general layout, craftsmanship. The second trend came into
with no specific designs for the decoration. being after native talent had forged a new
Even recently this author observed stone language, differing not only from the old but
carvers in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, also from region to region. These two trends
chiseling away on
in their traditional fashion might be regarded as echoing two major
a design which the master builder had roughed motives of the mother country: the shaping
out in pencil on a brick cornice. And at of a colonial empire and the conversion of
Cuenca, Ecuador, he saw expert masons, vol- the Indian.
unteer workers on a new cathedral— already Structurally, Baroque architecture in Europe
more than fifty years in the making— using a is complex, constantly concerned with the
late-nineteenth-century wooden model for in- illusionistic principles of perspective; the
[22]
effects of light and shade were calculated and other precious minerals stimulated the
with virtuosity, and the traditional system of manufacture of countless attractive articles,
organization was kept in mind even in the from tableware to extravagant jewelry. Furni-
most complex design. Colonial architecture, ture and objects for interior decoration, some-
on the other hand, reveals a lack of knowl- times more lavishly Baroque and Rococo than
edge of as well as respect for the traditional. those in Europe, were made of the uniquely
The subtle balance of classical architecture durable native woods, which showed up mag-
which has repeatedly revitalized European nificently when processed. In the tooling of
styleswas totally alien to the native of the leather, a craft unknown in pre-Columbian
New World. Usually the Spanish American America, many original ideas were developed.
Baroque building was simple in structure. The Just as the artistic achievement of pre-
decoration rather than the design was elab- Columbian civilization will always remain a
orated. Because of the control of the Inqui- torso— strand but incomplete— so also the splen-
sition and the very different intellectual and dor of the arts of colonial Latin America can
physical climate, the sensualistic aspects of never be fully recaptured. This is a hemisphere
European Baroque never developed here. The visited bv volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and
art of colonial Latin America is characterized tropical hurricanes, and the colonial builders
bv the sincerity and power that marked the were never able to outwit such violent phe-
early Christian spirit; expressed in the current nomena of nature. Further, the colonies had
idiom— the flamboyant Baroque— it achieved a no Yasari to chronicle for succeeding genera-
unique flavor. tions the storv. the personalities, and the
methods of local artists; in proportion to the
Heretofore in discussions of Latin Ameri- immense output, few names can be identified
can colonial art a disproportionate emphasis through documentation.

has been placed upon architecture and little Too often in the past Latin American
attention has been devoted to the decorative colonial art has been evaluated by measuring
detail, where often the greatest originality is it against the art of Europe, and the peculiar
evident. Colonial sculpture presents not thea- originality that is one of its chief values has
ter, as does frequently European Baroque, but been passed over as a less important "mestizo"
drama experienced. .Many colonial paintings feature. The art of the Byzantine and Roman-
have an unparalleled storv-telling charm and esque epochs in Europe is being enjoyed
a fairy-tale atmosphere. In colonial weaving, whether or not it is documented with names
pre-Columbian taste and techniques continued and dates, and the folk art of many regions
long after the Conquest, producing a fasci- of the world serves as a great stimulus, despite
nating blend. Pictures fashioned of tiny bril- anonymity. Just as the Greek Revival in the
liant feathers (a pre-Conquest technique) were United States is not a soulless imitation of an
applied with amazing skill to shields, miters, Old World style but North Ameri-
mirrors a
and stoles. The potter, combining indigenous can spirit, so the Baroque and Rococo of
and imported methods and decorative motifs, Latin America reflect artistic impulses invigo-
turned out ware which was pleasing in form ratinjrlv new and different from those of
and color. The great wealth of gold, silver, contemporary Europe.
[*j]
s
•<8H
CATHEDRALS
TJLhhe
America
story of the
reflects the rise
cathedrals in
and decline of the

Latin and the music and
far from later standards.
ecclesiastical vessels were
colonial empires there. The seat of the bishop The community centered about the main
was established in those towns to which the plaza; beyond lay dusty plots with, for the
kings' officials attached considerable hope. most part, a few shacks scattered here and
Often the expectation was fulfilled, and today there. Horses and cattle grazed about, and in
the cathedral dominates the main plaza of a some places the howling of monkeys and the
bustling city. But it also happened that the cry of tropical birds mingled with the ringing
reasons for choosing the location— geographi- of the church bells. In most cases the early
cal, military, or perhaps economic— lost perti- church in the New World was a barnlike
nency with the passing of time, and the structure of wood and reeds, with a peaked
cathedral now stands on some sleepy square roof built of timber and thatched. Descrip-
in a shrinking out-of-the-way town. tions and sketches which remain from those
In sixteenth-century Europe the cathedral days show little that is spectacular, either in
was a well-established institution, with both magnitude or in design; the notable excep-
direction and continuity to its program. It tions include the cathedral of Santo Domingo
had developed out of the Christian civiliza- in the republic of the same name and the
tion of Western Europe and reflected the "fortress churches" in Mexico.
character of its age; the bishops and their Yet before the Conquest was a century old,
functionaries were integrated into the pattern ambitious and spacious buildings had been
of the administrative, economic, and social life erected. Sometimes only a handful of ecclesi-
which made up the complex picture there. But astics carried through projects the grandeur
for the bishop who was sent from Spain into of which amazes us even today. A bishop's
the New World in those early decades the sit- church was an expression of his own eminence,
uation was without precedent. He came into an acclamation of his own renown, and its
the primitive beginnings of colonial city life, construction, enlargement, and embellishment
where he found little of the resplendent cere- were in his power; here he could exercise his
mony to which he was accustomed in the authority in making his New World cathedral
homeland. When he celebrated Mass, there worthy of comparison with those in the
were no rows of elegant gentlemen— and still motherland. Where a document connected
fewer noble ladies— before him; splendid vest- with the construction of a church survives, the
ments were rare, priestly assistants were few, name of the prelate always is mentioned, that
[24]
CATHEDRALS
of the donor more rarely, and still less fre- as early as 1539, and engravings were repro-
quently— unless the paper be a contract— the duced and widely circulated. The market was
names of the artists and craftsmen who actually insatiable.
carried out the work. Labor and building material were available
For the erection or re-edification of an im- in abundance in the New World. Nearly
portant building in the Spanish colonies plans always some type of stone suitable for the
were sometimes sent from Spain at the insti- project was close at hand, and the natives in
gation of high ecclesiastical authorities or as many districts were skilled in the manufacture
a part of the king's contribution; more often, of adobe bricks and blocks even before the
however, thev were drawn up in the colonies Conquest. Some regions furnished a soft stone,
and were then, theoretically at least, sub- easy to quarry and to carve, which hardened
mitted to Spain for approval. Of the nearly upon exposure to the air, and the magnificent
four hundred plans of buildings in the Amer- virgin forests provided extremely durable lum-
icas and the Philippines which have been ber for beams, rafters, and columns. The
published from the material in the Archive problem of transporting the material was sec-
of the Indies, in Seville, less than 6 per cent ondary, for the Indian was accustomed to
date before 1610. In some instances an archi- carrying or, if necessary, rolling incredible
tect or sculptor of renown in Spain designed weights over incredible distances.
a small-scale model of a church or an altar The colonial cathedral is imposing and sub-
which could be sent over (Brazil even re- stantial, built of stone or, more rarely, of brick
ceived dressed stone from Portugal for some and nearly always employing masonry vaults.
of its coastal buildings). .More rarelv a famous Often it Mas set on a stepped platform above
architect or artistcame over himself to super- the level of the plaza and boasted a broad
vise the erection of some important work. atrium, or open court, before it. This provided
But even then, as was also the case in Europe, a stage, a dramatic setting- with the facade of
the original plan was usually modified consid- the building as backdrop, for the various
erably in the course of realization. Further- ceremonies and colorful processions that en-
more, even when a project was laid out by a livened the religious life of the age. Decoration
Spaniard or other European in the colonies, was lavished on this facade, with columns,
the actual execution lav in the hands of the pilasters, niches, and statues em-
a part of the
workmen of the New World. And almost bellishment. Three entrances were usual and,
incredible is the number— tens of thousands— in the early structures, one tower. In later
of regional churches produced exclusively by centuries two towers became customary. These
local labor in Latin America. towers not only served as belfries but also
The people of the countryside soon learned buttressed the fagade and helped anchor the
their crafts from the traveling carpenters, the side walls.
maestro canter os (master masons), sculptors, As a rule the interior of the colonial cathe-
painters, and the ensambladores, who might dral, like the European, was laid out in three
best be translated as the co-ordinators or fore- aisles— corresponding to the three doorways in
men of the project and who might belong to the facade— separated bv the pillars or clus-
any of the builders' guilds. Books, drawings, tered columns which supported the vaulted
etchings, woodcuts, and other reproductions ceilings. All three might be of the same height,
of European art and architecture as well as as in the hall-type church, or the center one
treatises on the techniques of construction and might be given greater importance by higher
painting were a continuous source of informa- vaulting. In certain regions domes were fa-
tion and inspiration. Printing, a new craft in vored, although they were not always placed
Europe, was introduced into the New World over the main bodv of the structure, perhaps
[is]
because of the ever-present danger from earth- quez sailed to become the governor of Cuba,
quakes. For side chapels, either bays or niche- intrigant and antagonist of Cortes in the con-
like recesses were provided. quest of Mexico. Figures both great and small
In the grander buildings, following the in the most spectacular drama of the Americas
scheme common in Spanish cathedrals, the passed through this port: Ojeda to the Tierra
choir occupied part of the central area of Firme of South America (1509), Ponce de
the nave; it was enclosed on three sides and Leon— later famous for his exploration of
faced the main altar, with a relatively narrow Florida— to Puerto Rico in the same year,
space between. The choir stalls, the organs, Balboa to the Pacific (15 13), and Pizarro to
retables, and pulpit all lent themselves to Peru (1522). For about a half-century Santo
lavish ornamentation. The side chapels also Domingo was the capital of "all the Indies"
were ornate, many of them being dedicated known at that time, but its importance waned
by individual families or brotherhoods, who after the conquest of Mexico, when Havana
vied with one another in this expression of was made the port of reunion for the fleets,
their devotion. homeward bound with their valuable cargo.
By the first quarter of the seventeenth cen- In the first years of occupation the religious
tury ecclesiastical edifices were adorning the needs of the new colony grew so rapidly
land, a justifiable source of pride to the inhab- that Diego Colon, son of the great admiral
itants and, for posterity, documents of the ar- and governor of the island, complained in a
tistic and technical ability of colonial crafts- letter to the Spanish king that the very small
manship. Only a few cathedrals exist today, straw-covered church then being used could
however, which have not seen major renova- not accommodate half the crowd. It was not
tions. Earthquakes, lightning, fires, and, later, long before plans for a new structure were
revolutions took their toll of colonial beauty; taking form.
finally, the execrable taste of mid-nineteenth The cathedral as it stands today (PI. 1, fig. b)
century and later, which added little of artis- was projected as early as 15 14, but seemingly
tic value, demolished numberless old buildings the first stone was not laid until 152 1 or 1523.
or "modernized" them in the atrocious French In 1 54 1 the building was dedicated, and the
bourgeois style of Napoleon III and the Vic- tower was begun soon after. The main facade
torian fashion. has been attributed to the Spanish architect
Rodrigo Gil de Liendo and, more recently, to
154
The cathedral of Santo Domingo, on ac- his successor, Luis de Moya. This facade
count of its historical priority in the Conquest is clearly Plateresque in style. The double
of the New World, must be given first place entrance, formed by two arches, is divided
among the noteworthy facades there. Not two by a central column— a scheme that recalls
months after Columbus first set foot on the the Gothic, as do also the gable and the
territory of the New World— the island which round window above the cornice; but in
he named San Salvador— he discovered a the Gothic the dividing column is generally
neighboring island which in his correspond- part of the recessed doorway whereas here
ence he called Hispaniola, the Spanish Island. it is on a plane with the outer wall. It is of the
Its early capital, Santo Domingo, has seen much slim Corinthian type favored in the early Ren-
turbulence during the centuries. aissance, and the form is repeated in the fluted
This was the spot from which the conquest columns which flank the two niches in the
of the American mainland was directed. Here upper order. The two arches are splayed in
Hernan Cortes arrived at the age of twenty a curious manner so that the recessed windows
and, as a public scribe, learned the manners are brought close together, suggesting the eyes
and customs of colonial life. From here Velaz- of an owl. Bands with typically Plateresque
[26]
CATHEDRALS
motifs outline the arches, and smaller patterns of the Cauca Valley further southwest, which
of the same tvpe are ingeniously adapted to had the additional advantage of direct con-
fit the curved soffits. The frieze, surmounted nections with Ecuador and Peru. Tunja's
bv a powerful cornice, and the medallions of colonial houses, with their adobe walls and
allegorical figures applied to the face of the stone corners and doorways, their balconies,
abutments, also in the spirit of the Plateresque, their colonnaded patios, and their proud coats
effectively frame the portal. of arms, retain today the atmosphere of the
In the lower order, highly fanciful tempietti, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
each different, serve as baldachins for the The Tunja cathedral (fig. a), contracted for
niches (fig. c); the figures painted on the in 1569 and erected as the "principal church"
wall beneath them replace earlier statuary. In of the town, was not raised to its present status
this facade can be observed two characteris- until 1880. Fortunately, despite several altera-
tics that are peculiar to colonial architecture: tions, it preserves the main features of the
components of various styles are blended, and facade originally designed in 1598- 1600 by the
architectural elements which were originally Castilian Bartolome Carrion. 172 The building,
functional are turned to purely decorative constructed of a smooth, reddish stone, is set
uses. The side walls are plain and the few off from the plaza bv a raised atrium. Great
windows comparatively small. Castellation restraint was observed by the designer. The
along the roof is the only ornamentation. The heavy entablature serves as a base for the cen-
vaults in the interior rest on round pillars tral niche and its accompanying ornamentation.
and are of equal height, as in the medieval hall A classical pediment crowns the whole, rest-
churches. ing on pilasters which frame the entire central
In this venerable edifice is said to be the section. Above the entrance is placed in Plater-
tomb of Christopher Columbus. In 1586 esque tradition a cherub head with spread
the English corsair Francis Drake ransacked the wings. A great single tower, its square bulk
colony and burned its archive; thus with the built of a different stone, contrasts with the fa-
first building discussed here we encounter that cade (its upper sections, as well as the balus-
ever-recurring shadow which beclouds colo- trade and the central dome, are relatively late
nial art history in Latin America— the lack of additions).
archival material. The house at the left, called the Atarazana,
In South America the region around Tunja, was a dependency of the church, and from its
Colombia, likewise attained its greatest impor- second-story balcony ecclesiastical pronounce-
tance early in the period of occupation; in ments were read to the community.
1539 Jimenez de Quesada and his captains The interior of Tunja cathedral is on the
subdued this portion of the New World. Be- basilica plan, with a cruciform shape suggested
fore the Conquest the site was the residence bv chapels at the sides. The nave is separated
of Hunza, chief of the Chibcha people, whose into three aisles by arcades and origrinallv had
many gold objects, cast in a characteristic a wooden ceiling of Mudejar design. Many of
wire technique, awakened Spanish greed; here Tunja's early buildings were Mudejar-Gothic
an annual ceremony took place in which gold in atmosphere, as will be illustrated in Chap-
dust was blown over body of
the slue-covered ter 5.
the chief— hence the name El Dorado (the This cathedral as it stands today, under
gilded man). But the mineral wealth of gold Tunja's forbidding skies, between the early
and opals proved not so great as had been an- colonial mansion and the modern residence of
ticipated, and the region was later eclipsed the bishop, is a tangible expression of the frozen
by the richer gold and emerald mines to the Renaissance which characterizes this part of
west as well as bv the fertile agricultural lands Colombia.
[27]
The cathedral of Mexico dominates a vast was proposed, one befitting an archbishop's seat
square which, together with some of the ad- in a capital of great promise. But a realistic view
joining blocks, was the site of the main Aztec of the situation showed that first considera-
temple and its annexes. After all the pagan tion must be given to the problem of laying
edifices had been razed on the order of Cortes, firm foundations on the soft ground of a drv
the stones were used to fill in canals to form lake bed in an earthquake region. In 1558 a
streets and as building material, usuallv in canal was constructed for transporting the
foundations and ground walls. The cathedral first stone was
materials and five years later the
of Mexico, until recently the largest church laid. Bv 161 5 the walls were up only to about
building in the Western Hemisphere, is one half their projected height and eight vaults
of the most complex in the stylistic richness had been completed. It is recorded that Alonso
of its architecture and art. Perez de Castafieda (1 563—161 5) proffered a
But it, too, had its modest predecessor design, taking into consideration the state of
(PI. 2, inset). This early building was started the building as it then was, and that the king
in 1525, and in 1 584 it was thoroughly repaired. had his own architect, Juan Gomez de Mora,
Usually this structure is referred to disparag- look it over and contribute his advice. After
ingly as small and poor; however, a studv of considering these suggestions, the authorities
the subject by Manuel Toussaint, dean of Mex- in Mexico decided that the work should pro-
ican art historians, gives a quite different pic- ceed according to the plans of Claudio de Ar-
129
ture. Its portal is described as in classical ciniega and the model made by Juan Miguel
style with fluted pilasters. The entrance had de Agiiero. Thus Arciniega is considered the
a central window and two round ones contain- "father'' of the cathedral of Mexico. 44 In 1656,
ing encerados, or paintings on waxed cloth, almost a century after the work was begun,
of the Virgin, St. Peter, and St. Paul. In the the cathedral was dedicated to the Assumption
interior the grillework was gilded, and a of the Virgin Mary; the interior was com-
beamed ceiling was executed in the Mudejar pleted in 1667. The towers, however, were
manner. Among the artists and craftsmen who not finished until 1791; their huge bell-shaped
carved the plastic decoration, painted the can- tops ( 1 786-1 793) are the work of Jose Damian
vases, and worked on the interior, such Eu- Ortiz de Castro, a native of Coatepec, Vera-
120
ropean names as the Flemish Simon Pereyns cruz. To Manuel Tolsa are attributed some
and Adrian Suster appear, as well as a num- of the statues on the facade, as well as the
ber of Spaniards. Mention is repeatedly made design of the lanterned dome, which was com-
also of Indian carpenters, painters, and gilders pleted in 18 1
3.
from Tlatelolco and Texcoco, to whom orders Standing today at the very heart of a mod-
had to be given through interpreters. In the ern city, this cathedral presents a truly ma-
rich inventory of this cathedral, taken in 1588, jestic appearance. It is a gigantic structure
chalices, ciboriums, monstrances, censers, and of basalt and grav sandstone, and in it diverse
communion vessels of fine quality are listed, styles of several centuries are blended with a
with vestments of exquisite workmanship and harmonv that defies analvsis and demonstrates
tapestries representing King Saul, Judith and the mellowing effect of time. Although cer-
Holofernes, and the history of Solomon among tain details mav suggest architectural master-
the other valuables. This early structure was pieces of Europe, in its total effect the build-
in use until 1626, by which time all of its ing, consisting of divergent components, does
functions and many of its treasures had been not resemble any of them. Though numerous
transferred to the new building. classical details decorate the facade, the pro-
The present cathedral (fig. a) was begun truding massive volutes across the front and
close by in 1563. Originally a pretentious plan the coupled twisted columns above the lesser
8
CATHEDRALS
doorways are unmistakably Baroque. The bases by Indians, and ecclesiastical paraphernalia
of the towers were made heavy to buttress from the fabulous East. There are chapels
the structure, and the upper sections were which admonish of the vanity of life in their
carefully pared to lighten the weight without somber simplicity and chapels where saintly
sacrificing the imposing line; note the unusual figures with almost living gesture and color
arrangement for the accommodation of many step out of their shining golden backgrounds
bells of various sizes. It has been suggested to shed joy and benediction on the creatures
with considerable authority that originally four of this earth.
44
such towers were planned for the edifice. At the right of the cathedral a second
Church bells, which
the resounding tones of church, called the Sagrario Metropolitano, in-
traveled far in the days when there was no dependent of it and intended to serve the sur-
appreciable citv noise, figured significantly in rounding parish, was inaugurated in 1768.
colonial life. Not only were they rung to mark This building, praised as one of the finest ex-
the passing hours and call the people to wor- amples of Mexican Churrigueresque (see Chap-
ship but they were also the announcers of ter 6), is the work of Lorenzo Rodriguez, a
disaster— such as fire, earthquakes, or the ap- Spanish-born architect, and Pedro Patifio Ix-
proach of an enemy— and pealed the joyful tolinque, its chief sculptor. Rodriguez (1704?-
news of a fiesta, a victory, or some event in 1774) was at first active in Mexico as a mas-
the life of the reigning family. They were of ter carpenter, around 1 73 1 . The other, judging
noble composition, often containing much sil- from his name, must have been of Indian par-
ver and even gold, and their beautiful clear entage. A special characteristic of the Sagrario
tones were a source of community pride. is its elaborate facades on the south and east,
Names were given to them and usually they which are harmoniously joined at the corner
were dated. The largest bell of the cathedral in a daring solution. In effect the portals, which
of Mexico, called Nuestra Sefiora de Guada- extend above the roof, are lavishly sculptured
lupe, weighs 12,420 pounds; it was cast in screens, loaded with garlands, medallions, and
Tacubava by one Salvador de Vega, a Cas- ornamental columns interspersed with statues.
tilian, in 1782. The white of the carved stone contrasts pleas-

The interior of the cathedral has three ingly with the deep rose color of the side
aisles. The nave and transepts are roofed over walls. In plan, the church shows two intersect-
with intersecting barrel vaults, pierced by lu- ing barrel vaults with a central dome. Lower
nettes; the side aisles are covered by means structures, built within each of the four angles
of groined vaults constructed to give the effect of the intersection, are also domed, as can be
of shallow domes. Such domical vaults are seen in the illustration.
common throughout Spanish America. A row Some of the retables from the Jesuit church
of rectangular chapels line either side of the in the city were transferred here after the
structure. As in Spanish cathedrals, a choir expulsion of that order in 1767; but in 1776
enclosed on three sides occupies the nave and again in 1796 the interior suffered from
somewhat beyond the entrance and a sanctu- fires and many of the altars and much of the
ary with the high altar faces it just beyond decoration that had been kept in a style con-
the transept (see PL /jp). genial to the exterior perished.
This interior is an illuminating exposition Earthquakes have repeatedly damaged both
of the various artistic styles and fashions the cathedral and the Sagrario. In the last dec-
which flourished during the colonial period. ades, however, much has been done to solidify
From chapel to chapel, from altar to altar, a the structures, protect them from ground wa-
splendid panorama unfolds: paintings attrib- ter, and anchor them more firmly by the use of
uted to Zurbaran and .Murillo, statuary carved modern materials and methods. Here and there
29
on the gigantic building complex, great iron impenetrable jungle and the outer northern
clamps grip together sections of the walls, strip of the land was drawn into the network
cracked by earthquakes; inscribed in the plas- of colonization. Here Merida was founded bv
ter around the clamps are the year, month, Francisco de Montejo, the elder, in 1542, on
and day of the shock. Side bv side stand the the ruins of the Maya city Tiho, and, as in
massive cathedral, a monument of a heroic Mexico, the torn-down temples and palaces
epoch, and the exuberant Sagrario, which ex- offered ready building material of high qual-
presses a more leisurely and artistically eman- ity. The new city was laid out by the Span-
cipated period of colonial Mexico. iards in their usual checkerboard scheme, with
Early writers of the Conquest reiterated that one side of the main plaza allotted to the ca-
Yucatan was a peninsula, not an island as was thedral and another to the palace of the con-
originally believed. Its protruding northern queror, the Casa de Montejo (see PL 32).
end was first touched by the Spaniards in In Merida also, a provisional building— which
their voyages of exploration which covered stood to the right of the present edifice— first
the islands of the Caribbean Sea, and consid- served as the cathedral. For decades the squar-
ering its from that section of the main-
distance ish stones of Maya buildings were being gath-
land with which thev were familiar, it is small ered for the new structure (fig. b), and finally
wonder that they first thought it a part of the in 1579 its walls were up; it took a score of
archipelago. This peninsula was and still is vears, however, before the building was fully
distinct from the rest of Mexico, set apart under roof— the facade is inscribed 1599. It
not only geographically but also in its cultures; is dedicated to San Ildefonso. The tower on
it has been the home of the Maya people since the left was added in 17 13. As has been ob-
long before the Conquest, and even todav their served, frequently the early cathedrals were
language is the official idiom. This Indian na- planned with a single tower; the twin-tower
tion, the achievements of which rank highest scheme did not become general until toward
in pre-Columbian art, is linked not so much mid-seventeenth centurv. Note that the two
to Mexico as to Guatemala, whence its peo- higher orders in the towers are placed on one
ple migrated to Yucatan through virgin for- side of the base.
est and primeval jungle. Maps made early in That the Plateresque style in its ornate and
the twentieth century still designated the ostentatious form was not unknown to the
southern half of Yucatan as uncharted terri- builders in Merida is amplv demonstrated by
tory populated bv "independent Indians"; the the Casa de Montejo, vet perhaps no cathe-
discovery of Maya wall paintings in 1946 at dral in the New World, even that of Tunja,
Bonampak, Chiapas, once more threw into re- shows such austerity and simplicity in its fa-
lief its continued isolation. cade as Merida's. Here again the district did
Yucatan was isolated also in the centuries of not keep pace economically with the main-
colonial expansion. Here there was no gold, land, and there was neither emotional nor
the population was sparse and untamable, economic stimulus for a reworking in the Ba-
and the peninsula lay well to one side of any of roque stvle.
the great land routes; it was a dead-end road. The rectangular ground plan generallv ap-
Its conquest took much longer than that of plied in the colonies is apparent here. The
the high plateau of Mexico and the other main portal of the cathedral shows on either
more profitable regions; the seat of a Spanish side of the door twin pilasters and a niche
viceroy had long been established upon the between them, and above the three arched
ruins of the Aztec capital when the struggle entrances are low unbroken pediments. Such
in Yucatan was still continuing. But eventu- a restrained decorative effect is almost lost
ally the Maya chiefs retreated to the south into against the vast plain surface of the wall. The
[30]
CATHEDRALS
most striking feature in the fagade is the im- was elevated to an archbishopric, and this fac-
pressive central arch, which rests on two tor, together with the requirements of a grow-
massive piers that frame the main portal and ing population, provided the impetus for alter-
extends above the roof line to the level of ations and an enlargement befitting the new
the lower sections of the towers. The large rank. The history of the great cathedral is
heraldic medallion inside the arch bore the the tale of one unending struggle against
arms of Castile and Leon. earthquakes. Little headway seems to have

Within, all three aisles have dome-shaped been made with the grandiose project of
vaulting of equal height, and the central Alonso Beltran, begun between 1569 and 1575,
cupola shows that ingenuity in dome con- and at the close of the century the famous
struction which is so intriguing in the study Spanish architect Francisco Becerra was called
of .Mexican colonial architecture. Inside the from Cuzco to draw new plans, which are
dome is an inscription dated 1598, to the ef- said to be incorporated in the ground layout
fect that the maestro mayor (chief architect) of the present cathedral (PL 3, fig. a). Thev
was Juan Miguel de Agiiero, who was con- called for a nave and side aisles of equal
nected with the cathedral of Mexico and was height (the hall-type church), flanked by a
also emploved on the fortifications of Ha- row of side chapels and covered by means of
103
vana. groined vaults of stone. Within a few vears
after Becerra's death (1605), the vaults which
Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire in had already been built were so badly damaged
South America laidopen to Spanish coloniza- bv earthquake shocks that it was decided to
203
tion the region from the coastal strip of the replace them with lower vaults of brick. De-
Pacific up into the mountain vallevs of the structive quakes in 1687 and 1746 made prac-
High Andes, then down again on the other tically a complete reconstruction necessary,
pampas. However, it soon became
side to the and both times the collapsed vaults were re-
evident that Cuzco, the ancient seat of the placed with a wood, reed, and plaster con-
Inca, was not a favorable site for a viceregal struction; so they remain today. After the lat-
capital. This citv, was too
founded in 1534, ter catastrophe the work was done under Juan
far from the sea— main line of communication Rher, a Jesuit friar born in Prague, and his
with Spain— and it was situated amid densely mulatto assistant. Photographs made after
populated vallevs in the heart of a most virile shocks in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
Indian nation; thus from an administrative as turies show hanging ceilings, fallen sections of
well as a military point of view the location wall, and rubble all over the interior— torn
had disadvantages. In 1535 the site for a new paintings, broken sculpture, and splintered
citv was chosen, near good harbor of the
a wood carvings— a heart-breaking ruin.
Pacific and on the left bank of the river Rimac But despite alterations, repairs, and cement
(hence Lima, a corruption of the Indian name). reinforcement, the general aspect of the build-
In the same year that the city was founded, ing still suggests its powerful colonial past. Its
Pizarro is said to have ground stone

laid the facade— much restored after 1940— is drawn out
and carried the first beam for the church with into five parts and kept comparatively low.
69
his own hands. As building material, adobe The lower half of the main portal follows the
was used, a sun-dried brick produced by the 1626 design of Juan Martinez de Arrona; the
Indians and employed throughout the coastal upper half, which according to the inscrip-
region in pre-Columbian construction. tion was rebuilt in 1-2:,was made to harmo-
In 1543 Lima became the seat of a bishopric nize with the whole. This central section, with
and work was begun on a cathedral, which its vertical arrangement of niches and its stat-
was completed in 1551. Meanwhile the citv uarv, suggestive of a retable, has some Ba-
[3']
roque touches, but the entire structure in burdens rather than by any track— which
general impression, with its classicizing col- would soon have been obliterated by wind-
umns and minimal decoration, belongs to. that blown sand— and was generally traversed by
parallel stylistic movement— the cold and un- night because of the terrific heat in the day-
individual manner associated with Juan de time and the scarcity of water and forage for
Herrera, the architect of the Escorial. The the animals. 61
heroic equestrian statue of Pizarro on the After Trujillo became the seat of the new
atrium and the flight of steps in the foreground bishopric covering all northern Peru (16 16)
give an idea of the size of the cathedral. a new cathedral was laid out; but the present
Inside is evidence of the many vicissitudes structure (fig. c) dates
1647. Diego from
experienced by the structure, but some wood- Maroto, a Dominican architect who was for a
work, extremely fine both in spirit and in time maestro mayor of Lima's cathedral, fur-
execution, survives, which, together with the nished the designs but probably was never in
high altar of burnished silver, testifies to the Trujillo to supervise their execution. The
grandeur that once distinguished this edifice. building, consecrated in 1666, withstood the
The chests in the sacristy, surmounted by re- earthquake of 1687 but that of 1759 caused
liefs of the Apostles, were carved by the same considerable damage. It was restored under the
Martinez de Arrona who designed the early direction of the famous architect Cristobal de
portal. The choir stalls (fig. b), noble in ex- Vargas and reconsecrated in 1781; the towers
pression, are the work of the Catalan Pedro were finished later.
de Noguera, who won the hotly contested This massive cathedral of brick, reinforced
competition for the contract in 1623 and then with stone at the corners and covered with
engaged his rivals to assist him in carrying out stucco, stands on a stepped platform which
203
the commission. The imposing sequence of extends around two sides. In plan it is a three-
male and female saints, Evangelists, Church aisle church, vaulted in brick. dome Its fine
Fathers, and one Biblical group was disturbed on a square drum is placed over the raised
late in the nineteenth century when the choir sanctuary. The facade, striking in the sim-
stalls were transferred to the sanctuary from plicity of its linear composition, makes no
their original position at the lower end of the use of figural decoration except for the single
nave. statue atop the rounded pediment. Classiciz-
In the first chapel on the right body
lies the ing columns support the open pediment above
of Francisco Pizarro, who was murdered in the main door, and the scheme of decoration
1 54 1 at his palace on the great square in one is clear cut and well balanced. In the facade,
of the first of those human upheavals which the shape and position of the large central
have since cursed the land. window and the line of the broken pediment
Trujillo, on the northern coast of Peru, are characteristics of many later churches to
was named for Pizarro's home in Estremadura be seen in the same city and along the western
and was important from the beginning of the coast. Note the treatment of the corners in
colony. Like Lima, it was a walled town. Sit- the belfries. A comparison of the two cathe-
uated within eight miles of the small harbor drals on this plate will bring out interesting
of Salaverry, it offered a convenient resting contrasts: the one with its extremely broad
place for travelers coming from or going to facade and detailed decoration, the other with
Lima in the south. In mid-eighteenth century a compressed facade, bold in its solidity".
Juan Ulloa described the coastal road, which

followed much the same route as the Pan Cuzco, Peru, as the capital of the vast Inca
American Highway today. It was marked by Empire held a unique position in pre-Colum-
the bones of mules that had sunk beneath their bian times, and in a large measure it main-
[32]
CATHEDRALS
tained its prominence during the entire colo- diocese. The floor of the structure had become
nial period. Its situation at the meeting of fer- buried in the intervening decades under an
tile valleys ensured its continued agricultural accumulation of rubbish, which, according to
importance under Spanish rule, and, sur- legend, the chapter of the cathedral now began
rounded by mines, it soon became a gathering to haul away in leather sacks. Shortly the cor-
place for caravans en route with their mineral regidor and his aides came to their assistance,
wealth from the Andes to the distant Pacific and soon all the religious in Cuzco and the
shores. From early times the Plaza de Armas Spaniards— even the ladies— joined them, pro-
has been a pulsing center of Cuzco; it is larger viding a noble display of Christian co-opera-
than most plazas in Spanish American towns tion and industry. 195 In 1650 occurred one of
and in general aspect preserved its picturesque the most destructive earthquakes in the re-
and fascinating colonial character unmarred gion's history, but the partly finished cathe-
until the 1950 earthquake.Four churches look dral fortunately survived. A year later the
out upon it— unusual even in Latin America— bishop could report that fifty masons, "all
and the rest of the space is occupied bv ar- Indians," were at work on the facade. In 1654
caded and balconied two-story houses of the the structure was completed, and within four
type seen in southern Spain. years even the towers were finished. It was
Among the churches the largest complex is a very costly edifice, consuming nearly the
that of the cathedral (PL 4, fig. a). This struc- equivalent of two million dollars. Like many
turewas erected upon the ruins of the temple Latin American cathedrals it is dedicated to
to the Inca god Viracocha, with the uni- the Assumption of the Virgin iMary. An im-
formly cut brownish stones of the pagan build- portant name throughout the period of final ac-
ings furnishing the material. During the con- tivity is that of Miguel Gutierrez Sencio, who
struction, as frequently happened, the func- was maestro mayor of the project for at least
tions of the cathedral were carried on in a thirty-two years; it was probably he who co-
44
nearbv hall, a galpon of the last Inca. ordinated the various plans and who, together
Work on the cathedral was begun in 1560. with Canon Diego Arias de la Cerda, a zealous
The first architect is said to have been the administrator, is responsible for the cathedral
Basque Juan Miguel de Veramendi, who was as it now stands.
called from Chuquisaca, now Sucre, Bolivia. The weather-beaten andesite facade of this
He seems to have accomplished some
little, for structure presents an aspect of unaffected no-
twenty years later new plans were drawn up bility. Decoration
is centered around the main
by Francisco Becerra, already mentioned as portal,which projects somewhat from the face
having provided plans for the cathedral at of the wall. Over the doorway two steeply
Lima. Judging from the similarity- of the two curving sections of a broken pediment open
layouts would appear that Becerra's draw-
it to give space to the window and the crown-
ings were used as a working basis for the ing decoration above it. This early Baroque
Cuzco building also. Here too, however, they build-up is a favorite one in Peru and will be
had to undergo modification. In 1603 Bar- seen later in both facades and retables. Heavilv
tolome Carrion, known for his design of the rusticated masonrv emphasizes the two lesser
cathedral portal at Tunja, was called in as entrances; their peculiarly rounded pediments
maestro mayor: '
.More than forty vears later enframe the coat of arms of Spain. Open bel-
a new bishop, Alonso Ocon, found the walls fries and the irregular lines of their cornices
at barely half their projected height and he alleviate the undecorated mass of the two tow-
attacked the problem with great zeal. To raise ers, and the evenly spaced pinnacles in place
funds, a levy was made on the king's income, of a balustrade lend dignity to the effect.
on the landowners, and on the Indians of the The general restraint in its line has caused
the edifice to be associated with the Herrera stepped back somewhat from the line of its
style of Spain. Herrera's work in toto has an facade but having direct access to it. The
aloofness, a subtlety, and a general academic church of El Triunfo, or the Sagrario (fig. c),
35
tone, little of which can be felt here. This to the right of it occupies approximately the
has different weight, different proportions— site where the adobe structure which served as
American in its
in short a different spirit. It is a temporary cathedral is said to have stood.
primeval power when compared with the This building too was reconstructed after the
courtly and sophisticated suavity displayed completion of the great cathedral. The present
in the Escorial. In this building the traditional structure, which dates from 1729 to 1732, was
ability of the Indians of the region in stone designed by the Carmelite friar Miguel Me-
203
construction manifests itself eloquently; the nacha in the form of a Greek cross, at the
powerful walls may even suggest to some the center of which rises a cupola of stone un-
solidity of the ancient citadels. usually perfect and airy. In its facade can be
If the exterior of the cathedral, as viewed seen a rarely successful blending of Renais-
across the imposing esplanade, provided a most sance and Baroque elements. Singularly effec-
eloquent backdrop for colonial Cuzco, the in- tive is the frieze which alternates corbel-like
terior conjures up the life of the period in scrolls with cartouches containing the mono-
full three dimensions for the visitor. Monu- grams of Mary and the Saviour. Similar car-
mental cruciform pillars of stone sustain the touches are used above the door and even in
Gothic brick vaulting— now painted in lighter the angles of the pediment. The severe faceted
tones; there is no dome. The tall gilded grilles design of the stonework in both the portal
of the side chapels, numerous polychromed arch and the niches at the sides finds a fanci-
statues, fading oil paintings, and bizarre wood ful variation in the rosettes that frame the up-
ornamentation record not only the work of the per window. An even fish-scale pattern en-
Spaniards but also the originality and creative tirely covers the spandrels, and a related motif
spirit of the many mestizos and Indians who is found on the lower part of the columns.
contributed the unique flavor to the whole Specially cut interlocking stones, visible on
complex. When the horizontal rays of the both sides of the portal, show a manner of
afternoon sun strike in through the open doors wall construction characteristic of the Inca.
and penetrate into the upper sections a pecu- High above the portal a decorative niche holds
liar golden dust seems to vibrate through the awooden figure of Santiago.
arches. On the other side of the cathedral stands the
Early in the nineteenth century the main church of Jesus y Maria (known also as the
altarwas removed and an imitative baldachin- Sagrada Familia), built between 1723 and 1735.
type silver structure was erected. One of the Like the cathedral it has powerful piers set
discarded retables (fig. b), now placed against close together and solid brick vaulting. Al-
the end wall of the building, shows a variety though this building matches the others in
of fantasy detail and an unusual richness in style and material it fails to achieve fully their
the caryatides and the number of niches. It noble lines.
probably dates from mid-eighteenth century.

The cathedral, an expression of colonial Cajamarca, situated at an altitude of nearly
Cuzco at its height, served as an unfailing 10,000 feet on a slope overlooking a fertile An-
source of inspiration for the entire region dean vallev, is another prominent name in the
throughout that epoch. In the earthquake of historv of the Conquest. Here the Inca
1950 its right tower fell, but little of the inte- Atahuallpa was taken prisoner in 1532 with
rior was damaged. his retinue; his soldiers were slaughtered, and
Two smaller churches flank the cathedral, a fabulous ransom was exacted. Despite the
[34]
CATHEDRALS
fact that he was complying with the Spanish is built entirely of stone and rests on an arcade
demands and had alreadv gathered an unpar- so heaw that it gives the appearance of a
alleled golden hoard what a treasure trove
( wall. There is no dome. The interior is spa-
for today's archaeologists a pretext was found
) cious and austere in spirit although a num-
for his execution. ber of Baroque altars lighten the effect. In the
The town retains its colonial character and main altar (fig. b) the functional character of
boasts manv picturesque houses with elabo- the elements is lost and a riot of ornamentation
rate portals. Like other buildings of the old dominates. A Corinthian- type capital can be
citv. the cathedral (PI. 5, r-- ^s con- discerned, but the shaft has become a gilded
structed in part from material that was sal- fantasy reminiscent of a flower stalk— as if
vaged from the destroyed Inca palaces and elements seen in a drawing or perhaps in the
temples. According to Harold E. YVethev. chasing on some piece of jewelry had been
eminent authoritv on Peruvian colonial art, translated by the local craftsmen into a three-
it was begun about 16S2 and consecrated in dimensional composition in wood. Clerlike
1-6:. The side portaL carved with the coat scrolls, similar to those on the facade, and a
of arms of Spain, bears the date 16S6: the variety of shell-shaped medallions are further
facade, however, remains unfinished. The per- additions to this bizarre ccrmparserie.
sons standing bv the door in the illustration -z who interpret Spanish American
give an idea of the scale of the buildine. colonial architecture as merely a shadow of
Over-all decoration characterizes the facade. the motherland "s frequently use this facade
Basicallv the plan is serene and uncompli- to argue their point. But in Spain there is an
cated. A studv of the detail reveals a tre- engraving-like clarity, laden with conscious
mendous richness in the carving and a com- three-dimensionality; further a rich and va-
bination of motifs that would be unusual in ried iconography is incorporated. In the New
Europe. The columns are wound with spiral- World an unsophisticated artistic imagination
ing garlands of Eucharistic erapes; the heaw has selected decorative motifs from the vast
fruit clusters are exaggerated in relation to vocabulary* of European styles and applied
the leaves and vine, a characteristic of Andean them in a highly picturesque manner regard-
Biroque. Figures are scattered amons the foli- less of their traditional contexts.
age, serve as caryatides, or. poised above the
niches, support flaming hearts that sprout with In colonial times the Vicerovaln- of New
sets. Angels adorn the -
s of the Spain included Mexico and Central America;
main doorway. Manv of these elements be- to those who travel today from the Mexican
long to the vocabulary of wood carvine as capital to Honduras— whether bv road or bv
used in retables, especially the birds amone the plane— the difficulties of communication which
grapes, the zigzae decoration on the columns, existed in that early period become apparent.
and the elegant and complicated scroll which The Honduran town of Santa Maria de Coma-
serves to bind the caning of the portal to the yagua. founded in 153". was destroyed almost
plainer masonry (fig. o. Somewhat less ebul- at once bv hostile Indians; it was re-estab-
lient is the caning of the broad entablature lished, however, with a handful of hardv
and the delicate pattern framing the central Spanish settlers, and in 155-. when the nearbv
window. A waffle design around the bell silver mines began to produce, it was elevated
arches provides contrast. Even unfinished this to the status of a citv. In 1573 it became the
facade makes a definite contribution to Span- capital of the province and rive vears later
ish colonial art, through both its qualin boasted one hundred Spanish settlers, with
its manner of decoration. .-eight Indian villages in the vicinity and
thin, the barrel vault of the central nave nventv-six hundred subjects who paid trib-
[ 35]
146
ute. One of the last stands of the Maya took either side of it. This kind of frame is used to
place in the adjacent hills under the chief relate the first order with the second. The sec-
Lempira, and descendants of these people still ond and third are connected through the broad
inhabit the region. deeply undercut band that enframes the
As early as 1559 a route between the Atlan- niches; sun, moon, and stars are carved in the
tic and the Pacific with Comavagua as its cen- spandrels. The third and fourth orders both
ter was under discussion as an alternative to bear palm-tree medallions. The reliefs here,
the dangerous and unhealthful passage across however, with their garlands and other dec-
the Isthmus of Panama. The citv lies at an orative detail, speak a classicizing language,
altitude of 4,000 feet, almost equidistant so much more liquid and precious that one
between the two oceans and also midwav be- wonders whether those portions are not of a
tween Guatemala and Nicaragua. Because of later date. The doorwav, with its recessed
its favorable location it retained its impor- arch, belongs to a tvpe that will be seen re-
tance until the nineteenth-centurv struggles peatedlv in Chapter 8.
for independence broke Central America into The rather squat major dome of the cathe-
manv factions. Some of its population, how- dral rests on a sturdv octagonal drum and is
ever, still live in the glorv of that bvgone flanked bv two smaller domes. Covered with
era when the citv was called Xuevo Yallado- green and yellow tiles, it shimmers like gold
lid de Comavagua. in the sunshine; similar tiles are applied to
The present cathedral (PL 6, fig. a) is said the slanting tops of the buttresses at the sides
to have been erected between 1-03 and 1*24; of the building. These tiles are close in color
the church of PL -3) served
La .Merced (see and qualitv to colonial potterv which is pre-
1"
as the first. The cathedral tower is more or served in the local museum and is known to
less independent and, like other belfries in have been made in the region.
the town, it neither conforms to nor conflicts Within, a bright and even lighting is achieved
with the rest of the complex; on the other bv rectangular windows in the side walls. Bar-
side of the facade it is counterbalanced bv a rel vaults cover the nave and the side aisles.
buttress which has half the bulk of a tower. The main retable (fig. c) shows the same
The cathedral facade (fig. d) is unusual in restraint that characterizes the exterior of the
its general aspect as well as in the details of cathedral. This is all the more apparent when
its decoration. As is evident in the distant view, it is compared with the retables at Cajamarca
vertical vies with horizontal; single engaged or Tegucigalpa (see Pis. 5, 11). The central
columns extend through all four orders, figure, the Virgin of the Immaculate Con-
crowned above the undulating line of the ped- ception, is markedlv in the tradition of Juan
iment with vases pvramided with flowers, Martinez Montanes. the Sevillian sculptor, and
while the heaw lines of the cornices cross further investigation mav prove it to be one
the facade furnishing the horizontal empha- of the few imported pieces that have come
sis. In the first order the combination of down through the centuries. In its entiretv.
stvlized palm trees and Eucharistic grapes is however, the retable shows a limited vocabu-
unique in Latin America, and the palm-leaf larv of motifs, so that it could well be ascribed
arrangement in the spandrel shows a strong to regional craftsmen. (One of the highlv
local adaptation of an imported decorative mo- original side altars, considerablv different in
tif. In the first and second orders the capitals stvle. is illustrated on PL 1-5.)
of the columns are worked out in highlv orig- The Sagrario chapel, standing at the left of
inal designs. Unusual also is the placing of the cathedral almost like an annex, boasts a
the circular window in a rectangular Baroque deep dome, fine in its proportions and rotun-
frame, which is like those around the niches on ditv. On the inside (fig. b) the palm tree is
[36]
CATHEDRALS
again used as a motif, together with a flower Among these the cathedral of Oaxaca (fig. c)
that closely resembles one of the petaled me- bears the earliest date. It was founded in 1535
on the fagade. To this author's

dallions seen and subsequently went through the usual trans-
knowledge such emphasis on the palm tree, formations and enlargements. Late in the sev-
both on the fagade and inside the building, is enteenth century it was practically demolished
encountered nowhere else in Latin America. by earthquakes; after rebuilding, it was recon-
The large sun at the zenith also is striking secrated in 1733. It has been pointed out that
and unusual. The rigid angels in the penden- the ground plan employed a geometrical sys-
tives are descendants of those impassioned tem set forth in Simon Garcia's architectural
mobile creatures that uphold the Dome of compendium, published in Spain in 1681, but
Heaven in Byzantine frescoes, from Hagia this apparently was modified to take advan-
86
Sophia to the Catalan chapels of the twelfth tage of some sections which had survived.
and thirteenth centuries. This idea, revived in In the exterior, simplicity of basic line con-
the Counter Reformation, took special hold trasts strikingly with an elaborate facade that
on the imagination of Central American build- has the effect of a retable. The main entrance
ers. is flanked by niches with statues, which are
According to record, Philip IV of Spain framed by single classicizing columns. Sculp-
(reigned 1621-1665) sent a retable and other tured panels in high relief, noble and some-
ecclesiastical objects to Comayagua in 1644, what cool, fill the space above the doorways.
at which time the church of La Merced was Among the Baroque features are the irregu-
serving as the cathedral. This single docu- larity of line— accentuated in the overhanging
ment has been responsible for accrediting to cornices— the coupling of the columns at the
Spain innumerable works of art in the town. corners so as to divide the fagade vertically
It has been suggested that the retable men- into three parts, and the daring break in the
tioned might be the one in the present Sagra- cornice above the two lateral doorways to
rio, a portion of which is visible in the pho- accommodate oval windows. In the slim twin
tograph of the dome. The one here, however, columns of the belfry, with their deeply cut
is definitely later in stvle and bears the mark spirals, we meet for the first time a character-
of the regional school. istic embellishment that was lavishly devel-
In contrast to the cathedral of Cajamarca, oped and used during the eighteenth century
which demonstrates originality in paraphrasing in Mexican Rococo. On the side can be seen
an imported style, the cathedral of Comayagua one of the massive buttresses of the structure.
manifests the powerful creative forces of local The soft green tinge of the local stone em-
mestizos and Indians. ployed in the building and the colored tiles
that cover the roof, domes, and towers bring

Mexico has a wealth of colonial architecture a cheerful warmth to the somewhat soberly
and her various states have produced such fas- composed fagade. The interior has suffered
cinating regional artistic work that each of from earthquake, revolution, and neglect; but
them deserves individual studv. A most schol- even so, this cathedral, standing on the busy
arly beginning has been made in that direction sunlit plaza of Oaxaca, remains the mightiest
with a series of monographs, but in this vol- colonial landmark in the valley from which
ume, the aim of which is to present artistic Cortes, the Marques del Valle, derived his
highlights from all over Latin America, onlv title.
a few examples can be included. The group The cathedral of Puebla, though founded
illustrated here (PL 7) emphasizes the great later than that of Oaxaca (1^-:), was finished
divergency which existed within the present earlier and dedicated in 1649. Its main fagade
territorv of Mexico. —the portal is dated 1664— reflects a cold aca-
[37]
demic design, but the many additions give the mented by the pinkish stone used. Here thin
building as a whole considerably more of a translucent plates of native marble used as
Baroque character, mirroring the change of windowpanes are still preserved— a rare oc-
taste during the colonial era. currence.
Structurally it is closely related to the ca- The construction of the cathedral of Zaca-
127
thedral ofMexico (see PL 2), and for that tecas dates according to one source between
111
reason some authorities feel that Claudio de 1718 and 1752 and according to another
Arciniega may have been connected with it, between 1730 and 1760. Somewhat later
although Becerra claimed to have drawn plans than the others on this plate, it surpasses
203
for it. Like the cathedral of Mexico it is them in the richness of its facade (fig. a). It
thought to have been projected with four tow- is the third church to be built on the site, and
ers; the two which were built are unusually although it was not elevated to cathedral
tall, slender, and airy. One is dated 1678 and status until 1862 it was constructed "in the
the other was completed in 1768. The side view style of a cathedral," plotted exactly accord-
(fig- b) shows the lines of the nave, transepts, ing to one of Simon Garcia's plans for a
and aisles, and of the vast tile-covered church "with three naves" in his Compendio.
dome, impressive in its proportion. Since Originally only one tower was erected; its
Puebla produced what are probably the finest twin went up in 1906. Zacatecas ranked high
azulejos and other ceramic ware in the New among the silver cities of Mexico. Its mines are
World, it is small wonder that it furnished credited with yielding before the end of the
something exquisite for its cathedral. The colonial period a fifth of the world's entire
123
deeply set star window toward the rear, the silver output.
many finials, and the protruding scrolls that In this facade is displayed an elaboration
mark the buttresses are enriching late-Baroque of stone carving and an inventiveness with
additions. An idea of the lofty noble lines of which make one won-
locally favorite motifs
the interior can be gained from the illustration der who the where they acquired
carvers were,
of the organ (see PL 158). their proficiency, and what other buildings
More homogeneous than the cathedral of they executed (compare PL 47). Rare is the
Puebla and less bulky in appearance is the ca- grouping of the columns with three on either
thedral of Morelia, also shown from the side side framing two niches. In the second and
(fig. d). It should be mentioned that both of third orders each matching pair of columns
these buildings lie with their length on the is decorated with a different motif, either
plaza. The cathedral at Morelia was begun in wound with grape vines, encrusted with shells,
1640, dedicated in 1706, and, with the excep- one heaped on another, or (upper center)
tion of the second tower— added in 1
768 crowded with caryatides. The theme also is
it was completed in 1744. Compared to the unusual, a presentation of Christ and the
cathedrals of Puebla and Mexico, the build- twelve Apostles; the four Church Fathers are
ing proper is low, though the great stress laid depicted in relief beside the window, which
on the towers gives an impression of height. is encircled by a heavy garland. At the very
It would seem that this structure was laid top, over all, God the Father is enthroned,
out on a free plan (not plotted according to surrounded by a group of eight angels playing
geometrical proportions), with many problems musical instruments. The pretensions of this
and details left to be worked out as the build- church to a cathedra are manifest in the in-
ing progressed.
86
Baroque balustrades, finials, corporation of the bishop's paraphernalia-
and oval windows lighten the design, but miter and keys— in the carving (upper left).
many details manifest an academic spirit. The virtuosity of the sculpture— with the
The general decorative effect is greatly aug- deep undercutting and sharp edges reminiscent
[38]
CATHEDRALS
of embossing— is set off by the golden brown- sections of the facade there appears to be a
ish stone used, which was locally available and slight stylistic difference, and indeed the latter
of fine quality. It lends itself when freshly is said to have been rebuilt in the nineteenth
quarried to precise carving and presents a century.™ The frame of the center doorway
finish almost metallic in its brilliance. is decorated with fine tracery, and the Virgin
of the Immaculate Conception in the niche
The colonial capital of Guatemala, todav above has an elaborate background of ara-
known as Antigua (the ancient), was origi- besques.
nally named Santiago de los Caballeros de Today the former Sasrrario serves as the
Goathemala. .More detail about the town will church. The vast nave of the original building
be found in Chapter 8. Though once forced which stretches beyond suggests, even in
to move because of a landslide, the city was decay, its former grandeur (fig. c). Ruined
again located in the very lap of a volcanic walls reveal the structure of the brick vault-
region and is constantly subject to earth- ing, with its thick mortar. (In pre-Columbian
quakes. It was heavily damaged in 17 17 and times the Maya Indians, aboriginal inhabitants
almost totally devastated in 1773, after which of Guatemala, were adept in the manufacture
the seat of government was removed to its of a most durable cement.) Patterns in stucco,
present site, Guatemala City. Throughout its tastefully selected and infinitely varied, were
colonial existence Antigua was a center of applied on the moldings and friezes. In one
learning and art and its architects, sculptors, of the pendentives which once supported the
and painters were invited to contribute to dome stands the figure of St. John the Evangel-
many an edifice within the vicerovalty. ist, his symbolic eagle at his feet and above him
Renovation and enlargement of the cathe- an angel in relief swinging a censer. The con-
dral was begun in 1663 and completed about siderable differences, in both design and ges-
1680, but the work of embellishment went on ture, between this angel and the one in Co-
and may not have been finished when the mavagua attest to the individuality of the
137
catastrophe of 1773 befell the city. It was regional artists even within the same captaincy-
dedicated to St. James and must have been general. In the background an over-all stucco
a superb building (PL 8, fig. d). It had seven pattern, strongly reminiscent of the Mudejar,
entrances. Its stone atrium overlooked the harmonizes with the lacy embellishment of the
main plaza, the scene of many a grand spec- window frame.
tacle (processions, tournaments, bullfights) Early reports described the richness of the
staged against the backdrop of the church interior. The baldachin above the high altar
and the volcanic peaks beyond. The exact was supported on sixteen pillars sheathed
appearance of the cathedral before the great in tortoise shell and decorated with finely
havoc is somewhat problematic; early draw- wrought bronze medallions; and on the cor-
ings show it with two rather low flanking nice stood marble statues of the Virgin and
towers, the heavy bases of which still stand. the twelve Apostles. A great many gold and
Columns, slender and plain even as to base silver ornaments are listed in the church's
and capital, extend through to the cornice, treasury. Tradition has it that the Conquista-
effectively framings the statues. This use of dor of Guatemala, Pedro de Alvarado, and his
the colossal order and the repetition of the wife, Dona Beatriz, were buried here, and that
arch in the recessed portal and the windows here also was laid to rest that picaresque char-
lend serenity to the whole. Both broken and acter, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Grand Captain,
unbroken pediments are used over the niches, regidor of Guatemala, and in addition the
and the volutes on the espadafia are without author of the immortal history of the Conquest
much verve. Between the lower and the top which was written in this city. However, ex-
[39]
BAROQUE AND ROCOCO IX LATIN AMERICA
cavations in the vaults under the main altar This massive structure (fig. a), built of cut
and the Capilla Real in the 1930's failed to stone and impressively placed on a low plat-
uncover any remains. It must be assumed that form, extends the full width of the vast plaza
the bodies of the notables of Antigua were and back an entire block. It is the largest
removed but when and where no one knows. 138 ecclesiastical building in Central America,
By interesting coincidence, Leon, the colo- though the population of the capital at the
nial capital of Nicaragua, also bore the name time of its erection was less than ten thou-
Santiago de los Caballeros, and like Antigua sand. Its facade and towers (which date from
it lies in a volcanic earthquake region, though early nineteenth century) form a five-part
in a tropical climate and practicallv at sea composition. The rounded pediment is com-
level. It Mas founded in 16 10 after an earlier pact and severe, the decoration sparse, and
capital of the same name had to be abandoned the aspect strongly neoclassic. Today its pro-
because of constant floods. portions are disturbed bv the modern steel
The present cathedral building is the fourth supports which link the towers and the cen-
to stand on the same site. The second, a mod- tral section.
est structure, was burned in 1685 bv pirates The lateral walls of the cathedral, dating
under Dampier, and the third, according to from around mid-eighteenth century, give a
tradition, was erected shortlv afterward un- clearer impression of its colonial character
der the supervision of an English architect (fig. Here can be seen the bulk of the
b).
who had been captured from among the in- towers and the sturdy buttresses, which coun-
136
vaders. This third structure is described as ter the thrusts of the stone vaulting within.
a fine stone building with brick arches and Rectangular recessed windows high up in the
a roof of wood and thatch; its interior was thick walls are framed as in Comavagua with
brightly painted and studded with gilt stars. flowing stucco garlands, and a tastefully har-
But it Mas narrow and ill lighted, and about monizing stucco motif is applied below the
1747, under Bishop Isidro Marin Bullon y cornice. The stout Baroque balustrade pushed
Figueroa, the construction of a new and larger out to include the tops of the buttresses holds
cathedral was undertaken. For more than the mass well together.
thirty years work on this ambitious structure In the interior instead of lateral chapels an
either forged ahead or stagnated, as the avail- additional aisle is provided on either side,
able funds and the enthusiasm of successive producing what the Spanish phrase describes
prelates rose or waned. Another illustrious as a church of five "naves." It is interesting
name connected with the project is that of to note that the plans of the cathedral which
Juan Yilchez v Cabrera, a native of the Nica- are in the Archive of the Indies, dated 1767,
45
raguan town of New Segovia. It was he who, differ considerably from the actual building.
first as dean and later as bishop, drove the Because of its massive construction and com-
work to its conclusion, appealing to the cap- manding position, the cathedral of Leon was
tain general in Guatemala and even donating predestined to be used as a fortress; in 1823
funds from his own pocket. He died in 1774 no less than thirty pieces of artillery were
and therefore did not live to witness the con- mounted on its roof. Such incidents did not
secration of the building (about 1780). Diego help protect the building or preserve its archi-
de Porras is named as its chief architect, and and on its

tectural features, most exposed side
the Mercedarian friar Pedro de Avila was pock marks of shot can still be seen.
called in from Guatemala bv the bishop as a
consultant. Its solemn dedication 143

as Basilica Riobamba lies at an altitude of nearly 9,000
of the Assumption did not take place until feet on the sloping side of Chimborazo in
i860. a fertile sun-baked valley of Ecuador, sur-
4°]
CATHEDRALS
rounded by snow peaks. Even in pre-Inca times it cut off. The round deeply undercut stones
this valley was an important center of agricul- on either side of it are quite Mudejar in pat-
ture and homeindustry; one of the famous Inca tern. Fine details in all the carving have been
rope bridges was flung across a chasm nearby, obscured by much whitewashing.
connecting the region with the south, and in The cathedral in Cordoba, Argentina
colonial days the Camino Real followed the (fig. c), carries practically no figural decora-
same route. In 1797 the city was overwhelmed tion; the effect is derived largely from the bulk
by an earthquake and landslide and all the and the accented architectural lines of the
survivors were removed from the original site building. The sober and classicizing lower
to the plains of Tapi, twelve miles distant. section of the edifice is attributed to Jose
Little remained from the holocaust; some re- Gonzales Merguelte, a native of Granada,
ligious objects were salvaged and taken to Spain, who was called to Cordoba in 1697
nearbv estates, and carved stones from the after he had designed the cathedral at Sucre
cathedral fagade were transported to the new in Bolivia. Accustomed to the munificence of
site. the rich mining regions, he, reportedly, soon
The cathedral of Riobamba (PL 9, fig. a), lost interest and returned north. Work in
though an unpretentious structure, displavs Cordoba then stagnated until taken over in
much charming naivete and originality. The 1729 by the Italian Jesuit Andres Blanqui,
facade is not of the retable tvpe. It has onlv who was joined three years later by his com-
one doorwav, small windows, and neither patriot Juan Bautista Primoli. Together they
niches nor a tower. The bells are hung in are believed to have executed the main part
213
arches that form a modest espadaha. There of the cathedral. It was inaugurated in 1758,
are no columns here, only slender fluted pilas- but the towers were not finished until 1787.
ters, vaguely reminiscent of the early Renais- These towers, unlike some seen earlier, do
sance. In the frieze a garland of angel heads not serve as buttresses to the fagade; they are
alternates with a conventionalized floral mo- hollow and with the classical portico form a
tif, and above it is a "blind" balustrade, kept wide vestibule. It is the build-up of the upper
very flat. Two angel trumpeters in contrap- portions which gives this cathedral its indi-
posto position stand at the foot of the small viduality: the lanterned dome flanked by tur-
rose window. Peculiar interest is lent the fa- rets, the arcaded balustrades, and the twin
cade by the beautifully balanced and unusual belfries with their sculptural embellishment.
relief medallions with their story-telling con- The Mudejar appearance of the towers, the
tent—chiefly from the life of .Mary— which are classical lower section of the building, and
placed in quatrefoil or oval frames between the Baroque elaboration of detail all combine
the pilasters (fig. b). The balls within the to form a most unusual blend.
frames might well have been suggested by A drawing of this cathedral, as projected,
the escutcheons that adorn illuminated missals was made in 17-58 by the Franciscan Vicente
and other books of the Renaissance, but they Munoz, of Seville, and is now in the Archive
45
are here applied in a different dimension and of the Indies. In it the main emphasis is placed
medium and with a completely different effect. on an enormous central dome, which domi-
The motif on the piers of the portal arch nates the structure; the two towers, featuring
and on the shortened pilasters below the win- many columns, are set well at the sides of a
dows, though it recalls the palm trees of Co- broad facade which contains all three doorways
mayagua, seems best interpreted as a stalk of and is topped by a classical pediment. This
maize, an indigenous plant in the New World. drawing presents a cathedral that is quite suave
In the rectangle below the four medallions and European, entirely without the fierce con-
is shown Peter's sword and the ear which trasts and the almost top-heavy quality which
[41 i
give the actual building its dynamic character. In 1 67 1, during the infamous siege of the
Here is revealing insight into the theorv and freebooter Henry Morgan, the old city of
practice of architecture in colonial Latin Amer- Panama was plundered, fired, and razed to the
ica. ground. Two Panama la Nueva,
years later
The cathedral of Sucre, Bolivia, was orig- the present city, was founded some five miles
inally finished about 1600; it was later en- distant. As the inflammability of the wooden,
larged and in its present form dates from the thatch-roofed houses was partly responsible
end of the seventeenth century. Jose Gon- for the total destruction earlier, it was decreed
zales Merguelte, who was connected briefly that the new city should be built of stone and
with the cathedral in Cordoba, Argentina, brick. Whatever stone could be salvaged from
constructed the nave and the side aisles. the old site was transferred to the new, except
Like the cathedral of Cordoba, it does not for the tower of the old cathedral— named for
reflect in any way the regional style that was St. Anastasius— which still stands as a reminder
developing around it. In its composition it is of the violent events of the seventeenth cen-
generally horizontal; its roof is flat, and the tury.
surface of its vast walls for the most part The fortifications of the new city were the
is unrelieved, except at the portals. The build- strongest in all the Americas and, considering
ing is so placed that its length extends along the difficulty of providing stone for the vast
the main plaza, an orientation which has al- defense system of walls, turrets, and bastions,
ready been noted in Puebla and Alorelia and the costliest. After auditing the construction
will bemet also in later chapters. account, the Council of the Indies is said to
Thus the side portal (fig. d), dated 1683, have inquired whether the fort was made of
was given considerable importance. 220 It is built silver or of gold. However, the city resisted
around the door like a retable. The niches, successfully all subsequent attacks.
the coupled and garlanded columns, the open Although the new cathedral (PL 10, fig. b)
pediment with twin columns placed uniquely was founded at the same time as the city, con-
inside its "wings," and the scroll-like orna- struction on it did not get under way until
ments which bind the whole composition to 1690. Almost a half-century later the military
the plain masonry at the sides— all are retable engineer Nicolas Rodriguez made a survey of
elements. Tight spirals, many finials, and other the work still necessary and calculated its cost.
motifs that plav with curves and angles are He found the building practically completed
superimposed one on another or are devel- except for the facade and the towers— the
oped on several planes. Nevertheless, the effect foundations of which were laid. Finally in
is singularly formal and unindividual for such 1796 it was consecrated. 49
(Compare with the church
a wealth of detail. Like Leon's, the cathedral of Panama is
of San Francisco in Lima, Peru, shown on constructed with five aisles. The free-standing
PL 92.) twin columns in its broad fagade are kept
classically simple; the niches in the second and
As has already been mentioned, earthquakes, third stories, though related to them, are un-
landslides, and volcanic disturbances in the conventionally arranged— perhaps to accommo-
New World caused the removal of entire date the figures of all twelve Apostles. The
cities to other sites, but there was still another espadana, with its swelling curves and bulbous
plague— man-made— which forced the shifting finials, is Baroque, while the section below it
of whole towns to new locations. In some re- has a post-Renaissance placidity. Striking are
gions the buccaneers and their ilk were as the many openings— the arrangement of the
great a menace as all the destructive forces of windows suggests a palace rather than a
Nature. church. Seemingly little effort was made to
[4*]
CATHEDRALS
integrate the towers; their covering of ma- are so untemperamental that they pass almost
rine shells is a late addition and mav have unnoticed. A coolness of spirit pervades the
been a substitute for tiles or majolica. 76 whole building, in marked contrast to the
Nobler in design, more distinguished in ex- tropical environment; this is partly explained
ecution, but also suggestive of a palace is the bv the fact that its design leaned heavily for
cathedral in Salvador, the capital of Bahia, inspiration on Jesuit buildings in Portugal.
Brazil (fig. a). Its three doorways and many Eighteenth-century travelers describe the in-
windows, rhvthmicallv spaced, contribute to terior as magnificent; its imposing sacristy dis-
this impression— a quite common one in Bra- played a painted ceiling, altars and floors of
zil as will be seen in Chapter 14. This struc- colored marbles, furnishings inlaid with tor-
ture was built bv the Jesuits between 1652 toise shell, and walls brilliant with tile pic-
and 1672 and at one time housed the most aires.
important church and college in Brazil; not In Europe no valid claim can be made for a
until the demolition of the old cathedral in definite Jesuit style, its canons precisely laid
1935 was it elevated to its present rank. down in Rome, and in the Americas there is
Prior to 1763 Salvador was the capital of even less justification for such a statement.
the entire Portuguese vicerovaltv, but the The various regions adopted certain stylistic
removal of the seat of government to Rio de features, according- to the exigencies of the
Janeiro in that year had little effect on the time and place and the abilities of the builders,
affluence of the town. It had already grown and out of them they created something; orig;-
immensely rich because of its proximity to inal. A comparison of the cathedral in Havana,
large sugar plantations and its advantageous Cuba (fig. d), with that of Bahia, just dis-
commercial situation on a fine harbor. The cussed, will illuminate that fact. This also was
Jesuits, the first missionaries in Brazil, are a Jesuit church, begun, as was the other, in
closely connected with the development of the seventeenth century and completed in the
its colonial art. Their threefold program aimed eighteenth. was not elevated to the rank of
It
at the conversion of the natives, general edu- a cathedral until 1789, more than twenty years
cation, and the training of the oncoming: priest- after the expulsion of the order from the Span-
hood. But they were expelled from Brazil in ish colonies, and work on the interior contin-
1759— eight years earlier than from the Span- ued into the nineteenth century. Although
ish colonies— and their institutions disintegrated dedicated to the Virgin of the Immaculate
rapidly. Conception, it is today better known as the
The cathedral of Salvador, which stands church of San Cristobal, the patron saint of
close to the sidewalk, shows a facade that is Havana. It was built of native limestone, which
far more cosmopolitan than any presented thus has darkened in the damp salty air of tropical
far. The lines of the pilasters, with their unob- hurricanes. Its fagade, dating from 1777, shows
trusive paneling and subtle emphasis at the a decided individuality in design and texture.
corners, extend from the ground to the upper The columnar sections on either side of the
cornice and even beyond into the belfries and main portal are brought forward obliquely
the center gable. Here the belfries form an as if hinged near the door. Single, doubled,
integral part of the facade in an arrangement and even tripled columns are used in effective
met frequently also in Central America. The variety. The niches, pediments, and capitals
pediments above the openings are broken, but suggest the late Renaissance, whereas the
the insertion of a classicizing niche or an obe- balustrades and volutes at the sides, the tem-
lisk keeps them within the spirit of the late peramental lines of the cornices, and, above all,
Renaissance. Baroque volutes fill in the space the foliated windows, so felicitously placed,
between the gable and the belfries, but they are all Baroque. The towers, similar in e;en-
[43]
eral design but unalike in proportion, are suc- At this point the term "espadana," already
cessfully integrated into the composition. encountered, should receive some further ex-
No two places in the Spanish colonial world planation. It is a Spanish word often used to
could be more different in climate and back- denote a belfry or a bell-wall in the upper fa-
ground than Havana and Potosi, in Bolivia: cade. Apparently it is derived from the verb
the one, a major harbor, the gathering place espadanar, "to spread the tail feathers," and
for the fleets of the Indies, prey to the attacks in this volume it is used in a broad sense to
of corsairs, tropical in climate, and with a define the ornamental extension of the facade
numerically strong Negro population; the above the roof line, a feature that found a
other, remote behind snow-blown passes of most interesting application in Latin America.
the Andes, high on a treeless plateau at an This architectural member is related to the
altitude of 13,600 feet, with an overwhelming ornamental gable that masked the peaked roofs
majority of mestizos and Indians. Yet the ca- of medieval buildings. Later, even in roofs
thedral of Potosi (fig. c) shows a certain kin- constructed at less steep angles it was retained
ship to that of Havana. But what was rug- as a decorative screen— frequently a free-
ged and contrasty in Havana appears here in standing wall— and added greatly to the im-
an aerified version; the columns are more pressiveness of a building. The Maison de
slender and the decorative scheme is con- l'Ancien Greffe (1537), in Bruges, Belgium,
fined to the portal. The plain expanse of the now part of the Palace of Justice (see Appen-
upper section is enriched with three windows, dix, PL 190, fig. a), is a Renaissance example
of which only the center one has the sugges- of the ornamental gable.
tion of a star shape in its framing. The vi- In Latin America, where buildings usually
brant line of the overhanging scalloped cor- were kept low, the espadana received special
nice connects the two towers. Their pepper- emphasis. Through it the facade achieved
pot shape is set off by the lines of the pilasters, greater height and dignity. Sometimes it was
which are carried through to the dome. In constructed entirely of stone, but more often
contrast to the niches in the Havana church, a combination of stone and brick was pre-
these are small, and the plastic decoration lies ferred to keep it lighter in weight. An es-
close to the wall. padana— as the term is applied in this volume-

Potosi reached its apex in 161 1, at which might be decorated with niches in keeping
time, as one of the most important mining with the rest of the facade, or it mi^ht be
centers of the world, it had 150,000 inhabit- perforated with arches to hold bells or occa-
ants. Its cathedral was erected at the very sionally even statues.
end of the colonial period, long after the citv's On this plate three different treatments of
most glorious epoch. The first stone was laid that crowning member are shown. In the ca-
in 1809 on the site of an old church, dating thedral at Salvador it is close to the Euro-
from 1573. The Franciscan Manuel Sanauja pean prototype, even to the attic window and
prepared the plans, the most outstanding fig- peaked roof; in Panama it is a free-standing
220
ure in Bolivian architecture in this period. wall with niches and statues; and in Potosi
It is reported that, disturbed by the rising rev- it takes the form of a masonry parapet that
olutionary atmosphere about him, he requested screens the outline of the low roof.
permission to return to his home in Arequipa,
but the prefect insisted that he remain to com- Since most of the New World cathedrals
plete his work; it was not finished until 1836. took generations to complete, it is not surpris-
For an architect so closely associated with the ing that many of them display a variety of
neoclassic as was Sanauja, the cathedral facade styles and decorative motifs— milestones, as it
manifests a rare blend of stylistic elements. were, in the taste development of the different
[44]
CATHEDRALS
colonial cities. The cathedral of San Miguel as well as from Comayagua worked together
de Tegucigalpa, in Honduras, one of the ex- with local labor. The material accounts in
ceptions, was built within a relatively short part for the grace and lightness of the struc-
period and consequently shows unusual unity ture; it is built of burned brick— manufac-
of style both inside and out. tured locally— plastered over and white-
The name Tegucigalpa has been variously washed.
explained: it may be derived from the native According to an inscription on the facade,
teguz or teuz (hill) and galpa (silver) or from that portion was completed in 1765 under
another dialect, as meaning "Place of the Gregorio Nacianceno Quiroz as chief archi-
155
Pointed Stones." Either interpretation applies, tect. Almost a half-century later, in 1809,
for the town lies along a rocky river bank and again in 1899 it was damaged by severe
among hills rich in silver deposits which jut earthquakes. Fortunately, however, subsequent
up several thousand feet on three sides. The repairs were not disfiguring, and the cathedral
greatest silver mine of the country, the Rosario remains among the few colonial edifices that
at San Juancito, is near Tegucigalpa. are sufficiently well preserved, both within
The town began as a mining settlement. It and without, to permit a just appraisal of
did not achieve the rank of a citv until 1824 their original beauty.
and succeeded Comayagua as capital of Hon- Retable elements are used in the facade
duras only in 1880. But it was not unusual but without producing the effect of a retable.
during the colonial period for the wealth Coupled pilasters, somewhat smaller in the
of local mines to provide the impetus for the second order than in the first, constitute the
creation of gorgeous churches in remote and chief decoration. In impression, their deeply
some of
sparsely settled regions (see PI. 41); cut horizontals recall the stepped cascades of
the seventeenth-century churches near Cuzco a Rococo garden. Such deep grooving is
and in the High Andes stand today without found frequently in Central America and will
any apparent economic hinterland to explain be discussed more fully in Chapter 8. A blind
their magnificence. The fact that Tegucigalpa balustrade divides the belfries and espadana
has always been difficult of approach— even from the heavier lower section. A statue of
today it has neither a railroad nor an interna- St. Michael occupies the center niche above,
tional highway— is one of the reasons why and the other figures represent his compan-
some of its colonial architecture is so well ion archangels.
preserved. Nineteenth-century travelers de- The two gateways, which lead to garden
scribed the city as pleasant, clean, and with a patios, are harmonized successfully with the
salubrious climate— impressions which still hold cathedral facade, though differences are evi-
today; the neat houses were painted after the dent in their design. One of the church's side
owner's fancy in blue, rose, cream, or white portals is illustrated in Chapter 8 (see PL 70).
and boasted grated balconies, evenly tiled The broad atrium, which extends across the
162
roofs, and paved patios. entire front of the complex, served as an open-
Its cathedral (PI. //, fig. a), erected as a air stage for the religious ceremonies and pro-
parish church and dedicated to the archangel cessions for which Tegucigalpa was justly
Michael, was built between 1756 and 1782 famous.
on the site of an earlier church, which had The expectations awakened bv the Rococo
fallen victim to fire in 1746. It is recorded charm of the exterior are abundantly fulfilled
that this earlier of wood, to
building was within. Not intended originally as a cathedral,
which the magnificent pines of the region the building has a single nave, covered by bar-
offered themselves. For the new edifice art- rel vaulting; a cruciform effect is achieved by
ists, architects, and craftsmen from Guatemala chapels that open off the apse, and an ample
[ 45]
dome is placed above this "crossing." Covering processions. With its baldachin like a wisp of
the entire surface of the end wall and illumi- cloud, it has a movement seldom seen in an
nated directly by side windows stands, the inanimate object. According to one source the
main altar (fig. c). Its unity of style, great pulpit is the work of the sculptor Vicente
figural and decorative richness, and the su- Galvez, who came from Antigua, Guate-
103
perb quality of its carving immediately cap- mala. It may well be surmised that his hand
ture the attention. The figure of the Virgin also worked on the main retable, so homoge-
stands in the center. Guarding her are St. neous are they in spirit. In this amazingly
Michael in a grotto below— a fountain sug- refined work, an inventive imagination is
gested at his feet— and on either side his com- coupled with an impeccable technique.
panion archangels, all of whom are repre-
sented also on the facade. The statues are ex- These New World cathedrals which out-
quisitely carved and expressive, but still more rode the earthquakes— whether seismic or
remarkable is the ornamentation on the retable. political— stood at the fulcrum point of the
This great gilded screen of carved wood is white man's authority. It was intended that
embellished with serpentine undulations, ara- they should embody not only the power and
besques, and other caprices of the imagina- dignity of the church but also the might of
tion; the columns are turned into fragile, ten- the mother country. But even in these admin-
uous members, highly Rococo in effect. Es- where the inclination to turn
istrative centers,
pecially noteworthy is the treatment of the toward or imitate the homeland would be
side pieces; usually these are composed of strongest, regional differences sprouted from
scrollwork, more or less conventionalized, but the beginning.
here the design culminates in the figure of a Numerous were responsible for this
factors
winged siren, very originally conceived (see condition. There was the matter of distance,
PL 1 88). with the attendant difficulties of sending plans
At one side of the retable and matching it back and forth. In many cases construction
in spirit stands the pulpit. Never reworked was supervised by friars, carpenters, masons,
or even retouched and veritably sheathed in and others who were not professional archi-
pure gold, it preserves a fascinating local tects; and labor was recruited from the mes-
Rococo. A detail of the staircase (fig. b) which tizos and the Indians of the district. Moreover,
leads up from the altar side shows an excellent a building always had to be adapted to local
feeling for the functional as well as the decora- conditions; the possibility of earthquakes, the
tive. Its flowing patterns are applied with a problem of ground water, the presence or lack
sense for the curved surface and, in true of certain materials all led from the very start
Rococo manner, with due regard for empty to modifications of European types. Wethey
spaces. Fantasy in concept is revealed espe- demonstrates that in Lima and Cuzco the
cially in the scrollwork on the upper panel, Gothic type of vaulting, with brick, was re-
where a human head is carved at one end and sorted to early in the seventeenth century not
at the other a graceful bird, vaguely reminis- as a matter of style but as a practical solution,
cent of the symbolic pelican. As a crowning for brick construction appeared to withstand
embellishment, on top of the canopy stands the earthquakes most successfully; from there
a miniature chariot of elaborate detail, all of this method spread at even later dates through-
gilded wood. It has been interpreted as symbol- out Peru. Proportions of line and bulk were
izing the chariot of Elijah but it might also changed of necessity, and towers often had
represent the triumphal car of either Faith to serve for buttresses as well as for belfries.
or Truth, which was drawn in the religious It is apparent that different regions solved
[46]
CATHEDRALS
similar problems differently. Local prefer- ing in their churches by other means. Out of
ences asserted themselves; for instance, Mex- an immense artistic vocabulary various re-
ico has a great number of ingeniously con- gions selected their favorite motifs and by
structed domes while Central America, where applying them with different techniques cre-
domes are less frequent, achieved superb light- ated new effects.
[47]
4
CHRIST IN THE NEW WORLD
T Xh:
.he formative period of the early Christian
church took place in the Near East, which at
soul; the other as a suffering
inward-turned, broken, bloody, and

human being,
realistic
that time was the vortex of many influences in agony.

from pagan and monotheistic religions. The Both of these tendencies came to the In-
first books of the New Testament were writ- dian in the New World. In the first decades
ten in Aramaic, a Hebrew dialect. The earliest the missionaries made a swift and perceptive
versions now extant are in Greek, the language appraisal of the spiritual inclinations and the
then generally spoken in the Near East, and traditional concepts of the Indian, and it soon
about the end of the second century the Latin became evident that certain ideas could not
text appeared. The symbol IHS, derived from penetrate the minds of even the most willing
the Greek monogram of Jesus' name, provides pupils because the intellectual and spiritual
one example of the transformation of ideas background— the climate in which the religion
which accompanied the change of language; flourished in Europe— was completely lacking
Jesus Hominum Salvator (Jesus Saviour of here. Recognizing that the Indian could ad-
Men) is the Latin interpretation, said to have vance only at a slow pace, his teachers took
4
been used first by Savonarola (1452-1498). several steps in his direction. Thev learned
Christ in early art is largely a representa- various Indian languages into which they
tion of the Eastern ideal, a bearded figure with translated the Scriptures, prayers, the cate-
the emphasis laid on the symbolic and tran- chism, and even parts of the Mass; they in-
scendental. After the Roman Empire was vented pictographs for the interpretation of
Christianized, he was sometimes depicted as the ideas of the new religion. The story was
a beautiful Roman youth, clean-shaven. Chris- dramatized to the full, made present by
tian art as taken on by Central and Western pageantrv and personal by the participation
Europe shows both of these trends. The of the Indian. Here began a metamorphosis,
mosaics of Ravenna present an Orpheus-like a process taken over later by the natives them-
figure as Good Shepherd, the crucifixes of selves—all within the dog^ma. The Indian chose
the Trecento have a dark tonality in face and the ultra-realistic representation of Christ, but,
flesh and the body has little in common with as we shall see, in his search for the transcen-
the anatomical studies of later centuries. When dental, he turned it into what todav would be
the Renaissance reached its peak and national called surrealistic or expressionistic.
schools of art emerged, Christ was portrayed The representation of Christ as an unat-
in two manners: one as the sublimated ideal, tended child is rather rare in Latin America.
spiritually refined, an aristocrat in body and A Mexican carving (PL 12, fig. a) depicts him
[48]
in a pensive pose. His expression is childlike, length in Chapter 9. Even the lettering of his
smiling and half-remote, as if he were aware signature (fig. d), exquisitely carved, shows
of his destiny. The position of the right hand a master who had full command of his tools.
suggests that he originally held some object, Both statue and signature are published here
perhaps a T square. A popular subject of for the first time.
contemporary European engravings was the The theme of a little bov asleep, his head
youthful Christ carrying a carpenter's tool resting on his arm, goes back to classical times.
which formed a cross either in shape or in Italian sculptors of the Renaissance revived it,
shadow. Throughout the centuries in Europe one of .Murillo's paintings was inspired bv it,
a succession of art works can be discerned in and the outstanding master of the .Murcia
which the predestination of Jesus is implied. school, Francisco Salzillo (1-0--1783), carved
This pieceis said to have come from the state several versions of the subject in stone. Some-
of Puebla and to date from the eighteenth times the Child is clasping a crown of thorns.
century. It is made of a corldike wood, prob- Even in such company Caspicara holds his
ably zumpantle, which was native to that own. His genius gives his statue a pleasing
region and a favorite material for carvings individuality. The softly closed eves, the an-
because it was easily worked and easy to gelic mouth, half-opened— so like any child
carry about. Such light-weight woods are enjoying sleep— and the finely proportioned
found frequently in carvings and even in fur- little body all radiate life. Note the handling
niture from Puebla and Oaxaca, whereas in of the arms, hands, and hair, like those of a
the state of .Mexico heavy woods are more putto. The delicate tones of the enamel-like
common. This statue, as is apparent in the finish— the encarnacion— can be imagined even
lower portion, was covered with a very thin from the black and white print.
canvas, which was glued to the wood and then In contrast to this interpretation of the
coated with gesso and painted. Despite the Christ Child, universal in its idiom, the last of
crude repainting and its somewhat dilapidated this group (fig. e) is pure Avmara Indian.
condition, the figure is touching and makes a Wearing a poncho around his shoulders and a
warm appeal. knitted cap inscribed Yo soy Jesus (I am
A canvas that hangs in the Abbey of Graca, Jesus), this figure stands in the church of
in Salvador. Brazil (fig. b), dated in the San Juan in Juli, Peru, on the shores of Lake
seventeenth century, shows the youthful Jesus Titicaca. The road over which the riches of
seated in one of those richly embossed chairs Potosi, Bolivia, were carried across the Andes
which the folk artist was accustomed to asso- to the sea passed through this town. Here,
ciate with colonial civil and ecclesiastic dig- 12,500 feet above sea level and far from
nitaries. His head bent, the Child is contem- any center of white people, a large group of
plating his pricked finger, directing one's gaze Avmara Indians still lives. They worship in
crown of thorns which rests on his
to the lap. colonial churches, within which a wealth of
The glow from his halo is reflected on the colonial art is disintegrating because of poverty
under side of the heavy encircling clouds, and the lack of appreciation. But the Child
beyond which cherub faces, full of cheer, look warmed by a native shawl such as any
Jesus,
on with an earthly childish curiosity. Avmara boy would wear, is well kept; the
Another variant of the "Baby God" is the face has been repainted and the handmade
polvchromed wood carving in the Salguero lace on the sleeves is clean. This Divine Child
collection in Quito, Ecuador (fig. c). To date is of the people and through him they come
it is the only known signed work of the great nearer to the spirit of the distant God whom
Indian sculptor .Manuel Chili, or Chil, better the white conquerors brought to their moun-
known as Caspicara, who will be discussed at tainous land.
[49]
The four representations of the Christ Child real hair hangs below the waist— the offering
on this plate— from Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador, of some zealous believer.
and the Bolivian border of Peru— date from Into the crown wrought in
of thorns, here
either the seventeenth or the eighteenth cen- silver, are incorporated the emblems of the
tury.Three show derivation from a different tres potencias (three powers). The represen-
epoch of European art: the first is an expres- tation of the three powers seems to have had
sion of the Baroque; the second has Byzantine its origin in the cruciform halo, the Greek
prototypes; the third can be traced back to cross within a circle, which has been used to
the classic. And the fourth is a flower of folk- designate divine personages, especially Christ,
lore. Through the different artistic sensibilities ever since Byzantine times; thus it is sometimes
and the traditions mirrored in them thev reveal called the divine nimbus. The Renaissance
how creative was the soul of colonial Latin dropped the outer ring, and some painters,
America. notably Tintoretto, indicated the halo merely

by rays of light or tongues of flame in the
Other figures of the youthful Christ are form of a cross. For statuary these were fash-
generally found in scenes from the life of ioned out of metal, especially in Spain, and
Alary and St. Joseph. Representations of the in Latin America they were developed into a
suffering martyred Lord are much more nu- major decorative motif. Often they lost the
merous. The Indians, now degraded to the cruciform shape, as here, but nearly always
lowest caste in their own land, might well the suggestion of rays was retained. The tres
have found release for their emotional tension potencias were given renewed significance by
by embracing the realistic agonizing Christ. the Spanish mystics. St. Ignatius urged medi-
Prints with scenes of the Passion were favorite tation with the "three faculties" of the soul:
subjects for translation into the plastic and memory, understanding, and will. St. Theresa
pictorial mediums. As will be discussed in and St. John of the Angels also used the term
33
Chapter 7, the flesh was represented on carved in this sense.
wooden figures by an enamel-like finish called If possible the atmosphere of impending

"encarnacion," and garments were decorated tragedy is still more strongly expressed in the
after the Spanish fashion in a manner known Ecce Homo
from the Santa Prisca church in
as "estofado." As in Spain, glass eyes and long Tasco, Mexico (fig. b). Here there is no ges-
lashes, real hair, and textile costumes often- ture in the hands; they hang straight, though
times were employed to heighten the realism not without expression, bound at the wrist
of statues. with a coarse rope. The face streams with
A carved figure of Christ (PL 75, fig. a), blood, and the thorny crown casts its shadow
which bears the cross in the Good Friday on a wan and pallid countenance. The eyes
procession, occupies a niche in the church no longer look out into the crowd; the gaze
of San Francisco in Comayagua, Honduras; is turned inward. The rich background of the
the cross itself is kept in the sacristy and gilded retable, with its garlands and ebullient
placed on the shoulder of the figure only angels of true Baroque, contrasts startlingly
when the complete sequence of the Passion with this somber and majestic figure.
and the Crucifixion passes through the streets Both of these statues are clad in purple
of the town. The gesture of the sensitive hands, velvet. The breast of the Tasco Christ is
the position of the shoulder, and the stoop of covered with milagros, or votive offerings,
the body all transmit the impression of ex- and the flowers, both real and artificial, are
haustion beneath a great weight. The pene- gifts of the flower-loving populace.
trating eyes seem to seek out each onlooker The seated Man of Sorrows (fig. c) is in
with an expression unusually personal. Long, the church of Santo Domingo at Popayan,
[50]
Colombia. Physical torture is portrayed by the fig. a), both face and body show infinite
flowing blood, the wounds from falling on his suffering and brutal torture. Large wounds
knees and elbows, and the left cheek bruised gape in the chest and side, blood streams
by the blows of the mockers. Nevertheless over the body, and the features are twisted
the sculptural expression here is less dramatic; with pain, agonizing. Even in the arms and
the pose of the w hole body
r
is somewhat con- legs the stiffening of death is forcefully ex-
ventional. A subtle symbolism is evident in pressed. For the moment the shocking impact
the crown of silver thorns: the three powers of this portrayal completely overshadows the
are fashioned in the form of wheat and grapes, story-telling and the spiritual contents of the
emblems of the sacramental bread and wine. theme.
More local associations are revealed in the reed A less startling version of the same scene
in Christ's hand— a leafy stalk of sugar cane (fig- c ), a l so from Mexico, is said to have
wrought in silver. This rendition could be come from Toluca. Here the expression is
popular only in the New World, where sugar rather one of meditation; the gaze of the
cane abounds; by the folk, the statue is called glassv eyes is turned inward. The crown of
the Christ of the Cane. thorns, now onlv implied by the drops of
More complex in its symbolism and quite blood on the forehead, has been removed, and
transcendental in idea is the Christ of the the large tres potencias of silver, which show
Globe, from the church of San Sebastian in sophisticated workmanship, may have been
Cuzco, Peru (fig. d). Here Christ is kneeling added later. Unusual is the detailed execution
on a flattened sphere that represents the world; of the swollen veins, worked out to a degree
on it is pictured the overspreading Tree of very rarely seen; the effect is that of a flayed
Paradise, with Eve offering Adam the apple. body. Here is an attempt at realism but the
The sacrifice is complete: in addition to the result is expressionistic.
rope, the double stripes of the scourge, the When the two preceding figures are com-
bruises, and the crown of thorns, Christ bears pared with the Christ at the Column from the
the mark of the nails and the spear wound. church of Santo Domingo at Cuzco, Peru
His hands are upraised and his eyes turned (fig. d), the difference in approach touched
toward Heaven, as if in the very act of offer- upon above is more obvious. Physical torture
ing himself in redemption. The whole concept is apparent at first glance, but the portrayal
here is rare in European as well as Latin has also a measure of composure—to a certain
American art; one other such portrayal is degree a philosophical quality. No attempt is
found in the church of San Agustin in made to awaken even fleeting sympathy. Christ
Popayan, Colombia. stands; he has not fallen, and it is evident that
All of the statues illustrated on this plate, within himself he has another world. The lack
as well as many of those which follow, were of proportion between the upper and lower
carried out from the churches to take part in parts of the body may indicate that this work
religious processions. was inspired by a drawing; much that can be
represented in the flat without arousing criti-
Out of the vast repertory of cruel scenes cism seems exaggerated when translated into
from the Passion of Christ, the Mexicans often three dimensions. (Compare Appendix, PL 190,
seem to have selected those in which their fig- b.)
breath-taking realism could express itself to Prior to the seventeenth century the Christ
the point of paroxysm; in South America, on of the Flagellation was depicted as bound to a
the other hand, a somewhat different approach tall column. Later this representation was used
prevailed. In the Christ at the Column from to symbolize the scene in the temple portico
San Miguel Totocuitlapilco, Mexico (PL 14, on the night before the Passion, while the
[5']
short column came to be associated with the by the contrast with the crudely carpentered
12
scourging ordered by Pilate. cross.
Closer to the interpretation favored in The crucifix from Xochimilco, Mexico

South America is a Mexican version of the (fig. a), is an expression of folk art. Christ's
Man of Sorrows which is in the parish church crown is of beads, and the real hair, matted
of Tehuilotepec, near Tasco (fig. b). He is to his brow, is straight. His hands are bound
seated in meditation, his head resting on his to the wooden crosspiece by strips of white
hand. The angular position of his arms and cloth, as if to ease the weight on the pierced
legs produces a gripping effect. Though much wrapped in a figured tex-
palms. His loins are
of the paint has flaked off and the attributes tile weave like the garments worn
of native
are gone, this Christ has inner drama, nobility, by Indians on windy mornings and cool eve-
and perhaps the deepest spiritual quality of nings in the high Valley of Mexico. The
the four examples pictured here. weight of the sagging body as it hangs on the
cross is movingly expressed in the bend of
In Europe, by the time of the Conquest, the knees. Both the color of the skin and the
the crucifix had long been accepted as the anatomy of the figure suggest that this also
greatest symbol of the Christian world. To the may be the work of an Indian artist; he in-
New World it came as a new and powerful fused into the carving something of his own
symbol, to banish idols and to push out other blood. The intellectualized Christ of Europe,
pagan practices. Inspired by it the mestizo draped in diaphanous veils, has indeed traveled
and Indian craftsmen produced astonishingly a long way.
varied and sometimes unique artistic manifes- In the church of La Conception in Lima,
tations. Peru, is an aristocratic Christ with a nobly pro-
A crucifix in the church of La Recoleta in portioned body, portrayed with assurance and
Cuzco, Peru (PL 15, fig. b), shows Gothic an expert naturalism (fig. d).lz has been iden-
trends overlaid with the strong realism of tified by Wethev as the work of the famous
Spanish Baroque. Both the face and the body Spanish sculptor Juan Martinez Montanes. 204
are powerfully sculptural. The "Biblical" The contract for it, as well as for other carv-
landscape in the background has a rustic ings for an altar dedicated to St. John the
colonial atmosphere. Unusual is the cross- Baptist, is dated 1607, and it is certified as
shaped wound on the figure's left side. The delivered in 161 2. This crucifix offers an
nailing of each foot to the cross brings to opportunity for a comparative study with
mind that the painter Francisco Pacheco works of possible European origin in the colo-
( 1
564-1 654), father-in-law of Velazquez and nies and also with those that are outspokenly
arbiter of the Spanish iconography of the American. Here the dramatic in the subject
Counter Reformation, advocated a return to has been filtered out. The blood and wounds
the medieval representation of the Crucifixion, have received little emphasis; the loincloth is
using four nails. kept subordinate as a detail and provides no

Caspicara is said to have carved the crucifix separate sculptural interest. The tension and
in the church of El Belen in Quito, Ecuador the gripping subjectivity are less acute than
(fig. c). Its realism makes a strong appeal in the other portrayals. It should be kept in
through the excellence of its craftsmanship. mind that this is an early sculpture of Martinez
The large aureole that encompasses the entire Montanes; besides, documents reveal that the
carving harks back to the Gothic. Entwined masters in Spain gave less attention to pieces
silver bands here replace the thorns as crown, destined for the colonies than to those which
and the tres potencias are flamelike in shape. stayed in the motherland and immediately
The refinement of the figure is brought out enhanced the prestige of their creators.
[52]
CHRIST IX THE NEW WORLD
Not merely was a fresh interpretation given which year the bishop died), though doubt-
to the iconography of Christ's figure in the less figures continued to be made by this
New World bv the mestizo and the Indian method. They are vivid in their coloring and
but in addition in certain regions a new ma- extraordinarily light in weight; one figure
terial was used. America brought the maize, over six and one-half feet high weighs scarcely
her own autochthonous plant, into the serv- thirteen pounds.
ice of God. The use of a light and pliable To make one of these statues, first an arma-
mixture based on the pith of the corn had ture or skeletal foundation was constructed
a deep significance, for in manv areas corn of dried maize leaves fastened together with
was the staple food and in pre-Columbian agave cactus; for fingers and toes
fibers of the
times it had its special god; particularly in turkey feathers were used. Then this frame-
Mexico ancient idols were formed of grain or work was roughly covered with a paste com-
seeds and dough. posed of the pith of cornstalks mixed to a
An excellent example of this type of figure spongy mass with the ground-up bulbs of a
is shown in a crucifix belonging to the Fran- local orchid. To ensure strong joints and
ciscan Third Order in Patzcuaro, Mexico extremities, these parts were bound with strips
(PL 16, fig. a). It stands in the center of the of cotton or agave cloth. After the figure was
main altar of the church of San Francisco dry a fine coating of the paste was spread
there and is highly venerated as miraculous. over it in the manner of stucco, and later the
On July 28, 1656, an earthquake shook the coloring was added in its proper tints. To give
town and in the afternoon the church bell luster a quick-drying oil, known to the natives,
began to ring of itself. This figure of the was The profuse blood was simulated
applied.
Christ on the Cross, which had recently been by a compound of cochineal and lampblack.
put into position, was seen to move; the head Hair and beard were made of human hair or
92
slipped to one side, the left arm stretched, were modeled and stained black.
and later the whole body shifted itself into \n imaee of the Virsrin of Salud, still in
its present expressive position. Patzcuaro, was probably the first piece con-
The figure is larger than life-size— an un- structed under Quiroga; an Immaculate Con-
usual feature but characteristic of this type ception of the same material is in the church
of statue— and has a soft, yielding plasticity. of San Juan de Lagos in the state of Jalisco.
The rib system is brought out clearly here, A crucified Christ made in this technique
an illusion made possible by the pliant material hangs in a church in Telde, Las Palmas, Canary
of the under-structure; for statues made of Islands. It was presented by the colonists and
maize were not sculptured but modeled. In purchased, according to a historian, out of
spite of the beard the impression is strongly income from wine and sugar produced in the
Indian. Light-colored glass eyes produce a New World. Among others are figures of the
striking contrast to the darkened flesh, and entombed Christ in Las Monjas Catarinas,
real hair falls over the shoulder. A certain Morelia (see PL 21), and in the sanctuary of
rigidity in the features, as of approaching Amecameca. More may be found in Mexico
death, is distinctly conveyed. when the village churches have been inven-
The great bishop of Michoacan, Vasco de toried.
Quiroga, encouraged the modeling of such In the crucifix of the San Cristobal church
statues under the direction of an aged Tarascan in Nexquipava, Mexico (fig. b), echoes of the
convert, a former pagan priest who knew the early Renaissance may be found. The quiet
ancient technique. Many of the images now plastic composition of the head gains strength
extant were manufactured in or near Patzcuaro from the dark tone, which gives the piece the
and seem to date between 1538 and 1565 (in monumental character of a bronze. As in the
[53]
preceding example the glass eyes, with their Mexico, only the enchanting scenery and the
"real" eyelashes, are half-closed but the effect picturesque exterior of the church of Santa
is different: this Christ appears to be still con- Prisca (see PL 41) misses the deeper satisfac-
scious while the other is expiring. tion that awaits him within. By the time the
A broader humanism is evident in the cru- lavish Baroque ornamentation of this building
cified Christ from the monastery of San Fran- was created, the population had developed a
cisco in Quito, Ecuador (fig. c), a small religious folk art of their own and had found
carving attributed to Caspicara. In this piece their favorite themes. The consummate skill of
attention is directed to the face by the con- some regional craftsman is shown in the Christ
verging lines of the large tres potencias of at the Column which stands in one of the side
silver, represented here as emanating directly chapels of the church (fig. d). This figure is
out of the head. life-size, with real hair. A coarse rope binds
the hands. So masterly is the delineation that
Earthquake, fire, revolution, and neglect the incongruous addition of a pair of drawers
have all taken their toll of colonial art. But can be overlooked. The beard and mustache
even some fragments of figures bespeak the have a rich and metallic plasticity. This re-
power of the artists who made them. Large gion also produced the Ecce Homo that
dark eyes of glass add depth and realism to stands in the same chapel and the Man of
the expression of the Christ head in the Sorrows at Tehuilotepec some fifteen miles
museum at Morelia, Mexico, perhaps from a away (see Pis. 13, 14).
Man of Sorrows (PL 17, fig. a). The encarna- The martyred Christ in the last illustration
cion has largely disappeared, but the pallor on this plate (fig. e), from Mexico, is akin to
that results intensifies the emotional appeal. the Christ at the Column from San Miguel
An Ecce Homo (fig. b) offers a rare exam- Totocuitlapilco. His staring eyes and drawn
ple made in terra cotta, a craft much practiced lips are morbid expressions of suffering, and
during the colonial period, although few his head and body are spotted with blood.
pieces have survived. The small statue here The absence of hair and crown gives the piece
(only about a foot high) is said to have been an especially haggard appearance. The angular
made in or around the Mexican capital and ridges around the eyes, ending on the pro-
to date from early eighteenth century. By the truding cheek bones, are truly expressionistic.
simple but effective means of using slits for
eyes and mouth the folk artist produced an A statue that may have been inspired by a
enigmatic expression. The rope is dispropor- drawing has already been shown (see PL 14);
tionately large, a method of emphasis occur- but statues in turn inspired paintings, which
ring also in pre-Columbian pottery. then underwent various changes.
The third Christ head (fig. c) is attributed The Christ of the Earthquakes (PL 18, fig. a)
to Caspicara, although the carving does not stands in a special chapel of the cathedral of
show the subtlety of the crucifix on the pre- Cuzco, Peru, and is associated with miraculous
ceding plate. The immediacy of the portrayal, powers. It is said that when this crucifix was
however, is evident even in the fragment. brought out of the cathedral during the devas-
Blood streams down the face, but the effect tating earthquake of 1650 the temblor sub-
is not shocking; the piece has too much spir- sided. It is still carried out for religious
itual content and artistic integrity for that. processions on the shoulders of men, as can
Death masks of Christ are found in certain be seen at the bottom of the photograph. Intact
regions of colonial South America, and this after the catastrophe of 1950 it was placed in
may be one. the center of the main plaza. In spite of the

The hurried visitor who sees in Tasco, tradition that the figure was sent from Spain
[54]
it has the marks of a colonial work. Usually On all three paintings shown here, but
the statue is clothed in a short lace garment especially on the last two, the metal trim of
as in the paintings on this plate; the long one the cross is painstakingly copied from the
of satin is reserved for holy festivals. Special original statue of the Christ of the Earth-
pravers were said before this figure whenever quakes, and in the last illustration the wooden
an earthquake occurred, and since it could not scrolled on the base are reproduced
loops
be carried to distant regions requests for repro- through which poles were inserted when the
ductions of it came from far and wide. Thus statue was carried in a procession. Such small
paintings of the crucifix were made as it stood details faithfully copied by the folk artist now
in the Cuzco cathedral, amid flowers, candles, furnish a link to the original. This type of
hanging candelabra, and mirrors. was popular among the colo-
statue-painting
One such painting is in the church of Santi- Europe grisailles and other
nial folk artists. In
ago in Cuzco (fig. b). Many others have been painted reproductions of statues were also
seen by the author in distant earthquake re- common in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
gions—even as far as Guayaquil, Ecuador— turies (see Appendix, PL ipi, fig. e).
and always they are consciously identified by

the name "Christ of the Earthquakes." For the Indian the Cross was the first great
In the example now in the Prado collection symbol of Christianity, but he often turned
near Lima, Peru (fig. c), to the miraculous it into a fetish. His pre-Columbian past was
were added the
crucifix, clearly recognizable, full of idols, and the Cross of the missionaries
figures of Mary and John, making it a part of served as the chief substitute for the images
a Calvarv group. These two figures have no which were destroyed. Even in the life of the
pedestals; but the crucifix is depicted as a Spanish conquerors the Cross held a unique
statue. The vases of flowers at the feet of place. One need only recall scenes from the
Christ are decorative motifs that are frequently Inquisition in which the victim, already half-
encountered, painted on the walls of colonial consumed by flames, was offered one last look
churches, carved in gilded wood and in stone, at a crucifix, or remember the death of Fran-
and also woven in textiles. cisco Pizarro, who, mortally wounded by his
Seemingly it was thought that the addition Spanish rivals, traced with his own blood a
of other favorite saints might augment the cross upon the floor.
miraculous power of the representation. In The Mexican Indian, out of his non-Euro-
one such variant from Cuzco (fig. d) the cru- pean traditions and using his proven skill,
cifix is again represented as a statue, but here carved crosses of stone in which his peculiar
Mary also is placed on a pedestal, a clear indi- reaction to this new symbol is apparent. Such
cation that this figure too is a statue. On the carving is now known as tequitqui (Nahuatl
other side of Christ stands St. Francis of for "tributary"). One example is in the atrium
Assisi, contemplating a small crucifix. From an of Acolman (PL 19, fig. a) and another in the
iconographical point of view a revealing anom- Atzacoalco cemetery (fig. b), not far from
aly results: the saint is gazing upon a small Mexico City. In both cases the face of a living
crucifix, Mary is holding the Baby Jesus in her Christ, with wide-open eyes, is placed at the
arms, and between them is the miraculous cru- center of the composition. It takes little imag-
cifix, the raison d'etre of the painting. The ination to see the horizontal piece as the arms,
mourning angels may remind one of those the ornamented ends as hands or fingers, and
which hold back the curtains at either side the vertical as the body. Both shafts bear sym-
of an altar niche; it is noteworthy that in the bols of the Passion— the cock, pillar, ropes,
preceding illustration they have been turned ladder, sponge, spear, and Eucharist cup— but
into medallions of gold lace. differently arranged. The crosspiece of the
1
55
IJAROQUE AND ROCOCO IN LATIN AMERICA
Acolman carving is decorated with floral sprays radiating lines indicate the halo. The shal-
that are typically indigenous in outline and low diagonals suggesting the ribs are paral-
asymmetry; a similar motif is entwined in the leled in the lines of the loincloth. The flaring
letters of the inscription. In the second ex- "knot" at the waist may indicate the spear
ample the collar of thorns and the ribbon wound, which quite frequently is depicted on
wound about the arms are both unusual; and the heart side by folk artists in Latin America.
still more unorthodox is the heavy stone orna- Below the many diagonals the two sharp lines
mentation that tops the piece like a feathered that terminate the drapery and separate the
headdress. legs repeat the shape of the cross— a detail in
These crosses date from the second half of which a maximum effect is achieved with a
the sixteenth century and come from Indian minimum of plasticity 7
. One wonders if the
communities that were articulate and strong in person who made it could have created a more
artistic traditions from pre-Conquest times. realistic figure or whether it was his techni-
Elizabeth Wilder Weismann has devoted con- cal limitations that were responsible for this
135
siderable study to such colonial sculpture. uniquely conventionalized yet revealing work
To seek out the sources of the various decora- of art.
tive elements here involved would indeed be an The Aztec crosses of stone are magnificent
interesting excursion into the fantasy world examples of the "primitive" artists' incredible
of the pre-Columbian past. It should be re- grasp of symbolism; in the last cross a symbol
marked that no evidence of this type of stone long familiar is expressionisticallv portrayed.
cross has been found in South America, but
plain wooden crosses with the instruments of The Biblical inspiration for the allegory of
the Passion attached to the shaft are common. the Mystic Vintage comes from Isaiah 63:3:
The crucifix known as Lord of the Tree "I have trodden the winepress alone; and
(fig. c) is said to have grown in the shape of of the people there was none with me. . .
."
a cross in a forest near Morelia. According to A representation of this subject is encoun-

the story the folk in the locality gathered in tered as early as the twelfth century in an
the open before the wondrous mesquite until illuminated book; a sketch by Diirer, a mural
it was removed to a small chapel. It is cov- attributed to him, and a few Italian paintings
ered with canvas and stucco and painted. of the Renaissance and Baroque periods also
There is Romanesque starkness in the mask- present the theme. These interpretations show
like oval face, sharply emphasized against the the metaphorical subject realistically rendered,
black of the body. The transposition of the producing story-telling pictures such as the
lance thrust from the dark body to the right artists of those centuries loved to concoct for
cheek of the figure is an ingenious device of many abstruse passages from the Bible.
the folk artist. A print of the Mystic Vintage (PL 20,
Vestiges of realism can be found in the fig. a) was made bv Hieronymus Wierix, 5 the
three examples just seen, although they are famous Flemish engraver who in association
predominantly symbolic. In the next illustra- with his brothers contributed thousands of
tion, a wooden crucifix from the Indian mis- engravings for the illustration of religious
sion church of San Javier at Mocovi, near books (1552-16 1
5). Here the saints are shown
Santa Fe, Argentina (fig. d), the portrayal is bringing in the grapes. The winepress, han-
expressionistic. No attempt was made to cover dled by God the Father, is an authentic de-
the wood or to disguise the joints in the cross- piction of a contemporary device (see Appen-
piece. This whole figure is carved with an dix, PL 190, fig. c); most representations, how-
amazing linear economy: the arms are a wavy ever, show a press with a horizontal beam, as
line, a circle represents the head, and crude, in Mainardi's painting on the high altar at
[56]
Cremona, Italy, dated 1590 (see Appendix, Dolorosa, especially by the gold tooling on
PL 190, fig. h). The blood of Christ flows her garment and halo.
into the vat, from which it is collected in a That the theme of the Mystic Vintage must
chalice bv two angels; the paten under the have been widely popular during the colonial
cup completes the svmbolism of the Eucha- period is shown bv the fact that other ver-
rist. Beside the winepress sits the Sorrowful sions exist in the Prado collection, probably
Mother, while in the foreground is a child- from the Cuzco school, and in Salta, Argen-
like company of saved souls, adoring and re- tina; a somewhat altered interpretation hangs
joicing. in the estate chapel at Conapaya, not far from

215
This eneravinCT, or reproductions of it, must Potosi, Bolivia.
have circulated widelv in the colonies. One And long after the colonial era this theme
painting that is obviously based on it hangs seems to have intrigued the imagination of
in the church of San Miguelito in Puebla, Jose G. Posada (1851-1913), a Mexican artist
Mexico, a canvas by Diego de Borgraf who, in his woodcuts, caricatured the corrupt
(fig. b). This Flemish artist, who worked also politics of his period and portrayed lusty,
in the Puebla cathedral, was born in Antwerp often vulgar scenes of even-day life. In his
55
and about 1652 emigrated to Puebla, where Christ of the Pulque {fig. e) he too touches
according to the records he married three the abstruse symbolism of the Mystic Vin-
times and died in 1686. tage. Here Christ is seated on a wine skin; be-
While in its general composition the sev- hind him is a keg and at his side the cactus plant
enteenth-century* painting remains similar to from which is made the popular drink pulque.
the sixteenth-centurv print, the Dolorosa has In his hand is a cup of liquid, which he is spill-
been brought forward to figure more promi- ing onto the earth. As Dionysiac as the pic-
nently in the scene. The action has under- ture appears, it still presents the original sym-
gone considerable transformation: a small soul bolism: the libation of Christ's blood to atone
kneels on the paten receiving baptism in the for the sins of the world.
holv blood and at the left the donor is intro- In not one of these representations does
duced, dressed in splendor and placed in an Christ show anguish. This might be explained
attitude of utmost devotion, an interesting and bv the transcendental character of the subject
lively portrait. expressed in the Flemish prototype. But that
An eighteenth-century canvas in Quito, the tortured and agonizing face did exist in
Ecuador (fig. c), clearly derives from the painting as well as in sculpture is shown in
Wierix en^ravingr It is signed "A. S.," the fragment of a canvas from Peru (fig. d).
initials which might indicate Antonio Salas, It is from a Christ on the Cross and despite
active about 1760, or eventually Antonio Silva, the limitations of the medium measures up
one of the painters chosen in 1786 to help to the carved examples.
complete the illustrated work of the great
Colombian botanist Jose Celestino Mutis. 1S3 In The arrangement of statues into a group
this canvas the position of Christ's body is was an exacting but satisfying task for the
basically the same, as is theHoly Ghost which dramatic and strongly plastic talent of the
hovers above his head. The composition is colonial artist. One such scene, the mourning
greatly simplified and one significant detail in over the crucified Christ (PI. 21, fig. b), is set
the symbolism is omitted: the blood does not forth with sincerity and storv-telling naivete.
flow from the vat into the chalice. Thus the This jjroup occupies the center of the main
reason for the two angels kneeling before the altar in a small Calvary chapel isolated on a
press is lost. In contrast to the engraving, the at- hilltop near Patzcuaro, Mexico. In the back-
tention here is sharply focused on the Mater ground looms the cross, a reminder of the
c
I
7 l
events which led up to this scene. Both of the been familiar to us. Its expression of divine
Marys and John touch the body of Christ— calm brings a new note into this collection
close composition of line and gesture. Only of suffering and tortured Christ figures. The
the heads and hands of these three figures are nobly sculptured face, with its brownish matte
executed plastically, carved of wood, and encarnacion and real hair, is framed by a
finely polychromed; their garments are of white headcloth and coverlet, which serve to
real silk, velvet, and lace and probably are contrast and lift the plastic and spiritual
more or less recent since from time to time qualities.
they are refreshed and replaced by devoted Our last visit was on the Sat-
to Morelia
hands. A sense of gesture is conveyed in the urday before Passion Sunday, at which time
drapery, however, and through it the compo- all altars, statues, and holy pictures are veiled,
sition is integrated. This is one of the rare cases in accordance with the traditional mourning
anywhere in which John is depicted with a for Christ's road to Calvary. We knew from
mustache. experience that during these two weeks be-
While a certain realism pervades the three no photographs could be
fore Easter almost
mourners in this tableau, Christ is represented made of church interiors, but we wanted a
in an expressionistic manner. Despite the de- last glimpse of this figure. From a bright sunny
lineation of anatomy, the wounds, the blood, street we stepped at midday into the church
and the crown of thorns, his figure is already but stopped instinctively just within the door;
changing into a symbol. One characteristic of the building was filled to the last bench with
pre-Columbian art is the effective combination members of a mestizo sodality, deep in prayer
of the realistic and the abstract. although no priest was visible. All the women
A rocky path leads up to the Calvary chapel were dressed alike, in uniform black with
and no settlement is around it. The courtyard black rebozos over their heads, their only
is overgrown with weeds and the whitewash decoration the purple silk ribbon about their
everywhere is peeling off. Near the door is a necks on which hung the golden badge of
plaque inscribed with the date 1666. The over- the order. This gathering of prayer-murmur-
seer'sfamily were the only people about, and ing women surrounded the Cristo del santo
a voung son helped us as we photographed entierro in his glass casket; he was their di-
the group. Just as the peal of the noon bells vine hero, laid to rest. Several turned inquir-
was floating up from the town the head of the inglv in our direction— somewhat inimicallv,
familv returned from the fields. He was a we felt, for our intrusion. Then we realized
pure-blood Tarascan, squat but stronglv built. how much this Christ— made out of the pith
His long angular face was characterized by of the corn and wearing the headband that
stiff upright graying hair and a sparse mus- was the mark of distinction in pre-Columbian
tache that merged into a square-cut beard. times— is the product of this soil and how much
He wore his old-fashioned grarb of white cot- he remains the exclusive property of this
ton drawers and loose shirt with the dignity people.

of a shaman. We praised the idyllic location Christianity7 had traveled far from its point
of the chapel and the beauty of the mourning of origin to conquer and embrace the second
group. He listened with pride and asked us largest continent in the world. It underwent
to contribute toward the upkeep of the chapel, changes in iconography, ritual, and philosophy.
which we did. Then with a lift of the hand, Not only geographical and psychological dis-
he gave us a blessing in the Tarascan tongue. tances but spiritual and artistic capacities also
The Christ Entombed in the church of Las were involved in creating the Indianized
Monjas Catarinas, Morelia (fig. a), had long Christ.
[58]
5
•<SH
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
T hough the Kingdom of New Granada of

the Indies was one of the more remote terri-
cocoa, tropical spices and resins were loaded
for Europe. In the hinterland was excellent
tories which the viceroy of Peru had to ad- farmincr country, where tropical fruits and
minister, it was not cut off to form the Vice- vegetables, cereals, and cattle and swine were
rovaltv of New Granada until 17 17. The new raised for the town's markets. But this citywas
viceregal seat was at Santa Fe de Bogota, and also the victim of its fortunate position, for
the administrative area included present-dav English, French, and Dutch freebooters made
Ecuador, Colombia. Venezuela, and Panama. it their goal. The was high
capital of .Mexico
As heretofore, for the sake of easv identifica- on a mountainous tableland far from the
tion modern geographical names are used. coast, and Lima, though near the Pacific, was
With three high mountain ranges running difficult of approach from Europe. Cartagena,
through this region and deep river valleys be- on the other hand, lay exposed on the Carib-
tween them, flowing northerly, it was in some bean shore, easily accessible from the many
wavs more accessible from Europe than from islands where pirate bands had their hideouts
Lima. Its fine harbor at Cartagena was the and whence clear sailing was possible with
first authorized port of call on the American luck— and loot— to the safety of any European
mainland for the fleet of licensed merchant port desired.
vesselsfrom the motherland; in fact, this re- For this reason the very existence of the
gion was known as Tierra Firme, the main- town depended on its defense system. Fortifi-
land. cations were started by the order of Philip II
(ruled 556-1 598), which for two centuries
1
Cartagena, called Pearl of the Indies, was were in the process of building or of enlarge-
made a city in 1575. For a long time it vied ment. At strategic positions in walls that were
with Mexico City and Lima in wealth and sixtv feet high and forts' feet thick, assault
importance. The annual arrival of the Span- towers and lookouts were constructed, and
ish galleons was an outstanding event for the beneath them were built underground pas-
populace, and when the trading fleet was rid- sageways and dungeons. Thousands of Ne-
ing in the harbor the citv was a giant fair. groes were imported to work on these bul-
Muletrains laden with Spanish wines, cloth, warks, as well as on the breakwaters which
tools, and other manufactured goods made protected the harbor entrance and the low-
their way inland, while precious metals, pearls lving town from hurricane damage. 1 "
from Venezuela, emeralds from the highlands One section of the fortification, called La
of Colombia, indigo and dvewood, tobacco, Tenaza (the pincers), was constructed on
[59]
the breakwater toward the northwest under The stone portal, dated 1770, extends
the supervision of the Spanish engineer An- through the two stories and is distinguished by
tonio de Arevalo between 1765 and 1771 a projecting pediment with heavy, undulating
(PI. 22, fig. a). A drawbridge and subterranean sides. In the center, between two spirals, were
passage connected it with the land. With its the arms of Spain, now effaced. Deeply cof-
back to the inner city of Cartagena it com- fered panels flank the arched entrance, and, as
manded a sweeping view of the sea. frame, a ropelike molding begins at the top in
The old citv lies enclosed within the ram- two tight spirals and drops down on either
parts. It was first established on a sandbar but side to the base.
soon spread over its bounds. Bv earlv seven-

teenth century its population numbered fif- Tunja. known also as the Emblazoned Citv,
teen hundred Spanish inhabitants, in addition was one of the few colonial centers that had
81
to mestizos, mulattoes, and free Negroes. not vet felt the full force of the moderniza-
Even todav, bleached by tradewinds and tion craze at the time of our visit in 1945.
blazing under the tropical sun, Cartagena re- While here and there an image with the spir-
tains something of the staunch and indomitable ituality of the bygone epoch may have been
air of the important colonial stronghold it once replaced by an impersonal, factory-made

was. Whole sectors of streets are lined with statue, or some chapel redecorated in execrable
colonial houses with grilled windows, behind taste, much of the city's colonial splendor still
which the womenfolk could sit for hours and remained.

see and be seen without leaving the home Nearly 9,300 feet in elevation, Tunja over-
(fig. b). Below, along the wall, a benchlike looks a bleak mountainous landscape and is
base of brick provided a place for the menfolk swept the year round by cold harsh winds.
to rest as they conversed, without ceremony, In the second decade of the seventeenth cen-
through the windows. Up and down the street tury the city itself had over six hundred
the anvil-shaped corbels below the grillework Spanish residents and the entire district was
alternate with the blockv steps that lead to described as one of the most thickly settled
the doorwavs. Most of the houses here have sections of the country, partly because of its
two stories and the wooden balconies are 5old and silver mines. The facades, in har-
open, not shuttered as in Lima. Wood was monv with the surrounding country, are aus-
preferred to iron in some parts of the colonies, tere, almost without exception lacking the
for iron was apt to corrode in the moist trop- plavful exuberance of the Baroque. Like the
ics. This type of house, well-adapted to the cathedral of Tunja, they bespeak a frozen
hot climate, is common in southern Spain in Renaissance (see PL /).
the district of Jerez and in the Western Hemi- Thus all the more astonishing is it to find
sphere in Cuba, Nicaragua, and coastal Peru. the interiors of certain churches displaying
Philip III (reigned 1 598—162 1 ) ordered the pomp and ebullience in their decoration.
erection of a building to house the Holv Office Among the most notable of these is the
of the Inquisition, which was established in church of Santo Domingo (PL 23). The
Cartagena in 16 10 with jurisdiction over pres- Dominicans arrived on the American shores
ent Colombia and the island of Santo Do- with the Conquistadores, and together with
mingo. 57 The Palace of the Inquisition as it their rival mendicant order, the Franciscans,
stands todav (fig. c), facing a palm-lined plaza thev took a prolonged and effective part in
of the old citv, was finished in earlv eight- the pacification of the New World and in
eenth century. Constructed of stone and brick the conversion of the Indians. The Inquisition
and whitewashed, it is a dignified edition of was in the hands of the Dominicans— not in
the typical balcony dwelling of the citv. vain did the Castilian St. Dominic fieht with
[60]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
zeal and decision against heathen and heretic. The reliefs are placid and somewhat interna-
The Dominican monastery in Tunja was tional in tradition; in contrast the framing
founded by 1551, and in the first decade of its decoration around them has a remarkable re-
existence the order received additional land. In gional flavor. The columns are arranged in
1568, upon the death in the city of the Con- sets of threes, with the foremost one in each
quistador Garcia Arias Maldonado (Capitan case composed of figural and floral elements
General, Regidor Perpetuo, and Justicia sprouting out of a candelabrum base; inter-
Mayor), much of his property was received esting also is the very original native version
by bequest for a chapel to the Virgin of the of the spiral column.
181
Rosary, Dominican patroness. The Virgin of the Rosary stands in the cen-
This Brotherhood of the Rosary was estab- ter in her camarin. This term, meaning "little
lished by friar Pedro Bedon, a sculptor and chamber," sometimes denotes merely her niche
painter born in Quito who reached Tunja and sometimes a small sacristy behind the
between 1591 and 1595. Bedon was an enthusi- main altar where the image is tended and
astic devotee of the Virgin of the Rosary, and decorated. The Colombian interpretation, how-
he was active also with the Rosary cofradia ever, is quite specifically a masonry oriel,
in Lima. 65 It is possible that the actual con- built with windows (see PL 29). Thus the
struction and decoration of the chapel in figure stands behind the main line of the altar
Tunja proceeded under his direction: some and is illuminated by natural light from the
detect Quito influence in its interior decora- outside. The effect is highly dramatic.
tion; and, as will be seen later, Quito as a In this chapel the Virgin's bower is en-
major spiritual and artistic center did exert crusted with heavily gilded flowers and medal-
considerable influence on many of its neigh- lions, reflected in fancifully framed mirrors.
bors. Details now surviving here, however, can Here and there little angels— perhaps those
hardly be said to be directly connected with it. furnished by Maestro Buitraso— are playing on
The Rosario chapel (fig. b) opens off the musical instruments. At the center of the great
left aisle of the church of Santo Domingo. gilded medallions are bowls of blue and white
A sheathing of wood painted a deep red and porcelain; other ceramic ware is used in the
encrusted with gilded medallions softens the same way in the church nave. The chapel as
outline of the architectural elements, and large- a whole has a strong Mudejar feeling, and the
patterned wooden ceilings, decorated with retable exemplifies the high quality of the re-
pendent knobs, like fruits, lend the effect of gional craftsmanship here.
a grotto. On the side walls are panels carved One of the side altars in the church of Santo
in low relief, framed like paintings and sep- Domingo is inscribed to the effect that Fran-
arated by pilasters which, though thev prob- cisco de Ocampo, sculptor, made it in 1609
ably date from mid-seventeenth century, re- and Bias Martin Silvestre painted it. This, then,
tain a feeling of the Renaissance. is an authentic Spanish retable; the contract
The main retable (fig. a), possibly the for it, written in Seville and dated 1608, is
latest work in the chapel, is mentioned as preserved in that city. It was intended for
nearly finished in 1689. It occupies the entire the Rosario chapel in this church. 27
end wall. Lorenzo Lugo contracted for the It has been asserted repeatedly that the
eight reliefs from the life of the Virgin, and Chibcha Indians, excellent pre-Columbian gold
the sculptor Jose de Sandoval undertook the workers of this region, made no significant -
tabernacle. To make sure of a good gilder the artistic contribution after the Conquest; the
administrator sent to Bogota for one Diego detail of the lower part of the altar in the
de Rojas, and the sculptor Gonzalo Buitraso right aisle of the same church (fig. c) makes
is recorded as furnishing eight small angels. 172 one wonder. The sun, a symbol of the God-
[61]
head, is here as much Indian as Christian; what suggestive of a proscenium arch. Here
though carved of wood it appears as if cast in the polygonal outline of the piers is Mudejar
pre-Columbian gold. The framing of the face but the type of the ornamentation is charac-
in a rosary, with the cross placed at the top teristic of Tunja. A great five-part retable fills
like the emblem in a coronet, is unusual. In the entire width of the apse. In the outer pan-
the square medallions on either side and in the els are figures of the four Church Fathers
flowing decoration around the border a finer carved in relief, and in the two inner rows
feeling for the medium— wood— is evident. saints of the Franciscan and the Dominican
Both the design and the proportions suggest orders stand beneath their respective emblems;
that the patterns may have been seen on a statues of the Saviour and the Virgin occupy
reliquary or other small object and enlarged the central section. Judging from its style this
to fill the space, a not uncommon practice retable probably dates from only a little later
among native craftsmen, who had no tradition than the building; as in many early altars,
to guide them as to which patterns were more most of the figures stand out in three-quarters
appropriate for a large space and which for a relief from a flat and plain background, heavy
small. with gold.
On the red pier of the arco toral (triumphal The pulpit (fig. a), which is suspended from
arch) a decorative pillar is outlined in gilded the wall, bears polychromed figures in relief
wood, with flamelike motifs darting out at the against a gilded wood background, and its
sides (fig. d). Here familiar decorative ele- canopy— no doubt reworked— is carved to im-
ments became exotic through the touch of the itate drapery, with even tassels suggested. On
native artists. Canephorae, or basket carriers, top, in an ornate circular frame, is a crucifix,
bearing pineapples, grapes, pomegranates, and so placed that one can look up from the nave
melons figure prominently in the design, and and see the face of the gilded stucco Godhead
above the pedestal are two fanciful satyrs on the wall shining through the circle. The
seated contrapposto. The "tongues of flame" inspiration for this extraordinary symbolism
may be an Indianized version of the acanthus is found in John 3:16: "For God so loved the
that is applied around the arches leading to world, that he gave his only begotten Son,
the Rosario chapel. The dog at the bottom that whosoever believeth in him should not
of the pier is fashioned of stucco, an amusing perish, but have everlasting life." The Dove,
rendition of St. Dominic's symbol. symbol of the Holy Ghost, poised beneath
the canopy above the head of the preacher in
The Franciscan monastery in Tunja was reminder of the Pentecost, completes the Trin-
founded in 1550, and within a quarter of a ity. It would seem that the composition was
century was standing. This struc-
a building more elaborate before the canvas at the back
ture caved in and a new one was begun which, was added. A Franciscan cord, decorated with
despite usual financial difficulties, was finished the fleur-de-lis, another symbol of the Trinity,
in the first quarter of the seventeenth century. is used to frame the entire unit. Below the
The church of San Francisco has a high broad canvas in the stucco relief can be seen a hu-
nave (PL 24, fig. b). Two side aisles, much man figure with upraised arms; it has lost
lower in height, lie the other side of the heavy much of its colorful appearance through un-
supporting walls. Below the trough-shaped skillful repainting.
wooden ceiling are beams showing Mudejar The church of Santa Clara in Tunja be-
interlacing, and in the corners are ornamental longed to the first nunnery that was founded in
braces in the Mudejar tradition. the Kingdom of New Granada. Its cornerstone
As is frequent in Colombia, the apse is sep- was laid in 1571, and three vears later con-
arated from the nave by a wide arch, some- struction was well under way, with both funds
[62]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
and land provided bv the Conquistador Mon- the Mudejar style to his need, according to
ona Francisco Salguero and his wife. Like the his own taste and technical ability.
Rosario chapel of Santo Domingo, this church In the house of Juan de Vargas, which
preserves a remarkable blend of styles in a U Santa Clara in the same quarter
local interpretation of the Mudejar. Its inte- of Tunja, frescoes are preserved dating from
rior i
fig. c), decorated during the seventeenth the last third of the sixteenth centurv. Fig-
cenmrv. shows I pointed triumphal arch ures from classical mvthologv framed in ara-
sheathed in gilded wood, Mudejar rather than besques decorate one hall, and in another room
Gothic in its effect. Canvases in large frames is a displav of exotic animals, including the
cover the walls so completelv that not an inch elephant, in the manner of earlv tapestrv
of undecorated surface remains. The ceiling work.
is studded with gilded medallions and painted The richness of the Tunja district and the
stars. Especiallv splendid are the medallions on importance of the citv are borne out t
the spandrels of the arch, composed of bunches fact that bv 16:3 all the major conventual
of grapes and leaves with spiraling tendrils. orders had their own establishments here. At
The rinceau on the arch, with its birds and that time the archbishop of the colonv di-
grapes, has a Bvzantine feeling, whereas the vided the town into three parishes, the total
tvpe of ceiling, and the squinchlike bracket Spanish population of which was six hun-
that occupies the corner are stronglv Mud dred. It had five large churches, two nun-
But the double-headed eagle on the bracket is neries, md five small churches and chapels.
not Mudejar; nor are the plumelike ornaments The parish church of Santa Barbara was
that fringe the arch or the composition on the founded in 1 599. Its triumphal arch, like manv
ceiling above, which depicts an angel-guarded others in this citv. is sheathed with gilded
Host with a painting of the Crucifixion. Even wood. These piers also are dmded into sec-
more original is the apse ceiling i see P.. tors, each with its own At the
motif. spring
The outspoken Hispano-Moorish features of the arch is a canephora. which is similar
apparent in Latin America— the shape of some to those on the preceding plate; here the rep-
domes, the manner of construction and dec- resentation of the bodv is comparativelv flat,
oration of manv ceilings, and certain ornamen- lessemphasized than the various elements that
tal designs—cannot be explained whollv bv flow above and below it— as if the carver was
the presence there of Moorish artisans, even unaccustomed to bringing out the human fig-
though the Spanish soldiers" shortlv after the ure in such an arrangement. On the broad
Conquest is said to have included as manv as surface of the pier at the left a column is
two hundred converted Mohammedans, some outlined bv spiraling garlands. The triple col-
of whom mav have been craftsmen. 76 The umns of the altar are a Baroque feature, but
deep-rooted Moorish tradition of the mother- otherwise its general spirit is again a frozen
land was still alive also in the minds of those Renaissance.
who guided the construction in the New At the time of our visit extensive repairs
World. Every- master carpenter had to be as were in progress. A hole in the ceiling re-
familiar with Mudejar interlacing as he was vealed the original tvpe of roofing, a con-
with a coffered wooden ceiling of the Renais- struction of reed and clav (see PL iSS). and
sance. An book of architectural draw-
extant a completely new facade was being con-
ings by the friar Andres de San Miguel— structed, disfiguring the colonial beautv of
Spanish-born architect active in Mexico be- the building.
tween 1 59S and 1644— contains a comprehen-
sive treatise on Mudejar joinery.1* And the re- Little more than fifty miles across the chillv
gional craftsman of the New World adapted pirxrno from Tunja, in one of the highest val-
leys of the Cordillera Oriental, lies the village the belfries. The projecting stone brackets
of Mongui at an altitude of over 9,500 feet. were seemingly intended to support a gallery
Its valley and the surrounding hills were pop- (see Pis. 92, 109). Noteworthy is the use of
ulated long before the Conquest. This region twin columns on the belfries, a contemporary
was assigned for evangelization to the Tunja Baroque element in a structure which is rather
Franciscans. retarded in its general style.
The first establishment there was comprised This matter of time lag is still more pro-
of a chapel for the Indians and a rest house nounced when we look down on the build-
for the missionaries who worked in the re- ing from the rear (fig. d). A cruciform plan
gion. Later, in the first half of the seventeenth is evident. Note the extended nave and the
century, it would seem that a church was manner of constructing the transepts, the lan-
erected, but this fell into such disrepair that tern, and the apse, which is like a separate
in 1702 a royal permit was issued for a new lean-to.
church building and an adjoining monastery. In the interior the church is divided by
It took about three decades, however, before three aisles. A number of large paintings by
the work was started (the contract was signed the famous Colombian Gregorio Vasquez,
in 1733), and the natives of the valley as well signed and dated 1671, decorates the walls.
as the friars contributed money and labor. An unusual picture in this church is pre-
Martin Polo Caballero was the master archi- sented in Chapter 12 (see PL 149).
168
tect, and under his direction the complex That this is not an isolated instance in which
was completed in the 1760's. devices from earlier periods were employed
The vast church has an impressive approach in the eighteenth century is shown in the
by reason of the stairways which ascend from architecture of the parish church at Leiva,
three sides (PL 25, fig. a); this tvpe of en- like Mongui in the department of Bovaca
trance will be seen on the more pretentious (fig. b). Lying in a valley between two moun-
church of San Francisco in Quito (see PL 98). tain ranges which separate the towns of Tunja
The central part of the facade, flanked by and Chiquinquira, this community boasted a
two massive towers, is composed with restraint, lively market place even in pre-Columbian
its low heavy scale recalling the Romanesque. times. In 1573 the Indian chiefs who held
A bit of fine stone tracery fills the small round sway over the region were asked to gather
window between the segments of the broken contributions for the erection of a church.
pediment, and a crucifix is placed at the apex. At that time the town had about one hundred
The copts of arms at the sides of the arched and fifty Spanish residents, who owned large
windows show the insignia of the Franciscan cattle ranches and sugar plantations; cotton
order of Spain combined with that of the and henequen also were grown in the pro-
proud city of Tunja. This section of the fa- tected valley. The facade of the present build-
cade, which is built of stone, terminates in a ing is extremely simple, almost without orna-
peak like a gable. The upper section, of brick, ment, and the tower massive. Seemingly space
appears to be of a later date. The builders was left on the other side for a second tower.
probably followed a prototype for the lower The platform, reconstructed with cement, un-
part, but in the remainder thev seem to have fortunately has completely lost its colonial
developed the plan on the spot as work pro- character.
gressed. The rear section in this photograph pro-
One of the great heraldic shields on the vides an illuminating study of the manner of
towers gives 1699 as the year when they were construction. A roof of heavy tile covers
begun. Their stone bases furnish an interesting most durable timber, and the dome, flanked
contrast in texture and color to the brick of in Byzantine manner with half-domes on the
[64]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
transept sides, is constructed of wattle and edifices; they had to modify— sometimes radi-
daub. cally—the building methods which they knew
In the capital citv of Bogota the Jesuits and often had to invent new ways and means
started building their church and college in to satisfy their needs.
i6o>, one rear after their installation there.
Among the first friars was the Italian Juan Bogota was founded in 1538 by Gonzalo
Bautista Coluccini, born in Lucca. He is de- Jimenez de Quesada. a man of letters as well
scribed as a man of literary talent, versed in as one of the most daring figures of the Con-
the astronomy of the day; his observations quest. He came up from the coast in search
were the first recognized studies of the starry of the head waters of Colombia's largest river,
heavens above the colonies. He also had a named by the white men the Magdalena. After
knowledge of architecture, and to him is months of hardship, during which three-quar-
credited the construction of the church of San ters of his armv perished, he arrived with one
Ignacio. seen here from the patio of the for- hundred and sixn*-six ragged and starving men
mer college (fig. c). The main part seems to on the plains of Bogota— or Bacacta as it was
have been under way bv 162 >. and the build- originally called, after the Chibcha chief of
ing was dedicated in 163^. before its comple- the territon"— 8.660 feet above sea level. One
tion. Bv 1639 the side chapels were in the year later nvo other famous Conquistadores
process of building, with some of them even arrived, Sebastian de Belalcazar, coming from
then serving as mausoleums for the city's aris- Peru, and the German Nicholas Federman,
165
tocracy. In this church stands the celebrated who followed a branch of the Orinoco from
altar caning, the Ecstasy of St. Ignatius (see Venezuela. The settlement grew rapidly, en-
PL <;6). The main retable. the pulpit, and the larged bv the newcomers and the colonists
choir stalls are mainly the work of the Jesuit who followed after them. By the end of the
friar Luisinch. whose Slavic name is a reveal- sixteenth century Bogota was already re-
ing bit of evidence that different national garded as a cultural center, especially after
strains contributed to the blend that is colonial 1564. when it became the seat of the cap-
art. taincv-general for this region of South Amer-
According to tradition the plans for this ica.In 171- it was made the capital of the
structure came from Rome— a statement made newly formed Yicerovaltv of New Granada
about nearly even* Jesuit building in Latin and achieved even greater prominence. How-
America. But only a glance is needed to con- ever. Bogota was the most difficult of the vice-
vince one that this shallow cap above a high regal centers to approach and the time lag,
drum has little in common with the elegant general in the arts throughout the colonies,
hemispherical domes of Roman Baroque. In is even more noticeable here.
contrast to the European Baroque churches, Few examples of the first centun* of the
which were constructed mainly of stone, San city's colonial architecture still exist. For this
Ignacio in Bogota is of brick. Together with reason its church of San Francisco is of great
the examples shown from Mongui and Leiva, importance, especially so because it has pre-
it calls to mind those early small churches in sen-ed sculpture in wood and paintings from
the Balkans and the Near East which still sur- that period. The letter of endowment for this
vive from a pre-Baroque era. Such a linking church is dated 1569, but a half-centun-
with Rome senes only to blind one to the passed before the work was finished inside
true values of local achievement. It is to the and out. Like most of Bogota's churches it
everlasting credit of the colonial builders that is serene in spirit and its brownish stone exte-
with the labor and material available thev rior carries restrained decoration (Pi 26,
were able to raise such substantial and tasteful fig. a). It has onlv one tower— stepped slightly
[ «5l
forward— which was erected in late eighteenth in La Mancha, contracted for the polychrom-
century to replace the original one that fell ing of the retable in 1633.
in the earthquake of 1785. The single entrance One section of this famed retable shows its
is by coupled columns bearing medal-

flanked general build-up (fig. c). Biblical scenes make
lions in very low relief at the base of the shafts up the bottom row of panels, including the
and on the pedestals and is topped by a large Flight, the Baptism of Jesus, the Martyrdom
window that lights the choir. The scalloped of St. Catherine, and Jerome in the Wilder-
espadana is finished with a heavy coping sur- ness (see also PL j8). It is a question whether
mounted by finials. Ascucha himself carved these or only de-
Within, the nave is broad (fig. b), with an signed them and executed some of the archi-
aisle on the right and a deep side chapel on tectural decoration. The second tier is de-
the left near the sacristy. The choir gallery— voted to women saints— a rare occurrence—
from which this photograph was taken— still which were carved by Ascucha's followers,
retains its fine ceiling of Mudejar tracery, and and the third contains the Apostles, in half-
the gilded pendant at the top of the illustra- length, attributed to a Franciscan lay brother
tion is a remnant of the elaborate decoration of the seventeenth century. The marked sim-
that once covered the nave. In 175 1 glass plification of the content, as well as the re-
windows were installed in the roof, an in- duction in size, of the upper carvings sets off
genious solution for increasing the light. the rich and lively plasticity of the lowest
The use of two large pulpits, one on either group. The double columns that separate the
side of the apse, is rare; their heavy domed bal- reliefs are classically cool, showing a spiral
dachins are surmounted by life-size statues. fluting rather than the Baroque twist.
The apse itself, which gives the appearance of a In the sacristv of this church stands an
separate room behind the triumphal arch, is altar dedicated to St. Joseph (fig. d), which
lined with gilded and polychromed reliefs in is quite different in concept. The wardrobes
wood; only the central section above the altar and other furniture there are dated 16 18, but
has statues in the round placed in niches. This the retable appears to be later. A figure of St.
vast work was contracted for in 1623, after Joseph holding the Christ Child, his flowering
the design of Ignacio Garcia de Ascucha, a staff in his hand, occupies the onlv niche. An-
native of Asturias, Spain, and was created gels are seated in the broken pediment, and
170
under his supervision. Ascucha, born in 1580, above, in a sweeping semicircular band, is
arrived in the New World at the turn of the an unusual composition of the Annunciation,
century, fleeing from Spain because of a marital showing Gabriel on the left, Mary on the
scandal. His design for the altar in the cathe- lower right, and in the center God the Father,
dral won for him, in 1620, a commission for who is turned toward her. Paintings by Vas-
work on one of the side chapels of the Fran- quez of the annunciation to Joseph and of his
ciscan church and, finally, the contract for death are incorporated into the piece. While
the great retable. He had an atelier in the a classicizing tendency can be discerned in
district of Las Nieves, the artists' quarter of the decoration of the apse just discussed, this
the city, with Creole masters as assistants and retable bears the impress of colonial Baroque.
slaves as apprentices. In 1629 he died sud- It is, however, a rather literal application of
denly, long before the work was completed, the Baroque, for although prescribed elements
and he now lies at the foot of his own master- of the stvle are present they do not produce
piece. A deposition made a year before his the rich complexity and the sweeping drama
death to the guardian of the Franciscan mon- which are apparent in examples to be seen
astery has preserved his story. Lorenzo Her- later in this volume.
nandez de la Camara, a native of Argamasilla, At the time of our visit in 1945 ê demoli-
[66]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
tion of this colonial landmark— unique in all The much smaller monastery of San Juan
Latin America—was being considered to per- de Dios— the Hospitalers— with its church
mit the widening of the street. Rather than (fig. d), was finished as early as 1635, but
harm way, aes-

a recent building across the it was twice enlarged in the first half of the
thetically of no was proposed to tear

value, it eighteenth century after being damaged by
down the church and transfer the more impor- earthquakes. Friar Juan Antonio de Guzman
169
tant works of art to the colonial museum. is noted for his untiring efforts in the refur-
In 1948 a revolutionary mob attacked and bishing of the building (1 729-1 757). Today
destroyed several monuments of the city, but the church boasts several good paintings as
fortunately the church was harmed little. well as sculpture and, despite neglect, a well-
Doubtless, however, it will be endangered pe- preserved ceiling, barrel-vaulted in wood and
riodically until the general public is educated studded with gilded ornaments. The cloister,
to take pride in it as a precious legacy from which was being torn down at the time of our
the past. visit in 1945, had a colonnade that recalled
the Mudejar, like the Dominican cloister above.
Although permission to found the first Dormer windows, unusual in that they were
Dominican monastery and church in Bogota constructed of glass on three sides, made the
was granted in 1550, the earliest portion of attic floor livable; they must have been added
the complex (PL 27, fig. a) probably does not when glass was plentiful, perhaps even manu-
antedate 16 19. In 1761 a fire destroyed the factured in the colony. A similar type of con-
interior of the church and also parts of the struction can still be seen in the convent of
monastery. The work of restoration, under Santa Teresa in Cuzco, Peru.
the direction of the Capuchin friar Perez de In Bogota, as in Tunja, some church inte-
Petres, took from 1792 to 18 17. In the latter riors have preserved an opulence of gilded
year, during an earthquake, the dome col- woodwork, even though the exteriors have
lapsed; it was rebuilt on the original drum in been modernized. Usually the ceilings show
neo-Renaissance style by Pedro Cantini and a characteristic ornamentation, with diaper
Eugenio Lopez.* 9 It was in this church that the patterns echoing Renaissance designs. The
Great Colombian Congress was held upon the church of La Candelaria, or Purification,
return of Simon Bolivar from Venezuela in which has such a ceiling, stands in a quarter
1827; the building is still in use. Sections of its as yet little disturbed by modernization. It
walls, some of them visible in the photograph, is surrounded by one-story colonial dwellings
survive from the early epoch. that boast imposing stone portals and spacious
The seventeenth-century cloister, with its on the same square is the house
inside patios;
wide arches and slender coupled columns, has in which Vasquez lived, worked, and died.
a Mudejar feeling. In the nineteenth century Most of the interior decoration of this church
the monastery became the property of the is said to have been finished in 1703; in impres-
state and was used to house the main post sion it is late Renaissance. Diego Sanchez
office. Situated as it was in a densely settled deMontemayor was in charge of the work. 170
portion of the city, at the junction of the busi- The detail of the ceiling illustrated here
est thoroughfares, its central location sealed (fig. e) is the under side of the unusually deep
its fate, and in the 1930's itwas demolished choir loft, which is located just above the en-
to make way for a large modern building. trance. In the pattern a leafy motif is effec-
Newspapers, magazines, and cultural societies tively paired compact medallion. (From
with a
all protested in vain; for seldom are human- this church comes the Pieta that is shown on
ists victorious over commercial and political PI. 88.)
interests anywhere on earth. The construction of the church of San
[67]
Diego was begun in 1607 as a Franciscan And three years later the viceroy withdrew
recoleta, or retreat; it was dedicated to San to the Franciscan monastery nearby, abandon-
Diego de Alcala. 169 Built on the site of a sum- ing his high office and living out his days as
mer villa it lay some distance from the capi- the friar Jose de Jesus Maria. He made the
tal in an idvllic spot on the Tunja road. In its donations described above in the year of his
plain walls and unornamented portal is re- retirement from public office.
vealed the intention of modest and contem- In the list of Solis' gifts are mentioned por-
plative living. The church came to public celains taken from his own house. At that time
notice when miraculous powers were attrib- such ware was an object of great interest and
uted to a small unfinished statue of the Virgin the possession of it a mark of distinction.
there, sculpturedbv Juan de Cabrera. A chapel Majolica and porcelain were all the rage in
was dedicated to the imaae—
D called the Virgin
O the early eighteenth century; in Europe and
of the Fields— and the people flocked to the even in some colonial centers excellent and
place, bearing valuable gifts. The worldly frequently original ware was produced. It was
viceroy v Folch de Cardona, who took
Soli's used for both exterior and interior decora-
office in 1753, lavished his devotion upon this tion, as well as for the table. If whole rooms
figure. He ordered elaborate silver vessels from could not be lined with it, as in the porce-
Quito for the chapel, donated Brussels lace lain salons of Aranjuez, Dresden, and Schon-
and splendid garments for the Virgin's adorn- brunn, plaques and single pieces were fea-
ment, and into the seventeenth-century altar tured, framed in panels of gilded wood. Such
had a camarin constructed, an exquisite Rococo medallions are found in Colombia, especially
salon. in camarines, where the decorative effect of
A detail from this chamber (fig. c) shows the colored design is enhanced bv brilliant
a palm tree in gilded wood as principal motif illumination.

placed against a lacquered cream-colored back- In the example illustrated here (fig. b) a
ground. The spacing is airy, and the individual bowl in two shades of blue on white is set
motifs are kept separate in accordance with off bv an elaborate frame of carved and gilded
Rococo taste; mirrors are used as part of the wood; allegedly this piece came from a Tunja
design. The palm tree as a motif— here sug- church, now demolished (see also PL 23).
gestive of the phrase "Quasi palma . .
." from It is not of Chinese, Spanish, or colonial pro-
the Psalms— has already been encountered in venience, as was variously suggested; the brush
stone on the facade of Comayagua's cathedral mark on the back is unclear, but the Delft
and in stucco on the dome of the Sagrario Museum in Holland has identified it as delft-
there (see PL 6). ware of the type called "little pancake" and
The Marques de Soli's, an intimate friend of dated it as from mid-eighteenth century. It
Ferdinand VI, continued to lead as profligate is not hard porcelain but earthenware with
165
and adventurous a life after he was appointed a tin enamel glaze.
a viceroy in the New World as he had in Articles of majolica, including all kinds of
Madrid. So firmly entrenched in roval favor tile, were produced in the Low Countries as
was he that the king, though admonishing him earlv as the sixteenth century. About 1560
publicly to avoid further scandal, privately or 1 ~o, potters from Antwerp, as Protestant
sent him assurances of confidence and friend- refugees, fled to Holland and England, and
ship. The most famous of his love affairs, within a hundred years the Dutch city of
that with the Creole Maria Lutgarda de Espina Delft had become famous for its pottery. Un-
(called La Marichuela), was the talk of two til the end of the eighteenth century the thriv-
41
continents. After her heyday Dona Maria ing export trade of the Delft potter supplied
retired, in 1758, to the nunnery of Santa Clara. a larê market. Designs were borrowed from
[68]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
contemporary Chinese work, which was im- both capitals by a dismaying series of moun-
ported in quantity by the Dutch East India tain ridges and deep valleys. Today the visitor
Company. A close imitation of Chinese pat- walking about the streets finds white marble
terns characterizes many types of eighteenth- tablets on numerous houses, inscribed with
century delft, and often as many as five colors names prominent in its colonial history or in
appear in a single piece. Holland had then its struggle for independence.
long been a leader in commerce and her trade This city was founded in 1536 by the Con-
relations with the Iberian Peninsula were al- quistador Balalcazar, and four years later it
ready centuries Although Portugal pro-

old. became the administrative seat for the whole
duced a high-grade ware of its own, Dutch province. Since it belonged to Peru until 17 17,
tiles were used in that country to such an it is not surprising that artistic influences came
extent that a student of Dutch tile pictures first from Peru, by way of Quito, and only
must visit there to obtain a comprehensive later from Bogota. But throughout its entire
view of the subject; contemporary Italy also, colonial existence the city manifested a degree
though a prolific manufacturer of ceramic ob- of artistic independence.
jects, imported Dutch ware. For often an ar- Popayan's extant colonial monuments date,
ticle created in a foreign land has a greater fas- in the main, from mid-eighteenth century, for
cination than a home product. As early as the in 1736 a severe earthquake all but destroyed
reign of Philip II the Spanish crown granted to it. Apparently the rebuilding of the church
a number of Dutch, Genoese, English, Flem- of Santo Domingo (PL 28, fig. d) was started
ish, and French merchants the privilege of soon after the catastrophe, since the keystone
establishing trading agencies in Cadiz; and in the entrance arch carries the date 1741. Its
that port held the monopoly of commerce to monolithic solidity, heavy tower base, and
the New World from 1720 to 1765. Dutch deep portal reflect the caution born 0/ the
merchants carried inexpensive delftware to disaster. With lighter material and more
Latin America as ballast for their nearly modest bulk, the structure was completed in
empty outward-bound ships also from the 1750.
home harbors of Rotterdam and Delfshaven The gray-brown stone of the portal stands
and sold it there for any good offer thev out sharply from the whitewashed walls. It has
could get. Thus this blue and white bowl a double broken pediment: the central one,
attained such a splendid and exotic application with its heavy engaged columns, is echoed by
in a remote corner of Latin America, so distant another on a recessed plane. A central window
from its place of origin. Declared "Talavera" with a flaring frame fills the space in the curve
in the catalogue of the Bogota museum, it of the pediment, seeming to depress it. The
provides another clear instance of non-Spanish candelabrum effect of the columns— a Plater-
artistic influence in the colonies. 179 esque feature— is most unusual at that late date.
Simple but powerful regional motifs are carved

Popayan lies in the fertile Pubenza Val- in the stonework, each one set off bv itself and
ley in southwestern Colombia and enjoys a thereby given individual emphasis. Today the
broad view of mountain peaks— some of them University of Cauca is housed in the former
volcanoes— veiled in a dark blue haze. This monastery adjoining it at the right.
was a rich territory and its climate pleasing, The church of San Francisco in Popavan
but so remote that up to mid-seventeenth was begun in 1775 under the regional architect
century most bishops refused an appointment Antonio Garcia and was completed about
to the see or managed to stay awav from it. twentv years later; the tower, joining the
Though a main station on the overland route church with the former monastery, is a twen-
from Cartagena to Lima, it was separated from tieth-centurv addition. In its bell is fifty
[69]
178
pounds of gold, the gift of early benefactors. That architectural feature so often encoun-
A blend of styles can be observed in the tered in colonial churches in Colombia, the
facade (fig. a). It is not the retable type. It camarin, has already been discussed and illus-
has sets of twin columns, but they do not trated as a part of a church interior (see Pis.
frame niches and their ornamentation— medal- 23, 27). An outside view of the camarin of
lions in low relief— is confined to the lower La Encarnacion (PL 29, fig. c), the church
portions of the shafts. The pilasters are even of the Augustinian nunnery in Popayan, shows
more subdued in line, and the niches are how ingeniously the oriel was devised to illu-
shallow and few. Obelisks top the two tiers minate the main statue on the altar; sunlight
of plain columns. In general the facade lacks shines through one or another of the three
the protruding or strongly curving masses of windows nearly every hour of the day. This
the Baroque. The undecorated panels and the nunnery was founded in 1590 and recon-
touches of ornament above the niches and on structed in 1743. To what extent such
the column shafts, as well as the elliptical camarines were used in the other colonies is
windows, lean toward the Rococo. Note that not definitely known— evidence of one, its
there are three doorways. windows cemented over in the twentieth cen-
In the outlines of the facade is revealed the tury, was found by this author in La Merced
plan of the interior: a very high nave, with at Leon, Nicaragua. In Spain camarines con-
clerestory and excellent lighting, and low side structed in this manner are rare today.
aisles roofed over with domical vaults. The The Moorish spirit is manifest in the build-
spacious effect is augmented by the barrel ings from Cartago and Cali shown on this
vault of the vestibule (fig. c) ; above it masonry plate. Until early in the twentieth century
brackets, clean in construction and varied in Cali was just another quiet colonial town
outline, support the curving edge of the choir populated by prosperous landowners. It lies
loft. about a hundred miles north of Popayan, its
The pulpit in this church (fig. b) has the ancient colonial rival, in the fertile Cauca
shape of a chalice. It is exquisitely homogene- Valley. Early in the seventeenth century it
ous in detail throughout, its canopy matching had one parish church and Mercedarian and
it like the cover of some goldsmith's master- Augustinian establishments.
piece. On the top stands a statue of St. Francis, The Augustinian house was founded in 1581
and smaller figures of Franciscan saints, preach- and within two decades a monastery was
ing with book and gesture, occupy the niches functioning. In mid-seventeenth century the
around the sides. The monotone coloring of monks began the construction of a chapel
their habits accentuates the shining richness to Nuestra Sefiora de la Gracia (fig. d).
of the gilded surfaces. Among the many felici- Originally a tower stood on one side, but in
tous details perhaps the angel heads connected 1925 it was in such disrepair that it had to
with the leafy volutes in the canopy and on be pulled down. The chapel was built of adobe
the lower section of the pulpit are the most and had a facade of large uneven bricks, the
outstanding. In the style of its carving this irregular courses of which produced an un-
pulpit is closely related to one in the church usual play of light. In the three niches were
of San Diego in Quito, Ecuador (see PL 183), statues of the Virgin, Augustine, and St.
and might date, with it, from the second Thomas of Villanueva, all of which, like the
quarter of the eighteenth century. The balus- medallions, are of terra cotta. Probably the
trade of the Popayan pulpit is shown in a later sculpture was once polychromed and glazed,
chapter, as is also the statue which stands in and glazed tiles may have embellished the
the camarin of the main altar (see Pis. 182, dado. Note the wrought-iron grille in the
19)- center window and the Augustinian arms
[70]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
above the door. This facade shows an inter- is one of the notable examples of the neo-
esting manifestation of the Mudejar which Mudejar in the New World. Especially fine
is greatlv accentuated bv the material— brick. is the pattern of the which around the
tiles,
The exotic line of the arch over the door is belfry window suggests columnettes and
sharply defined bv the ceramic molding, in- above, in a honeycomb design, provides a
creasing the stage-design effect of the whole. contrasting background for the light-colored
This Augustinian establishment functioned multifoil arch. The church itself, finished later
for vears as an educational center under the than the tower, was built from plans said to
colonial regime, and afterward it continued as have been made by Pedro de la Cruz Herrera;
a college under the name of Santa Librada, the the interior is modern.
patroness of national independence. Upon our Cartago was founded in 1540 by Jorge
visit in 1945 ^ building still stood as here Robledo, a subordinate of Belalcazar and a
pictured, but a few months later it, like so Spanish gentleman of high rank. Perhaps it
manv others, gave way before the advance of was because of his breeding and education that
citv planning. Fortunately its statues and me- he showed an uncommonly humane attitude
dallionswere rescued bv Manuel Maria Buena- toward the natives. These natives were of the
ventura, in whose private collection at Cali Quimbaya people, who ranked among the
thev are now preserved. finest of the pre-Columbian workers in cast
With the passing of the craftsmen who had gold. From them Robledo's men obtained
had direct contact with the Mudejar tradition quantities of the precious metal in breast-
in the homeland— roughly after the first cen- plates and ornaments without the violence and
turv of the more substantial construction in bitter coercion so often employed. This region
the New World— interest in Mudejar forms drew upon mines as well as alluvial gold de-
and decoration lapsed. But bv mid-eighteenth posits, and it grew even wealthier from its
century, when a well-established colonial so- cattle husbandry and its cocoa, sugar, tobacco,
ciety was requiring new buildings and be- and— later— coffee plantations.
ginning to enlarge and refurbish old ones, The church of Guadalupe in Cartago
designers with an enriched imagination and (fig. a) was finished in 18 10 under the direc-
hands technically less restricted not only tion of Mariano Ormuza v Matute, a hero in
reached out for Rococo patterns but also the fight for independence. 171 Its facade pre-
revived the Mudejar, which blended color- sents certain familiar elements and exhibits the
fully into the ciryscape of the day. A con- romantic attitude— especially in the feeling for
temporary revival of Mudejar was also taking nuances in light and shade— which produced
place in some of the affluent cities of southern the neo-Mudejar. Its plain wall surface and
Spain. the absence of ornament bear witness to the
This neo-Mudejar style is recorded in the fact that the Baroque age was past. Deeply set
tower of San Francisco at Cali (fig. b). To round openings as well as arched doors placed
that town in the 1-40's came a friar from into rectangular frames, in the Mudejar man-
Quito, one Fernando de Jesus Larrea (who ner, have already been seen; but their arrange-
signed himself "Rhea"). So eloquently did he ment in this fagade is quite individual. Unusual,
preach that he was implored to stay and help too, is the angular build-up of the espadana;
with a Franciscan foundation. 1 " In 1757 a royal the very thick middle section virtually forms
permit authorized the establishment of a mis- a central tower.
sion college, and by 1764 a new convent was
ready and the church was more or less com- Ecuador. Colombia's neighbor to the south-
pleted. Its tower of rosy brick picked out west, was also a part of the Yicerovaltv of
with glazed tiles of peacock-blue and green New Granada; but the highly original co-
lonial art of this country swings more toward the colonies across the sea. Charles V of the
the Peruvian— if indeed it can be linked with Holy Roman Empire tried to keep Portuguese
that of any neighbor— because of a long asso- and French participants out of his overseas
ciation under Lima's authority. Its architecture enterprises, but for many reasons he wel-
therefore will be presented in Chapter 10. comed the nationals of other countries. The
Colombia's eastern neighbor, Venezuela, immense resources of the New World came
was also called Nueva Andalucia in colonial to the Spanish crown somewhat as a surprise;
times. According to one explanation the name at the end of the fifteenth century Spain was
Venezuela (little Venice) was given to this not the most eminent of the seafaring nations
land because the natives' dwellings around nor were her bankers and traders the most
Lake Maracaibo were set over the water on skillful at playing the high international stakes
piles. This region boasted no great mineral of their professions. Through Habsburg con-
wealth or high indigenous culture in pre- nections entrepreneurs from the Low Coun-
Columbian times, and the development of its tries and the German provinces often were
colonial art never reached the full tide of able to reach out and with their long, greedv,
splendor found in some of the other colonies. and sometimes bloody fingers turn the ma-
Its churches, like those of provincial Colombia, chinery which— though creaking and inordi-
are generally mild and serene. nately wasteful— ground out vast wealth from
The participation of non-Spanish Europeans the New World.
in both the Conquest and the colonization of At that time the Welser family had houses
Spanish America is an interesting side path or factories in Nuremberg, Danzig, Venice,
that has never been fully explored. In the Milan, Rome, Genoa, Fribourg, Bern, Zurich,
open as well as behind the scenes many for- Lyons, Seville, and Saragossa; they even owned
eigners loosened their purse strings and in land in the Canary Islands. In due time thev
consequence were in a position to demand opened an office in Santo Domingo and ac-
favors. Among were two great German
these quired an interest in the silver mines of
banking houses. The first, the Fuggers of Augs- Mexico. Further, they had a share in the Pedro
burg, was connected with the network of de Mendoza expedition, which resulted in the
the Medicis. Another family, the Welsers, also discovery of the Rio de la Plata, Argentina.
operating in that Bavarian city, became their For a loan of a hundred thousand ducats thev
both banking and trade. In 1473 four
rivals in obtained the right to explore and settle the
Welser brothers founded a trading company, territory of Venezuela. Thus they secured
and by 1490 they were the sole lessees of footholds in the Tierra Firme, where thev
silver mines in Tyrol. As business prospered, hoped to find wealth to outrival Mexico's.
they established a house in Lisbon, Portugal. Already the pearl fisheries off the coast of
Then, interested in the East India spice trade, Venezuela were being ruthlessly exploited. In
they invested twenty thousand florins—to the 1529 a Welser agent in Santo Domingo is
Fuggers four thousand— in a vast expedition reported to have bought for 450 gold pesos
undertaken in 1505, which seems to have been a pearl the size of a pear, which had been
equipped by German and Italian merchants. 46 taken from Venezuelan waters. Shortly after,
The story of their rise and fall gives an insight at their own expense, the W T
elsers outfitted the
into the way the New World monopolies caravels that were to go to Venezuela. Fifty
operated. skilled German miners were included in the
With the ascendancy of the Habsburgs to expedition so that gold and silver could be
the Spanish throne both of these German extracted as efficiently as possible. The leader,
banking houses entered the scene, providing Ambrose Alfinger— actually Ehinger— a crea-
money for the opening and exploitation of tion of the Welsers, was appointed governor
[72]
COLONIAL COLOMBIA
and captain general for life with a high salary. Unusual too are the huge lively volutes at
In 1529 he took over the command from one the corner of the same house (fig. c). The
Juan de Ampies, who until then had been the illustration shows a grilled window with an
head of the small Spanish settlement in Coro, anvil-shaped base, somewhat like those at Car-
founded only about two years earlier. Rela- tagena (see PI. 22). It is this iron grillework
tions between the local Indians and this Span- which eave the house its name. Caracas also, as
iard had been peaceful, and much help had well as Trujillo, Peru, and some coastal towns
been given bv them. 173 But
his administration of Brazil, is notable for its ironwork, a con-
the zeal with which the new German governor trast to the usual wood.
exploited the district made him so hated by In Venezuela, as elsewhere, tall espadanas
Indian and Spaniard alike that by the time were favored to give a church facade greater
the grant to the Welsers was canceled in 1556, height and dignitv. In the parish church of
the name of Alfinger had become svnonvmous Turmero (fig. b) we encounter an espadana
with unspeakable crueltv. For the sake of of two stories, largely free-standing and re-
rounding out the storv it should be added markably thin, with niches for statuary (com-
that Alfinger was killed bv a poisoned arrow pare PL 7/ ) ; especially striking are the curves
in Colombia, having just missed the fabulous of the side sections. The three doorways here,
lands of both Colombia and Peru, and the each with a window above it, occupy nearly
Welser "empire" collapsed in bankruptcy be- all the space of the lowest tier, a tendency
fore the end of the sixteenth century. that will be noticed later in Brazilian archi-
Coro, Venezuela, lies on a secluded bav of tecture.
the Gulf of Maracaibo, and not without reason Like the Coro house, the Turmero church
was it given its name: wind. But the ceaseless was constructed bv local labor. An account
trade winds were the least damaîn^ of the of Bishop .Mariano Marti's visit to these regions
manv turbulent experiences that were visited in 1 78 1 reports that it was then in the process
upon these hot sun-beaten shores. The town of buildinsr, a structure of adobe and rubble
170
finallv was burned bv the English privateer with a timber roof covered with tiles. For
Amyas Preston, who, in 1595, also sacked Alexander von Humboldt, who traveled
Caracas. It never fullv recovered, and in the through this village in the first years of the
first quarter of the seventeenth century it is nineteenth century, it was a fine edifice but
described as on the down grade. At that time overloaded with architectural ornament, an
it had onlv about a hundred Spanish residents, observation that shows how taste has changed
a Franciscan monastery, and a cathedral which in the century and a half since his neoclassic
59
even then was about to be transferred to the period.
rising city of Caracas. Thus in the accelerating Humboldt describes Turmero as set among
tempo of colonial Coro was left behind.
life plantations of sugar, indigo, cotton, and coffee
In this ancient town the Casa de las Yen- and laid out with a regularity in plan which
tanas de Hierro (house of the iron windows), reminded him that it owed its origin to monks
dating from about mid-eighteenth century7 and missions. The village is near Maracay in
(PI. 30, fig. a), delights the visitor with its a district rich in memories of Bolivar.
individuality. On the portal of this rambling The purely decorative use of columns ap-
one-story building interesting provincial echoes plied tight against the wall, without pediments,
of Baroque are evident in the twin columns can be observed not onlv in various parts of
that flank the door and in the shell design, Spanish America but also in the Philippine
which, spread out like a fan, crowns the whole. Islands, as the church in Laoag shows (fig. d).
The projecting decoration on the cxtrados of Here the columns, terminating in small urns,
the arch is both unusual and picturesque. are ranged across the facade like giant candles.
[73]
The low drawn-out plan suggests somewhat cane, thatch, and other tropical materials.
the church in Subtiava, Nicaragua (see PL 75), Tropical flora furnished new motifs to be
but close observation will reveal differences, ornately carved in stone. The sumptuous
especially in the treatment of the openings church were decorated with treas-
interiors
and the angle of the roof. ures, many of them brought from China and
Spanish colonial architecture in the Philip- Japan, so that local artisans could draw for
pine Islands has been little photographed and inspiration not only on their own land and
still less studied. During the three centuries on Europe but also on their Oriental neigh-
and more of Spanish occupation there, im- bors.
mense wealth was accumulated, partly through An early study of the great number of
the development of agriculture and still more colonial buildings that once stood on the
through commerce with the Asiatic mainland eleven large islands and the hundreds of
and Europe, most of it via the Americas. smaller ones which make up the Philippine
Manila was founded in 1572, and in 1815 the archipelago would have greatly enriched art
last of the privileged Spanish merchant ships history. It is to be hoped that the damage
sailed out of its harbor. In the interim Spanish wrought by World War II was not so exten-
Baroque spread through the islands, but it was sive that this phase of Spanish colonial art
much modified. Native building methods in- will pass into oblivion, unexplored and un-
troduced change, as did also the use of wood, recorded.
[74]
6
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
M .extco is a world in itself, varied in
topography, climate, and peoples. Before the

its diversity, enchants all
with it. Though

who come
the art here mirrors several
in contact
arrival of Cortes the territory belonged to a stages of European styles it always retains its
number of Indian nations, including the Maya. definitely Mexican temperament.

a people who attained the highest level of The vast mineral and agricultural wealth of
artistic development in the Western Hemi- this vicerovaltv induced a spectacular achieve-
sphere. The individuality, refinement, and ment in architecture and the other arts during
technical skill revealed in the pre-Columbian the colonial period, an adequate discussion of
art of this country" are beginning to be recog- which would require a whole series of volumes.
nized and appreciated in ever-widening circles. For this book, examples revealing the
Of all the mainland colonies, Mexico— variety of artistic activity were selected, either
which, with much of Central America, com- because they are highly characteristic of
prised the
\ "icerovaltv of New Spain— was Mexico or are stunning displays of Baroque
perhaps the most closelv connected with the and Rococo. Our first illustrations were /.
motherland and Europe. Hither in the wake from the sbttcentfa-centoiy styles, in which
of the Conquistadores came craftsmen and the later manifestations had their roots.
artists and with them artistic influences from The Indian did not yield peacefully either
the Old World. The road up to the car to the customs or to the persuasions of his
from Veracruz, Mexico's great fortified port conqueror. Countless is the number of civil
on the Caribbean, was onlv :6c miles, and the and ecclesiastic workers for Spain who lost
distance from the capital west to Acapulco. their lives during the period of pacification.
which boasted one of the best harbors on the Even" growing town had its garrison, but even
rocky coastline of the Pacific, was onlv a few then violence and outbreak could not be pre-
miles more. Thus the citv found itself a mid- vented. The arid plateaus which radiated from
wav station on the trade route between Spain the capital were a wilderness, topographically
and her colonies in the Philippines. And to as well as spiritually. There monasteries began
the artistic language of Christianity— which to rise, often under the supervision of onlv a
here from the beginning incorporated slum- handful of friars. The actual labor was per-
bering impulses of pre-Columbian cultures- formed by Indians from the subjugated re-
were added >
)rient. Small gions, while beyond the unexplored hills the
wonder that from a meeting of these civiliza- eves of fierce and unconquered blood relatives
tions, each virile and distinctive, an artistic
blend evolved which, through its vitality and In that stark landscape the sturdy stone
75
walls and massive towers of these religious undertaking was protested in the Mexican
establishments constitute a rare artistic mani- capital but apparently to little avail. On sev-
festation. Something of the atmosphere of eral occasions the massive structure provided
medieval Europe envelops the visitor who refuge for Spaniards and faithful Indians.
stands in their now abandoned cloisters. Built Forbidding and sober, the crenellations
in a style often compounded of Romanesque, along the top of the church wall and on the
Gothic, and Renaissance elements, they evoke, tower contrast sharplv with the playful over-
even as empty shells, a spirit of the asceticism, all decoration of the main facade (fig. b).
self-sacrifice, and fanatic zeal which charac- Out of the verbose Plateresque, the contem-
terized the lives of the missionaries who once porary style in Spain, a limited number of
lived there. It should be remarked that manv motifs was chosen here; expanded and blown
monasteries mighty as fortresses were
as up, thev were applied with a highly decora-
erected in Mexico around mid-sixteenth cen- tive effect. Flanking the door are pairs of
turv; in South America few traces of this ornate candelabrum columns. Sirens with
"fortress" tvpe of building can be found, women's heads and the bodies of birds are
although parallel circumstances existed in cer- carved on the lowest sections; this symbol,
tain regions, especiallv in the Andean High- a favorite with the Augustinians in Europe, is
lands, where large groups of Indians were onlv rarelv found in Latin America. At the sides
superficiallv converted and remained recalci- stand statues of Peter and Paul, not in niches
trant until the end of the colonial period. but on corbeled bases and under baldachins
in the Gothic manner; the carved scrolls bear
The Augustinian order was one of the first Latin inscriptions. The spandrels contain
three to evangelize Mexico, and their monas- round medallions carrying the type of cherub
teries, erected in regions assigned to them by head alreadv seen. A projecting cornice sepa-
the crown, attest to their artistic as well as rates the lower story from the section above,
their religious activities. Not bound bv a vow though the vertical lines of the columns are
of povertv, as were the Franciscans, thev were continued in the four canephora figures.
famous for the grand scale of their buildings. Musicians stand in the triple niche above the
The Augustinian monasterv of Yuriria- doorway. On either side of the single window
pundaro, founded in 1550 in the colonial a large quatrefoil medallion, sprouting leaves
province of San Nicolas de Tolentino de and flowers, features an angel carrying a bow
Michoacan and now lying in the state of and arrow. The ribbon-like tracery reminds
Guanajuato, was an outpost among the belli- one of Gothic phylacteria (message scrolls)
cose Chichimec Indians. The place takes its or the cloisonne work on some be jeweled
name— Lake of Blood— not from any sangui- reliquary. Similar ornamental sprays are car-
nary battle but because of the brilliant flowers ried to the top of the facade, where the
that float on the waters in the spring. The center niche contains a statue of Augustine.
conventual church and its monolithic tower At the side entrance (fig. c) motifs similar
(PL 5/, fig. a) dominate the landscape; adjoin- to those on the facade are utilized, but with
ing it (on the left) is the huge complex that was restraint. Such rosettes as those on the portal
once the monasterv. The buildings were con- arch and the frieze became popular as colonial
structed somewhat after mid-sixteenth century architectural decoration, while filleted columns
under the supervision of the friar Diego de like these here are rarely seen in later struc-
Chavez, a relative of the Conquistador Pedro tures. The statue above the doorway depicts
de Alvarado. Pedro del Toro, from the same a miracle associated with St. Nicholas of Tolen-
region in Spain— the Estremadura— is men- tino, an Augustinian saint and the patron of
127
tioned as architect. The magnitude of the the province. It is said that he never ate animal
[76]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
flesh and once, when weakened by a severe The fortress character of the construction
illness, he made the sign of the cross over a is even more evident at Cuitzeo than at Yuriri-
dish of doves which was set before him and apundaro: both church and monastery walls
the birds came to life and flew away. are crenellated, the large enclosed atrium
Like most "fortress" churches, the building could have served as a first line of defense,
is loftv. Inside, it boasts groined vaulting in and the buildings themselves are sturdy enough
the Gothic manner and an impressive transept. to have withstood siege. Entrance to the mon-
The decorative scheme of this church, as astery was gained through the arcade; in the
well as that of the Cuitzeo edifice on the suc- center (behind the third arch from the right)
ceeding plate, is a rustic interpretation of a was built a large niche or recess which served
European style. The presence of just such as a chapel. Here, even before the church
folkish overtones was a deciding factor in the building was finished, Mass may have been
selection of the illustrations for this chapter. celebrated for a crowd of Indians assembled
in the atrium.
Less than twenty miles south of Yuririapun- The open chapel, a version of the "Chapel
daro lav the Lake of Cuitzeo, which todav of the Indians," was an ingenious solution to
has for the most part vanished; only the fata meet the immediate task of the early mission-
morgana visible during certain hours calls up aries: the instruction of great masses of people
a vision of water. The fisherfolk living along by a very few. Just after the Conquest mere a
its shore at the time of the Conquest were handful of friars was faced with the problem
converted by a Franciscan friar, but shortly of converting and teaching thousands of In-
thereafter the district was assigned to the dians in an unfamiliar tongue. Upon reaching
Augustinians. Although their establishment at their field of service they had to provide
Cuitzeo is contemporary with that at Yu'riri- themselves with safe living quarters; but as
apundaro and the name of Diego de Chavez evangelization was their aim, they also had to
is connected with it, the complex shows con- begin preaching and teaching at the very
siderable differences both in plan and in deco- outset. The
chapel for this purpose might
ration (PL 32, fig. a). The church, its great take the form of a nichelike recess, sometimes
height more pronounced because of its severe, within an arcade— as at Cuitzeo— and sometimes
narrow facade, has a single nave. constructed into the facade of the church
The ornamentation on the facade is a native above the central door; or might be a great it
version of the Plateresque. Here is the nucleus hall-like structure. Meanwhile the converts
of a regional art that by the seventeenth cen- could manifest their faith by working: on the
tury had established its taste preferences; the erection of more substantial buildings for the
decorative motifs were conditioned by the order. But even after a church was completed,
ability of the craftsmen and indicate the psy- it could not always contain the crowds that
chology of the builders. In many of the details came on Sundays and holy davs during those
the hand of the Indian is revealed. An abbrevi- early decades. In pacified regions the Indians
ated phrase on the facade has been interpreted were gathered for the service, group by group,
as "Francisco Juan Metl me fecit," proof of the roll was called, and the absentees marked
Indian participation. The tower, with its open for severe punishment.
1
"-
Essentially a structure
belfry arches, was built in the early seven- of the pioneering age, the open chapel ceased
teenth century by Jeronimo de la Magda- to be used about the end of the sixteenth
u0 A reservoir century, except
lena. constructed in the early in Yucatan, where a tropical
days under the supervision of the friars— the climate favored its continuance, and in Tlax-
lake has always been notably brackish— still cala, where the population enjoyed special
supplies the village with water. privileges for their support of Cortes and did
[77]
not fear to congregate. By that time consider- imposing gateway (see Pis. 36, 5/). At the
able depopulation had occurred in the colonies; four corners of such a churchyard sometimes
thousands of Indians had died prematurely, four chapels, or posas, were erected. The posa
either in epidemics of diseases imported by the here illustrated (fig. c) is one of those at the
white man or from overwork, and many others Franciscan monastery in San Miguel Hue-
had fled to the mountains trying to escape jotzingo, in the state of Puebla. A compact
forced labor, exacted under various pretexts. little structure (dated 1550), it stands against
134
Also, asmore towns sprang up more churches the atrium wall. Crude but powerful angels
were established, and many more friars and on the spandrels awaken echoes of the Roman-
secular clergy were arriving in the New esque or Gothic. The decorative application
World; in addition, individual churches were of the Franciscan cord, a carry-over from
erected to minister to separate groups. Spain, was much used later in the colonies, not
Later the open chapel was more or less in- always in Franciscan establishments.
corporated into the building complex, but a The posa has been explained as a stopping
number are still extant. The existence of its place for the out-of-door religious processions
equivalent in several monastic structures in which marched in the enclosed atrium; the
Central and South America has been suggested term is supposed to derive from the Spanish
by certain authors, but definite identification and to indicate the spot where the Sacrament
is still a matter of argument. However, in the rested— i.e., se posaba. In Roman Catholic
Old World a somewhat parallel solution to a countries today religious processions still halt
similar problem can still be seen, for example before out-of-door chapels, crucifixes, and
in the sixth-century church of Sant' Apolli- shrines— often temporarily constructed at the
nare in Classe at Ravenna, Italy, and especially corners of prescribed routes— where, though
in Milan's Sant' Ambrogio, from the eleventh Mass is not celebrated, prayers are said and
and twelfth centuries; here in the spacious benedictions offered. Posas are extremely rare
colonnaded atrium and wide narthex was pro- in South America but some are preserved at
vided a gathering place for the uninitiate and the shrine of Copacabana— likewise an Augus-
those temporarily excluded from the church tinian Lake Titicaca (see
establishment— on
proper because of misdemeanor. In medieval PL 123).
Europe, an open-air pulpit constructed on the Civil architecture from this period also fore-
facade of a church was not uncommon, pro- shadowed the originality and the great regional
viding the priest with a commanding podium variety of the later centuries here. The Casa
from which to exhort the crowd in the square de Montejo (fig. d), which stands on the
below. A Gothic exterior pulpit on the church main plaza in Merida, Yucatan, at an angle
of Notre Dame at Saint-L6, France, survived from the cathedral, was built in 1549, only
the bombardment of World War II, and an seven years after the founding of the town.
exquisite example from the early Renaissance It was ordered bv Francisco de Montejo, the
can be seen in the Duomo at Prato, near Flor- younger, for the use of his conquistador father.
ence, Italy. An illustration from a fifteenth- Stones from wrecked Maya edifices were used
century Flemish book n shows pilgrims kneel- in its construction, and it was built after a
ing before a structure with three arches, which Spanish design by an Indian master mason,
resembles an open chapel. with Indian labor from Mani. Its peculiar
Occasionally in the early part of the co- combination of styles is distinctly regional.
lonial period in Mexico the entire monastery The lower section, with its paneled jambs,
complex was placed on elevated ground and fluted columns, and round portrait medallions,
the atrium— a spacious churchyard— was ap- is Plateresque in effect, whereas the upper
proached by a flight of steps and through an section recalls the Gothic. Two gigantic hal-
[78]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
berdiers stand as atlantes, their feet on human a Franciscan college for the education of chil-
heads— a symbol of the subjugation of the dren of Indian nobles. In this church preached
121
natives. Wild men dressed in skins and carry- Sahagun (1499?-! 590), venerable chronicler
ing clubs guard the sides, a crouching figure of the Aztecs, and here prayed Juan Diego,
upholds the corbeled balcony, and a variety the humble Indian to whom appeared the
of figural motifs, vines, and mythical animals Virgin of Guadalupe. The present edifice,
is spread all over the composition. The build- which replaced an earlier provisional building,
ing extends to the right and has four large was finished in 1609; in 1660 and again in
grilled windows, also adorned in monumental 1 70 it was repaired and refurbished, and in
1
fashion. 1763 it was whitewashed and regilded. Its lofty

This house was occupied by the old Con- main retable— four and one-half stories high
quistador for only a short time before he was and filling the apse completely— was discarded
120
dislodged from office; he returned to Spain in the late nineteenth century.
to protest his dismissal and died there in 1553. Fortunately the four pendentives still remain
The son then lived in it until his death twelve more or less untampered with. Composed to
years and from that time to 19 14 it had
later, fit into the curving triangular spaces are
twenty-one owners; today it houses the British powerful reliefs of the four Evangelists, Indian
vice-consulate. Over four hundred years old, work modeled in clay. Matthew, holding a
it still stands in sturdy dignity, a romantic quill in his right hand and a book in his left,
and dominating landmark. is represented as riding on the shoulders of an
The house of the dean of Puebla cathedral angel of heroic size (PL 33, fig. b). Mark
(fig- b) is dated 1580 and reflects that quiet occupies the pendentive opposite (fig. a). His
Renaissance style which persisted long after lion's long mane, to the left of the saint, is
new fashions had been introduced. But at the coifed like a wig. All four reliefs are remark-
very top the ornamental vases, the scrolls sug- able for the force of their conception; such
gesting a broken pediment, the lambrequin a sense of upsurging inspiration in the depic-
between them, and the placing of shells within tion of the Evangelists has seldom been
the pediments over the windows all bring achieved.
new life to the design. Note the peaks in the In the city of Oaxaca the Dominican order,
lines window frames. The words Placa
of the established there in 1535, built a new church
Decanus on the pediment indicate the resi- during the last quarter of the seventeenth cen-
dence of the dean, and the Latin text above tury. In 1 73 1, through the munificence of one
the door bids those who
enter to "Let coming of the friars, Dionisio Levanto, the Rosario
and going be in the name of Jesus." chapel was added to the sprawling complex. 103
It is a large cruciform building, and its in-
The northern part of the island on which terior, like that of the main church, is covered
stood the Aztec capital, predecessor of Mexico with figural and plant motifs in stucco, heavily
City, in a saline lake, was occupied by the gilded. During the War of Reform ( 1858—
suburb Tlatelolco (also spelled Tlaltelolco). 1 861), when the city was a turbulent center
Here was situated that famous Aztec market of strife, the main altar of this chapel was
which Bernal Diaz proclaimed as greater and destroyed, and not many years later the
richer than any he had ever seen in the Old French soldiery of Maximilian's following
World. Even after the Conquest this section chipped the gold leaf off the walls and dam-
remained densely populated by Indians. On aged whatever interior decoration remained. 107
the platform base of a pagan temple there, The interest in the present altar as it now
and using some of its stones, the first church stands (fig. c) lies in its statues, which like
of Santiago Tlatelolco was erected as part of mounting steps direct the eye to the Trinity
[ 79]
enthroned— at the left, Christ with the Cross, bility it has retained much of its colonial
at the right, God the Father, and in the round character; it has been called a small edition
window between, the Dove, or Holy Ghost. of Antigua, Guatemala, from which it re-
The arrangement of the radiating gilded rays ceived many artistic influences when that city
emanating from this high point is very effec- was its colonial capital.
tive. All this religious statuary extends beyond The doorway of a residence in this town
the apse to the very top of the dome (fig. d), (PI. 34, fig. b) shows an interesting adaptation
where the Virgin and Child hold court amid of the Plateresque. Because the arms in the
a host of saints. In the pendentives appear shield have been defaced, the identity of the
again figures of the Evangelists, designated as early owner of the building is uncertain, but
"S. Joan" and "Sant Matheus"; compare the it is thought to have belonged to the family
latter's disproportionately small angel with the of Andres de la Tobilla. Rustication lends
monumental, almost apocalyptic creature at The lower columns
dignity to this entrance.
Tlatelolco. end, with on a level with the lintel
little logic,
Especially awe-inspiring is this interior at and are then surmounted by other columns
night in the mystic light of candles. Though which continue beyond the molding. Atop
all the figures have been over-painted, they are these are seated two lions, the tails of which
still appealing in their sincerity. The imported are executed in relief, laid flat against the wall.
Christian iconography has here undergone a Plateresque elegance is achieved in the carved
process of simplification; yet the regional panels to the right and left of the upper
artists have produced a moving display of window, where a pair of griffins, contrap-
folk art. posto, stand guard. This fantasy animal was
In the Christian church the individual In- very popular in medieval as well as in later
dian had closer contact with his religion than heraldry, but here, as interpreted by the local
had his ancestors in pagan times, when most stonecarvers, it is somewhat difficult to rec-
126
of the ritual was in the hands of the priests ognize.
and the humble man or woman stood remote The Dominican monastery in San Cristobal
from the rite, a spectator among the multitude de las Casas was founded shortly after the
crowded into the great square before the high arrival of the first friar in 1 545, but the present
temple platform. As a Christian he could enter Dominican church there (fig. a) probably was
the church, light a taper himself, and remain not finished until about 1700; it was embla-
close to his favorite saints. zoned with the Habsburg double-headed eagle
on the third-story panels just when that bird
For nearly three hundred years the state of was taking flight from Spain's royal coat of
Chiapas, neighbor to Guatemala and related arms. An impressive stairway of fifteen steps
to it racially and topographically, belonged to leads up to the church. The fagade, remark-
the Captaincy-General of Guatemala, but in ably high, is rich and shows originality, dis-
1824 it joined the Republic of Mexico, then playing a combination of jutting cornices and
in the process of formation. The town of twisted columns with a flat over-all pattern
San Cristobal de las Casas, in Chiapas, was of stucco work like bobbin lace. In every story
founded in 1538 under the name Ciudad Real, the pediments break through the cornices.
or Royal City. After five changes, in 1844 it The thick espadana, crowned with sturdy
adopted its present name in memory of the obelisks reminiscent of crenellation, is divided
friar Bartolome de las Casas, Apostle of the into two parts, making five horizontal fields
Indies and an early bishop and benefactor of in all, each embellished with a different pat-
the region.
101
The town lies at an altitude of tern. A pair of mermaids adorns the topmost
7,000 feet, and partly because of its inaccessi- member.
[80]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
Within, solid paneling of gilded wood- signify his three orders, on which the crowned
rare anywhere— sheathes the walls and gives Virgin is poised.
to the interior a luxuriously warm tone (fig. c). This building is the Sanctuary of Ocotlan.
The side altars, placed in shallow nichelike Its name— from the Aztec ocote (pine) and
recesses and marked with twisted gilded col- tldn (place)— denotes the great pine trees that
umns precisely caned, are unusually homo- surround the hill where once the palace of an
geneous. On the left, near the main altar (all Indian ruler is said to have stood. The spot
too obviously modern) stands a pulpit that has been a famous pilgrim place since early
will be shown in a later chapter (see PL 182). in the Spanish rule, when, at a time of drought
and plague, a miraculous spring gushed forth.
John Mc Andrew points out that already in The church dates from about 1745 and is con-
the second half of the seventeenth century structed of stucco and bricks which were man-
in .Mexico vigorous regional styles were de- ufactured in Puebla. In its facade the play
veloping and that in the eighteenth the ideas with ever-changing planes is fascinating.
flowing from the mother country were ac- Within the deeply recessed arch of the portal,
cepted or rejected as they suited the artistic the columns, cornices, and statuary are all
temper of the land, which by that time had thrust forward. The bulge of the tower bases
113
a dozen regional styles. In the area between is followed and accented in the molding of
Oaxaca and Puebla the folk idiom became the belfries. At the right in the photograph
highly articulate. As has been seen, the ad- are visible the first two arches of the con-
vance of technical knowledge in construction ventual building which in colonial days housed
brought with it the urge for additional orna- the Franciscans in charge of this shrine.
mentation. While in the northern parts of Mex- The interior was finished in mid-nineteenth
ico stone played a substantial role in the decora- century, and alteration, decoration, and re-
114
tive scheme, in the south the use of stucco, gilding went on into the iQ4o's. Its sanctu-
often reinforced with stone tenons, was more ary and the adjacent side altars, however, have
general. Great dexterity was acquired in this been left more or less intact. Also, except for
medium, and a manner of decoration developed the retouching of the colors, the octagonal
which featured capriciously curving detail, ex- camarm— in this case a small chapel behind the
travagant line, and complicated shapes. Espe- main altar— is still in its original state. With its
cially in the Puebla region, which produced the stalactite decoration in polychrome stucco, it
finest ceramic ware on this continent, stucco resembles the setting for a large manger scene.
fantasies combined with tiles reached a most de- This little chamber is richly furnished with
monstrative expression. cabinets, benches, and tables of carved wood.
An unusually original and exquisite example Quatrefoil windows light the place, and one
of this regional art stands on a hill about a mile of them opens into the main altar directly
from Tlaxcala (PL 35, fig. a). MacKinlev Helm behind; probably the famous golden statue of
10:
describes this building as "the most delicious the patroness once stood there. The walls are
church in the world." Its two lacy sculptured encrusted with broad gilded spirals of rib-
belfries, shining with the whitest whitewash, bon and thick garlands of flowers and foli-
rise on curving bases covered with red-orange age. The dome, upheld by archangels, con-
hexagonal tiles. Between them, framed within tains niches in which saints in rich vestments
a shell-shaped arch, is a fascinating potpourri are set among intricate and fanciful arabesques.
of sculptured decoration, like the entrance to On the ceiling, within a ring of gold, are
a fantasy grotto, peopled with angels and represented Marv and the Apostles at the
saints. Above the doorway stands a figure of Pentecost, and poised above their heads against
St. Francis supporting the three globes that a background of bright blue is the Holy Ghost
[81]
(fig. b). Many of the colors have a metallic stretched arms. Two other angels stand on
luster, which lends unusual brilliance to the the spandrels of the choir arch and figures
scene. The Indian artist Francisco Miguel is are placed even between the windows, high
said to have spent more than twenty years in the drum of the dome. The main church
in the execution of this lavish composition, of Guadalupe was redecorated by Luis Osorio
84
probablv around mid-eighteenth century. in 1 -58, and its facade presents a specimen of
In the Casa del Alfenique (fig. c), in Puebla, eighteenth-centurv tilework in brilliant colors,
the blend of decorative stucco work and tiles incorporating picture panels; the chapel in-
was carried further and a proportionately terior, however, may have been left little
greater space was given to the tiles; alfefiique changed since its construction (1694-1714),
means "almond cake." This building is said to for it has a feeling rather of the turn of the
date from the last quarter of the eighteenth century.
centurv, when Puebla tile and other ceramic San Pedro de Atlixco lies in a picture-post-
work had attained artistic and technical ma- card valley— known in colonial days as the Yal
turity. Glazed blue and white tiles, set into de Cristo— not far from the old road from
a background of unglazed red tile, cover the Mexico City to Oaxaca and less than twenty
main part of the facade; the trim and orna- miles from Puebla. Its northern horizon is
ments are of stone and whitewashed stucco. filled with the gigantic snow-crowned pro-
The black of the wrought-iron balconies stands files of Popocatepetl and Ixtacchihuatl. Built
out in striking contrast. Antonio de Santa around a steep sugar-loaf hill, on the slope
Maria Inchaurregui is named as the architect of which lies an early Franciscan monastery,
of this palace, and according to tradition it it is one of the few towns that still retain
was used as a guest house for high officials. their walled character. It has a delicious cli-
Any vicerov must indeed have been satisfied mate and warm mineral springs that made it
with its splendor when he rolled in his Rococo famous even in pre-Columbian times. Its im-
coach through its wide portal (visible on the portance as a market center extended into
left). the colonial epoch. As early as the first quar-
ter of the seventeenth centurv the valley had
The word poblano, which in Mexico de- over a thousand Spanish residents and the
notes an inhabitant of Puebla, is used here in town, founded in 1579. could boast seven mon-
a broader sense to designate the earthy, virile asteries, a parish church, nunneries, and hos-
folkloristic art of this region. The stucco work pitals, as well as other churches and shrines.
in the interior of San Antonio chapel in Puebla Its wealth was derived from the extraordinary
(PL 36, fig. c), situated at the left of the church fertility of the region, which is free from frost
of Guadalupe, displays the same articulate and enjovs an abundant water supply; here
workmanship that characterizes Puebla pot- were harvested yearly over sixty thousand
tery. This interior is covered with stucco mo- bushels of the best wheat raised in all New
51
tifs, floriated in character and executed with Spain.
precision and finesse. Narrow leafy fillets The Rosario chapel (fig. a) stands on the
rather than grapes entwine the twisted col- town's main plaza and is part of the large,
umns. As in most poblano decoration, the fig- much-renovated which today functions
edifice
ural abounds. Compare the archangels on the as the parish church. Its great dome, however,
pendentives with those at Antigua and Coma- with colorfully patterned tiles, is unchanged.
vagua (see Pis. 6, 8); these are more plastic, Note the sun, a favorite tile motif in the dec-
and perhaps, like the carved wooden angels oration of domes in Mexico. A stencil-like de-
frequently seen in Andalusian churches, they sign in stucco frames the rectangular central
once had lamps dangling from their out- window and its shell-shaped arch. The first-
[82]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
storv columns remind one of those in Puebla's ward from the building line and curves out-
San Antonio chapel, just discussed, while those ward at the sides like the hinged sections of
on the more prominent second story carrv a a screen. Glittering with variegated detail, it
different type of decoration— as if braided is a gem of ceramic work. Glazed tile— much
pastry had been translated into stucco. The of which must have been manufactured ex-
large medallion, too, which contains a repre- pressly to fit a particular place in the design
sentation of the chalice, rampant animals, two —not only is applied on the wall surfaces but
archangels, and the double-headed eagle, looks also makes up columns, pilasters, moldings, and
as if it might have come from the mold of some vases. Especially splendid is the topmost sec-
eighteenth-centurv honey-cake baker. tion, where volutes flow downward as if to
A feeling for the doughlike quality of stucco define a pediment. A statue of St. Francis
is revealed again in the facade of the former stands in the eight-pointed star window. The
Mercedarian conventual church in Atlixco belfry at the left is placed somewhat pertly
(fig. b). But here is a more daring exhibition. at an angle. On the other side, the tower is
A lively flow of motifs cascades down the built up of delicate elements, such as might
facade. In addition to the varied assortment adorn a great jewel box; blue and yellow
of nonfigural ornament, well spaced for clar- majolica bands spiral around its columns, and
itv, the group around the Virgin of Mercv the shimmering tiled dome forms a beguiling
83
in the central niche calls for special attention cover.
(compare PL 136). Little angels uphold her
sweeping cloak, and typical poblano figures, The interior of San Francisco in Acatepec
their lower limbs lost in leafy spirals, hold a —a mass of stucco carving, polychromed and
crown abo .e her head. The upper section of covered with gold leaf— in design and execu-
the niche suggests an aureole, while the ellip- tion is a most excellent example of eighteenth-
tical window above is fluted like a pastry mold. centurv poblano art. A composition as luxuri-
On either side are smiling siren figures, half ant as a jungle vine frames the baptistry door
mermaid, half leaf-sprite, wearing feathered (PL 3-, fig. c). Scattered about are small heads,
headdresses. In the opening of the broken perhaps derived from the canephora motif,
pediment stands a statue of the Virgin and but the baskets here turned out to be more
Child. The whole composition has a malleabil- like crowns. The finials were nearly lost when
ity that suggests wax or marzipan. a huge canvas painting was fitted around them,
The Indian population of the wide circle of but the manner of combining the painting
villages which encompass Puebla found ample and the sculpture leaves little doubt of the
outlet for their artistic energies in the various regional craftsman's preference for the three-
guilds of arts and crafts established in that dimensional. Traces of a dado on the wall sug-
region during the colonial period. For this gest that the canvas was placed over a color-
reason often a small village was able to erect ful pattern painted in outline on the surface.
a church many times more imposing than In the late iQ3o's the interior of this church
one would expect to find. An example is the suffered from fire, and at one of our later
church of San Francisco in the village of visits the Indian parishioners and artisans were
Acatepec, some seven miles from Puebla working with great zeal on its restoration;
(fig. d). It was finished about 1730 and dis- the grace and sparkle of the eighteenth-cen-
plays a most lavish use of tiles. turv craftsmanship, however, could not be
Approach to it is through a dramatic neo- duplicated and the effect had become rather
Mudejar gateway, which probably dates from rustic.
the same time so felicitously does it harmonize Expert modeling of clav and stucco can
with the church. The facade stands well for- be observed also in colonial facades just out-
[83]
side Mexico in that
the Federal District of above them as if from corbels. Scallops of
complex net of villages which were connected masonry, in imitation of drapery, ornament
by causeways and canals radiating toward the the upper edge of the window. A sharply pro-
capital. The pre-Columbian Indians here were jecting molding in stepped and arching lines
highly skilled in arts and crafts, as well as in crosses the entire fagade. The arrangement is
agriculture. With the coming of the Spaniard worked out in terms of a more or less flat
the population was favored because its co-op- design— like those to be found on the title
eration was desired in the construction of the pages of contemporary books— and little con-
new capital, but later, when the colonial ad- sideration was given to bulk and plastic form.
ministration was pursuing more distant goals, As Yuririapundaro (see PL 5/), Plateresque
at
these hamlets were left in a backwater. elements were taken out of their customary
The village of Huexotla (place of willows) context and applied by the regional artisans
is situated only a few miles from Texcoco, a according to their different artistic imagina-
former Indian capital and during the Spanish tion; but in the upper section the mild
Conquest an important administrative center. estipites, or inverted obelisk shapes, and the
Huexotla lies within an archaeological zone and oval medallions bespeak a far later period
has several large pyramidal structures as yet than that building. The tower, into the dec-
unexcavated. On the platform of one of these, oration of which ceramic bowls are incor-
with a broad view of Mexico's two giant vol- porated, bears the date 172 1, and the year
canoes, a Franciscan monastery was estab- 1745 is carved on the choir gallery; these,
lished within a decade of the Spaniards' ar- however, may denote later restoration work.
rival. In pre-Columbian fashion, steep stairs Somewhat more organized in the academic
have to be ascended before the complex is sense is the facade of the church at Coat-
reached. The monastery in Huexotla, finished linchan (house of the serpent), a neighboring
about mid-sixteenth century, consisted of only village of Huexotla. Dedicated to St. Michael,
a few narrow cells and a small cloistered patio. whose statue stands in the top niche, this
Its massive rubble walls are supported on church was once connected with
(fig. a) also
staunch wooden beams. Here Jeronimo de a monastic order. In its lofty and narrow pro-
Mendieta, who arrived in Mexico in 1554 portions and its few openings it still shows
and died there in 1604, began and finished the tradition of the "fortress" church. The
(1596) his monumental work, Historia ec- facade, however, is Baroque. Long stucco
1™
lesiastica Indiana. "aprons" hang below the niches, which are
The conventual church as it now stands placed unusually high, and a stucco garland
(fig. b), of a later date than the monastery, upheld by angels encircles the choir-light. A
has a golden yellow facade, which carries rose-colored wash enhances the lacy effect of
both stone and stucco ornamentation. In the bold flat designs. The tower is covered
build-up its columns differ markedly from with azulejos that show a fine patina; note its
the classical concept. In the first order they many statues and the peculiar use of a short
are cut in half by moldings which break the twisted shaft placed at each angle. On the
decorative scheme; just above the moldings choir loft is inscribed the year 1724, and the
angel faces alternate with masks that are pre- facade, as well as the tower, bears the date
Columbian in spirit. The design of the cen- 1731.
tral section of the fagade also is unconven- San Pablo Ostotepec, in the region of Milpa
tional. The two angels which usually occupy Alta in the Federal District, was another an-
the spandrels are floating in decorative if cient Indian settlement. There, in the six-
somewhat stiff positions above the arch; two teenth century, a shrine to the Lord of Chal-
others flank the choir-light, and pilasters rise mita (fig. d) was erected on the base of a
[84]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
119
pagan temple, high above a lovely valley. crisscrossing reminiscent of that on a shep-
A Via Cruris extends before it, with entrance herd's staff. The use of sharply faceted stones
gateways at both sides; the small gabled niches on the arch lends a Mudejar touch. In the
in the wall, which give the appearance of plaza in front of the monastery a noisy market
crenellation, once heldtiles marking the four- still thrives; an ancient canal formerly termi-
teen Stations of the Cross. Its paved court and nated there upon which for centuries the
stairway are said to be survivals of pre-Colum- Indians brought in their produce.
bian davs, and they bulge from age and earth- The nunnery of Santa Monica in Guadala-
quake shocks. To the right lie the crumbling jara, founded as the Incarnation of the Indies,
98
remains of a large early stone church. was established under the Jesuits in 1720. It
This shrine was altered in the seventeenth covers a city block, and the conventual
and eighteenth centuries and was completely church stands at one corner at the intersec-
made over in 187 1 without any feeling for its tion of two streets. Here a monumental fig-
historical atmosphere. Colonial objects, how- ure of St. Christopher (fig. b), carved of two
ever, were preserved in its interior and some large pieces of stone, stands at just the right
colonial tiles were incorporated in the tower height and angle to watch over the traffic,
and around the portal. In passing through the in keeping with the saint's tradition as the
archway below the tower one first comes upon patron of travelers. The church's ornate facade
the friars' quarters, and then across the wide (see PL 41) is in marked contrast to the archaic
terrace a sweeping view opens into the pic- rigor expressed in the statue. Toussaint sug-
turesque valley, where myriad flower and veg- gests that the Christopher may well belong
127
etable patches converge upon Xochimilco. One to the century preceding the church.
is struck with the thought that though gener- Long before the custom of naming and num-
ations may come and go, this fertile earth bering streets was introduced here, the statues
will hold forever the flavor of its long past. of saints, or symbolic figures, or even paint-
ings which decorated the buildings came to
The first church of the Mercedarian order be used to identify streets or districts. This
in the Mexican capital was finished in early accounts for the puzzling and often seemingly
seventeenth century. But it soon proved too fantastic appellations that still cling to some
small accommodate the faithful, and in
to sections of colonial towns.
1634 a new church was begun, which was In many conventual churches, the choir loft,
completed a few decades later. Around that placed at the end of the nave opposite the
time also can be placed the construction of main altar, was built out to unusual dimen-
the lower arcade of the monastery cloister sions and served as a special private enclosure
(PL 38, fig. c); the upper story was completed for the devotions of the secluded residents.
127
in the early eighteenth century. In this It was carefully screened from the view of
unique cloister— all that now remains of the the public, who were admitted to the build-
once vast complex— virile imagination and solid ing only during certain hours. In nunneries
craftsmanship produced an unusual decorative frequently the main entrance below the choir
scheme. The ground-floor arches are ac- loft was blocked off and used as a lower choir.
cented with plain squarish stones, which alter- The public entrance was then placed on the
nate with carved rosettes; on each keystone side of the building and was often designed
is a shell-shaped medallion with a figure. Flori- as twin portals. These have been explained as
ated designs, each one different from the primarily utilitarian: such throngs were at-
others, fill the spandrel space. On the second tracted by the lavish services, the specially
story the number of arches is doubled and fine music, and the tasteful decorations— for
the column shafts are elaborately carved with which the nuns grew famous— that one door
[85]
was needed for entrance and the other for in a niche which extended to a great height,
exit. framed it elaborately, and sometimes crowned
In the city of Morelia— known in colonial it with a dome (see Appendix, PL 190, fig. d).
times as Nueva Valladolid but later renamed In Mexico the use of the monumental niche
for the hero Morelos— the nunnery church of appears in widely separated sectors. The old-
Las Rosas presents a felicitous design of twin est one shown here is from the church of San
side portals (fig. a). Renaissance elements of Juan de Dios inMexico City (PI. 39, fig. b).
northern Europe appear in a Baroque inter- This edifice, which occupies the site of an
pretation, remarkable for its tasteful balance earlier chapel erected in the last third of the
of ornamented and plain surfaces. The first sixteenth century, was finished in 1727. Its
story shows an application of the lambrequin, facade, entirely of stone, is designed with a
which was popular throughout northern Mex- deep porch— architecturally the most interest-
ico in the second half of the eighteenth cen- ing of the whole group— which is rounded at
tury. The relief work under the windows and the sides like an apse and covered with an
in the medallions has the softness and fluent airy half-dome, ribbed like a shell. The niches
line of wax. A statue mounted on the central in the first story, grouped into quartettes to
column helps tie the twin pediments together. the right and left, blend with those above
Work on the church was finished between them in amazing harmony. In the center stands
1746 and 1756, and the names of Nicolas the patron saint, San Juan de Dios, who was
Lopez Quijano, Jose Medina, and Martin not canonized until 1700; his niche echoes the
Eliza Coechea are mentioned in connection line ofwhole facade. The stonework
the
87
with it. throughout shows considerable technical skill,
This nunnery was founded on the site of especially in the flame-shaped lines of the un-
a fulling mill donated by a munificent citizen; dulating pilasters.
the making of textiles was at one time an out- In the town of Cuernavaca (an Indian name
standing industry in that region. The convent corrupted into the Spanish for "cow's horn"),
maintained a music school (see Chapter 13) west of the Mexican capital, the Franciscans
and was dedicated to Santa Rosa; from her founded an establishment in 1529. They en-
name the populace came to call the nuns the closed a large tract with crenellated walls
Roses. and, within it, erected their various buildings.
What was once the main church of the mon-
The placing of the portal within an arched astery now functions as the cathedral. Flower
recess is an interesting architectural feature beds and vegetable plots, watered bv foun-
that is encountered in several regions of colo- tains and tended bv Indian gardeners, flour-
nial Spanish America. The builders in Mexico ished in the central area. Posas mav once have
produced their own version, which suggests a occupied the where todav three
corners
106
niche but is built on such a monumental scale churches stand. The most impressive of these
that it sometimes occupies the entire wall of is the church of the Third Order (fig. d).
a building and extends the full height of the Here the nichelike porch was designed for
fac,ade. In Europe the niche had received great the lateral entrance that overlooks the garden.
attention since the Renaissance, and from mid- The sides of the recess open out at an angle.
fifteenth century on, colossal archwavs were An image of the Virgin stands in a shallow
constructed as portals, forming an open vesti- niche above the arched doorway. Large pan-
bule— S. Andrea in Mantua, Italv, for instance, els carved in relief flank the figure, and the
designed bv Alberti about 1460. Among Mo- flat surfaces are enlivened with a fluent over-
hammedan builders emphasis of the portal had all embossing that is verv effective in the
long been favored: thev, too, placed a door golden vellow stone of the building. This
[86]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
church mav have been finished in the first from the outside wall to the entrance. Note-
third of the eighteenth century; its main altar worthy is the Mudejar window, with its mul-
is dated 1735. Probably the greater part of it tifoil arch and heavy ornate frame. All the
is the work of Indians; in this region they decoration around the door and window— as
not only were numerous but also held high well as the entire surface of the shell, which
positions in the colonial administration. is finished with great elegance— is of stucco.
San Miguel el Grande, known today as San Some writers consider the two towers to be
Miguel de Allende, was founded in mid-six- out of proportion to the recess, whereas others
teenth century as a military outpost against find that this very factor, together with the
the Chichimec and Otomi Indians. Near the rustic finish of the rest of the church, tends
market place, where much of the merchandise to point up the refinement of the whole portal.
and the methods of business still hark back Among the bells in the right tower is one
to customs established in a bvgone age, stands dated 1591, probably a survival from the
the chapel of Our Lady of Health (La Salud) earlier building. This church became a par-
(fig. c). It toward the end of the

was built ish church for the purely Indian population
eighteenth century, mainly at the expense of that lived in the district and it remains so to
the friar Luis Felipe Neri Alfaro;
112
he spent this day. A monograph published in 1945 on
a great part of his patrimony on the construc- the religious structures in Yucatan lists thirty-
tion. Its portal of dark stone, once painted in five churches for Merida, twenty-three of
95
a variety of colors, brings new details to which are situated in the city proper.
this now familiar type. Here, too, the line of In the four shell portals on this plate note
the portal recess is angular, producing a the difference in the treatment of the shell it-
hinged shape that doubtless complicated the self: in two cases it radiates from the center
placing of the rounded shell above. A small of the base line; in Cuernavaca it is centered
shell is set at the base of the large one and above, like a half-dome; and in Mexico City
from it the "Eve of God" gazes out on the it is centered on a window and has only a
plaza. A number of details bespeak its late slight splay.
date: the pilasters taper downward in the form
of estipites and carry a minimum of decora- On Vlate 40 are presented Mudejar door-
tion; in the spandrels of the neo-Mudejar en- ways of various periods in Mexico. In the
trance, nondescript abstractions take the place door to the cloister of the Sagrario of Patz-
of the floating angels so frequently encoun- cuaro (fig. b), formerly the Hospital of Santa
tered earlier. The use of two rectangular win- Marta, 130 stone was cut in subtle Mudejar lines
dows instead of one in the upper tier above suggestive of the Gothic. The pointed arch
the entrance is unusual. S-scrolls, drawn out rests on the modestly paneled piers, as fluid
large enough to fill the area, provide the only and graceful in line as if it were made of
ornamentation above them. stucco or wood; points dart out from both
This Baroque shell design is found in Yuca- the extrados and the intrados, the outer in-
tan also. The church of San Cristobal in Merida dependent of the inner. Today the building
(fig. a), which replaced an earlier primitive is in a poor state of repair and, together with
chapel, was erected on property once owned other architectural remnants of the early sev-
by the Franciscans. The royal permit for this enteenth century in this town, pleads for at-
structure is dated 1757, but the inauguration tention.

did not take place until 1797. In its high arch, In the eighteenth century Queretaro, a city
plain wall surfaces, and loftv turrets, it carries southeast of the silver cities of Guanajuato
some strong suggestions of Merida's cathedral and Zacatecas, enjoyed a period of great pros-
(sec VI. 2). The recess in San Cristobal curves peritv. Agriculture, industry, commerce, and
87
nearby mines all contributed to a life of plenty. his house on this site in 1528, with stones from
Before the middle of the century it had grown the main teocalli; a block carved with the
to be the third largest city of the viceroyalty. plumed serpent was used as a cornerstone. In
The first church of La Compania there, 1779 the building was considerably remodeled
founded by the Jesuits in connection with and changed in style under the supervision
their college which adjoined it, was finished of the famous architect Francisco de Guer-
in early seventeenth century. Later it was rero y Torres (see also PI. 49); the mermaid
enlarged several times and about 1755 it was fountain in the court probably dates from
93
practically rebuilt. In 1771, after the expul- this time. By then the family had intermar-
sion of the order, it was made a parish church ried with the Altamirano y Velasco, the
and dedicated to Santiago. 117 Now the cloister Catilla, and the Mendoza families, all distin-
of the former monastery (fig. a), once made guished throughout the colonial epoch; a coat
friendly and cheerful by flowers and running of arms mounted high above the portal indi-
water, is occupied by the little-disturbed office cates the noble lineage. On the cornices of
of the parish priest. The arcades, one above the house are gargoyles in the shape of a
the other, are built entirely of stone. The cannon, a symbol of privilege.
lower story has round arches and cloister Quite unique is the dentil above the door.
vaults. All the doorways leading into the build- The Mudejar curves of the lintel are care-
ing show Mudejar lines. Here the arch, its fully plotted and suggest drapery. Rococo
inner line multifoil and its outer one ruffled, taste is visible in the console-like decoration
seems to spring from the center of the fluted on the pedestals— the ball and claw familiar
jamb. from the furniture of the period; however,
As might be expected in a city where ec- the engaged columns at the sides, fluted and
clesiastical edifices displayed such elegance, the with small capitals, approach the neoclassic.
civilians sought splendor in the designing of On the massive wooden doors, two coats of
their houses. An upper gallery in the mansion arms occupy the medallions carved above two
of the Count of Sierra Gorda, in Queretaro, heraldic lion heads; the design is so divided
gives a glimpse of an interior (fig. d). A nar- that one sector may be opened, to permit
row arcade showing neo-Mudejar decoration entrance, without disturbing the balance.
surrounds the entire patio, and in the ceiling
of the upper corridor this style is blended The Churrigueresque style of architectural
with the Rococo; the elaborate combination decoration derives its name from the Madrid-
of stucco spirals and shell-rosettes gives an born Jose Churriguera (1650-172 3), whose
unusually lively and pleasing aspect to the most telling work stands in Salamanca, the seat
place. of Spain's most ancient university. In his first
The main patio of another Queretaro man- works he held to a degree of classicism, into
sion, that of the Marquis of Villa de Villar de which he injected Plateresque elements. But his
Aguila (fig. e), shows extravagant fantasy in was the age of expansiveness, of pomp and an
its design; here the various current modes inflated monumentality, and in this world he
were combined to produce a highly theatrical found his own individual manner when, about
setting. 1689, he came to Madrid. There he won the
Contrast is offered in the palace of the competition for a catafalque for Queen Maria
Count of Santiago in the Mexican capital Louisa, the first wife of Charles II. The greatest
(fig. c). Built entirely of stone, it breathes of Spain's painters, sculptors, and architects had
reserve and dignity. The founder of this fam- competed, and Churriguera's victory indicates
ily, the first Count of Calimava, was a cousin that his manner well expressed the times. His
of Cortes, the Conquistador. He began to build prize-winning design breathes a broadlv the-
[88]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
atrical atmosphere, melancholic and emotion- The was welcome in the colonies,
style
ally high pitched. Most elements of that style where buildings usually were designed on a
which was later named for him are apparent basically simple ground plan, partly because
in this project: wreaths and garlands, col- of the absence of virtuoso architects and
umns, scrolls, carved drapery, medallions, can- partly because recurrent earthquakes condi-
delabra, flags, vases, obelisks, balustrades, and tioned the manner and type of construction.
36
religious and mythological statues. Thus, despite the fact that not one of the five
Churriguera had two sons, a grandson, and Churrigueras was ever in the American col-
a nephew, all of whom followed him in his onies, Churrigueresque became a characteristic
profession; thus the name covers considerably expression of Mexico; for here was a style
more in time— as well as in production— than which could endow a simple structure with a
could be encompassed in one life span. In the highlv alive and ostentatiously elegant air.
use of estipites, pedestals, busts, and other mo- The Sagrario Metropolitano in Mexico's cap-
tifs that have come to be accepted as charac- ital (see PL 2) is a key example of Churrigue-
teristics of the style, his pupil and disciple resque, and many others can be found through-
Pedro Ribera was more Churrigueresque than out the land. In the examples selected for this
Churriguera himself. It should be recalled, chapter, attention is directed especially to re-

however, that the estipite was used in Italy gional variations.
in mid-sixteenth century (see Appendix, PL On this earth are certain spots which have
*9<>, fig- f). become so famous for their beauty that the
It is interesting to note that, according to sensitive traveler approaches them with timid-
40
a writer and archivist in Barcelona, Chur- ity, in doubt whether his impressions will
riguera was of Catalan origin and his family measure up to his expectations. Tasco belongs
name originallv began with an "X." If this to the group that will not disappoint him
is true, it is all the more ironical that Chur- if he outstays the midday tourist scramble.
rigueresque became more elaborated and more In the light of the subtropical afternoon, the
widely used in Mexico than in Spain, for houses, washed white or pink, above terraces
Catalans were not at first permitted to emi- brilliant with flowers, begin to shimmer in
grate to the New World and even later per- golden dust. The church, with its rose-col-
mission was suspended at various intervals, ored stone, white stucco, and bright tiles,
when Catalonia stood in opposition to the stands radiant at the heart of an arena-like
crown of Castile. Churrigueresque is said to valley.
have been introduced into Mexico by the The Nahuatl name Tlachco (where ball is
Spanish sculptor Jeronimo de Balbas. He came played) implies a shrine, but little is known
over to carve the Altar de los Reyes (begun of the pre-Columbian past of this place. It is
in 1 7 1
8 ) in the cathedral of Mexico City, after said that Cortes saw minerals that were dis-
37
having won fame with his work in Seville. covered here and that Franciscans from Cuer-
In this volume the term Churrigueresque navaca were the first evangelizers. But fame
is applied not to all exuberant eighteenth-cen- came later, with Jose de la Borda. That voung
tury Baroque in the New World but to that Spaniard left Spain in 17 16 to join his brother
style, predominantly Mexican, which is closely Francisco, who for about eight years had been
related to de Balbas' manner. The use of the mining in Tasco with little luck. However,
estipite and the lambrequin is characteristic. under Jose the enterprise soon prospered. He
Often the total effect is of a stalactite mass, exploited mines in other parts of the country
with countless pointed elements hanging down and amassed great wealth but always showed
from above, producing a vcrticalitv that has a preference for the place where fortune had
nothing to do with structural requirements. first smiled upon him. He effected improve-
[89]
merits in Tasco's water supply and carried fry sections the towers are more ornate: dec-
out many building projects, among them the orated columns are playfully fashioned and
erection of a parish church. According to the heavy corbels are carved with grotesque faces.
story, Jose de la Borda was anxious to retain The dome in its sprawling bonhomie is as
near him his son Manuel, who was about to Mexican as the lapis lazuli sky and that daz-
enter the priesthood, and wished to provide zling sun which gilds its own image in the
the voung man with a church worthy of the blue and yellow tiles.
Borda name. To this end he obtained permis- In the interior are found some extraordi-
sion from the archbishop of Mexico to demol- narily expressive statues. An idea of the ho-
ish the old parish church and erect a new mogeneity of its execution can be gained from
and greater one, his sole condition being that the illustration of its organ (see PI. 160).
he alone should direct the work and control Humboldt, who visited Mexico in 1803, re-
the funds. Construction began in 175 1, and marked upon the prosperity that accrued to
seven years later the building was finished all branches of the economy in an agricul-
(PI. 41, fig. a). It was dedicated to St. Prisca tural district when mines were discovered.
and St. Sebastian; the former was a virgin He made mention especially of the high table-
martyr of Roman compan-

times and a fitting land of Anahuac, which extends as far as San
ion to the youthful Christian soldier. Diego Miguel de Allende and at that time belonged
Duran and Juan Caballero are named as the to the Intendency of Guanajuato. At the cen-
architects. The altars are the work of Isidoro ter, situated in a mountain gorge at the meet-
Vicente de Balbas, believed to be the son of ing of several valleys, lies Guanajuato (a cor-
Jeronimo, the master of Churrigueresque men- ruption of the Tarascan name which meant
tioned above. 127 "hill of the frogs"). The richest mines of the
This building, one of the most eloquent district— Las Rayas, La Valenciana, and La
landmarks of the golden era of Latin American Cata— are close to the city. Much unrest has
colonial art, embodies in its heaped floral orna- plagued this region: miners early struggled
ments and stalactite elements a special inter- for their rights against the crown and even
pretation of the Churrigueresque. The single fought one another; Indian uprisings contin-
doorway in the retable facade is flanked by ued here late into the eighteenth century;
slender columns with figures jutting out from and the region was a revolutionary center dur-
between them. Interest is concentrated on the ing the war for independence.
second order, where a monumental sculptured But such disturbances did not hinder the
medallion depicting the baptism of Christ oc- newly rich from erecting lavish churches or
cupies the space usually allotted to a central from building seignioral mansions for them-
window. Above it, a multifoil choir-light ex- selves. Only a small portion of their fabulous
tends up into the arched pediment, which incomes was needed to purchase titles and
suggests an espadana but does not rise beyond coats of arms from the crown, and new aristo-
the roof. The manner of stone carv-

exquisite crats, with only a brief lineage behind them,
ing, the placing of statues on top of the fa- appeared on the scene to become patrons of
cade, the many balustrades, and the distribu- the arts. Vicente Manuel de Sardeneta y
tion of finials— arranged like festive bouquets Legaspi, the first Marquis of San Juan de
—all invite comparison with the Rococo Rayas and the son of an already famous minero,
churches in the mining towns of Brazil (see or mine operator, was such a silver magnate.
Pis. 169-173). Humboldt mentions the mine of Las Rayas as
The tower beyond the por-
bases protrude one of the most lucrative. In his opinion it
tal, and four variform windows in each, with produced from the same vein as did La Va-
Rococo framing, enliven the mass. In the bel- lenciana. But in addition Las Rayas had ame-
[90]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
thysts in crystal form; furthermore the silver wood, gilded, and polychromed, is visible at
ore here was nearer the surface than that at the right. All these details bear witness that
68
La Yalenciana and also of a higher grade. by the last quarter of the eighteenth century,
Though much the smaller and less than a fifth Baroque, Churrigueresque, neo-Mudejar, and
as costly to operate, Las Ravas brought nearly Rococo were blended in Mexico into an op-
the same net income as the other. eratic and ebullient style, which was ex-
At the mouth of this mine the new marquis pressed with equal felicity, regardless of the
built, about mid-eighteenth century, the scale, in stone, stucco, or wood.
church of San Juan de Rayas (fig. b). In
style it represents a local version of Chur- Humboldt also tells of a poor and simple
rigueresque and is distinguished by its well- Spaniard named Obregon, who in 1766 was
organized ornamental units, the finesse of its working in the Guanajuato region at a depth
execution, and the sobriety of its general plan. of over 240 feet, but with little success. His
The molding of the estipites is here like ruf- enthusiasm for mining was so great, however,
fles. The entrance has a clean-cut multifoil that rather than abandon his enterprise he
arch, and a sculptured lambrequin, draped accepted privation. A year later he entered
below the choir window, brings out the into partnership with a small Las Rayas mer-
Mudejar spirit of the design. chant by the name of Otero, and before
After mid-nineteenth century the mining in- another year had passed, the mine— later
dustry here fell on evil days, and the crum- famous as La Valenciana— was producing
bling walls of this graceful building, as it silver. Between 1787 and 1791 the value of
stood at the edge of a ghost town, made a pa- the extracted ore reached nearly two million
thetic sight. But in 1946 the Guanajuato Ro- marks, and by the end of the first sixty years
tary Club, in a most praiseworthy act, had the the total production amounted to some
facade transported stone by stone and reas- $22,000,000. Among the barren rocks above
sembled to form the front of the church known the Ravine of San Javier, where, only a few
as Pardo Templo, a half-block from the city's years before, Obregon had started to prospect,
main street. a town of some seven or eight thousand in-
About three miles above Guanajuato is sit- habitants arose; by the end of the eighteenth
uated the church of San Cavetano, popularly century thirty-one hundred mestizo and In-
known La Valenciana because it was built
as dian laborers were working in the Valenciana
at the mouth of the mine by that name. It is mine, nearly half of whom descended daily
dedicated to the Italian St. Gaetano (1480- to a depth of over fifteen hundred feet.
1547), founder of the Theatine order. This Obregon himself— better known as the Count
church is larger than the one at Las Rayas, is of Valenciana— is said to have retained his
more lavish in execution, and is still preserved simplicity of manner and unpretentious cus-
in its full splendor on its original site. Further toms in spite of his vast fortune. Guanajuato
details are presented in subsequent plates. then had reached a population of some seventy
The doorway that leads from the sanctuary thousand, and here and there on streets that
to the sacristy (fig. c) shows the same scheme were fringed with the miserable huts of
of decoration in stone carving which was ap- Indians stood the mansions of the mine
plied to facades; here are the lambrequin and owners, which, according to Humboldt, could
the Mudejar arch, the divided pediment de- have held their own in the great European
veloped into three separate units, the medal- capitals. Especially magnificent was the neo-
lions, the delightfully ruffled moldings, and classic palace built by Francisco Eduardo de
the deep and closely fillcd-in spaces above the Tresgucrras for the Count de Rul, who mar-
arch. An edge of the high altar, carved of ried the third Countess of Valenciana and thus
91]
came renowned mine. 115
into possession of the building was going up and its projected mag-
Just as the church of Santa Prisca in Tasco nificence was unfolding, the jealousy of the
attracts the eye from the first moment that parish priest down in Guanajuato was aroused.
the town can be seen, so the church of La He protested that the royal license had been
Valenciana immediately strikes the traveler as granted for the erection of a hacienda chapel,
he rounds the mountain ridge and looks into not a basilica. The ensuing controversy held
the gorge where Guanajuato lies. The sur- up the work until finally a compromise was
rounding hills are more or less treeless and reached and the rank of the church was low-
the deep green of the copse contrasts with ered bv completing only one of its towers.
patches of slag that form frozen pools or The interior has a single nave, and a broad
fantastic boulders. In the former mining settle- arch supporting the choir loft spans its entire
ments, sprawling over hills and barrancas, width (fig. b). The spandrels, ceiling, pilasters,
many of the houses are empty; their roofs and even the walls carry stucco patterns in a
have caved in and the sun pours into forsaken soft creamy tone, which range from figural
and crumbling rooms. But high on a promon- motifs to abstract designs. Similar pattern
tory, La Valenciana stands intact, its stones treatment is carried out on the wooden mam-
tinged with a rosy tan and its shining dome para, or entrance screen, so successfully that
reared against a deep blue sky (PI. 42, fig. a). the various materials blend with exceptional
This church, begun in the 1760's on the harmony. A companion to the sacristy portal
site of a chapel, was dedicated in 1788. The seen on the preceding plate is the entrance
peons who labored in the mines for a pittance to the baptistry on the right under the choir
gave part of their daily wages toward its erec- loft; all the doorways within the building are
tion and furnishing and in addition spent their of stone and are ornamented in the same
holidays working on the edifice without pay. manner. Over the side door, which leads out
It is said that silver was built into the founda- into a garden, is a molded shell of stucco,
tions and fine wines were brought over from exquisitely shaped and fancifully decorated.
Spain to be used in mixing the mortar." When In the corners of the ceiling a Gothic device
it was completed, every miner donated to it is imaginatively applied with a highly Rococo
a piece of ore the size of a man's fist. At times effect. The inlaid pulpit, said to be made of
its income amounted to fifty thousand pesos exotic woods, is strongly Oriental in line.
yearly. The names of its architects and any Two details from the retables will be seen on
details in the history of its construction per- the following plate.
ished with its archives during the struggle for
independence. For all the variety they reveal, the lavish
As at Tasco, the central part of the facade retables presented here (PI. 43) are not far
is stepped back somewhat from the towers. removed from one another geographically or
Here also the entire central composition is chronologically.
homogeneous, drawn together under a pro- Manuel Tomas de la Canal, a great patron
nounced arched cornice. In the tower bases of San Miguel de Allende, defrayed the ex-
the windows with neo-Mudejar arches might penses of the Loreto chapel there, and had a
well belong to a secular building; with the camarin constructed behind its altar. That
more modestly framed openings below them small chamber is laid out on an octagonal
and the small star windows above, they lend plan, and above it four great arches cross to
a friendly aspect to the imposing front. form a cupola with a central lantern, in the
The Gaceta de Mexico of 1788 describes Mudejar manner; a similar construction is
this church as having two towers; the second found at Tepotzotlan, which also enjoyed the
one, however, was never finished. As the generous patronage of Don Manuel. 112 Here the
[9*]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
walls are practically sheathed in gold, applied The facade of the church carries a design in
eitheron the carved wood of the retables or stone very similar in spirit to this retable.
on the stucco decoration between them. A A comparison of the Tepotzotlan detail
section of the side altar at the right of the with one from the lower left of La Valen-
entrance (fig. c) shows a most original ar- ciana's high altar (fig. a)— of a somewhat later
rangement— a sequence of huge leafv scrolls, date (1788)— shows a different interpretation
with an angel head surprisingly worked in at within the same style. In the first instance a
the lower right. Protruding from this plastic complex scheme with an amazing variety of
composition, a scalloped baldachin hangs like decorative elements was kept geometrical and
a great blossom from a spray, suggesting a cold but highly plastic; the second has a pic-
design on a Chinese wallpaper or screen. Judg- torial quality and greater clarity. Here the
ing from the space beneath the canopy, a rhythmic and the linear are emphasized, and
statue larger than the present one may have an immediacy and a softness in the composi-
stood here originally. This retable, dated 1735- tion are apparent. A Rococo element is notice-
1740, is the earliest of the group on the plate. able in the slender spiraling garlands on the
Another interesting feature in this chapel— half-columns. The estofado on the statue of
the panels painted above the two doorways- St. Joseph has a fluency which is also Rococo,
shows pages from some didactic book, greatly and the panel behind him is enlivened with a
enlarged. scattering of bouquets like that on eighteenth-
As mentioned above, de la Canal also made century wallpaper.
large contributions at one time to the rebuild- In the upper section of the retable in the
ing of the famous Jesuit college and church left transept of the same church (fig. b), the
dedicated to St. Francis Xavier at Tepotzotlan; Mother of Charity sits enthroned, a rather
the college was endowed by an Indian ca- rare representation, clasping a second child in
cique
129
seminary in 1582, and in early
as a her arms. Two angels at her feet seem, from
seventeenth century further gifts were re- the positions of their hands, to have once held
ceived. In the eighteenth century the complex lute and harp. Before the window stands a
underwent several alterations, which termi- heroic figure of St. Michael, holding a large
nated only in the 1760's a short time before cross as spear (see Appendix, PI. ipi, fig. a);
the expulsion of the order. the light pouring in from behind surrounds
Three typically Churrigueresque altars, in- him like an aureole. Companion archangels are
augurated in 1755, are placed in a group at poised on massive corbels at either side of him.
the apse end of the nave. Shown here is a Although the figures here, all deeply symboli-
detail from the left side of the main retable cal, are no longer primarily story-telling, they
(fig. d). The estipite shafts are encrusted with are thoroughly ingratiating in their exquisite
flowers, medallions, shells, and various capri- apparel and romantic carriage. The back-
cious shapes. Noteworthy are the depth of the grounds behind the statues are sprinkled with
retable and the many planes, a scheme that painted nosegays, and the spiraling garland is
increased the saturation point for ornamental seen again on the pilasters as well as on the
detail. Attention is focused on the expressive arching gilded frame. Even the ceiling and
and well-executed statue of John
St. the Bap- the masonry walls tie into the composition
tist in the niche. Two angels ride on a spiral through the vibrant lines of the molding.
ornament above him, and cherubic figures in
appealing gestures are balanced throughout Before the Conquest the city of Salamanca
the composition. Beneath the carved drapery, in the state of Guanajuato was a pre-Colum-
stepped back under a turret-like baldachin, is bian settlement of the Otomi Indians, called
another saint, looking out from a medallion. Xidoo. 1
" After the arrival of the Spaniards the
93]
brothers Juan and Sancho de Barahoma estab- corbeled platforms on the retable. The illus-
lished there a hacienda, and in honor of the tration here shows him with a beggar before
chaplain of the Conquistadores, who was a him and two kneeling children pleading at
native of Salamanca, Spain, the Indian name his feet, all of them worked out in varicolored
was changed to that of the proud Old World estofado; the beggar especially, in his theatri-
city. It was officially founded by the Spanish cally picturesque rags and patches, is a truly
in 1603. Blessed with abundant water for irri- Rococo figure. Above the group a boldly
gation, the region supported many prosperous designed arch and shell effectively mark off
farms and orchards, and lush meadows pro- the scene from the other decoration. But the
vided pasture for the extensive cattle, sheep, most immediately striking element is the mas-
and hog ranches owned by the Spanish gentry. terly executed mesh design forming the back-
Also in the district were many large Indian ground. Like the great volutes, it is metallic
villages. The old parish church of the town in the precision of its workmanship and in
is reproduced later in this chapter (see PL 4-f). its sheen.
The Augustinians established themselves in Opposite that altar is one called La Conso-
Salamanca in 1616. Their church, San Agustin, lation, dedicated to Santa Rita del Cassia,
unlike Santa Prisca and La Yalenciana just who is known as the Saint of the Impossible
seen, stands modestly on one side of a minor on account of her many miracles. The section
plaza. The building itself is tall and narrow, pictured (fig. c) shows both the variety and
recalling the early type of church structure the harmony which distinguish the decoration
in Mexico. facade (PL 44, fig. a) is unpre-
Its of this church. Against a carved and gilded
tentious, giving no hint of the splendor within. linen-fold panel and below a lively valance
On either side of the single entrance are severe stands the figure of the saint, while in the oval
columns grooved with a widely spaced spiral. medallions are presented scenes from her life.
This portal has little of the Baroque in it; For all their size these representations, carved
lambrequins decorate the square choir win- in relatively low relief, are eclipsed by the
dow and niches. Unusual is the placement of shining and varied paneling which surrounds
the crucifix at the very top of the building, them. A basket-weave pattern spreads across
where a flaring shell breaks through the the surface,interrupted here and there by
cornice. leaves which are placed with great virtuosity,
On entering, the visitor finds himself in a as if they were floating downward.
single-nave church which is virtually lined
with poly chromed and gilded paneling; vibrant The main altar in this church was replaced
gold sweeps from floor to vaulting and from in 1832 bv a dull neoclassic construction,
choir gallery to crossing (fig. b). In the ceil- otherwise the interior has undergone no large-
ing, lighted from the side entrance, bosses of scale renovation. In deep transept-like bays
gilded wood bring a strongly Mudejar touch, at the "crossing" are two companion altars
and Mudejar also is the pattern of the wooden (PL 45), one dedicated to St. Joseph (fig. a)
choir-loft railing. and the other to St. Ann (fig. b), mother of
Passing this entrance— called the Portal Pu- the Virgin. (The Christ in a velvet robe in
risima because of the relief above it— one the foreground, carrying the cross, is a mod-
~omes upon a side altar (fig. d), which is ern statue which could not be removed at
dedicated to St. Nicholas of Tolentino, the the time of photographing.) These magnifi-
Augustinian friar of the fourteenth century cent altars are unique in both conception and
whose statue was seen at Yuririapundaro (see execution; neither has much of the conven-
PL 5 / ) Episodes from the life of the saint are
. tional retable about it. As if in deliberate
dramatized with half-life-size figures set on contrast to those in the nave, which were kept
[94]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
relatively flat, emphasis was laid on the three- The confessional at the foot of the St.
dimensional. Five scenes from the life of each Joseph altar shows similarity in its heart-
saint are presented; the figures, almost life- shaped garlands and frame to that in the
size, are enriched with a colorful estofado, church of Santa Rosa in Queretaro (see PL
which sets them off against the golden back- i8j); indeed, the high quality of craftsman-
ground. In both cases the main tableau in the ship and the resemblances in the artistic idiom
sequence is staged in a curtained niche under suggest a relationship between the working
an immense crown, opulent and majestic. Atop groups. The interior of Santa Rosa was com-
each is poised an archangel, ablaze in the light pleted in 1752, and it is possible that after
that pours through the window behind him. the successful reception of the Queretaro
Smaller crowns are placed like baldachins nunnery church some of the masters con-
above other scenes to the right and left. nected with that building, as well as their
At first glance these two retables appear craftsmen, were hired for the Salamanca
very similar; in general plan they are definitely church less than sixty miles away.
companion pieces, with the dividing columns, Some time after these stylistic observations
the niches, the crowns, the drapery above the 7
were written thev were corroborated by a
scenes suggested bv voluted cornices, and the contract discovered in the Queretaro archives
window, all substantially in the same arrange- and published bv Heinrich Berlin. 48 Accord-
ment. And both have exquisite but different ing to that document one Pedro (Joseph) de
interlacing patterns as background— a Mudejar Roxas was signed to carve and gild a lateral
device used throughout this church. Upon altar dedicated to "the Ladv St. Ann" for the
closer scrutiny, however, differences are dis- church of San Agustin in Salamanca. The
cernible, particularly in the details of the tabernacle of the saint was to stand above the
decoration. In the St. Joseph altar a greater sagrario, and the window was to be integrated
spontaneity is evident. The motifs are larger into the design. Mysteries from her life were
and there is much more figural decoration; to be incorporated into the work, as well as
also several characters participate in the action. seven "Principals"— four on the four pilasters,
God the Father occupies the central position two on the pediments, and the other, "who
just beneath the arch, while in the other a isthe Lord St. Gabriel," in the Annunciation
purely ornamental garland is festooned across scene— each to be fitted into its proper place.
this space. In the St. Ann altar a hint of the The altar was to be carved within ten months
neoclassic is noticeable; a greater restraint and brought down to Salamanca where it
characterizes this retable and there is less would be assembled by the master and gilded
variety in the motifs. Except for the Presenta- by his own hand. He signed the contract on
tion (upper left) the drama is subdued. Only May 4, 1768. With the exception of the
a single figure occupies the central niche, archangel figures, this contract seems to have
standing against an enchanting flowered pat- been carried out more or less as drawn.
tern. As yet little is known of the sculptor Roxas.
According to local information considerable He is mentioned in the notes of Tresguerras,
work was done on this church interior in the the famous neoclassic architect born in Guana-
last quarter of the seventeenth century (1683). juato, as claiming to have come from the
lo:
It is claimed that the last refurbishment capital and leaving only a number of side
of the church was begun in 1744 and finished altars in Celaya, Salvatierra, and Queretaro;
in 1 77 1. In the choir are large canvases signed these works, in Tresguerras' opinion, were
by Juan Baltasar Gomez and dated Salamanca almost alike and were characterized bv an
1768. A gilded bench also is preserved from intemperate extravagance. The same notes
127
this period (see PL 187). mention that Roxas was known for his use
[95]
of the figures "called from the Italian de 1790 the complex was given in the name of
Alquile" and for a type of nymph "always the king to the nuns of the Immaculate Con-
103
useless, idle." The term alquile might be de- ception.
rived from the Italian a chiglia (as on a keel The church is built on a platform and is
or prow of a ship). approached by a flight of steps, a position

Fortunately taste has developed far beyond which emphasizes the monumentality of the
the academic norms of the neoclassic epoch. structure. In contrast to La Soledad, the portal
Travelers of the early nineteenth century here protrudes and the two sides turn back to
recommended Salamanca as well worth a visit connect with the towers (see also PI. 169).
for the remarkable altars in its Augustinian The engaged Plateresque columns stand on
133
church. Today, off the railroad and tourist high pedestals, and especially noteworthy is
route, it is rarely mentioned in guidebooks, the stepped molding on the receding wings.
though it has retained one of the best pre- The restraint noticeable in the decoration may
served church interiors in all the country, a be explained in part by the straitened circum-
monument of North Mexican Rococo. stances of the order here when it started.
From the very beginning of the Conquest
Certain facades in Mexico are striking for Oaxaca was important as a main station on
the detail work in their decoration and others the Royal Highway to Central America. The
attract attention through their irregular ground town's population increased from 120 in 1522
plans and the manipulation of their wall planes. to 2,000 in 1626 and to 14,000 in 1790. It
Of the latter group the facade of the church derived a considerable income from the pro-
of La Soledad in Oaxaca (PI. 46, -fig. b) is an duction of cochineal, a clear red dye manu-
excellent example (see also Pis. 10, 66). Its factured from a tiny insect that feeds upon
walls are brought forward obliquely on either the cactus. All Oaxaca churches are note-
side of the door, section by section, like the worthy for their stonework; the Zapotec and
wings of a paneled altar screen, with the out- Mixtec Indians, natives of the region, were
ermost panels standing parallel to the recessed excellent masons, as their nearby pre-Colum-
portal. In general the decoration is conserva- bian ruins testify. In colonial days Oaxaca
tive and shows fine details. Different treatment earlv had her own school of craftsmen; over
was accorded the columns and niches in each forty local carvers of the period between 1680
tier, and an interesting variety was achieved and 1800 are known by name from their
48
through the two reliefs in the central section. contracts.
The statuary, which is in an amazingly good The region around Zapopan, only about
state of repair, has dramatic expression. This three miles northwest of Guadalajara, came
church and its nunnery were constructed for into prominence much later than Oaxaca. As
the Recolet nuns of Santa Monica between one of the missionary centers from which
1682 and 1695, when they branched out from friars pushed on into California, it is inti-
their convent in Puebla. Its greatest benefac- mately connected with the development of
tor was Pedro de Otalora, a statue of whom our own West. In the early seventeenth cen-
appears in the top frame at the right. tury Zapopan had a primitive Marian sanc-
In the same city stands a former Jesuit tuary in charge of Franciscans, which was
church, now known
La Concepcion (fig. c).
as taken over bv secular clergy in mid-century
The Jesuits arrived in Oaxaca in 1576. Their and a new building raised. 98 The present edifice
house and church underwent considerable re- was dedicated in 1730.
pair after the earthquakes of 1607, 1787, and This Sanctuary of Zapopan (fig. a) stands
1 80 1. At the time of the second catastrophe in an immense flagstone atrium that can hold
the order had already been expelled, and in a multitude of pilgrims. The facade of the
[96]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
building is on one plane, but the set-back of and primitive smelters. On the return trip the
the loftv octagonal towers (they are more car was dragged up the steep slope by six
than 1 20 feet high) and the protruding masses mules, harnessed three abreast.
of the grouped pilasters at the sides break the The facade of the church of Guadalupe
line. Giant volutes make the transition be- (fig. b), stepped forward, resembles the fa-
tween the piers and the towers, producing a miliar retable type, but only in the first story.
highly Baroque effect. The portal section is Its columns are divided into three sections,
mild, in the mid-seventeenth-century style of one showing figural decoration, one twisted,
Mexico, and the espadana is extravagantly and one covered with a basket-weave pattern.
high, richly ornamented. When viewed from Above the angular arch a high relief shows
a distance the Sanctuary beckons with a kind the miraculous Virgin of Guadalupe being
of rustic joviality, the yellow plaster of its painted by the Apostle Luke. Francisco de la
facade blending with the rose-colored stone Maza points out that his eyes are of obsidian
of the towers and the sparkling majolica on and his palette is inlaid with colored stones—
the melon-shaped domes. a practice that recalls the early tequitqui
111
Within this Sanctuary is a miraculous statue work. The upper section of the facade is
of a crowned Virgin in praying pose, at her marked bv two somewhat extended columns,
feet a crescent moon with a human face. On which lift the espadana well above the roof
Sundays and especially on the fiesta of the line, while the two outer columns are little
patroness in October, this quiet monastic more than stumps. The carving on this portal
place teems with people, who come on foot is so specifically regional that it may have
and by bus for prayer and a leisurely outing. been executed by members of the school-
Then the gray flagstone patio is enlivened by perhaps even bv the same team— which
the happy hubbub of children and the gay worked on the cathedral of Zacatecas (see
colors of Indian tribal costumes. PI. 7).
The tower on the right is contemporary

In this northwestern sector of Mexico, with the rest of the building and, crowned
where a prosperous mining industry brought with multicolored tile, harmonizes with it.
general economic well-being, architecture in That on the left is an addition from the late
the eighteenth century reached a high level of nineteenth century and justifies the sharpest
craftsmanship. Many of the facades display of the criticism directed at the many similar
a strongly regional manner of decoration; architectural atrocities which have been com-
unusual undercutting, the close grouping of mitted in Latin America during the last hun-
motifs, and the combination of shallow and dred and fifty years.
deep relief all blend to give an effect of tapes- The church of Santa Monica in Guadala-
try or embroidery. The examples shown here jara, said to have been established in 1720 for
(PI. /f[) from towns that have
are taken nuns brought from Puebla, 98 was mentioned
already been encountered in this work. earlier in connection with its gigantic statue
In Guadalupe, a suburb below Zacatecas, a of St. Christopher (see PI. 38). On the twin
college was founded in 1707 by a friar sent portals of this building (fig. a) the regional
out from Queretaro, and its adjoining church, sculptor again made use of a tapestry-like
dedicated to the Virgin of Guadalupe, was treatment. Grapevines spiral about the twisted
opened in 172 1. An old guidebook (1887) columns and maize cobs can be distinguished
describes the trip from Zacatecas in the nine- among the dense carving on the walls. In the
teenth century, when tramcars ran out by wide frieze above the doorway, two angels-
gravity at a high rate of speed, winding suggestive of mermaids— hold a heraldic device
through streets and past mine heads, slag heaps, which features a heart with arrows, a miter,
[97]
and other emblems of the order, and on the but in polychromed stucce work. The dif-
face of the pedestals at either side of them ferences in the various manners will become
a caryatid is wreathed in vines. The composi- more evident as these chapters proceed.
tion is without the undulating lines, the sweep-
ing curves, or the swelling masses of the Guadalajara, founded by one of Cortes'
Baroque; in spite of its late date and rustic officers as a base for conquest toward the
cadence it has much that derives from the northwest and along the Pacific coast, is de-
Plateresque. scribed in the early seventeenth century as
Salamanca's old parochial church exhibits having six hundred Spanish residents, exclu-
still another aspect of the regional manner. sive of the servant class. By that time the
Its rustic facade is more or less contemporary region already could boast a well-developed
with the others on the plate; Churrigueresque agriculture and animal husbandry; sugar mills
estipites, with niches between them, and an were in operation, and the preserves made
elaborate star window place it in mid-eight- from the native and Spanish fruits of its
eenth century. But the section here repro- orchards were famous. In colonial times the
duced (fig. c), showing a niche and pillars at city achieved an importance second only to
the right of the entrance, presents regional that of the capital, a position it has retained
forms and motifs that are strongly folkloristic. to the present day.
Small screw-shaped columns terminate in The Palace of the Audiencia of Nueva
canephorae, and below the niche two masklike Galicia (PL 48, fig. a), in Guadalajara, now
heads end in fishtails or leaf spirals. The arch houses government offices. An extravagant,
is angular, like that in the Guadalupe portal. somewhat swaggering edifice, it gives char-
Here the shafts of the bulky columns are acter to a bustling plaza in thismodern city.
divided into two sections, the lower cut with It was constructed between 175 and 1
1775,
a zigzag pattern. In the upper portion the fan- apparently under the architects Nicolas En-
tastic twisting spiral, half shell and half flower, riquez del Castillo and Jose Conique; a tablet
brings tomind pre-Columbian carved serpents. in the spacious hall bears the date 1774. Chur-
Cherub heads look out between the coils. At rigueresque elements, such as the monumental
the base of the right-hand column is a group estipites, were used in the two upper tiers.
of little atlantes, nearly concealed under their But the suggestion of statues in the armor
decorative guise. A human figure stands on racks applied as finials, the illusionistic play in
a console at the edge of the facade, dressed the rustication, and the simulated drapery
in a jerkin and high boots and carrying objects under the overhanging cornice are all delight-
in both hands; the large shell behind his head fully and richly Baroque. The columns on the
could be a gloria or even a feather headdress. ground floor, with their crisscross pattern, are
This old church is now in a run-down sector also in the Baroque tradition, as are the huge
of the town and a high solid wall hides most volutes. The window framing, so quiet in line,
of its first story from the street. But for those and the plain wall surfaces lean toward the
who seek it out, it has much to reveal even Rococo— some might say the neo-Mudejar.
in its neglected state. From such diverse styles could the imaginative
For an illuminating comparison one should architect in eighteenth-century Mexico choose
turn at this point to the illustrations of Are- his decorative motifs.
quipa and Puno, in Peru, and La Paz and In the espadana many of the same elements
There too a regional dialect
Potosi, in Bolivia. are repeated. A hanging garland falls on either
in stone carving was developed, roughly con- side of the protruding clock, and a highly
temporary with Mexico's. Guatemala also decorative use is made even of the metal clock
found its regional expression about this time, springs; in the double spirals just below the
[98]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
balcony, caned in stone, the position is re- stone emblem was effaced and a window
versed. The waterspouts have the shape of broken through.
cannon, a sign of privilege.
The Ecala Palace (fig. b), one of many In general in colonial architecture the deco-
seignioral mansions in Queretaro, dates from rative features were refined while the structure
the last decades of the eighteenth century. itself remained rather heavy and uncompli-
It is said that its proprietor, Manuel L. de cated. Some edifices, however, show much
Ecala, and his next-door neighbor began to play with sophisticated form. The jewel
renovate their houses at the same time and among these is El Pocito, the Chapel of the
were soon involved in a building race. The Little Well (PI. 49, fig. a). It stands in the
adjacent facades were pushed farther and suburban village known as Guadalupe (the
farther into the plaza, until finally the city Arabian name of a city in Spain) some three
authorities intervened and stopped them where miles northeast of the Mexican capital. Here
thev stood. 117 occurred, before the Indian Juan Diego, the
Little decoration was used on the broad first appearance of the Virgin in the New
banded arches. The continuation of the pier World; the miraculous likeness of her on his
lines through the pilasters to the roof is ex- cloak is enshrined in the vast basilica, a favorite
traordinarily effective (see alsoPL 40), and pilgrimage place for all Latin America. The
an interesting use of scrolls was made on the chapel, adjacent to the basilican complex, is
modest capitals. As was general at that time, built above the spring that is said to have
the second floor was made more elegant than gushed forth from the rock on which the
the first; all of its openings are doors letting Virgin stood. All day long Indians can be
onto balconies, a scheme common in Venetian seen filling their pitchers with the water,
palaces as early as the thirteenth century; the which is credited with healing powers.
deeper balcony conforms to Spanish practice, Construction on the chapel was begun in
in the highly ornate grillework (signed by the 1777, with funds provided by some large pri-
local master Juan Ignacio Yielma) the central vate contributions but chiefly by alms from
place is given to a double-headed eagle. Al- the populace. Workmen donated their services
though some fifty years had passed since the on Sundays and holidays, and it is said that
Habsburgs stepped down from the throne of even ladies and gentlemen of fashion helped
Spain, Mexican folk art was still clinging to carry construction material w ith
r
their own
a motif with which it had become enamored hands. The work took fourteen years, and in
—and indeed it has not yet discarded it. 1 79 1 the Gaceta de Mexico published the
Much of the wall space was left plain. Even plans, the cost, and the names of the con-
129
the framing of the windows shows restraint; tributors. The architect, serving without re-
but the independent and massive stone pedi- muneration, was the famous Francisco de
ments above them are sufficient to ornament Guerrero y Torres, who also remodeled the
the whole. Such heavy and elaborate decora- palace of the Count of Santiago (see PL 40)
tive members distinguish public and private and designed that of the Marquis of San
buildings of the same epoch in Patzcuaro and Mateo de Valparaiso, now the National Bank
Morelia. (See also Pis. 166, 171.) A twisted of Mexico in the capital.
rope of stone frames the wide frieze of blue It has been pointed out that a drawing by
and white tiles under the roof cornice. The Sebastiano Serlio may have inspired the ground
small opening at the left, surrounded by plan. This great architect, born in Bologna in
carved drapery, once held the family coat of 1475, wrote a number of architectural treatises,
arms. In 1862, when the display of heraldry which were published between 1537 and 1583;
was suppressed by edict, the center of the a Spanish edition of his works first appeared
[ 99]
in Toledo in 1552. But though a two-dimen- building was once painted in various hues.
sional Renaissance plan may have provided With its many planes and different levels, it
the inspiration for the layout, the talent and still makes an arresting picture.
imagination of Guerrero y Torres conjured In the eastern part of the Valley of Toluca
up into three dimensions this fairy-tale Rococo is a large spring-fed swamp, out of which
building. Covered with blue and white Puebla flows the Rio Lerma, Mexico's most important
tiles, with the ribs of chrome yellow, the river. In colonial times the city of Lerma,
three domes seem to vibrate in space above situated on the edge of this swamp, was a
the dark maroon-washed walls. Contrasting prosperous community, though now the pop-
white effectively sets off the star windows and ulation is less than twelve hundred. It was
lacy portal. Its proportions, its domes with granted a city charter in 161 3, and for a short
their airv lanterns and ring of frilled cornices, time during the struggle for independence,
its portal with the fantasy stucco panel and itwas the capital of the state of Mexico.
multifoil neo-Mudejar arch— all are highly Near this town two haciendas were main-
original. tained by the Carmelite order. One of them,
It is interesting to note that Mudejar dec- now named San Nicolas Peralta, has within its
oration featured the six- or eight-pointed star building complex the church of San Miguel
and that this shape was favored by the Rococo (fig. b), constructed in mid-eighteenth cen-
for windows. While it became fashionable in tury. A scalloped wall encloses the modest
Europe to cover domes with overlapping slate atrium. The facade seems small in proportion
in a fish-scale pattern, in Mexico the system to the dome and tower; it has, however, a
of laying tiles flush over domes, arranged to subtly shaped star window and is decorated
bring out a polychrome pattern, was retained with plain estipites and lively moldings. The
to the end of the colonial period.{Compare majority of the workers on this farming es-
Appendix, PL 190, fig. e.) Noteworthy also tablishment were mestizos and Indians— prob-
are the size and variety of Mexican domes, ably only a handful of religious lived here.
which often were raised over even smaller For that isolated group this church with its
and less important churches. affable lines must have been a source of great
Zacualpan-Amilpas, in Morelos, is best pride; it evidences the devoted care lavished
known for its sixteenth-century Augustinian upon it. After secularization the hacienda
"fortress" church and conventual foundation; passed into the hands of the Peralta family,
adjoining that edifice is a chapel which is also and in the present century it changed hands
well worth a pause (fig. c). This building again. The church now stands empty and
appears to have been erected early in the abandoned. Despite the distance between this
second half of the eighteenth century, but building and certain Jesuit reducciones in
since the archives in Morelos were destroyed Argentina (see PL 128), they have in common
during the revolution, nothing definite is a friendly, rustic aspect.
known about its history. It shows a delightful
play with elliptical forms and Rococo details. As a prologue often sets the mood of a
In the view printed here the curved lines of plav, so a portal frequently gives character
the plan are apparent. The bays with their and spirit to an entire building. Six examples
semicylindrical connecting members and the of such portals, ranging in date from the
scalloped cornice of brick and stucco are as second half of the sixteenth century to the
unusual as they are genial in effect. Note that end of the eighteenth, are illustrated here
the ribs of the dome are not extensions of the (PL jo). Many others, equally pertinent,
pilasters at the corners of the drum but that could have been chosen from the immense
they end above the windows. Probably the variety" still to be found in Mexico.
[ 100]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
It has been suggested that the panels on the is filled with a cross carved in relief, and at
portal of the colonial house in Puebla called the sides are pinnacles which seemingly some
the "House of Him Who Killed the Animal" regional artist translated out of a two-dimen-
(fig.c) were copied from some hunting scene sional drawing as best he could. On the face
on a Flemish or French tapestry of the fif- of the pediment are the figures of Father Sun
teenth century; indeed its tight composition and Mother Moon, symbols common to many
and interlocking masses are distinct charac- religions. The pattern around the archway
teristics of tapestry. The lintel panel shows a reminds one of a chased silver band, but
somewhat compressed rinceau featuring pome- enlarged in the manner of the Indian and
granates and, in the center, a basket of flowers, infused with a vigor and an immediacy which
a favorite subject in colonial art. The design sprang from the soil of this place. This chapel
on the simulated capitals is strongly reminis- and its garden are enclosed by a high masonry
cent of pre-Columbian carving. wall. Another cross, dated 1628, stands among
In the remote village of Angahua, in the cypresses in the idyllic atrium.
Michoacan— a Tarascan district only recently These three examples fall approximately
brought to public notice through the volcano within the first century after the Conquest—
Paricutin— the Franciscans built the church of at least before 1650— and show Indian versions
Santiago, dated 1577. The portal (fig. a) is of medieval, Mudejar, and Renaissance models,
strongly Mudejar in general composition, but respectively. The three to follow are of later
in its detail it is permeated with the Indian date but no less revealing.
spirit of the regional artist. A deeply undercut The church of San Francisco at Ayotusco,
relief of Santiago, as a pilgrim figure on foot, in the state of Mexico (fig. d), shows a type
occupies the central position, and a metal cut- of pilaster that reached a highly characteristic
out of the saint on horseback is nailed to the development in Guatemala Honduras
and
wooden door. The representation of Santiago (see PL 70). In this example the pilasters seem
as a pilgrim occurs in Latin America and Spain to be divided into segments by a series of
much less frequently than in most parts of sharp-edged moldings and various symbols are
Europe; found here, it calls to mind that this carved in the narrow fields between. The two
region of Mexico was evangelized by one windows with their octagonal frames and
Jacopo Daciano, perhaps a native of Dacia cruciform grilles of cut stone are powerful
(Rumania) though called a Dane by the in their simplicity. Two vases inserted into
chronicler Mendieta. 118 The original doors of the wall on either side of the central niche
the church, now part of the garden portico, act as finials, naively executed but decorative.
are carved with reliefs of Biblical scenes and The broken pediments of the side niches bring
saintly figures. out the triangular build-up.
Just outside Patzcuaro, likewise in the Taras- During the century preceding the Conquest
can region, is preserved a wayside crucifix Texcoco rivaled in importance the Aztec capi-
that was venerated by the Indians in the early tal of Tenochtitlan, and its people enjoyed a
decades after the Conquest. Besides inscrip- high level of culture. Their material well-
tions, a coat of arms, and religious symbols, being was seriously impaired bv civil war,
it bears the date 1553, making it no doubt the however, even before the arrival of the Span-
oldest cross in the vicinity. 130 Early in the seven- iards, and Cortes took advantage of the exist-
teenth century this shrine was enclosed within ing feuds to use Texcoco as a base in his
a small chapel, which is known as El Humil- attack on the other city. Here the flat-
ladero (fig. b). In design its portal is Renais- bottomed boats propelled by sails and oars,
sance, but a strange and local interpretation which had been fabricated in Tlaxcala and
of that style. The slight break of the pediment brought across the mountains in sections, were
[10.]
re-assembled and launched upon the canal that building was demolished, early in the twenti-
led to the Aztec island capital. After the Con- eth century, this portal was transferred to the
quest, pending the building of Mexico City, School of St. Peter and St. Paul. The tile panel
Pedro de Gante founded the first Francis- and the composition which surmounts it are
can mission here. This establishment remained additions from that time. 108
strong in the region and continued to be en-
larged and refurbished well into the late eight- As was mentioned earlier, the atrium,
eenth century. The church of the Third Or- sometimes a large area, remained important
der in Texcoco stood at the edge of the Fran- throughout the colonial era; even today much
ciscan property, its portal facing the great of the village life takes place in the plaza on
atrium (fig. e). Above the neo-Mudejar arch which the main church stands. Here is the
floating angels uphold a crown, and on the market place, where on holidays peddlers and
heavy cornice stand finials, like vases on a itinerant showmen converge with their tents.
shelf. Regional preferences are evident in both Usuallv the fireworks and rockets which con-
the lining and the framing of the star win- stitute an important part of a fiesta are set
dow. Also characteristic is the ease with which off here. Manv churches have kept their yards
the stucco garlands are applied at the sides, separated from the public square, and because
here composed of fruits, some of which look a parochial church was an object of special
like bananas, rather than flowers. Surmount- pride, such enclosures— especiallv around Tex-
ing them are two larger angels, each of whom coco— also reflect the peculiar artistic imag-
is standing on two cherub heads pasted against ination of the regional craftsmen. The parish
the wall. Floating angels were used promi- church at Chiconcuac, an ancient Indian vil-
nently in the decoration of the main church, lage known even todav for its weaving, has
erected in an earlier century, and it is not an atrium with three gateways. The three
surprising that the lav brotherhood should arches of the main entrance (PI. 51, fig. a),
choose the same motif. A pattern simulating which opens on the town's main plaza, are
brickwork, such as framed the side niches in decorated with modest stucco moldings; con-
the preceding illustration, decorates the pilas- siderable ornamentation, however, rises above
ters. When we revisited Texcoco in the late the heavy cornice. A figure of St. Michael,
1940's this charming composition, full of the the patron of the village, occupies the central
spirit of folklore, much to our dismay was niche, which is flanked by massive scroll but-
gone, a victim of "renovation." tresses. To the right and left stand two stone
Long and proud is the history of Mexico's slabs pierced with star-shaped openings, and
Royal and Pontifical University. Functioning ornamental vases provide further decoration
under the aegis of the Jesuits, it possessed large and height. On the curving wall beside the
tracts of land, on which numerous buildings pier is a large lion, inspired perhaps bv a her-
were grouped about cloisters and gardens. aldic emblem or bv a Chinese porce-
possibly
In mid-eighteenth century the order consol- lain figure treasured in some eighteenth-cen-
idated its various seminaries into a single in- tury home. An occasional human figure and
stitution. The portal illustrated here (fig. f) tall ornamental finials are placed at intervals
is elegant in build-up. Its piers are decorated along the coping. Finials occur on manv walls
with stone filigree work carrying Churriguer- in nearby villages, sometimes taking the shape
esque motifs, and that stvle is evident also of an elaborate potterv incense burner remi-
in the lambrequins in the center and in the niscent of pre-Columbian work.
console aprons on the bases. The heraldic Papalotla, a few miles bevond Chiconcuac,
emblem in the rounded pediment is the Bour- is another old Indian settlement. The present
bon coat of arms. When the old universitv parish church there was begun in 17 19 and
[102]
SOME MEXICAN GEMS
finished in 1733. Its atrium gateway (fig. b), still think with longing of the life of the colo-
here seen from within the enclosure, carries nial centuries.
the date 1733 on the keystone. The profuse Before 1903 Marfil was the last station on
argamassa (plaster) ornamentation which cov- the railroad that now runs on to Guanajuato,
ers both sides of the arcade shows a powerful and the few miles up to that city were covered
regional spirit as well as strong influences of bv mule-drawn tramways through the Can-
7S
the Mudejar. Atop the cornice again appears yon of Marfil. So long as the mines of the
a statue of a saint, blocks with star-shaped district were being worked intensively, Marfil
openings, and giant urns. The forms which was a thriving settlement supporting two
buttress the central niche here are unmistak- churches— one for the upper section and the
ably animal, and for this reason the scroll other for the lower. Today, however, it is
pieces leaning against the niche at Chiconcuac a ghost town, with here a house crumbling
can also be interpreted as derived from her- into a heap of rubble, overgrown with riotous
aldry. flowers, and there a bridge, its noble Baroque
The portal to the Hacienda de Cristo Grande balustrade half in the river bed, leading to
(fig- c) shows an example of neo-Mudejar nowhere.

decoration used on a private dwelling. This The region has always been subject to wa-
estate, situated near Atlixco, is said to have ter famine in the dry season and catastrophic
been named for a great crucifix that stood washouts when the rains begin, but during
in its chapel in viceregal times. The building the prosperous days a system of reservoirs
itself is a sprawling one-storv structure, with was built to restrain the floods and store the
a chapel at one end, and the portal shown water supply. On the eastern slope of the
opens into the patio of the master's rooms. In gorge stands the Presa de los Santos, the Dam
design it resembles the ornamentation around of the Saints (fig. d). The buttresses of this
a fireplace. On the top, carved in much deeper stone and brick construction were utilized as
relief to make it stand out, is a huge coat of bases for a series of stone shafts— plain except
arms, boasting a crest of helmet and plumes. for moldings and lambrequins— which, in turn,
The adjacent spirals, occupying a similar po- served as pedestals for a row of elegant Rococo
sition to those at Chiconcuac, might well hark figures. These statues, each in a different pose
back to a rampant animal of heraldry. With and costume, are as dramatic as actors in an
their fluting, the unusual chimney-like blocks open-air theater. Although the structure is
suggest column shafts or pedestals and may greatly damaged, its suavity and perfection
once have carried ornamental finials (compare are still delightfully real. In Congonhas do
PL 52). A wide triple-arch gateway leading to Campo, Brazil, is another example of statues
the estate is embellished in a similar manner digested effectively into the out-of-doors (see
with stucco decoration, and still preserved in PL i
13 ).
one of the rooms is a broad plaster frieze
with a strongly Moorish flavor. Some of the Baroque in Mexico, working
This manor house stands on a knoll, its vast with volume and shadow play, brings out the
rich lands spreading around it. As one looks animated rhvthms of the style. Much of it
out from the terrace, giant snow-capped vol- that was selected for this chapter is character-
canoes fill the sky, while in the foreground ized by lavish surface ornamentation, which
lie the multicolored houses of Atlixco and its had a strong appeal for the regional craftsman
Franciscan monastery. A little below the house and often carries reminiscences of the Plater-
is the hacienda's reservoir, which catches all esque and the Mudejar. Occasionally some of
this beauty in its sparkling surface. In such an the fagades remind one of the architectural
Arcadian spot one can understand why some inventions which appeared as frontispieces in
[103]
European books; in the New World the colo- this style a new significance. Their names may
nial artisan made them structural realities,
of long have been forgotten and many of their
creating a style more Baroque in its daring creations may be neglected, but enough re-
than the Baroque of Europe. mains to demonstrate how a talented people
Only in a land with Mexico's heterogeneous made Baroque their own exuberant language.
background, in which both tradition and a Mexico's vast repertory of colonial archi-
constant renewal of art influences operated, tecture unfolds as one stands on the main
could such varied interpretations appear so plaza of a large city, walks along the single
close together in time and place. Like the street of a small town, and, traveling in the
anonymous builders of the Romanesque and country, catches sight of a distant church off
Gothic cathedrals in Europe, the people here the highway. Even far across the cactus-
were emotionally involved in their architec- hedged fields the rich facades beckon; after
ture. As long as Renaissance models were put centuries of exposure the tiled domes still have
before these neophyte Christians, they re- enough color and glaze to reflect the sun.
mained, in general, copyists. But by the time Against a brilliant sky they blend in dignity
the Baroque arrived, their pagan past was and beauty with the ever-changing, yet
well behind them and they carried on under changeless landscape— forgotten jewels of a
the power of their own imagination, giving to magnificent epoch.
[ 104]
7
RELIGIOUS DRAMATIS PERSONAE
D,rama has served religion as handmaiden including lovers and husbands; St. Christopher,
from time immemorial. Much of the ceremo- for his protection of travelers; St. Gaetano,
nial accompaniment of the medieval church was for promoting business; St. Filomena, for
adopted from earlier religions; music, chant- warding off evil; and St. Roch, for healing the
ing, the dance, allegories in elaborate costume, sick. Todav over nvo hundred Virgins and
the offering of flowers both real and artificial, saints are popular in Spain, counting only the
and statues adorned with precious materials major ones.
were all drawn in to tell the Christian storv. Spectacular processions celebrated religious
The Passion plav, instituted in Gothic times, holidavs in manv European countries. Court,
has survived into the twentieth centurv, and militant and civil functionaries, in addition to
the macabre rite of the penitentes continues the clergv, marched in gala, while the daz-
in such disparate regions as Belgium and New zled populace framed the pageant. Religious
.Mexico. The occasions seized upon for cere- statues, reliquaries, banners, lanterns, and can-
monial display are legion. On St. Hubert's dles were carried bv gorgeouslv caparisoned
day hunters earning their horns march into knights of the church, as well as by lav orders
church in their red coats and caps for a spe- in austere robes. Masters of the guilds partici-
cial sen-ice. In numerous countries the sea is pated with their emblems, and the sound of
blessed with appropriate rites for the safen T
orchestras and the chanting of choirs mingled
of seafarers and fishermen, and in certain re- with the incense rising from heavy silver
gions of Europe all household animals and censers. In Spain such processions were espe-
vehicles— now even the automobile— are pa- ciallv The Spanish church re-
magnificent.
raded to the church steps to receive a bless- tained much Gothic mvsticism, added to it
ing. The marriage of Venice and the sea, dur- the illusionism of the Renaissance, and staged
ing which a ring was flung into the waters in the pageantry with devices created bv the Ba-
the presence of ecclesiastic and civil splendor, roque. Even todav spectators from foreign
was celebrated even into the nventieth cen- lands crowd into Seville, Toledo, and other
tury. Numerous saints were— and are— hon- Spanish cities at the various holv seasons to
ored with festivals on their respective davs, witness the celebrations there.
and through the visits of the multitude to their In Spain the religious statues, which were
chapels these places often have developed into the chief protagonists of such ceremonies,
popular shrines. .Manv other saints are vener- changed during the sixteenth and seventeenth
ated throughout the entire vear. among them centuries, and the appealing and warmly hu-
St. Anthony, for bringing back things lost, man expressions of the Renaissance gave place
10 ;1
to asceticism, agony, and ecstasy. The sculp- English vocabulary.) Three different crafts
tors who carved these statues belonged to a were involved in the decoration of a statue:
professional guild. They received their train- that of the painter, the encarnador, and the
ing by apprenticeship and had to pass strict gilder. Pacheco was a master of all three and
examinations before they could work inde- collaborated with such great sculptors as Juan
pendently or take on pupils. They were re- Martinez Montanes and Pedro Roldan. In dis-
quired to submit their plans and sketches to cussing techniques, he advised that first the
experts for approval, not only with respect carving be de-resined with hot substances,
to the artistic concept but also to make sure then all the knots and cracks be filled, and
that the iconography or manner of represen- finally a thin plaster base be applied for the col-
tation was acceptable; such experts were spe- ors. Sometimes layers of gold leaf were then
26
cifically named in the contract. Small won- laid over the entire surface of the statue, but
der that Pacheco's El arte de la pintura, su more frequently the flesh tones were painted on
antigiiedad y grandeza,
ville in 1649, was the
first
painter's
published in Se-
standby for
a carefully sized base
were
r
gilded. Pacheco executed

JO
and only the garments
his estofado
more than a century, for it describes with work in tempera, which was spread in layers
authority not only the methods of mixing and over the gilding and then removed in sections
applying the various colors but also the man- with a fine instrument to reveal the metal, as
ner of representing the countless figures of the pattern required; sometimes color predom-
saints and allegory. inated and sometimes metal. The gold might
In the carving and coloring of holy imagery, be burnished, or given a dull finish, or dam-
sculptor and painter worked hand in hand. ascened; work in relief and tooling in lines,
Generally all wood statuary— and much of the dots, and crosshatching offered endless possi-
stone— was painted. The imaginero, or carver bilities for variety. With the increase of pro-
of images in the round, executed a figure with duction, less extravagant methods were de-
all the finesse of his craft before it was given vised. Occasionally contracts specified that oil
to the painter. In the coloring, a waxy tinted paint was to be used exclusively.
finish, called encarnacion, was used to repre- Pacheco also furnished instructions for ap-
sent flesh. At first this was executed in oils, plying color to silver gilt and for painting
which produced a porcelain-like translucency with on stone and on the various silks used
oil
that was lifelike and dramatic, especially so for banners, horse trappings, and the like. He
under the flickering light of candles and ta- discussed, too, the proper varnishes for the
32
pers. Encarnacion could be either high gloss preservation of the work.
or matte. Pacheco himself much preferred Religious statuary in wood shows three dis-
the latter and presented many arguments in tinct types: statues carved entirely of wood
its favor, but the glossy type persisted in and finished with encarnacion and estofado,
many colonial centers where wood sculpture as just described; those dressed in garments
was of exquisite quality. made of a cloth which was stiffened and
The figured textiles for the garments were molded and then painted; and the "candle-
depicted with elaborate patterns worked out stick" figure. This last type has head, hands,
in color on a gold or silver base; this and sometimes feet of carved and painted
technique was called estofado— significantly wood, but the body consists only of an arma-
enough, a word that also means "quilting." ture or is stuffed like that of a doll; such
("Encarnacion" and "estofado" are technical figures wear real robes of velvets, brocades,
terms for which no English equivalents exist; or other materials richly embroidered with
they are taken over here from the Spanish in gold and pearls. It should be noted that as
the hope that they will be admitted into the early as the sixteenth century sculptors were
\ 106
urged to deliver their figures complete with Rococo statues executed in Latin America
carved garments so as to spare the community have survived and show the richness of the
the expense of costuming and re-dressing them; plastic comparserie which played an impor-
most of the costumed armature figures extant, tant role in the religious life of the colonies.
however, date from mid-eighteenth century

if not later. Frequently the religious figures Before the Renaissance the Eternal Father
of the Baroque period are life-size, or even was represented frequently in the art of Eu-
larger, and have eves of glass, human hair, rope, but with the coming of the Baroque, the
and long applied eyelashes. subject was rather neglected. In Latin Amer-
Not only the type of religious statuary in ica, on the other hand, innumerable Baroque
Spain but also the pageantry there was trans- altars carry the figure at the apex, and in the
planted in the New World. In this hemisphere eighteenth century it appears also on the
the Roman Church intensified all its activities. carved stone facades of many churches, espe-
In Europe it had only heretics to fight, but cially in the High Andes.
here a heathen continent had to be brought The God the Father here presented (PI. 52,
within the realm of the Cross. The Indian had fig. a) is in the seminary church of San An-
a great artistic past of his own, but his con- tonio, in Cuzco, Peru. It is of polychromed
cepts had been developed in isolation and wood, except for the garments, which are
along completely different religious and social textile, starched and painted. The second sculp-
lines. He was ignorant of Christian iconog- ture (fig. b), from Quito, Ecuador, is of min-
raphy; his pantheon was populated by nu- iature size, carved from a tagua, a native nut
merous gods— of rain, wind, maize, flowers, of South America which is soft when fresh
war, and death, to mention only a few. He but becomes as hard as bone; for this reason
had, however, been accustomed in his former it is used for small carvings as a substitute for
religion to colorful celebrations— processions, ivory. In both examples the Eternal Father
dances, and plays. Spectacular rites had been is represented as rising out of a cloud, his
ingrained in the lives of these peoples for too right hand raised in benediction as iconographi-
many centuries to be easily uprooted. cally prescribed. In the Quito piece he clasps
The complexity of the problem facing the a sphere, emblematic of the world, and his tri-
early missionaries is revealed not only in the angular halo symbolizes the Trinity. It has
strict discipline meted out during the conver- been suggested that the triangle— a survival
sion period— and even later— but also in the art from the earliest Byzantine period— having the
of the Spanish colonies. In interpreting for shape of the Greek "D," also proclaims him
the Indian the life of Jesus, the exemplary Dios, God; here, however, the significance of
behavior and authority of the saints, the drama the shape seems to have been lost, for the
had to be reiterated and the spectacle often aureole rather looks like a bishop's miter.
over-emphasized. Thus was created, in great The two statues of St. Christopher (figs, c
measure by anonymous artists, statuary with and d) come from Mexico. The first is in the
an amazing story-telling quality, which en- cathedral at the capital and the second in the
abled the unlettered neophyte, by obser- cathedral of Cuernavaca. These carvings show
vation alone, to grasp the idea behind the Christopher in the full vigor of manhood;
material. Whether the figure was plastic or both figures have their trousers rolled above
pictorial, whether the representation was cal- the knee, which makes them appear taller. In
culated to be moved about or shown in a the life-size Cuernavaca piece the muscular and
fixed arrangement, it had to have dramatic robust are emphasized, even to the point of
impact, and in most cases was loaded with it.
it clumsiness. The draperv, with its heavy-pat-
A great number of stirring Baroque and terned estofado, is massive, and the staff is an
[ 107]
actual sapling. The Christ Child, too, is a however, are quite different, in position as
sturdy figure. The expressions of surprise and well as in dress. Another painting of this sub-
delight which pass between the two is tell- ject, very similar to the relief, hangs in the
ingly communicated. The other Christopher, Convento de los Descalzos in Lima, Peru,
which, measures only about three and one- and is signed Carreno.
half feet high, has little of the heavy-blooded Of the two statues shown here, the first
heartiness of its companion piece. Here the (fig. was carved by Juan de Chavez and
c)
garments are painted in flat light colors, with- stands in the cathedral at Guatemala City.
out gold, and the treatment of the drapery— With the upcast eyes and open mouth, it has
indeed the whole figure— conveys the strid- a larmoyant realism. Allegedly it was made in
ing through wind and water. While the Cuer- 1737 for the cathedral of Antigua, and sub-
navaca statue has the jolly air of provincial sequently was transferred to the new capi-
it
Baroque, the smaller one has a pastoral qual- tal. The wood, from an orange or a lemon
1* 5
ity in the spirit of Rococo. (See also PL 146.) tree, has a firm and even grain.
The second statue (fig. d) is in the church
St. Sebastian has been a favorite subject of San Sebastian in Quito, Ecuador. This fig-
with artists ever since the Renaissance, not ure shows a deviation from the traditional pos-
only for its artistic possibilities but also be- ture: the right arm is upraised and bound to
cause of its emotional content. Sebastian was the tree trunk instead of the left, the usual
an officer in Diocletian's army who was con- pose in European iconography and that in
demned to be shot to death with arrows. the Guatemala carving. The somewhat cool
However, when St. Irene and other Christian and intellectualized expression given to the
women came to burv him, they found him Quito statue and the delicate pattern of the
still alive and nursed him back to health. He estofado would place it in the second half of
is venerated as a protector against pestilence, the eighteenth century. It is sometimes attrib-
symbolized by arrows. Usually he is repre- uted to Caspicara.

sented as bound to a tree, either surrounded A studied elegance is evident in both pieces
by his persecutors or deserted and uncon- —the one from Guatemala has a certain preci-
scious, left for dead; more rarely he is shown osity and the one from Quito, placidity. In
with ministerinsr women or angels. each the estofado has its own characteristics
Pictured here (PL $3) are four portrayals and the encarnacion shows differences in col-
of this figure from as many countries. The oring and texture. A more intensive study of
painting (fig. a) hangs in Cuzco, Peru, and the traditional representation of St. Sebastian
the relief (fig. b) is in the sacristy of a chapel will be found in Chapter 12 (see PL 138).
dedicated to the saint in Leon, Nicaragua.
Both probably trace back to the same origin. The manger scene harks back
tableau of the
Van Dyck painted St. Sebastian at least seven to the grotto where Christ was born. The
times, with either one or two angels remov- earliest Christian art depicts it, and it was a
ing the arrows (see Appendix, PL ipi, fig. h). part of the Christmas festival in medieval
This artist also made engravings of his own churches, probably posed with living figures.
canvases, which in turn inspired popular prints. Gradually, to the first simple group— the Babe
The two compositions here show basic simi- adored by the Holy Pair under the mild gaze
larities: the position of the saint, the cord tying of ox and ass— were added the shepherds re-
him to the tree, the fall of the hair and dra- sponding to the angel choir; the visit of the
pery, and the placement of the arrows. Even Wise Men following the star came later and
the tree is developed in the same manner, waxed important because of the pageantry it
though in the relief it is a palm. The angels, furnished. Such tableaus were the core of the
[ 10 ]
Nativity plays and were held inside the church; ened with plaster, then molded on the figures
even dances were executed in the vestibules and, when dry, painted. Here the drama of
and atriums. Gradually comic relief and ex- the Nativity was expanded to include other
traneous episodes became so numerous in the Biblical sequences, among them the .Massacre
performances that in the thirteenth century of the Innocents, the Flight into Egypt, and
the pope banned them from consecrated build- even scenes in the carpenter's house in Naza-
ings: driven into the streets, they continued to reth.
expand, sometimes playing different scenes in During much of the sixteenth century and
different parts of a town and thus varying all of the seventeenth, Naples and Sicily to-
the settings. Artists of note assisted in the gether formed a vicerovaltv of Spain, and even
staging and costuming of the dramas, putting in the eighteenth centurv they were still
into them the talent and originality- custom- closely connected with that country. Many
ary in all the celebrations of those days. of the Neapolitan sculptors of miniature fig-
Sculptured Nativity groups appeared in ures were employed in the ceramics factorv
Florentine churches in the early Renaissance, of Capodimonte, which was later transferred
and Naples also began making them at this time. to Spain. Manger figures and the later genre
Again the picturesque and dramatic possibili- figurines in wood and porcelain, being small,
ties led to an elaboration of the simple story-. were easy to transport and may well have
One early contract called for— in addition to constituted one of the channels through which
the Holv Family, the ox, and the ass— three European artistic currents were introduced
shepherds, twelve sheep, two dogs, four trees, into the New World, especially from mid-
17
eleven angels, two prophets, and two svbils. seventeenth century through the eighteenth.
In southern Italy the shepherds soon devel- The Latin American pesebre (manger group)
oped into representations of all the humbler reveals European influences, but in each area
classes of that heterogeneous society, from regional taste preferences and individuality
street vendors to strolling players, peasants, also are evident.
and laborers, while the entourage of the Three From an early date the Christianized Indi-
Kings might comprise Eastern princesses with ans participated personally in various religious
their entire retinues of slaves, entertainers, and plays. An eye-witness account from 158- tells
luggage trains, including camels and drivers- of a mystery play about the coming of the
all coming to pay tribute to the Holy Child. Wise .Men which was acted out bv the Indi-
some four hun-
In the seventeenth century ans of the region around Tlajomulco (Jalisco),
dred churches and many private homes in Na- Mexico. Booths of green boughs on two sides
ples were displaying elaborate manger groups of the plaza represented Herod's palace,
where
at Christmas time, and by the eighteenth cen- a feastwas going on amid much buffoonery,
tury the carving and costuming of the figures and the humble stable of the Nativity. An
constituted an industry. Naples used terra cotta angel in the church tower notified the shep-
or wood for its figurines, which varied in size herds on the adjacent hillside of the Holy
from very small miniatures to those a foot Birth, and they came down singing in the na-
high; later even costumed marionettes were tive tongue and shouting "Goria, goria . .
."
used. .Magnificent Baroque palaces and land- in their strange pronunciation. Meanwhile,
scapes, as well as the humble cottages and following which ran on two ropes
a star
inns of the countrvside, were constructed of from the tower, the Wise Men could be seen
wood, cork, and stucco. Sicily's manger groups making their way on horseback down the
were generally caned of wood and painted; mountain, from such a distance that it took
sometimes, however, Sicilian figures were them two hours to arrive. They were accom-
dressed in real textiles, which had been stiff- panied by an ancient Indian, the oldest man
[ 109]
in the region, and after they laid their gifts Rubens once wrote to the painter Sustermans
before the Child, he knelt and told Him in that he was afraid that the colors in a picture
his Indian dialect that he himself was poor and of his, long crated, had suffered, especially the
had nothing to present save his labor and suf- reds and the white, and reminded him that
fering. A handful of Spanish friars and lay- this could be remedied by exposing the paint-
13
men attended the performance and over five ing to the sun at intervals. The red paint
thousand Indians flocked to it from the reused in the encarnacion of the Queretaro
gion round. 123 statues apparently' began to show the same
Two kneeling figures of Mary and St. reaction.
Joseph that were carved for a manger group Two examples of the Guatemala school of
are in a private collection in Queretaro, Mex- sculpture are shown in the figures of the Vir-
ico, where they have been preserved for over gin and Child and the statue of St. Joseph.
half a century in perfect condition (PL 54, The groupcarving (fig. c) is somewhat earth-
figs, a and b). According to local information bound bv the cumbersome robe, despite its
thev were formerly in the possession of the exquisite estofado. Interesting are the angel
last Mother Superior of the convent of Santa heads at Mary's feet, not too common in seated
Clara and had been handed down in her fam- representations of this subject; their presence
ily from the eighteenth century. Although at and the fussiness of detail indicate a desire
first glance thev might appear to some as to heap on as much decoration as possible.
rather sweet, their relatively small size and More spirituality is evident in the figure of
their purpose— part of an intimate and elabo- St. Joseph (fig. d), which, from the pose,
rate manger group— prevent them from being probably belonged to a manger group. Rever-
in any way saccharin. In them the true drama ence and loving concern are expressed in the
of the scene can be sensed, transmitted with face and in the inclination of head and body.
great sincerity. The drapery is handled with A conscientious realism is manifest in the carv-
clean-cut precision and the estofado is mas- ing of the hands. The eyes are Indian, but not
terly; the all-over, rather loose patterns ac- so the beard and curly hair. In its large widely
cord with the stylistic preferences seen in spaced pattern, the estofado is typical of
the Rococo churches of Queretaro. Meticu- Guatemala work. The variety of color and
lous care is revealed in the variety of the col- pattern in the cloak, robe, and tasseled tunic,
oring. Mary is robed in a white gown flow- the elegance of the burnished gold, and the
ered with gold. Her dark blue cloak has, carving of the drapery as it hangs over the
on the outside, a golden pattern brought out arm all attest to the hand of a master.
bv different kinds of tooling and is lined with

palest turquoise delicately striped in gold. As the sense of security and the wealth in-
Joseph's color scheme is olive-green, with red creased in the colonies, rivalry ran high in
flowers outlined in gold and dark blue; his both civil and ecclesiastical circles. It was a
cloak is golden, lined in coral-red crossed by matter of pride— indeed, often a measure of
slender stripes of blue and gold. it— as to which sector of a town had the larger
The encarnacion on the two figures has pre- choir in its church, the more instruments, the
served its especially fine waxy texture and finer vestments, the heavier silver, and the
appeared somewhat pale when the statues were larger and better statuary. From this atmos-
brought out into the patio to be photographed. phere of expansion and competition, espe-
But as they were warmed by the sun, the cially noticeable from mid-seventeenth cen-
cheeks actually began to take on a blush. It tury to the end of the eighteenth, the arts
seems that the sun's rays affect certain ingre- profited greatly. In the decoration of a pri-
dients in the colors, bringing out richer tones. vate chapel it enkindled much splendor. The
[no]
monasteries— and even more the nunneries, to probably dates from the end of the eighteenth
which often the daughters of nobility retired century. In general impression, the estofado
—showed particular zeal in sponsoring the fine has the somewhat diluted pattern— in keeping
arts and the applied and folk arts. with Rococo taste— which is apparent in the
The Marv and St. Joseph from a manger Queretaro figures just mentioned. A detail of
group in a private collection in Quito (PI. jj, Mary's cloak is illustrated later (see PI. 84).
figs, b and d) are said to have come from

Cuenca or its vicinitv in southern Ecuador. Since so many of the main altars in colo-
Thev are carved of balsa wood and are so nial churches have fallen victim to the mod-
light in weight that one is surprised upon lift- ernizing rage of the last century, it is for-
ing them. Balsa, a corklike wood native to tunate that side altars and side chapels survive
Ecuador, is extremelv buoyant and has a vel- —some of them with little over-painting or
vety texture; when freshly cut it is easy to structural change— in which the art standards
shape, and because of its porous character it of the period can be studied and enjoyed.
holds glue and coloring remarkably well. It One such chapel, in La Compania of Bogota,
was used for furniture as well as for statuary. Colombia, has a group of life-size figures just
These figures have hooks affixed to the backs, above the altar which depicts the Ecstasy of
which are not entirely worked out; appar- St. Ignatius Loyola (PL 56, fig. b). The tab-
ently they were intended to be secured against leau, framed by a heavy proscenium arch,
a background, perhaps in a niche. The arma- shows the saint in the arms of a ministering
ture is of wood and the garments are of woven angel during his trance, which lasted for eight
materials, stiffened and painted; such drapery days. In the middle distance stands an arch-
could be executed most easily with textiles, angel with one foot resting on several tomes,
for then the many angles could be arranged the topmost ofwhich is entitled Heresis Lu-
before the starch applied had set. The color- theran.... He is flanked by two globes
ing is rather dark, and the estofado pattern showing the New and the Old World and is
differs from that in the preceding examples. exhibiting a page emblazoned with the phrase:
Though these figures, like those just shown "The sword of the spirit, which is the word
from Queretaro, have glass eyes and "real" of God.*' Angels on the other side hold the
eyelashes, there is nothing dollish about them. cardinal's hat and robes which the saint in his
They are typical of the high standards of humility- refused. The encarnacion, with its
workmanship in Quito toward the end of ivory sheen, is especially beautiful. On the
the eighteenth century. background at the left is painted the bare
The Nativity scene in the Guadalupe basil- room of a hospital and on the right, a land-
ica near .Mexico City (fig. a) contains a con- scape with a ship; the center panel, like a
temporary figure of the Christ Child, rarely backdrop, carries a columned altar and a fig-
preserved in such colonial groups. These stature of the Virgin. A triangular arrangement,
ues are all of wood and show great delicacy classically correct, prevails for the main fig-
in the carving of curves and folds; brilliant ures, and the lines lead to a vision of Heaven,
craftsmanship is evident in the estofado. It has full of Baroque exuberance. Here a riot of
been suggested that thev belong to the Guate- little angels bearing mottoes, a shield, and
mala school of carving, examples of which other emblems, centers on the symbol of the
were illustrated on the opposite plate; for they Almighty, brilliant with gold— a triangle bear-
too have in their estofado a large repeated ing Jehovah's name in Hebrew. Below the
pattern, such as was popular in that country. clouds, golden trumpets proclaim: "Through
The last group (fig. c), part of a private all the earth. . .
."
collection at San Miguel de Allendc, Mexico, The tableau is inscribed in the left corner
[m]
as the work of Pedro de Laboria, an Andalu- rial. This figure of the friend of Christ is car-
sian sculptor who carved several single statues ried beside the Dolorosa during Holy Week.
for this and other Bogota churches. It bears Fine encarnacion is visible, and the hair is in-
the date 1749. terestinglv carved in a rather classical man-

A statue of St. Joachim (fig. a), part of an ner. The head is fifteen inches high, and the
altar dedicated to the Virgin of Chiquinquira features are large and sharply delineated to
(see also PL 149), stands in a chapel of the convey the expression to the crowds along
church of San Diego in Quito, Ecuador. The the wav.
saint is dressed in stiffened and painted tex- The bust of San Pedro de Alcantara (fig. b)
tiles. But perhaps more important than the is a nearly life-size polvchromed wood caning
figure in this case is the setting. Subtlety is from seventeenth-centurv Mexico. This Span-
revealed in the framing of the niche, shell- ish saint of the sixteenth century was a con-
shaped as was the tradition. Its upper section scientious Franciscan who lived a rather un-
is carved with leafy motifs, which emanate molested life, without torture or martyrdom.
from behind the head as if from the halo and Tradition has it that his love of God was so
appear again outside the arch; flowering gar- intense that it caused him actual pain and fre-
lands and scrolls, lightened by basketry work, quent ecstasy. Thus it is a spiritual experience
frame the sides. These same motifs are varied that is communicated here, though with such
on a lamer scale and with great elegance of power as to suggest physical suffering. The
detail in the vertical garlands of the altar transfixed eves of glass, the exhausted open
wing. The two shields, placed against the mouth, the cheeks haggard from inward tor-
pilasters, are survivals from the Baroque, but ment, and the distended veins of the throat all
109
here they have little weight and blend into give the piece a disturbing fascination.
the general composition. Color comes into its San Raimondo de Penaforte was a thirteenth-
own in this altar. The surface of the panels centurv Spanish nobleman who became a gen-
has a most unusual metallic luster, probably eral of the Dominican order. Uncompromising
produced bv the application of transparent in his crusade against the Moors, he even
coloring over a base of silver or gold. Bright dared to reprove the King of Aragon, who
floral spravs are well spaced to enhance the then banished him to the island of Majorca.
relief work, and nosegays dot the background But when he miraculouslv returned home the
of the niche and the estofado of the statues. king yielded, and Raimondo died in Barce-
Gold is used only to bring out the composi- lona in his hundredth year. In this portrayal
tion. The colors are vivid and varied, a bril- of him from Argentina (fig. c) vehemence
liant green predominating. So high was the and a fighting conviction dominate the visage,
general standard of workmanship in Quito that with its windswept beard. Movable arms are
even this less important establishment could fitted into sockets at the shoulders, and over
boast such an exquisite interior. this construction is hung a velvet mantle.
The next statue (fig. d), three-quarters life-

Some religious statues were carved to fit size and carved of a very heavy wood, stands
into a definite place, often as part of a larger in Lima, Peru. It probably represents St.
composition, while others were created to Joseph. Especially noteworthy are the drape
participate in the various outdoor processions of the mantle, the easy-lying fold in the col-
of the church year. In the statue of John the lar, and the fine execution of the veined hands
Evangelist (PL 57, fig. a), said to have come and fingers. The gestures are quiet and show
from Ayacucho, Peru, only the head and hands great dignitv. Probably the upraised hand once
were sculptured of wood; the bodv is a man- held a staff. The other one, like the gaze of
nequin, clothed with a robe of woven mate- the figure, is directed downward, as if guid-
[m]
ing the Child on the journey out of Egypt. the patron of students and scholars, especially
Seemingly this figure is unfinished, for it has theologians.For years he lived as a hermit in
neither gilding nor paint. the Arabian desert, where he was subject to
In contrast, the wood carving of St. Fran- temptations and visions and heard the trump
cis of Assisi in Ecstasy (fig. e), from Mexico, of doom. In penance for his love of earthly
shows a perfect finish. The large pattern of learning he studied Hebrew and made the
estofado, in burnished gold against the dark Latin translation of the Bible known as the
brownish tone of the robe, is evenly distrib- Vulgate. A lion became his companion after
uted; a different design decorates the edges he had fearlessly drawn a thorn from its foot.
of the cowl and sleeves, and the cord has a Jerome's symbols are his lion, his cardinal's
flowing line. Glass eyes and long eyelashes hat, and the trumpet of the Last Judgment.
add realism to the somewhat larmoyant ges- He was a favorite with artists in the colonies.
ture. There is no feeling of weight— the fig- His story has many picturesque details and
ure seems to be floating, even to move up- the tame Hon especially must have been a
ward. Zurbaran painted St. Francis kneeling fascinating subject at a time when the zoology
thus with wide-open arms. of distant continents was awakening intense
The last statue in this group, probably of interest. The variety in pose and gesture ac-
St. Bernardino of Siena, stands in the church corded to this saint is amazing, even in the six
of San Francisco in La Paz,

Bolivia (fig. f). examples reproduced here (Pis. $8 and 59).
Bernardino, a great and persuasive Franciscan The first statue (fig. a), from an eighteenth-
preacher of the early fifteenth century, century chapel in El Tejar in Quito, Ecuador,
founded the Monte di Pieta, an organization again illustrates the high standard of execution
which lent money on small pledges. He is in the Quito school. The saint's cloak is un-
often represented as carrying a tablet sur- usually ample and his cardinal's hat is of fine
rounded by rays and inscribed with the mon- red leather.
ogram IHS. Here again only the head and A high relief of this saint (fig. b) consti-
hands are plastically executed; the brown habit tutes one of the series of magnificent wood
edged with gold braiding covers an armature, carvings which line the apse of the church
but a positive sense of the body is present. of San Francisco in Bogota, Colombia (see
As is often the case with colonial sculpture, PL 26). The trumpet, hat, and lion— here with
the sensitive hands— which probably clasped the face of an old man— are all represented, as
his emblem or a crucifix— convey much of the well as the stone with which the hermit saint
mood. The eyes and mouth have unusual was wont to beat his breast. The wilderness
beauty, and the whole face has a mystic, in- is pictured as a fantastic forest, all the trees
ward-turned expression. There is something of which, like the saint's cloak, are studded
eerie in the sheen of the smooth-falling silken with flowers. In the frieze below the panel,
robe as it catches the reflections from the strange birds and heaps of fruit partake of the
shiny encarnacion of the face and casts them same exuberant fancy; the masks with rings
back again. in their mouths might have been taken from
A comparison of the three heads in the up- some design where such rings served a really
per row and the three figures below them re- functional purpose.
veals different manners of representing hair. The next statue of Jerome (fig. c) stands
In two instances baldness adds to the charac- in the church of San Pedro in Juli, Peru. It
terization. has lost much of its paraphernalia and the col-
ors are somewhat dulled, but it nevertheless
Jerome, born in the fourth century and one has an appealing quality, augmented by the
of the four Latin Fathers of the church, is unnatural but effective presentation of a gaunt
[ 3l
aging body. This carving has been compared emanates from the Mexican statue of St. Joa-
to the famous work of the Italian Pietro Tor- chim carrying the child Mary (fig. c). Vir-
rigiani (1472-152 2) in Seville, Spain. The ges- tuosity is revealed in the sweep of the drapery,
tures differ somewhat, however, and in addi- which effectively points up the delightful
tion the European piece places the main mood.
emphasis on realistic anatomy rather than The carving of John the Evangelist (fig. d),
emotional content. from Brazil, was made to be viewed in profile
Still another interpretation is seen in the and to stand at the foot of the Cross. As in
carving from Guatemala Here the
(fig. d). the statue of Joachim, the mood of the por-
saint leans over a book, under which lies a trayal—here one of intense emotion— is accen-
cloth wonderfully executed in the best es- tuatedby wind-blown draperies. The whole
tofado. The lion has almost human features body seems swept toward the left, that is,
—the popular concept of that animal was far toward the crucifix. The estofado is built up
from realistic. Note also the treatment of its of large patterns; little gold is visible. This
mane in the various illustrations. The influence sculpture is an example of Rococo rhythm;
of Flemish and Central European engravings beside it the Baroque statue has an earth-
on the art of the colonies, which w r
ill be dis- bound joviality.
cussed more fully in Chapter 12, is strikingly
demonstrated here. This statue is a transla- The head of St. John the Baptist— prize of
tion into the three-dimensional of an engrav- Salome's dance— has intrigued the imagination
ing by Justus Sadeler after an oil by
painting of artists, writers, and even musicians into our
Jacopo Palma the Elder (see Appendix, PL own day. It was a favorite subject in Spanish
190, fig. g). art. Murillo— whose work is unjustly cata-
logued as "sweet"— depicted it, and it was a
Of the two Jeromes pictured on the next vehicle for a number of other Spanish paint-
plate,one (PL 59, fig. a) formerly stood in the ers and sculptors. In a subject so iconographi-
chapel of San Andres in Cuzco, Peru, and is callv circumscribed, the characteristics of a
now on a side altar of La Compafiia there. particular artist or school reveal themselves.
The body is dark from smoke and repeated An example from Mexico (PL 60, fig. a)
varnishing. The expression here is perhaps the shows the martyr's eyes all but closed and a
most dire and dramatic of the six and the sagging jaw, in a realistic expression of death.
emaciated body transmits best the asceticism But realism is not carried through; there is
of the hermit. little blood, the hair does not would fall as it
Greatly simplified in gesture and anatomy for a recumbent position, and the head is most
is the statue of Jerome from Argentina (fig. b). effective when standing upright. The mark in
This figure shows a new posture and a some- the forehead should be noted. It has been sug-
what different expression. The treatment of gested that this might represent a caste mark
the beard and hair, the twist of the body, the seen in some Hindu or East Indian figure; but
position of the legs, the hollows in the cheeks, it rather derives from Maya and Aztec tradi-
and the drapery all point to later and different tions, in which semiprecious stones were set
125
sources. The lower half of the carving has a into the faces of statues.
ceramic-like brittleness. Besides his halo this A carving from Peru (fig. b) represents the
Jerome wears the sign of the tres potencias, head on a platter. A terrible gauntness is de-
an attribute of Christ. (See also PL 148.) picted, the eves are half-open, and bloody
A depiction of father and daughter is most hair flows over the dish. This stark portraval
unusual in the roster of religious statuary. A makes a rare impact; it sounds onlv a note or
feeling of jov and freshness— even briskness- two, but thev are struck with full force.
[>.4l
what elegance has the head just

In contrast (PL 61, fig. b). The costume of the period is
below (fig. comes from the retable

d). This depicted in detail, showing the full heavy
of Martinez Montanes in La Concepcion (see cloak with its tasseled cord, the boots, and
PL /j), in Lima, Peru, and demonstrates the the trousers with buttons up the leg.
suavity of the imported style. The lips are More individuality is perceptible in the
serene and the eyes softly closed. The hair is kneeling figure of Garcia Sarmiento de Soto-
carefully arranged, with attention to the effect mayor, the Count of Salvatierra, in the Peru-
produced, which above all had to be beautiful. vian capital (fig. d)\ his full titles contain
199
Through its calculated finesse, this carving nearly fifty words. Born in Spain, he was
achieves a touching quality, whereas the piece appointed a viceroy of Mexico in 1642 and
above it— the expression of the land— conveys of Peru in 1648. Upon his retirement, some
the story in all its violence. seven years later, he did not return to Spain
Another version of this subject is presented because of the perils incident to the war with
in a polychromed wood carving in the church the English, and he died in Lima in 1659. His
of San Juan de Dios in Granada, Spain (fig. c)\ statue, carved entirely of cedar, has consider-
it has been attributed to Juan Alonso Villa- able realism. The eyes are of The hands,
glass.
brille, or a contemporary eighteenth-century in their conventional pose, show much char-

31
sculptor. In it the attempt to portray the acter. Noteworthy also is the careful execu-
gruesome and the horrific is so obvious that tion of his wig.
it all but misses the mark. The mouth— open, In the church of El Carmen Moderno in
as if shouting— is hardly that of a dead man, Quito is the praying figure of Andres Paredes
and the Medusa locks are arranged primarily y Almendaris, bishop there from 1735 to 1745;
as decoration; indeed at the top they lose any he was responsible for the construction of this
vestige of realism. The virtuoso routine of the building, which was completed in 1743. The
sculptor is most evident in this piece; but it statue is attributed by some to the great mes-
conveys neither conviction nor a spiritual tizo sculptor Bernardo Legarda, who will be
message. discussed more fully in Chapter 9; the date of
The two lower carvingsshow extreme in- the donation would fall within the period of
178
terpretations of the Old World approach; the his activity. Others assign it to one of his
upper ones present the reaction of the New best pupils, Jacinto Lopez y Gregorio, who
183
World to the same story. All are studies of worked somewhat later. The features are
violent death, and in their differences they striking, and despite a stiffness in the carriage,
reveal the artistic and psychological chasms there is living individuality in the piece. The
which existed between the two civilizations. lace edge of the bishop's surplice and the cloak
are of starched textiles.
The saints of Heaven were not the only Manuel Tomas de la Canal was the bene-
figures to take part in the religious drama, for factor of the agricultural, commercial, and
earthly mortals, too, are found in the holy industrial center of San Miguel de Allende.
company, preserved for posterity. The colo- He was born in the Mexican capital in 1701
nies offered a fecund soil for religious fervor, and at the age of thirty was admitted to the
and often the entire fortune of a family was Order of Calatrava, a military society second
left to the church. in importance only to that of Santiago. He
Francisco de Villacis, a royal commissioner was alderman and mayor of Mexico City and
of the Quito district, in Ecuador, defrayed the held the same offices later in San Miguel.
expenses of a whole chapel (i 661-1662) in the He sent to Rome for the measurements of the
church of San Francisco. His statue there rep- Santa Casa of the Virgin of Loreto and at his
resents him in the traditional pose of devotion own expense had a reproduction of it built in
fn5l
the Oratorio de San Felipe Neri, in San Miguel. late seventeenth century under the supervision
The Santa Casa is the cottage in Nazareth of Portuguese missionaries. Except for the
where the Annunciation was made to the Vir- arms and the wings of the archangel, each
gin; twice, according to the legend, it was friir- statue is carved of a single piece of ivory; in
aculously translated to escape the advancing the larger figures, about twenty-seven inches
Turkish invasions and finally reached the vi- tall, the curve of the ivory tusk is clearly
cinity of Rome. Both side walls of the Mexican visible. They are surprisingly heavy. On close
interior are hung with fine damask, giving the inspection the drapery, especially that of Mary
impression of a mundane salon of warm ele- and St. Joseph, and the gold ornamentation
gance. Here, in a niche, is placed a portrait are reminiscent of work on Chinese porcelain.
statue of de la Canal (fig. a), holding a votive

This scene suggests the return from Egypt;
lamp in his aristocratically slender fingers. The both of the adults are extending a hand toward
frame and the lamp are nineteenth-century the Child, a large pilgrim hat hangs down the
additions. In a similar frame on the opposite

back of Joseph, and he may have once carried
a portrait statue of his a staff.
wall of the chapel is
wife. The carving of him is made of a single The Michael originally did not belong to
hollow piece of wood, even to the fine edge this group. It was found by the author amid
of the long coat; only the silk scarf is of real a jumble of miscellaneous paraphernalia in a
textile. His costume shows the familiar style storeroom of the cathedral in 1933, when he
of mid-eighteenth century. The date 1735 had these ivory statues photographed for the
the construction first time.
above the niche refers to
of the chapel; it is easily possible that the Behind the altar in the Sala Capitular of the
statue is of a later date-even by several decades Dominican monastery in Lima, Peru, is a series
—for often such a portrait, whether carved or of carved ivory plaques set in wood. One of
painted, was executed after the death of the
them depicts the Resurrection (fig. c). An
134 alien air pervades the whole composition, and
person. Both Don Manuel and his wife died
it would seem that this piece, too, came from
in 1749.
the Orient. Ivory as a medium was unfamiliar
create the endless procession of religious to the New World craftsmen, as was also the
To
New
World, all available re- technique of undercutting as it appears here.
figures in the
sources were drawn upon. European models
The clouds surrounding Christ are executed
and methods were modified not only by the in the flat manner of Chinese work and the
ingenuity of native talent but also by influ- angels' skirts fall like Chinese drapery. The
ences from the Orient. One of the main routes
angels hold a crown as for the coronation of
exports from the Far East reached the Virgin and carry the palms of martyrdom
by which
—attributes seldom associated with the Saviour.
Europe after mid-sixteenth century was via
Perhaps the most striking detail the sun in
the Philippines to Acapulco, Mexico, and
is
thence, after reloading and transshipping, from

the upper left— with a short beard and man-
Veracruz across the Atlantic. Missionaries in- darin-like mustache— which probably symbo-
troduced European Renaissance and Baroque lizes God the Father. The pale matte surface
of the ivory plaque contrasts pleasingly with
art into Japan and China, as they did into the
New World, and it is recorded that art objects the elaborate gilded woodwork into which it
were sent as gifts from Macao on the Chinese is set.
mainland and from Japan to the Americas.

14
These were instances in which objects from
The appealing figures which make up the the Orient, exposed to the view of local artists
Holy Family group with St. Michael (PL 62, in the New World, brought powerful and
China in the direct influences from a different civilization.
fig. a) are such gifts, carved in
[116]
But such Oriental pieces were limited in num- times and had a number of local sculptors
ber here, and since fashion favored them, the and estofadores.
native artist sometimes adopted Oriental motifs
and mannerisms. For the plaque showing Santa By mid-seventeenth century in many co-
Rosa or St. Catherine (fig. b), Huamanga was thriving
lonial districts a vigorous folk art
stone was used, a variety of alabaster found in which European iconography was adjusted
in the Andes. Skill in composition as well as to regional tastes and talents. Certain subjects
in is revealed by the gradations in
technique that were popular in Europe never became
which emerges in some details into
the relief, favorites here, whereas others, which appealed
the full round. But what makes the piece to the fancv of the regional artists and the
extraordinary is that the pedestals, upon which populace, were much repeated. As the neo-
the saint, the angel with the attributes of mar- phyte became better acquainted with the hier-
tyrdom, and the church are placed, are red archy of Heaven, the folk artist expropriated
lotus blossoms, common in Chinese art. many religious symbols and used them in an
Such tablets bearing religious or symbolic unorthodox way. In 1600 an edict prohibited
reliefs have been found in various regions of crosses, heads of Christ, figures of the Virgin
the High Andes; this one is now in La Paz, and saints, and scenes from sacred history to
Bolivia. They may have been made for votive be carved, engraved, painted, or embroidered
offerings or perhaps for individual gifts. They on furniture, of any kind, and bed
utensils
recall the carved jade plaques of contemporary and table linen.Molds for pastry and sweets,
China, which were set in ornamented wooden however, in the shape of sacred hearts and
stands for use as table screens. other such svmbols were allowed, since, being
A fascinating blend of Christian legend edible, thev were not treated irreverently.
comes out polvchromed wood
in the small Many other folk customs persist here to the
statue of San Juan de Dios from Patzcuaro, present day. Wishes are still written on paper
Mexico (fig. d). The saint here is carrying and dropped into a well in one cloister dedi-
a wounded man. That this figure represents cated to Santa Rosa in Lima. Paintings of
Christ (as in the story of St. Martin) and not miraculous escapes adorn the walls of many
merely some poor traveler is revealed bv the pilgrim shrines; religious statues are hung with
nail marks on the hands and the fact that the miniature arms, legs, crutches, and the like,
faithful have fitted him with a pair of tiny called milagros, in token of wondrous healing.
silver sandals. The headband also mav signify If a household saint does not comply readily
something more than a simple bandage; in to an appeal, he may be reminded of his obli-
pre-Columbian times it was a mark of au- gations by being shut in a dark place, turned
thority. He is clothed in blue and gold pat- upside down, or made to face the wall.
terned trousers and a white shirt ornamented Among the favorite subjects of the folk
in gold. The saint wears a brown habit, re- artist in the colonies were the archangels and
lieved with fine gold striation, such as is seen Santiago. In the cathedral of Cuzco, Peru, the
often in paintings and estofado work. One side chapels are closed off with gilded wooden
might think that the saint's head and Christ's grilles and the semicircle of each archway is
figure were of ivory, so striking is the encar- filled with figural groups. In one of these
nacion and so precise the carving. Worm holes St. Michael and four other archangels are
throughout the piece, however, prove that it represented (PL 63, a). In the second
fig.
is entirely of wood. The disproportionately figure from the left, St. Raphael is recognizable
large bald head in itself might be considered bv the fish dangling from his hand; the others
an Oriental feature. Patzcuaro, a Tarascan have lost their distinguishing svmbols. All are
town, was an important center in colonial armature figures dressed in stiffened textiles
[17]
that are gilded and colored— a veritable plastic The three carved statues of Santiago pic-
ensemble, especially effective at the great tured here (figs, b, c, and d) are processional
height of the arch. The visitor has only to figures from Argentina, Peru, and Mexico,
move about to have protagonists of the reli- respectively. The first is dressed in starched
gious drama brought to life before his eyes. textiles, painted, the second in actual clothing,
Santiago, or James the Great (the Apostle embroidered, spangled, and trimmed with lace,
of Spain), was one of the most popular saints and the third is of polychromed wood. Variety
in the colony. Historically hewas James the can be observed in the expression and execu-
son of Zebedee, whose brother was John the tion of all three; simplification is carried far-
Evangelist. According to the Golden Legend, thest in the Mexican piece. The steeds have
he journeyed to Spain to preach and later the verism of a rocking horse or a carrousel
returned to Judaea, where he was the first of figure. The Moor on the ground beneath the
the Apostles to be martyred. His body was horse's hoofs was so universal that it may
miraculously transported to Spain and, after be assumed that he has been lost from the
performing many wonders, it finally found example in the middle. A

sham battle between
rest at Compostela. The Visigoth and Mozara- Spaniards and Moors was a part of the reli-
bic liturgies of the early Christian era in that gious drama and a standard feature of certain
land call him the "Evangelist of the Peninsula." fiestas in the New
World. It may have de-
Because he assisted the Christians several times rived from the medieval mystery plays that
in battles against the Moors, he became the depicted the battle between the forces of light
patron saint of Spain. 30 His first appearance is and darkness; the masks of the Moors often
recorded as in a.d. 939, when he was seen on have the aspect of the Devil. Usually it was
a white charger bearing a white banner and staged in a humorous vein, with much clown-
leading the troops of the King of Castile in ing and roughhouse. Today it has passed into
the great victory at Clavijo. Thereafter "San- folklore. (See also PL 139.)
tiago" became the Spanish battle cry. The The Holv Family group on this plate
same saint was made the patron of a military (fig- e )-> represented as resting on the flight
order of Spanish knights, whose ejecutoria, to Egypt, is from San Miguel de Allende,
or patent of knighthood, always carried a pic- Mexico. The bodies are stuffed and dressed in
ture of that battle scene at the head of the real materials. The heads and hands, of wood,
parchment. Knights of this order, among them attached to the bodies like those of a doll, are
Hernan Cortes and Pedro de Alvarado, six finished with a porcelain-like encarnacion. It
viceroys, and several other notables, came to has been suggested that the group was made
the New World and helped spread the popu- either by Mariano Perusquia or by Mariano
larity of the dashing figure. In 1805 in Peru Montenegro, well-known mid-nineteenth-cen-
alone 138 such knights were counted, and 155 tury sculptors. An angelic sweetness is in the
cities and villages in Spanish America carried expression, and a naivete characterizes the ar-
Santiago in their names. rangement. Small birds are perched in the
For the Indian, Santiago must have epito- palm tree, and on the ground are gathered
mized the Conqueror, who, bearded and pale- numerous miniatures. The sheep, some of
skinned, was borne on a marvelous steed and which are made of wax, bear the names of
possessed invincible weapons and supernatural parishioners long since dead.
power. He is said to have appeared in the
New World fourteen times between 1518 and Also taking part in the Holy Week proces-
1892, the first instance being in Tabasco, sions—and sometimes in the dances that follow
Mexico, during the fight at Centla before the —are people dressed in masks and appropriate
80
taking of the Aztec capital. costumes to impersonate with as much illu-
[118]
sion as possible other characters from the reli- In this bizarre subject, created in the lav-
gious drama. Two eighteenth-century masks ishly living, Rococo town of Lima, a time lag
are shown here (PI. 64, figs, a and c). The is evident. The prototype which first comes
first, from Toluca, Mexico, represents a cen- to mind is thewood carving of Death, a life-
turion, one of the soldiers who drove Christ size skeleton, by Gaspar Beccera (1 520-1 570),
upon the Via Crucis. It rested on the upper which is now in the Valladolid Museum, Spain.
part of the wearer's head, making him very It too is draped with a winding sheet, but it
tall, and he looked out between the fierce carries a ram's horn to signal the final hour.
teeth. Notable is its strong resemblance to a Gavilan gave a special swing to his figure;
jaguar, revered in pre-Columbian times. This it has more action and shows more attack than
mask is a tawny gold with some metallic col- Beccera's. The bow and arrow, Indian weap-
oring on the helmet. ons, are unrealistically portrayed; the arc is
The carved wooden mask of Judas (fig. c), shaped for its effect in the design.
from Michoacan(P), shows excellent model- Whether Gavilan in Peru had seen any of
ing, brought out by the shiny encarnacion— Beccera's work, including his anatomical
blue and mauve on a pasty white ground. studies, is a question that may never be
Both mouth and nostrils are cut through, and answered. Such a book as the Epitome of
slits above the eves make vision possible; this Andreas Vesalius might have come to his
solution, together with some of the plastic hand. This work by a Brussels physician
treatment, reminds one of certain pre-Colum- ( 1 514-1564), which went deep into the study
bian jade masks. The carving shows true of the skeleton and human anatomy, was very
plastic talent and real joy in the work. popular throughout the western world.
The human skeleton recurs in art through In the sacristy of the church of Santa Rosa
various periods. To the Middle Ages it was in Queretaro, an outstanding example of
a reminder of man's mortality; then it found Rococo in Mexico, is an assemblage of vari-
favor in the Renaissance, when emphasis was ous symbolic scenes from the religious drama.
laid on the study of anatomy; and later the Life-size statues of Christ and the twelve
Baroque adopted it as a subject of whim Apostles (fig. d), evidently made to be seated
which could be presented with the bravado at a table, are placed on the top of a long
inherent in that epoch. Death with a Bow and chest. Behind them, like a backdrop, is a large
Arrow (fig. b) is the work of the mestizo canvas. Its heavy gilded frame gives the im-
Baltasar Gavilan, of Lima, Peru, who is ac- pression of a proscenium arch. The painting
claimed by many as the best Peruvian sculptor is the Hortus Conclusus, or Enclosed Garden.
of the whole eighteenth century. He executed Illusionistic effects are well carried through
polychromed portrait statues and busts of sev- in a rather dogmatic spirit. Within a rusticated
eral notables, figurines for manger groups, gateway sits the Virgin in the role of Good
life-size altar figures, and also the famous Shepherdess; with the late seventeenth century
bronze equestrian statue of Philip V, now she increasingly became the intermediary be-
destroyed. His wood carving of Death was tween sinful humanity and Christ, the Judge
made for the monastery of San Agustin in of Mankind. Above her is a symbolic repre-
Lima and was carried in Maundv Thursday sentation of the Sacrifice, showing the faithful
processions. An inscription on the piece states flock at his feet and an archangel gathering
that the sculptor failed to deliver it as prom- the sacred blood in a chalice. The depiction
ised and that upon seeing it uncxpcctedlv of the Cross as a tree recalls the legend that
when he awakened one night he was so terri- a branch of the Tree of Paradise was planted
fied by its aspect that he collapsed and died on Golgotha, eventually to be used in the
41
penitent. Crucifixion. Nuns of rhe convent stand tend-
1
19 I
ing the walled garden, with its life-giving phal arches were erected, garlanded with
fountain, its roses, and its lilies. The religious flowers and banked with silver objects, altars
symbolism of the age had grown so abstruse were constructed in the streets, tribunes were
that the Gothic phylacterium was revived to raised from which the select could view the
clarify the various didactic points. spectacle, and private houses were made gay
The painted gateway and wall provide a with tapestries and rugs hung from windows
good background for the carved figures of and balconies. People traveled great distances
the Last Supper. The statuary here assembled to witness the celebration.
shows technical facility and considerable in- In the church of Santa Ana, situated high
dividuality in expression and pose; it was on a hill in a suburb of Cuzco, a series of
probably the product of the Queretaro school twelve large canvases preserves an excellent
of sculpture. The sheep at Christ's side was record of the colonial Corpus Christi proces-
not there when Sylvester Baxter published a sion. The Carro de San Sebastian (PL 6j, fig. b)
photograph of the scene fifty years ago. A shows the saint borne in a four-wheeled
suggestion for its presence may have come chariot. His coach might be compared with
from the canvas. Such an extraneous addition that on the canopy of the pulpit in the
shows how the iconography changed, upset- Tegucigalpa cathedral (see PL //); note the
ting tradition. figure emerging from a leafy scroll at the
front. The statue depicted here can be recog-
One of the greatest religious spectacles in nized as the one which still stands in the
Latin America, as well as in many parts of church of San Sebastian near Cuzco; it is also
Europe, is the festival of Corpus Christi. In reproduced in a painting (see PL i%8d). Live
Cuzco, Peru, this event is celebrated with birds are perched in the tree above his head,
extraordinary pageantry. During the week as is still the custom today. Before the chariot
preceding the feast,which generally falls in walks a high Inca functionary in gala cos-
June, when in the Andes it is clear and cold, tume, which includes a patterned poncho with
statues from the churches in outlving districts a large sun worked on the breast, worn over
are brought down the narrow streets to visit breeches of the Spanish type; full lace sleeves
with those in local churches; the Virgin of are attached to the poncho at the shoulders,
Bethlehem (Belen) is the hostess in the church and the headdress is decorated with both
of Santa Clara. On the feast day they all are jewels and plumes. It is interesting to note
carried in procession to the cathedral, where that Indians held prominent positions as late
they remain for the octave. as the second half of the seventeenth century
Even more magnificent was the display in and that in these paintings they are sometimes
the colonial period. Since every strata of identified, with the title "Inca" preceding
society then belonged to one religious asso- their names. Behind the chariot move the
ciation or another, the preparation of statues priestly attendants. Spectators line the street—
and floats commanded the active interest of an official in native headband, Indians, even a
the entire population. The lay brotherhoods Negro— and ladies watch from the decorated
and sodalities vied with one another, some- balconies.
times even going into debt, to have the name Another canvas (fig. c) shows the proces-
of their affiliated church in the mouths of the sion passing in front of an altar which had
assembled spectators. The embossed silver been erected outside a church, recognizable
bases of the images were heaped with real as La Merced. The central figure here is the
and artificial flowers, the figures were arrayed Immaculate Conception; below her, archangels
in special clothing and jewels, and festive wearing lace garments and headdresses of curl-
dress was provided for the carriers. Trium- ing plumes are carrying tapers. The various
[120]
sections of the altar are paneled in embossed anonymous artist in Coatepec, Puebla, 45 a far-
silver, and mirrors with wide frames are set away corner of the Spanish colonial empire,
in it. At the top are paintings of saints, and worked up the skull-and-crossbones theme to
in front, on a special table that stands on a a showv climax (fig. a). Skulls and crossbones
rug, incense is smoking from an elaborate dish. were important svmbols in several pre-Colum-
At the right, extending across the street like bian cultures in Mexico, as is attested bv stone
an arch, is a baldachin— with twisted columns carvings in Chichen Itza and Uxmal, as well
—under which noblemen and their ladies are as by the infamous skull rack in the Aztec
passing. Two litters carrying the figures of capital, described at the time of the Conquest.
St. John the Baptist and the Apostle Peter are The tradition of the Indian cult of death sur-
passing by. The bearers of the first seem to vives today in the cakes and sweets which
be artisans in Spanish dress, of 'the second, are formed like skulls and skeletons and sold
Indians. Bothwear garments of textiles
saints in the markets, even of Mexico Citv and
and stand on characteristic Baroque bases with Puebla, on All Souls' Day.
the familiar scroll decoration. In the fore- In the drawing illustrated here, Death at
ground again is a row of spectators, whose the pinnacle, crowned and holding a scepter
varied headgear gives a faint idea of the dress and shield, stands on two globes; on the shield
worn by the various classes of societv in that is a bird pierced bv an arrow. The skull and
day. Note the bearded Spanish figure in the crossbones, crowned, make up the candelabra.
center with the large hat. The pilasters are decorated with them, and
Jose Uriel Garcia believes that these paint- the same elements adorn the frieze. They are
ings were executed before the earthquake of embroidered on the cope of the priest. Even
1650 because the cathedral facade shown the crowns of the heraldic eagles at the sides
differs from the present one. 190 Wethev, how- are topped with the motif as candle holders,
ever, favors late seventeenth centurv, an and it appears again under the feet of the bird.
opinion with which this author agrees.
203
The halving of the heraldic eagle of the Habs-
Judging from the materials and techniques, burgs to form side garlands was perpetrated
the canvases are probably the work of mes- bv a designer whose psvchologv was as far
tizos and Indians of the local school. The removed from that of the European as was
real development of Cuzco painting began in Coatepec from Madrid.
the second half of the seventeenth centurv The break of the symbol here occurred just
and reached its zenith in mid-eighteenth, when when Habsburg power in Spain was broken.
it attained its greatest originalitv and charm. Charles II was almost imbecile from his cradle
Statues played an important part also in to his deathbed. He was brought up under
the dedication of new churches and in the the tutelage of an Austrian mother and was
reinstallation of beloved figures upon the re- married first to a princess of the House of
furbishment of an edifice or its restoration Orleans and after her death to the daughter
after some catastrophe. Processions commem- of an Austrian nobleman. Always weak in
orated military victories— even though the mind and bodv, he made a will under pres-
battlesoccurred on distant continents and sure in favor of Philip, Duke of Anjou, a
were reported months after thev were won grandson of Louis XIV of France; thus the
-the marriages of royalty, and the birth of a Spanish Habsburg crown passed to a son born
royal heir. The demise of a ruler gave rise to of the union of French and Bavarian roval
special ceremonies that centered around a cata- families. The new king ascended the throne
falque in the main church of each town. under the name of Philip V, the founder of
In the sketch for such a twmdo, designed the SpanishBourbon dvnastv, whose last
in 1 701 for the Spanish king Charles II, the reigning descendant went into exile in 193 1.
fl2l]
8
r<S>"i
EARTHOUAKE BAROQUE
F.rom the southern border of Mexico to productive in pre-Columbian times, the result
the Isthmus of Panama lies a land of rocky was a blend that is as fascinating to many
mountain ranges, volcanoes, high plateaus observers as the overseas prototypes.
dotted with lakes, and tropical lowlands, Although this whole territory was under
known today as Central America. The terri- the jurisdiction of the viceroy in Mexico and
tory which now comprises Guatemala, Hon- final decisions and the most important per-
duras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica sonnel problems were carried to him, many
was formed by the Spaniards into a captaincy- questions had to be settled locally because the
general and audiencia under the administration Mexican capital was so far away. The more
of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. To this also distant provinces were ruled in the name of
belonged Chiapas, which cast its lot with the the king by governors, who were responsible
Republic of Mexico during the struggle for to the captain general. In practice, owing to the
independence. Panama— important as a con- difficulties of communications, each province
necting link between Spain and South America functioned largely as an independent unit,
—was governed first from the island of Santo cherishing its private jealousies of its neigh-
Domingo, then by a local audiencia, and finally bors and all sharing a mutual hatred for the
by the Viceroyalty of New Granada. capital, upon which they visited their indig-
The Captaincy-General of Guatemala- nation over the monopolistic and wasteful

called at one time the Kingdom of Goathe- practices of Spain. Guatemala was cut
from off
mala— had in its domain a large part of the legal trade with the Orient and even from
territory once inhabited by the ancient Maya traffic with the other American colonies; not
peoples, as well as a number of other Indian a single vessel was owned by any resident of
tribal groups, among them the Pipils, Chorote- the province. 160
gans, Chiriqui, and Nicoya. The name Guate- The first stable capital of this area was estab-
mala is said to derive from that of the Indian lished 1527 on the slope of the extinct
in
chieftain Juitemal. At various times during volcano Agua. Led by the dashing Alvarado,
and after the Conquest; Indian populations one hundred and thirty Spaniards signed the
were shifted and resettled; for instance, Pedro founding documents. Among these was a Her-
de Alvarado brought with him Indian soldiery nando Pizarro, whose relationship to the
161
from Tlaxcala and Cholula which remained famous Francisco is unclear. The town was
near the early capital. It will be seen that named for Santiago, and as the ceremony took
wherever the artistic seed imported from Eu- place on the festival of St. Cecilia, patroness
rope fell on a rich cultural soil that had been of music, she became its secondary guardian.
[122]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
Franciscan friars accompanied the Spanish and conventual orders), and the mestizos, mu-
troops. Within seven years Guatemala had a lattoes, Negroes, and Indians there numbered
bishop, who at his own expense sent for four some sixty thousand more.
Dominicans from Nicaragua; one of them, One of the last churches to be erected in the
Bartolome de las Casas, was already launched citv was La Merced (fig. b). The Mercedar-
157
on his mission as Protector of the Indians. ian order, with respect to its activities as
Shortly Mercedarians and Franciscans estab- well as its wealth, was comfortably ensconced
lished their orders in the province; the Jesuits, in the Viceroyalty of Peru, but in Guatemala
who were later to grow so powerful, did not this brotherhood lived in modest and frugal
arrive until 1582. quarters from the time of their arrival in 1534
Bv 1539, with the aid of an unlimited supply until the completion of their church and mon-
of Indian labor, the first cathedral was com- astery just prior to 1760. Whereas the mon-
pleted. Within two years, however, the entire umental establishments of their rivals, the Fran-
settlement was wiped out bv a landslide, a ciscans and Jesuits, continuously expanded, the
river of mud that followed torrential rains. roof over their heads remained thatched with
151
The capital was then removed to a spot a few straw. It was one of the ironies of history
miles distant— the site of the present Antigua that the two rival churches toppled to the
—but it still retained its name, Santiago. ground in the catastrophe of 1773, while the
strono- new church of La Merced was little
The church at Almolonga (PL 66, fig. a), affected. Responsible in part for its stability
near Antigua, is generally believed to stand on were its massive walls, which in places are as
the ground of the first cathedral. Recent exca- much as ten feet thick.
vations indicate, however, that the site of the Here, too, characteristics appear on the fa-
earlv capitalwas farther up the slope of the cade which run through the colonial period
volcano and that the district under discussion, of this land. Among them are the immensely
which was occupied by Mexican allies of the heavv undecorated tower bases, with their
Conquistadores, was little damaged. The edi- polygonal windows, and also the Baroque lay-
fice illustrated is a Franciscan foundation from out of the facade, in which coupled columns
141
the eighteenth century. Noteworthv is the are spaced to leave room for niches with
plan of the angular facade, like a triptvch, statues and less emphatic decorative elements.
somewhat reminiscent of La Soledad in Oa- Arches in the central section stress the verti-
xaca, Mexico (see PL 46). On it are ranged all cal. A statue of the Virgin of Mercy stands
seven archangels and, below them, the four in a large splayed niche before the choir-light;
Evangelists. A
number of decorative elements the stucco decoration about her, showing a
appear here which will be encountered in con- vase with a spreading bouquet, is among the
siderable varietv throughout the area. Super- finest in all Guatemala. The shallow stucco
posed "urns," one inverted on the other as if design covering the facade employs fruit,
its mirrored reflection, make up the pilasters; flower, and fantasy motifs; baby angels, or
the column is found onlv as a frame for the what Verle L. Annis calls "celestial urchins,"
topmost niche, which holds a flaming heart. are posed on the bases of the upper columns.
By mid-seventeenth century the capital alone Note also the spiraling garlands on the stal-
had more than fifty places of worship, includ- wart shafts of the first story. Marking the
ing chapels in colleges and hospitals as well as corners of the towers are the horizontally
retreats. A centurv later, shortlv before the grooved pilasters that are so characteristic of
earthquake of 1773 which brought the place Central America.
to ruin, the white population amounted to at The entrance to the former monastery,
least seven thousand (not including the clergv which boasts some of the best stucco decora-
[23]
tion in the country (seen at the left in this courses. For a time the aristocracy tried to
photograph), is shown in greater detail later limit the enrollment to students of Spanish de-
160
(see PL 69). scent, but this was finally overruled.
After the earthquake of 1751 made the old

Antigua is said to have been planned by the building untenable, a new edifice was erected
engineer Juan Bautista Antonelli (died 1588), (1763) on the south side of the cathedral and
180
a native of Italy; his younger brother of next to the Colegio Tridentino. The main
the same name (died 16 16) designed the great fagade lost much of its original aspect when
fortresses of Morro Castle in Havana, San Juan it was reconstructed in the nineteenth century,
de Ulua at Veracruz, and others in Puerto Rico, but the patio colonnade and the side walls
Cartagena, and elsewhere in the New World. 43 still retain their colonial appearance.
The city, laid out on a rectangular plan, was In planning the edifice, the architect and
conceived on a seignioral scale, with space pro- military engineer Luis Diez Navarro was in-
vided for vast gardens and patios and broad fluenced by the Moorish style of southern
shaded avenues. It was oriented to make use Spain, which was being revived with such
of the slope between two rivers. Because of its elegance in many sections of eighteenth-cen-
valley location and the proximity of mineral tury Spanish America. The neo-Mudejar finds
springs, it had superb water facilities. Every expression here not only in the multifoil arch-
ways—seven on each side of the patio and all
private house and conventual establishment
twenty-eight of them lined with terra cotta—
had their fountains, often very decorative;
the Capuchin nunnery in could boast but also in the stylized decorative elements
1735
running water in every cell. (PL 67 , fig. b). In the bubble-like lantern
Although the first bishop of Guatemala, the (upper left in the photograph) the lines of a
redoubtable Francisco Marroquin, bequeathed large dome are combined with the grace of
funds for a university in the late sixteenth a miniature. The fountain in the center of the
century, the country had to wait until 1676 court is traditional. A Mudejar effect is
for the royal seal on its establishment. But achieved also by the manner in which the
before that, colleges were functioning under vertical line of the piers runs through to the
the supervision of the Jesuits, Dominicans, and finials that top the blind balustrade. Note
Franciscans; in fact, it was partly opposition the horizontal grooving on the pilasters be-
from this quarter which delayed the use of tween the arches and beside the heraldic me-
the bishop's legacy. At first the university oc- dallion of the free-standing pediment.
cupied the edifice of the Dominican College The street side of this building (fig. c)
of St. Thomas Aquinas, which had been re- shows deep octagonal windows in the massive
walls. Heraldic medallions and large conven-

stored for the purpose and was reopened un-
der the name Royal and Pontifical University tionalized lyres as consoles break the monot-
of St. Charles Borromeo. In 1687 it was granted ony of the stucco surface, which is painted a
all by such institutions

the privileges enjoyed bluish gray. Above a strip of blind balustrade,
in Mexico and Peru, among them the right pyramidal finials are synchronized with the
to award degrees and the permission for grad- ornaments on the wall.
uates to wear hoods. No person who had been This popular revival of the Mudejar was
convicted by or who had a forebear punished widespread in Central America. In the village
by the Inquisition could gain admittance; and church at Santa Cruz el Choi (fig. a), in Guate-
to satisfy the objection of the various orders mala, on the road to Coban, a Mudejar-Gothic
that such an establishment would foster heresy arch enframes the single doorway and the
and free-thinking, each graduate was exam- niches echo its lines. The whole building is
ined on his beliefs upon the completion of his without pretension, but it contains a number
[124]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
of original details. The paired columns flank- are Baroque, as are also the figural elements
ing the niches, according to Baroque formula, throughout the facade. Infant atlantes, play-
are much farther apart than usual, although fully applied, decorate the friezes and the cap-
thev are coupled at the base. Skill is manifest itals of the larger columns. On the spandrels
in the execution of the archway moldings and are "rampant" angels— another motif favored
the splayed star window. Intermediary mold- in a number of regional styles in colonial Span-
ings below the cornices hold together the cen- ish America— and on the pediment heraldic
tral section, leaving the two outer edges free, lions guard the stucco Calvary group that
as if to recall the flanking tower masses so gives the church its name. Horizontally
frequently used. In the two-story espadana, grooved pilasters are again used with effect.
bell openings, happily placed, furnish a transi- A wealth of invention is evident also in the
tion from the lower niches to the central fig- interior, which once must have had an ele-
ure at the apex. gance comparable to that of the cathedral (see

The popularity of the neo-Mudejar style is PL 8). The low choir vault can be seen through
agrain documented in the side portal of the the" arch. This church faces on an atrium in
church of La Merced in Leon, Nicaragua which stands a stone cross; at one side of it is
(fig. d). Here the pyramidal finials, the blind a fountain, dated 1732.
balustrade, the spirals in the pediment, and The church of El Carmen at Antigua (fig. b)
even the angel heads in the spandrels betoken is also in ruins. It was founded by the Brother-
an artistic vocabulary related to Guatemala's. hood of the Holy Scapulary in 1686, but the
This structure is said to have been built in first building was practically destroyed in the
1685 and reconstructed in 1723 and 1820-182 1. earthquake of 17 17. Reconstructed on an im-
Behind the apse are the remains of an oriel proved plan and reopened in 1728, it soon
camarin— now sealed up— a type extremely rare became one of the favorite churches of the
in this region but frequently encountered in capital, famous for its orchestra and choir.
Colombia (see PL 29). While coupled columns are a regular fea-

ture of the Baroque, the multiplication of
The ruins of the church of Santa Cruz in them as seen here is unusual. Each pair in
Antigua (PL 68, fig. a) stood abandoned in a the lower tier has its own pediment, except
field of a coffee plantation until this author in the case of the innermost four, which are
first published photographs of it."
9
Now the united by the ogival pediment that extends
place has been cleared and has become a favor- over the doorway; at the peak of this stands
ite excursion spot. Since early in the seven- a stucco statue of the Virgin. In the upper
teenth century a hermitage has occupied this tier, the whole group of columns on either
site. Before the great earthquake the Indians side of the Virgin is successfully drawn into
of the district took pride in its upkeep and a single unit within a larger pediment. The
constant refurbishment. A restoration is re- tempered simplicity of the lower shafts brings
corded in 173 1 which was celebrated amid out the pomp of decoration in the upper story,
145
much festivity. This facade has great refine- where a loose garland around the choir-light
ment. A varied over-all stucco pattern covers makes a fine contrast with the meshed pattern
the flat surfaces. Renaissance elements are re- on the columns. This facade is of brick, as is
tained in the low candelabrum bases and the evident where the stucco has fallen away. The
triangular pediments which couple the col- whitewashed wall section and the corrugated
umns in each tier. Note how the break in the iron door under the arch were added recently
pediments in the first order effectively inte- to prevent further collapse. Inside, the walls
grates the upper and lower panels. The many were covered with arabesques and carved fes-
scrolls and the balancing of the various niches toons of gilded wood.
[125]
Guatemala had its full share of the earth- Calientes (fig. c) the primary impression is one
quakes which harassed much of Spanish Amer- of solidity. The square towers, on a line with
ica. As tremors damaged one building after the rest of the facade, and the thick columns,
another, construction methods were condi- perhaps even somewhat over-proportioned,
tioned more and more by the ever-recurring contribute to its robust air. Here the retable
calamities. In different regions of the colonies, build-up is evident; the frames around the
as has been shown, different structural solu- niches, especially in the first order, might well
tions were essayed; tremendously heavy ma- have come from a sixteenth-century taber-
sonry, monolithic with cement, was resorted to nacle. The fact that this village is only four
in Central America. Arches were given ex- miles from Antigua may account in part for
150
travagantly calculated support, buildings were the taste apparent in the design.
kept low, and vaults grew thicker. The num- Although inaugurated in 1743, when Ba-
ber of openings was reduced to a minimum, roque was in full flourish, the Real Cabildo,
and even espadanas were seldom perforated or Town Hall, of Antigua (fig. f) adheres
but were thick-walled and carefully tied into strictly to the established style for govern-
the body of the masonry. So apprehensive mental structures, incorporating Renaissance
became the builders that, according to tradi- traits. Colonial buildings of this type still sur-
tion, they mixed their mortar at times with vive throughout Spanish America, from Mex-
milk, honey, wines, crushed pearls, and even ico to Argentina. Antigua's city hall was built
blood. 151 It is worth while to contrast the entirely of stone and without stucco embel-
churches of this region with those of Brazil, lishment; but the double colonnade—with its
where facades having many doors and win- series of arches on each floor— has functional
dows were in the tradition even before the beauty. Opposite it on the main plaza stands
spread of Rococo. the Palace of the Captain General, similarly
The former parish church at Panajachel, arcaded. It is dated 1763 and is the work of
Guatemala, near Lake Atitlan, is a good exam- Diez Navarro, who was mentioned in connec-
ple of a facade that is drawn out horizontally tion with the university and also won the
and treated as a single surface (PL 69, fig. a). composition for the Casa de Moneda in the
The usual emphasis upon the central section, Mexican capital in 1733, now the National
90
with the portal, is absent here. There are no .Museum.
towers at the sides; bell openings are provided Twisted, or salomonic, columns are not too
in the third story on a line with the niches common on colonial facades in Central Amer-
and on the topmost member of the espadafia. ica. The remaining illustrations on this plate
The whole facade, soberly restrained, shows present three examples from Antigua. The
that inclination toward the classic which runs House of the Lions (fig. d) appears to have
throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth been built in the first half of the seventeenth
centuries. The pediments are unbroken, even centurv, when Antigua was already enjoying
in the uppermost tier where often
of niches, great wealth, and was owned at one time bv
the Baroque trend is most in evidence. Note the high-ranking Toledo family. It is laid out
the engaged columns, without bases, which as a single-story structure with a series of
seem to hang like long straight garlands from patios beyond the main entrance, a favorite
the pediments. It is said that a church stood on and practical plan for a colonial dwelling. The
this site as early as 1641; in the late eighteenth portal is of stone, unusual later when brick
century the town had five churches and ten became the chief building material. This fa-
cofradias. cade was badly damaged at one time, perhaps
In the parish church at San Antonio Aguas bv the earthquake of 17 17. The original stone
[,26]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
walls, three feet thick, rise only to about six vaulting, a method used by the Maya in an-
feet and above them are tabique walls, half- cient times.
timbered and stuccoed over, which are only
138
eight to ten inches thick. Although the com- Characteristic of the Baroque are the changes
position here is not on a grand scale, it pos- that can be noted in the treatment of the col-
sesses considerable vigor. Annis suggests that umn; it was variously adorned, grouped in
above the lintel there was once a more monu- pairs, twisted, engaged in the wall, and often
mental ornamentation which was never reused as a purely decorative element. In Cen-
built. The heavy hand of the local carver tral America a type of engaged column or
simplified the pattern on the piers and the pilaster occurs frequently which to many may
adjoining panels. Romanesque charm lies in appear to have grown out of a playful fancy.
the rampant lions,which look as if they might A number of these are grouped on Plate 70.
have been copied from a patent of nobility. El Calvario (fig. b), a hermitage in Antigua,
Heraldic animals were displayed on many pri- stands on the site of an earlier building, fin-
vate dwellings (see Pis. 34, 126), and these may ished in 1655 and destroyed by the earthquake
earlier have adorned the pediment. One of of 17 17; it was inaugurated in 1720. In the
the first houses to be built in Gracias a Dios, pilasters the horizontal grooving is so deep
Honduras, in the same captaincy-general, has that they have all but lost their basic shape
two lions on its lintel; it, too, is known as and convey no sense of support; but their
the Casa de los Leones. shadow effect is rich and ever changing.
The walled-up side gateway behind the This hermitage lies at the end of a tree-framed
Hospital of San Pedro Apostol (fig. b) is promenade, along which Franciscans once
flanked with richly plastic coupled columns erected the wooden crosses of a Via Crucis;
that spiral in opposite directions. In the niche later these were replaced by small domed
is a polychromed stucco statue of the Assump- chapels, where the Good Friday processions
tion. A Mudejar touch is noticeable in the line stopped in their march. 157
of the main cornice, which, curving, forms A side portal of the cathedral in Tegucigalpa,
the platform for the figure, and volutes of Honduras, which leads into a religious gar-
Baroque proportions descend on either side den, shows another example of such grooving
of the niche to provide a finish for the free- (fig. a), also notably used on the facade. Mer-
standing pediment. (Compare the portal of maids function as caryatids, and a skillful han-
El Carmen at Cuenca, Ecuador, illustrated on dling of stucco is apparent in the ornamenta-
PL 102.) tion.
The decoration of the entrance to the former The weather-stained village church of
Mercedarian monastery in Antigua (fig. e) is Camotan, Guatemala (fig. d), is situated on
even more exquisite than that of the church the plaza of this lifeless little hamlet, the last
itself. A fine calligraphic design flanks the settlement before the Honduran border. John
niche above the arch, giving the effect of a L. Stephens, traveling on a road that had been
pilaster, and a variety of delicate patterns in used in pre-Columbian times, once spent a
stucco adorns the friezes. The vigorous scrolls night in jail here when on his way to the
on the pediment and around the niche add ancient Maya city of Copan. This unusually
greatly to the lively impression of the whole. tall, two-story espadana has bell openings, a
Compare this niche with that in the illustra- niche, and powerful voluted buttresses. In
tion above it. outline the engaged columns in the second
One of the cloister corridors in this build- order suggest superimposed squat Indian jugs;
ing is roofed by heavy cemented corbeled those below give the effect of a tight spiral
[1 *7]
but actually they are grooved horizontally, Other types of pilaster favored in Central
somewhat in the manner of those in the detail America are illustrated here in three churches
at the left. from three provinces of the Captaincy-Gen-
Colohete, Honduras, situated only about eral ofGuatemala, all dating from the first
twenty-seven miles southeast of Copan and half of the eighteenth century (PL 7/). The
not far from Camotan, also has a parish church most original of them (fig. a) is the church of
with deeply grooved columns (fig. c). In both Los Dolores in Tegucigalpa, Honduras. This
these facades multifoil arches are used in the edifice was founded in 1732, according to the
niches and the original statues survive, a rare inscription, but was not finished until 18 15
155
occurrence. As is often the case in Central and was later (19 10) restored. Its pilasters
America, the figures crowd their allotted space. in outline are somewhat like those just seen
Colohete's church is unusually broad, with but are flat on the front; they are decorated
two niches in a row on either side of the with rosettes, each studded with a ball. The
portal, and the entire surface is decorated towers are relatively slender. Their star win-
with a lacelike pattern in stucco, a type of dows have angel heads above and swags of
ornamentation which was executed also in fruit below, unusual touches. A blind balus-
stone in that region (see PL 6). At the base trade was applied on the towers and above
of the wall, much disintegrated, the struc- the main cornice. This motif was a favorite
tural brick and stone are visible. It is to be in Central America; on such a modest mission
feared that soon the whole fanciful pattern church as the Franciscan establishment at
will be chipped off, the wall cemented and Orosi, Costa Rica, it was used as the sole
whitewashed anew, a procedure that the au- ornament and only on the tower. 144 Emblems
thor witnessed in a number of less remote of the Passion, a flaming heart, and, within
villages. The interior of this church is illus- the round opening, a sun disk, pierced to show
trated later (see PL 73). the light through, adorn the two-story es-
Horizontally grooved columns and pilasters padana of the Tegucigalpa facade. Pendent
are found on colonial buildings removed from knobs under the cornices cast lacy shadows.
one another in both distance and time. It is A4ost of the decoration, including the tiles on
possible that those on the mid-seventeenth- the tower roofs, a large finial at the rear of
centurv church at Coban, Guatemala, were the church, and the four women saints stand-
among the earliest examples and those on the ing on consoles before the shallow niches, are
cathedral in Tegucigalpa, Honduras (see ceramic work, once lustrous and brilliant-
PI. //), completed about 1782, among the last. hued. Rarely does one find today such large
Many suggestions have been offered as to the statues in that material well preserved. Inside
origin of this feature. Some claim that it de- the building are remnants of a splendid timber
veloped from an exaggerated rustication, others ceiling, executed in the Mudejar manner.
that it derives from the spiral column, and Related in general design is the facade of
still others trace it to the woodcarvers' vir- the parish church at Chiquimula, Guatemala
tuosity. The Spanish term for it is almoha- (fig. b), a town which lies on the pilgrim
dillado (cushioned), suggesting a pile of little route to Esquipulas (see PL 72) and at the
pillows heaped one upon another. Some ex- head of the road to Copan. This church, re-
amples are preserved on mid-eighteenth-cen- stored after thedamaging earthquake of 1765,
turv houses in Jerez and Cadiz and there- shows one type of peripheral earthquake Ba-
abouts in southern Spain. But whatever or roque. Little attention was given to variety
wherever was its model, the horizontally in the ornamentation. The statues stand in con-
grooved pilaster in Central America developed ventionalized poses, all somewhat alike and
with individuality and a rare virility. with the dignit\ T of the rustic. The main pilas-
[128]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
ters are shaped like stereotyped urns, and in that the natives thought nothing of journey-
the central panels above the arch, vertical ing many days on foot to some famous reli-
grooves ending in convolutes hark back to gious center to participate in the ritual, as
engaged columns. This fagade, too, has the well as in the trading which followed it.
two-storied espadana that can be observed in Shortly after the Conquest a Calvary was es-
many churches of these regions. In the rear tablished in Esquipulas. In 1595 a chapel is
a low, flattened dome is visible. The door at mentioned here as having a miraculous statue
the side, which opens upon a wide garden- of the crucified Christ; this carving, of balsam
perhaps once part of an atrium— also received or orange wood, blackened with incense and
considerable emphasis. candle smoke, is the work of Quirio Catafio,
.Masaya, Nicaragua, formerly the chief town whom some sources call a Portuguese.
142
The
of a powerful Indian tribe, lies on a ridge present massive edifice was completed in 1758
between two lakes, Nicaragua and Managua, to house that figure.
and is most fortunate in its climate. In colo- Raised on a vast platform the basilica is
nial days its Indian inhabitants manufactured dazzling in the subtropical sunlight. Four
quantities of cordage and cotton sailcloth for ponderous towers, all of equal size, anchor
the ships that sailed the Pacific. Its parish the structure, their bases broken only by small
church (fig. c), dedicated to St. Ferdinand, windows at the sides. Each succeeding mem-
may have been begun in the late seventeenth ber is smaller in size and more elaborately
century. It was enlarged in the eighteenth and embellished; the topmost belfries are octag-
the facade dates from about 1800; further re- onal, crowned with bell-shaped cupolas and
pair work was done, according to an inscrip- many finials. Noteworthy is the staggering of
tion, in 1833. It is notable for its three en- the cornice across the entire front. The fagade
trances, in contrast to the general tradition proper is not the retable type— the horizontals
in Guatemala. The modest stucco decoration are too strong, the openings too large, and
that still remains and the lacy design over the the niches too subordinated. Major decora-
lesser doors connect it stylistically with Gra- tive emphasis is laid on the deep multifoil
nada, Nicaragua, which is not far away, while arch in the second story, with its openwork
its single squat tower— a separate unit— recalls railing and double tier of flanking niches.
those in Comayagua, Honduras. Its pilasters, Above stands a statue of the Virgin. The va-
like the ones on the church above, are built riety of arches, pediments, and moldings in
up with undulating lines, giving the appear- this building, its obelisks, spirals, and other
ance of urns, one placed upside down on an- ornamentation make up a Baroque which is
other; even the pedestals carry the urn form. strongly flavored with the Mudejar. The lat-
eral portals also are ornate, with heavy, free-

The pilgrim church of Esquipulas (PL 72, standing pediments, and the large tiled dome
fig. a) is unique in its architectural build-up at the rear reminds one of contemporary
and is surpassed in religious significance by churches in Antigua, Guatemala. In some
few churches in Latin America. This village places the walls measure ten to twelve feet
lies in the southeast corner of Guatemala, near thick.
the borders of both Honduras and El Salvador Inside, the vast size of the church is appar-
and one day's journey on foot from the ancient ent. It is paved with large red tiles and is
religious center of Copan. From indications lighted by silver chandeliers. In some sections
the two sites were once linked by a direct the walls are covered with hundreds of ex votos
road. Five stones carved in a Maya style sim- in gold, silver, wood, or wax as thank offer-
ilar to that of Copan stand on the bridge lead- ings. On others hang colonial paintings and
ing to the Sanctuary. Early chroniclers record primitive sketches depicting scenes of mirac-
[»9l
ulous healing, presented by grateful pilgrims. Rica became a republic, only the last part of
The parish churches in both Jinotepe, Nica- the name was officially retained.
ragua, and Heredia, Costa Rica, are good ex-

amples of how much towers can do for a The barn-shaped church with a plain gable
barnlike structure, besides buttressing it against roof was a natural structural solution during:
earthquakes. Jinotepe, which lies near Masaya, the early evangelization of Latin America,
was important for its cattle ranches and farms, when many churches had to be erected as
to which, later, coffee plantations added then- quickly as possible with, chiefly, local labor.
wealth. The simplicity of the neoclassic de- Later many of these simple structures were
sign in the facade of its parish church (fig. b) altered, added to, or replaced. But the early
is underscored by the plain dark stone em- plan persisted late into the colonial period,
ployed. The towers are square and solid, with- and examples can be found in regions where
out openings except in the belfries, revealing the pace of life was slow or where the mania
their function as buttresses. A small dome, for modernization has not totally destroyed
cautiously low and supported on two sides by the colonial design.
short barrel vaults, can be seen at the rear. Honduras has a number of churches of this
(Compare this church with the cathedral at type. La Merced in Comayagua (PL 13, fig. a),
Leon on PL 8.) one of the earliest buildings still extant there,
The Heredia facade (fig. c), broader than is known to have been under construction in
thebody of the church, is thrust forward far 1 6 1 1 . Further additions were made during the
bevond the towers and is itself very thick and seventeenth century*. 152 It served first as the
buttress-like. With its three portals and sparse main parish church and later, before the new
decoration, it suggests a theater entrance. The building was completed in the early eighteenth
towers are nearly independent units and might century (see PL 6), as the cathedral. At one
155
well have been added to the building later. time it had a sagrario chapel and a baptistry;
They more powerful than those in the

are but even with those additions it must have
Jinotepe edifice just shown and have open- been an unpretentious edifice. The graceful
ings in all three sections. This church has no stucco scallops of the cornice molding only
dome. slightly modify its barnlike appearance. Be-
Heredia lies only six miles from the present sides the central statue the sole ornamentation
capital of Costa Rica and is said to have been on the facade consists of flat g-arlands and the
settled by Andalusians.
81
The district there- insignia at the top. No horizontal breaks the
abouts was noted for its sarsaparilla— "the best architectural surface, no intermediary cornice.
in all the Indies"— a superior henequen fiber, Two feline creatures are perched at the ends
and many medicinal fruits, gums, and other ex- of the pediment, and conventionalized pineap-
tracts, and roots. It had rich ore deposits of ples form some of the finials.
gold, and gold grains were found in the Inside, the church has a single nave and a
stream beds; the pre-Columbian inhabitants timber ceiling. The carved frontal of a side
of this region were excellent metalworkers. altar (fig. c) suggests silver repousse work,
During much of the colonial period the town but actually it is of wood, ungilded. The re-
was known by its Indian name Cubujuqui. In lief has the spirit of folk art; while a certain
1-63 its residents petitioned for the status of angularity characterizes the angels, the trees
a villa, incorporating into its title the name of and flowing ornamentation show artistic fresh-
the president of the Royal Audiencia of Guate- ness. Some see a Maya glyph in the sharp
mala, one Don Alonso Fernandez de Heredia; V-shapes in the upper corners.
thus the placebecame Inmaculada Concep- In 1644, while this church was serving as
cion de Cubujuqui de Heredia. After Costa the cathedral. Philip IV sent a retable for the
[130]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
main altar, a number of statues for side altars, construction. A horizontal ceiling covers the
a large crucifix, missals, chasubles, and various aisles, as in the adjacent example, but there is
78
ornaments. Local tradition would like to iden- no apse.
tify the altar in the present cathedral sagrario
with this gift. But that altar does not appear Although the mines in Honduras are not so
to be so old; furthermore it fits perfectly into famous as those in Mexico, Peru, or Bolivia,
the space it occupies and it is not notably some of them produced a vast wealth of gold
Spanish in style. and silver in the last colonial century. Less
Similar in construction to La Merced, al- than thirty miles east of Tegucigalpa lies the
though in its present form of a later date mining village called La Mineral de San An-
(1730), is La Caridad, also in Comayagua tonio del Oriente. It is mentioned as early as
(fig. b). This photograph, taken in the first 1720 and in mid-nineteenth century its mines
146
quarter of the twentieth century, is presented were still producing; the grade of ore is said
to show the early type of construction; the to have been so high that, though a third of
building has since been heavily restored. Its its value was lost by the crude methods used,
facade, like the preceding one, was unbroken one proprietor was affluent enough to throw
by an intermediary cornice. S-spirals and a silver pieces to the populace by the handful
low crenellation framed the espadafia. A raised on every feast day.
162
panel extended from the pediment of the door- Today those mines are abandoned, and the
way to the bell arches above and was deco- few villagers go out for daily or itinerant la-
rated with an ornamental vase from which a bor, mainly into the broad valley of Zamorano.
bouquet branched in a widespreading arrange- Only a path wide enough for a single beast
ment. As is clearly evident, the tower was leads to the village, and any visitor journeying
constructed separately, grafted onto the side from the capital to the foot of the range and
wall; its roof and cornices are little related to then riding up to the settlement experiences
the rest of the building. Today all floral dec- first hand something of the transportation dif-
oration has been hammered off and the entire ficulties in colonial times, when Tegucigalpa
front cemented into an empty surface and itself was only an outpost. The few buildings
whitewashed. nestle against the mountainside, with scarcely
The parish church at Colohete (fig. d), two them on the same level along the steep
of
in Honduras, presents an example of interior winding street. In the colonial period the sur-
construction that was typical of many early rounding hills were completely denuded to
colonial provincial churches and is stronglv facilitate prospecting, but the beneficent trop-
Mudejar in derivation. An exterior detail of ical sun and rain are slowlv restoring the natu-
this building has already been shown (see ral cover of tall pine.
PI. 70). Huge beams resting on wooden pillars All the houses, small one-story structures,
carry the weight of the timber roof; the broad are still roofed with red tile— a sharp contrast
brackets form the outline of Mudejar arches, to the defacing corrugated iron common where
and standard Mudejar interlacing is applied on modern commerce has made its inroads. Stand-
the crossbeams. An exceptionally rich multi- ing out among them, the freshly whitewashed
foil arch of brick and stucco separates the village church, dedicated to La Merced, catches
sanctuary from the nave. the eye immediately from afar (PI. 74, fig. a).
That this method of construction and, to a It is reported that the Mairena family, who
certain degree, the manner of decoration were owned one of the richest lodes, built this
once fairly general is suggested by the chapel church out of the proceeds of their mines.
of San Francisco in Uruapan, Mexico (fig. e). Its designer, with limited facilities but an eve
Here painted panels conceal the open timber for grandeur, produced a facade full of naive
[131]
charm (fig. b), using decorative elements bor- the less accessible churches is evidenced by a
rowed from more pretentious edifices. The side altar in the cathedral of Tegucigalpa
plastic features are flat and thin; niches are (fig. d). In conception and general impres-
only outlined. Pierlike pedestals, flanking the sion this altar shows a strong affinity to the
entrance, carry urns. Below the pediment, with one pictured beside it, although its carving
its turret and coupled engaged columns, a issomewhat more delicate and elaborated.
blind-balustrade motif forms a frieze. Green Note the peculiar shape of the baldachin above
majolica urns, cemented on the undulating the central panel in each case, suggestive of
cornice and the towers, echo ornaments on an open animal jaw.
Los Dolores in Tegucigalpa (see PI. 7/); some
of them have been whitewashed. As mentioned earlier, Leon, Nicaragua's

Inside, the nave is covered by an open tim- colonial capital, was removed from its orig-
ber ceiling; the apse has an octagonal cupola inal site in 16 10 to where it now stands.
with steep sides and, at the corners, squinches Through this move the pre-Columbian settle-
—a common method throughout the region. ment of Sutiaba was incorporated into the cap-
A disregard for the functional— a mark of the ital and today forms the suburb Subtiava.
Baroque— is carried to the extreme in the main Leon is situated in a fertile valley, somewhat
altar (fig. c). Columns look like the undulat- cooler than the surrounding countryside— the
ing bodies of sea horses; although they end in Indians always chose their sites well. In colo-
capitals that extend through the cornices, they nial days it had the additional advantage of
support nothing and seem almost to be sus- lying directly on the Royal Highway. Besides
pended from above. Tropical vines, shells, agricultural produce, it supplied indigo and
fish, and other figures of caprice spread over cordage made from the maguey cactus.
the background, shining with rich gilding. The parish church at Subtiava, dedicated to
Doubtless the two ovals— a fashionable shape St. John the Baptist, was started in mid-six-
at that time— were designed for paintings. The teenth century to serve the needs of that pros-
statues are new, out of harmony with the perous Indian settlement, and according to
143
articulate craftsmanship which shaped the al- some sources it was completed by the sev-
tar. enteenth (PI. 7 j, fig. a). Bartolome de las Casas
When one asks in such an out-of-the-way is reputed to have preached here, but since
place as this who built the church and deco- the Protector of the Indians made his final de-
rated its interior, the prompt reply credits parture from America in 1547, his visit prob-
the mestizo— the regional— craftsmen. But in a ably occurred before the present building was
large town the answer to the same question finished. In E. G. Squier's book on Nicaragua
all too often brings up the name of an artist this church is illustrated with tiles intact on a
in Spain, sometimes completely anachronous, rounded belfry atop the tower, its facade
or claims that an object was sent from Spain complete with finials and statuary and its wide
as a royal gift. As was discussed in more atrium enclosed within a turreted wall. 158 But
detail in Chapter 2, the foreign artists and it deserves attention even in its dilapidated
craftsmen who could have had a hand in the state. Its facade has a basic simplicity and dig-
building of the countless edifices of colonial nity. From the comparserie of saints that once
Spanish America comprised only a small per- filled the niches, only St. Peter and a Virgin
centage of the total number employed, and and Child remain. Effective is the grouping of
not much larger is the percentage of furnish- the engaged columns, carrying the vertical line
ings imported from Europe, whether paint- from base to top cornice. The two lower win-
ings, statues, or bits for interior decoration. dows light side chapels. A timber roof, tiled,
The contribution made by regional talent to covers the long nave. Over the apse is a squat,
[132]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
cautious dome of stone, reinforced on the were painted in the cloisters. By that time
sides bv stone barrel vaults, beneath which the complex was immense. It occupied sev-
are side chapels— a solution seen also at Jino- eral acres and was surrounded by high walls
tepe. The church has no transept; the blocky with a number of gateways. It had its own
buttresses at the corners which carrv the final printing press, library, stables, and gardens and
thrust of the dome contain chapels and the patios. Buildings of the Third Order, a chapel,
sacristv. and the College of San Buenaventura were

Inside the three-aisle structure the superb then already annexed to the main conventual
height of the native trees is apparent. Each church. 160
column, some fortv feet high, with consider- This church once had two towers. Its fa-
able length also extending underground, is the cade, which was probably finished bv early
trunk of a single cedar. Though the system of eighteenth century, is of the retable type; the
construction here is tvpicallv Mudejar, the variety in the pediments and the recessed por-
decoration on the crossbeams does not make tal and choir-light make it a rewarding study.
use of the familiar geometric interlacing and Note the horizontally grooved pilasters in
the eight-pointed star; instead, an intertwin- the belfry and, on the base, the Franciscan
ing floral pattern, executed in a light-colored cord. No major pediment is to be found on
wood, fills in the space (fig. b). Medallions the entire facade; but then the upper sections
are applied in the ceiling where Mudejar are gone. Ten of the twelve polvchromed
pendants would normally be suspended, and in stone statues of Franciscan saints which orig-
the center is a full sun with spreading ravs inally occupied the niches have survived. A
(compare Pis. 6, 181). The lower end of each Virgin and Child stand within the arched
column (fig. c) carries interwoven floral ele- entrance, above them a coat of arms bearing
ments, as does the upper molding of its mortar a double-headed eagle. Through the doorway
base. and window can be glimpsed the broad arch
The decorative scheme in the side altar of the choir gallery. The ingenious brick con-
(fig. d) also leans toward an interweaving of struction of the twisted columns is visible at
floral elements. This altar does not appear to the lower left.
be as early as the building itself and mav have This facade stood almost intact until the
been constructed of fragments. earthquake of 1917. The disaster of 1773,
however, had badly damaged the rest of the
The conventual church of San Francisco in complex. Only the chapel of the Third Or-
Antigua, though now largely in ruins, offers der then warranted reconstruction, and when
a splendid example of regional earthquake Ba- shortly afterward the establishment itself was
roque (PL -6, fig. b). Because the Franciscans transferred to Guatemala City, this chapel was
came with the Conquistadores, or soon after- kept up bv lay members of the order who
ward, they often acquired a choice location remained in the ruined town.
for their establishment. Work on their An- In its general composition the facade of
tigua complex was begun in 1544, when the La Recoleccion at Leon (fig. c), probably dat-
Franciscan friar Toribio de Benavente— bet- ing from late eighteenth century, echoes that
ter known to history as Motolinia (poor), the of Subtiava's parish church. Its columns are
notable opponent of Las Casas— arrived from grouped in the same manner, emphasizing the
Mexico with twenty-four of his brethren. height of the espadana, but are wound with
They made their monastery one of the lead- spiraling garlands. Stucco ovals containing
ing institutions in the community. Extensive the instruments of the Passion decorate the
refurbishment was undertaken in 1692; the spaces between them. At the top is a relief
timbered ceilings were changed and murals of the risen Christ. The large rectangular
[m]
choir-light— the only opening besides the en- year this shrine, founded by the Dominicans in
trance—is ingeniously framed by a continua- the sixteenth century, attracts one of the larg-
153
tion of the cornice molding, which draws it est pilgrimages of the country. Stylistically it
into the lower tier and causes the espadana shows a considerable contrast to the churches
to appear even more soaring. A single tower in the more eastern regions. Its architectural
buttresses the facade. Outlines of urn-shaped interest lies primarilv in its series of arches;
pilasters can be discerned at the corners of the broad arc described in the main pediment
its lowest section, while just above them rise is especially effective. Columns define its tow-
the horizontally grooved type. Rounded cor- ers and lead the eye upward to the belfries.
ners in the belfrv tend to lighten the massivity. The high roof line indicates an unusually lofty
Very effective are the balustrades, the zigzag nave.
beading, and the uneven edging of the es- El Salvador is represented in this group by
padana, all which catch and break the
of two parish churches, one from the town of
brilliant sunlight. The last extensive work on Jocoro, in the southeast corner of the coun-
this building in colonial times was completed try near the Honduran border, and the other
in 1795. from Panchimalco, about nine miles south of
In the church of La iMerced in Granada, the capital. In the first (fig. a) a Baroque
Nicaragua (fig. a), the classicizing tendency stucco relief on the upper half shows graceful
evident in La Recoleccion is even more sprays of fantasy flowers arranged in great
marked. The Baroque, however, is still appar- vases and, around the niche, decorative leaves
ent in the finials, the spirals on the espadana, ending in sunflowers that remind one of Co-
and the two flanking pediments. The bulk mayagua cathedral (see PL 6). As is usual in
of this structure was drawn out horizontally this type of church, the towers are small and
and there was little striving for height. An are kept about on a line with the pediment.
ornamental motif derived from the Francis- In Panchimalco (fig. c) towers are only sug-
can cord outlines the facade. Note the three gested. A belfry may once have stood on the
entrances. left corner. The whole facade is very thick, a
La Merced was completed around 1781. In solid block with no opening except the wide
1856 it suffered in the war with the Walker doorway. Note the peculiar shape of the pin-
filibusters; the tower especially was heavily nacles. All eight niches have retained their
damaged, but according to an inscription on statues. Inside this church are some fine wood
its base it was restored in 1862. The graceful carvings. The village of Panchimalco is in-
draped curtain on the belfry is a neoclassic habited bv Pancho Indians, descendants of the
motif which might have been there before Pipils who migrated in pre-Columbian times
restoration. from Mexico; thev still observe many of the
customs of their forefathers.
Some examples of the barn-shaped church In the two Salvadoran churches the accent
have already been shown; the facades of the is on the horizontal; the Guatemala example
four illustrated here (PL 77) are comparatively emphasizes the vertical. The church at Ajuter-
plain. The columns, drawn up through at least ique, Honduras (fig. d)— another predomi-
two orders, are severe and straight. Wherever nantly Indian village and not far from Co-
niches are applied, thev are sober; and the mayagua— shows a blend. A large palm branch
ornamental gables are kept low. in relief, finely executed, is preserved on its
The pilgrim church of La Candelaria at espadana. Judging from the other churches
Chiantla (fig. b) stands in a village inhabited in the region it can be surmised that once the
by Mam Indians, in a picturesque spot in west- lower part of this facade also carried stucco
ern Guatemala near Huehuetenango. Every ornamentation. Note the buttresses of the
[•34]
EARTHQUAKE BAROQUE
side walls,showing the method used in such second only to Leon. In 1780 a young British
churches. The second tower was never con- naval officer, Horatio Nelson, came up the
structed; a pier takes its place. The interior river in command of a party intent on cap-
is Rococo, gilded and white. One door near turing both Granada and Leon. He was re-
the altar is painted, on canvas over the wood, called the day before Fort San Juan fell to
with a scene from the Apocalypse and two the English and the party never gained its
Evangelists in traditional Byzantoid style. goal. But in 1856 the Walker filibusters suc-
Two-toned tiles in mellow harmonized shades, ceeded in sacking the city, leaving it in ruins.
very similar to those on the cathedral cupola The church of San Francisco in Granada
in Comayagua, cover sections of the floor. (fig. b) was originally part of a fortress and
In the neighboring village of Lejamani at commands a splendid view of Lake Nicaragua
the time of our visit in 1947, the brutal hand and the surrounding countryside. In mid-six-
of modernization was chopping away at an teenth century a structure occupied this site
intricate stucco design on the church facade, which was intended to house the Spanish
effacing archangels and garlands to make a treasure gathered thereabouts. In one of the
cold and plain cement surface. Another folk- adjacent adobe buildings of the Franciscan
loristic display was being obliterated which monastery, Hernando de Soto, explorer of
can never be reconstructed, the more tragic Florida and discoverer of the Mississippi River,
because such buildings were seldom recorded was once imprisoned, and Las Casas, Pro-
or even photographed, so little have they been tector of the Indians, preached here often.
appreciated. The present church facade, last repaired in

1862, presents a strongly neoclassic aspect. Its
With the coming of the nineteenth century three entrances and the unusual and graceful
the trend to the neoclassic grew increasingly spacing of the windows first attract the eye.
stronger and many facades reflect the change. Tenuous pendants of the corizo—2. local flower
No longer of the retable type, thev are de- with a powerful perfume— are the only orna-
signed without the decorative effect of statu- ments in the large square panels, and the palm
ary in niches and often are rather flat. In El leaf provides the decorative motifs for the
Calvario in Leon (PL 78, fig. a), Nicaragua, lower oval windows and the main entrance.
finished about 18 10, the figural decoration con- Since the columns are not carried above the
sists of story-telling scenes executed in stucco second order, the emphasis is transferred to
relief, later much repainted. In addition, me- the horizontal. A large portion of the tall
dallions, garlands, and rosettes were applied espadana is completely free-standing. Three
in a neoclassic manner, leaving much of the open arches at the right serve as the belfry.
surface plain. The triangles of the pediments The vast church of Santo Domingo in Gua-
are closed and the columns are drawn out temala City (fig. c) was erected between 1792
and unadorned. The effect is placid and aloof. and 1802 bv Pedro Garci-Aguirre. It is much
Granada, Nicaragua, was founded bv Fran- weightier than the other examples here, but
cisco Hernandez de Cordoba in 1524 and like them it has three doorways and is ap-
named after his birthplace. It had a most ad- proached by a flight of steps leading to a
vantageous location and, through Lake Nica- paved landing; it too has attenuated stucco
ragua and the San Juan River, was a major ornamentation. Its numerous openings are of
linkon the Atlantic-Pacific traffic route. Even various shapes and sizes. The outline of its fa-
though the earthquake of 1663 reduced the cade is made irregular by the jutting clusters
flow of the river, Granada, surrounded by of columns which divide the sections. Its ped-
sugar plantations, became the richest citv in iments are closed, whether they are placed
eighteenth-century Nicaragua; in size it was above openings or crown the central section.
['35 I
Besides the balustrade, three heroic statues pilasters were twisted, horizontally grooved,
ornament the top. This church was ruined and urn-shaped. Towers were stressed and
by the earthquake of 191 7 and doubtless its varied. If the plan for the structure was too
original design was somewhat befogged in ambitious, it fell victim to catastrophe and can
the reconstruction. no longer be studied. When the architecture
of this area is compared with that of its neigh-
Colonial architecture in Central America bors to north and south, it is evident that
started out with few pretensions; at the close seismic conditions, regional labor, and local
of the period it again had little decoration building methods, some of them dating back
but the scale was grand. In between these two to pre-Columbian cultures, all contributed to
phases the retable type of facade went through the special character of earthquake Baroque
considerable modulation. Sections of it were in Central America.
recessed or thrust forward. Its columns and
[36]
9
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
O n a quiet sunlit plaza in
lombia, stands the church of San Francisco;

Popayan, Co- silver crescent
globe, some three

moon. The base
feet in diameter,
is a great silver
bound with
occasionally footsteps echo along the sidewalks gilded lacelike bands. Out of these sprouts an
against its high stone walls or a platoon of immense silver lily. A serpent winds about the
pigeons decides to change position and with moon. One foot of the figure rests on its body
a loud flapping of wings alights on the roof and the other seems poised to tread on its
of the monastery. To leave the semitropical neck. With her right hand she aims a golden
glare of the plaza and enter the church is a javelin at its head, and her left arm and the
pleasant relief. In it are preserved distinguished cloak swing out, responding to the movement.
art works from its colonial past. The pulpit Her powerful outspread wings are of silver,
ranks among the best surviving examples of its and a silver crown in filigree rests on the
kind (see Pis. 28, 183); the side retables shine slightly bent head; heavy star-shaped earrings
with their original gold and colors untouched; hang from her ears. The figure is clothed en-
canvas paintings hang on the walls in their tirely in gold, each garment—robe, surplice,
Baroque frames, rich with gilded patterns and and mantle— differentiated by the manner of
corner ornaments. The main altar here has tooling in their large flowing patterns, tinged
been considerably changed, though some of its with color.
statues remain from colonial times. It spreads This splendid statue is revealed only at
across the entire end wall of the nave like a certain seasons, and there are some who even
great screen; in the center, filling the upper after a prolonged stay in Popayan do not
arch, stands a huge cross, behind which a stiff know of her existence; the photograph shown
canvas curtain closes the camarin off like a here is the first taken of her. She is called by
stage. the faithful La Inmaculada, the Immaculate
Seen from the outside, this camarin is a Conception.
separate bay, built of brick, so large that it Indeed, she has some of the attributes of
might be mistaken for an apse. Access to it is the Immaculate Conception, but the represen-
through a narrow passage behind the altar, tation by no means orthodox. Although the
is
over the catacombs of the monks, and up a nar- Immaculate Conception was not defined as
row dark winding stair cut into the thick brick dogma until 1854, the idea of Mary the Im-
walls. Inside the spacious friendly upper cham- maculate was propounded in Palestine as early
ber, bathed in crystalline light from the as the seventh century and was supported espe-
lantern of a dome, is a life-size winged figure cially by the Franciscans. Later it was cham-
(PL 79). She seems to float, weightless, on a pioned by the Jesuits against the Dominicans,
[137]
who in 1483 and again in 1661 had to be In Murillo'swork the monster seldom appears;
admonished to cease their opposition to it. In inno case is Mary winged or does she wear a
151 1 the Portuguese Beatriz de Silva founded crown, and neither does she stand with open
the order of the Purisima Concepcion. 39 In gestures nor wield a weapon.
1760 the Virgin of the Immaculate Concep- The Woman of the Apocalypse, as depicted
tion was declared the principal patron of all in fifteenth-century blockbooks, follows the
Spanish possessions, particularly of those in text from Revelation more closely. Diirer's
America. woodcut is one of the best-known versions of
The iconography of the Immaculate Con- this figure; similar representations by contem-
ception developed very slowly. In the Middle porary artists are found in the Low Countries
Ages, Mary and the Christ Child were pic- and Germany. Crowned with stars and winged,
tured at the top of the Tree of David. Later she floats on the crescent moon, her hands
the figure of a young girl was favored. The clasped. Her Child is being caught to Heaven
painter Pacheco, erudite lay theologian and by angels, while St. Michael and his legions
arbiter of religious iconography in the employ rush in to battle the seven-headed dragon,
of the Inquisition, gave detailed instructions which is spewing forth a flood; John sits on
on "how to paint the Immaculate Conception": the other shore, recording the awful scene.
She should be represented in the flower of This portrayal can be found frequently in
youth, some twelve to fourteen years old, paintings of colonial Spanish America, espe-
clad in white with a mantle of blue; she cially in Mexico. But again, this Woman is not
should be crowned with stars, under her feet the militant figure at Popayan.
the moon, and the rays of the sun should It may occur to some that the South Ameri-
encircle her. Pacheco argued that the crescent can statue portrays the Church Triumphant.
should be represented with its points turning But would wear a papal tiara,
in that case she
downward, to indicate a spherical shape and and heresy, beneath her feet, would be sym-
to place its shadow properly on the side oppo- bolized by a demon in human form.
site the sun. He traced the iconography of the As the Virgen del Socorro, or the Virgin
Immaculate Conception from the mysterious of Aid, popular in eighteenth-century prints,
Woman whom John beheld in his apocalyptic Mary adopts the dart and can be seen with
vision in Chapter 12 of Revelation and stated her Child on her arm, flinging the weapon at
that he preferred to depict her, as described in Satan, sometimes a dragon and sometimes in
the first verse, before her Child was born. As human form (see Appendix, PL 191, fig. b).
for the dragon, he felt that such a monstrous A representation seen more frequently is one
creature should not appear at all in the pres- in which the Virgin is piercing the head of
ence of such perfection. 8 Nevertheless at least the monster with a long lance. But in neither
once he painted her with a bat- winged monster case is she winged.
beneath her feet, on either side of which was All these depictions involve the idea of
a demon in human form, the one clutching a Mary as the New Eve, the one soul untouched
bow and the other an arquebus; in that depic- by original sin, through whom the Redemption
tion she is upheld by angels and surrounded was made possible. Thus the dragon of Revela-
by the attributes of the rosary. The Immacu- tion turned into the serpent of temptation,
late Conception is perhaps best known from sometimes even holding the apple in its mouth.
paintings by Murillo ( 1617—1682). On his The Virgin was envisioned as existing before
canvases she floats on clouds surrounded by time; in the church of Aracoeli, in Rome, a
angels, she always has a halo about her head sixteenth-century mural shows her battling
and sometimes a chaplet of stars, and her hands against Satan's hosts at the side of St. Michael
12
are clasped in prayer or crossed on her breast. before the creation. In Italian and Spanish
[138]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
paintings especially, Virgin and Child are de- ress of the soul, the history of the church.
picted with Adam and Eve imploring at their Treatises were written upon the many aspects
feet; sometimes the latter are represented as that resulted, and symbolic meanings, often of
bound to the dead Tree of Knowledge and deep philosophical significance, came to be
sometimes they are shown in the anterooms of attached to them. Perhaps one of the most
Hell or looking out from a skeleton, sur- familiar of such interpretations comes from
rounded bv supplicating prophets, kings, and the Songr of Solomon, where the Christian
10
priests. church is personified as the Bride (of the
The outstanding example of Mary as the Lord). As we shall see in later chapters, phrases
New Eve is in the Church of SS Michel et from book were applied to Marv also.
this
Gudule in Brussels, the work (1699) of Hen- In the Popavan figure we meet the apoca-
drick Yerbruggen (see Appendix, PL ipi, lyptic vision of John from Chapter 12 of
fig. a). There she stands on the baldachin of Revelation interpreted with reference to the
the pulpit. Under her feet is the upturned sickle Virgin, and she appears not onlv as the Woman
moon and about her head are the twelve stars of crowned with stars and provided "with two
Revelation; but she has no wings. Jesus, as wings of a great eagle that she might flv into
a voung boy, stands before her, his foot as the wilderness," but also as an active partici-
well as hers planted firmly on the serpent's pant in the "war in Heaven." How consciously
neck. Her hand above his sruides the Ions: and conscientiously the apocalvptic symbolism
lance— topped with a cross— as it strikes the was followed in this representation is evidenced
creature between the eves. At the base of the bv the inclusion of the "flood" that "the ser-
pulpit Adam and Eve cower bv the gnarled pent cast out of his mouth after the woman,"
Tree before the avenging angel; above them painted on the dome of the camarin and iden-
is a shield bearing Mary's monogram and a tified unmistakably by the ark floating on the
Latin phrase in which the name "Eva" is modi- limitless waters beyond her head.
fied to become "Ave." In this aspect the Virgin, if looked upon
In Wurzburg a somewhat similar representa- as the protagonist of striving mankind, corre-
tion can be seen in a statue by Claude Cure, sponds with the Vision of the Fifth Seal in
dated 1728. The German verse on its pedestal mystic lore. She may be said to embody the
might be translated: fifth stage of mankind's progress, which Au-
gustine defined as fear overcome and full
What through the apple bite confidence in the contemplation of truth. She
Brought Evil on the world would then be killing darkness with the arrow
Was through the Ave sweet
of spreading light; indeed, her zigzag javelin
And through the Cross transformed.
So accept the Ave
is the thunderbolt from Heaven itself. Her
Mary full of grace; statue so placed in Popavan that the sun
is
And all pay service unto thee on the golden weapon and the open hand
falls
With Jesus protect us from harm. . . . seems only to guide it toward its goal. Through
its human charm and the superb rendition of
From this discussion it becomes evident that the symbolic act, the statue makes a great
while European prototypes parallel in one de- appeal even to the onlooker who has no reli-
tail or another the composition at Popavan, gious interest in it or iconographic curiosity.
that statue expresses a more complex sym-
still So far as this author has been able to ascer-
bolism. From the Middle Ages on, all Scrip- tain, this aspect of the Virgin in statuary
ture, but especially Revelation, was subject occurs only in South America. That its sym-
to various interpretations— as referring to Christ bolism was understood and tolerated within
and the Redemption, to the Virgin, the prog- the Roman Church is clear from the fact that
[39]
it was often repeated; a number of such statues weapon is gone, but the gesture is similarly
are still extant. open and swinging. In its estofado and general
line this statue shows relationship to the one
Several other examples are found in Popayan. in the archbishop's palace, despite retouching.
One, a small carving, is in the sacristv of San The heads and hands of such images were
Francisco. Another, life-size and nearly as made separately— for the better application of
striking as the great statue just seen, stands in the enamel-like encarnacion— and then fitted to
the long reception hall of the archbishop's the body. Both hands of this figure can still
palace (PI. 80, fig. b). Here there is no lily, be taken from their sockets (fig. d). On the
and the Woman is enclosed within a vast silver tenons are two inscriptions, placed as if on
aureole, some nine feet high; the bands on the two medallions— "Bernardo Legarda" on the
silver globe are very similar in pattern to those one and "se acabo en 7 de diciembre d ano de
on the work in the camarin. Stars are placed 754" on the other ("Bernardo Legarda finished
at the lower edge of the rays behind her head, this on the 7th of December, 1734"). This is
and the encircling aureole is designed to ac- the only signed work of the great mestizo
commodate her crown, held by small angels. sculptor known to date.
In this case the serpent carries a red apple in In the choir of the same church is still an-
its mouth. The angels scattered about would other statue, smaller in size and somewhat
appear to be later additions, and the whole marred but unmistakably of the same type
composition has lost some of its expressive- (fig. a). Here the estofado, very fine in quality,
ness through over-painting: a matte encarna- has not been tampered with.
cion makes the face doll-like, and the estofado
of the mantle is daubed with stars in two dif- The Franciscan monastery in Quito has in
ferent sizes; also, real lace has been added at its possession similar statues in various sizes.
the cuffs, endangering the dignity of line. Particularly ingratiating is a little figure
A lay brotherhood owned this statue and in mounted on a miniature pedestal (PL 81, fig. a);
the 1930's, in their zeal to assist the church, it is shown here set within a decorative niche
sold the original crown. Shortly afterward the called an urna, or shrine. The frame, exquisite
magnificent piece, of gold set with large irreg- in detail, emblazoned with Mary's mono-
is
ular Colombian emeralds, was exhibited in gram, and the background is strewn with
the United States. 174 The statue is carried in painted flowers.
Popayan's famous Corpus Christi procession In all these Quito examples the globe is
on the shoulders of sixteen men and is, with omitted and the moon rests on a few curly
right, a favorite of the town's inhabitants. clouds— a detail which was elaborated in larger
Another example of this subject stands on compositions. Although most figures of the
a side altar in the church of Las Monjas de la Vision of the Fifth Seal are associated with
Conception in Popayan. Though iconographi- the Franciscan order, a small example (fig. b)
cally the same, this carving seems to be of a is in the chapel of San Juan de Dios in Quito,
later date; it is half life-size and the globe is placed against the back panel of the pulpit.
indicated by only a hemisphere. This chapel is part of the building complex
A statue in Quito on the main altar of the that houses the oldest hospital in the city.
church of San Francisco (fig. c) offers a clue Now closed to the public, it is entered from
to the authorship of this remarkable interpre- the hospital court, and few have noted this
tation. Here a halo has replaced the crown carving, which, like the Popayan statue, was
and the globe is absent, but she still has the photographed for the first time for this volume.
new moon under her feet, and like the others Its special interest lies in the fact that it is
she looks down at the serpent's head. The adapted as a relief. The moon is dispropor-
[
I4°]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
tionately large— she rides in it as if in a boat— which describes an angel, "come down from
and a globe is suggested by the mass of clouds, heaven, having the kev of the bottomless pit
which form a segment of a circle. and a great chain in his hand. And he laid
Still other representations of the subject hold on the dragon, that old serpent, which
survive in Quito. One is in the church of is the Devil, and Satan, and bound him . . .
El Belen, which was built in early eighteenth and set a seal upon him." In mystic lore these
183
century. This author found another, half statues represent the Vision of the Sixth Seal,
life-size, as far north as Tunja, Colombia, in which carries the implication that Evil itself
a corner of the Mancipe chapel in the cathe- do the will of God.

will finallv be forced to
dral, and a miniature, about a foot high, on (Compare Appendix, PL 191. fig. c.)
a side altar of the church of Jesus y Maria in Here might be mentioned a painting of the
Lima, Peru. All of these have the bent knee, Cuzco circle from the seventeenth or eight-
the pose of treading the serpent, and the eenth century, which shows St. Thomas
upflung hands— never the praying gesture of Aquinas as the defender of the Eucharist,
the Immaculate Conception— and the head is brandishing a flaming sword— such as is usu-
bent to look down on the monster, though ally associated with the Archangel Michael—
in none of them has the javelin been preserved. and holding the seven-headed dragon of the
The period of Bernardo Legarda in Quito, Apocalypse on a heavy chain. On a fountain
and most probably the sculptor himself, can in Puebla, Mexico, Michael himself performs
be credited with the creation of this unique these acts.
version of the Virgin. The figure's full sym-
bolism, however, is revealed only through To understand the amazing flowering of the
those examples in Popayan in which the jave- plastic arts in Quito, its earlier historv should
lin has survived— the kev to its identity. The be reviewed. The province of Quito— so-called
wide radius within which these statues have after thepre-Columbian Kingdom of Quitu—
been found shows the extent of Quito's trade occupied roughly the territory of present-day
in art pieces in the eighteenth century. Ecuador. It lies at the north end of that hi^h
In the infirmary of the Franciscan monastery Andean plateau which in pre-Columbian times
in Quito is a small caning of the Virgin stand- developed into the backbone of the vast Inca
ing on a new moon and holding the serpent Empire. The region is broken by deep gorges
leashed on a chain— a heavy affair of gold links and precipitous slopes, falling off on the east
and beads which may have replaced a simpler to the rain forests that feed the Amazon and
one (fig. c). She has many of the attributes on the west to steaming equatorial jungles, in-
seen earlier— the wings, moon, and open ves- habited even today by savage Indian tribes.
ture. Also in the possession of the same Fran- Ten magnificent volcanoes,among them Chim-
ciscan establishment is a graceful figure about borazo, loom up from turbulent valleys. Only
whose wrist a coarse rope is looped, bound a tew decades before the Conquest, the city
at the other end to the monster— doubtless a of Quito was made the Inca's second capital
replacement but still earning out an icono- (the other was Cuzco). Lying at an altitude
graphic tradition (fig. d). Her posture is of nearly 10,000 feet, it is remote and difficult
somewhat different. She bends her head still of access. It enjoys a temperate climate, though
lower as if to fix the monster with her eyes; nearly on the equator, and situated amid is
her whole pose is less active and she has no fertile valleys on the slope of
of volcanic soil
wings. Clouds are caned on the globelike the volcano Pichincha, down which flow un-
base,and she stands poised above them on the ceasing streams of purest water. So hilly is the
moon. A clue to the identification of these site that even in the pretentious eighteenth
two figures is provided in Revelation 20: 1-4, century practically everyone went on horse-
[41I
back or on foot— the gentry distinguished by the monastery. His atelier was large and a
large umbrellas borne by servants; only the number of apprentices worked under him; the
president of the audiencia and the bishop rode names of some pupils have come down in con-
in coaches, the navigation of which through nection with works begun by the master but
61
the steep, uneven streets was a special art. finished by them. 183 He signed the statue on
As early as the i53o's three Franciscans the main altar of San Francisco and may have
founded an establishment there, led by the been the creator of the Vision of the Fifth Seal.
friar Jodoco Ricke (or Rijcke) de Marselaer, Legarda must have been a true initiate of
a Fleming from Ghent. 166 An illuminating side Marian lore at a time when the visions and
light is provided in the fact that his uncle ecstasies of saints were part of religious life
was secretary to the only Flemish pope, Adrian and artists prepared for their work with pray-
VI, who had once been a tutor to Charles V. ers and fasting.
Ricke was allotted Indian labor to erect the The drama of Mary's life culminated in her
first buildings, and according to tradition he ascension and her coronation in Heaven— the
himself placed the first stone. He began at last of her Glorious Mysteries. The Assump-
once to teach the Indians to plow with oxen tion of the Virgin was a popular subject among
and build roads, to count in Spanish, read and artists everywhere, especially after Titian exe-
164
write, and bind books. Like his more famous cuted his magnificent canvas in the Frari
compatriot Pedro de Gante in Mexico, he church in Venice. It was also a favorite with
established a college for the instruction of the the sculptors of Quito.
Indians in the arts, and like the Colegio de The figure shown here (PL 82, fig. b) can
Santa Cruz in Tlatelolco, the Colegio de San probably be assigned to Legarda. It stands in
Andres in Quito trained the sons of distin- a private collection, not in a church; but even
guished natives in the services of the church, as a separate piece of polvchromed wood
the playing of musical instruments (including sculpture, its appeal is immediate. The subli-
the organ), and also in the techniques of sculp- mated expression, the gesture of the delicate
ture and painting. The first professor of paint- hands, the delineation of the three mystic
ing here was one Pedro Gosseal, a native of garments— each different in its fall and folds
Mechlin (halfway between Antwerp and Brus- —are all the work of a master. Note the grace-
sels) and one of the monastery founders. Ricke ful bow of the girdle. The manner of tenoning
also established the Franciscan monastery of the hands to the wrist can be seen in this
San Bernardino in Popayan, where he died carving.
about 1574. Besides the mestizo Legarda, who was active
Thus Quito had from its colonial beginnings in the first half of the eighteenth century,
a monastic atmosphere, which was conducive another Quito sculptor, Caspicara, produced
to mystic contemplation, and a rare artistic work of outstanding quality. The only known
183
tradition. The flowering of Christianity on date in connection with him is 1792, when
new soil there might be compared in some of he is mentioned in a document as "contempo-

its expressions to the spirit of the Trecento rary." He was born of Indian parents, and his
or early Quattrocento in Italy. This was the real name was Manuel Chili or Chil, but like
more remarkable because even in the earlv many artists— even in Europe— he is better
eighteenth century colonial artists lacked many known by his nickname, "Rough Face," which
implements and materials deemed necessary in referred to his pock-marked skin. The only
Europe for fine workmanship. signed work of his that has come to light so
Little is known of the Quito sculptor Ber- far was illustrated earlier (see PL 12).
nardo Legarda. He was a mestizo and tradition Caspicara's manner is related to Legarda's,
has it that he lived on the great plaza opposite but it is not likely that he studied directly
[142]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
with the mestizo master, as fifty-eight years the colorful flower motifs in the right fore-
separate the two known dates for them. It ground could have been copied from a porce-
seems more probable that the artistic tradition lain.
in Quito, established by the first third of the

eighteenth century on an extraordinarily high Another Assumption figure by Caspicara
level, was kept vigorous in various workshops. (PL 83, fig. c) is in the Franciscan monastery
Caspicara lived in the Rococo period, when at Quito; note again the liquid pattern in the
porcelain and ivory figurines were cherished estofado, a characteristic of that master's work.
possessions in many a colonial household, and Very similar in posture is a carving in the
most of his statues are only half life-size, in church of El Carmen in Popayan, Colombia
contrast to those of Legarda's era. But Caspi- (fig. a). Both have a transfigured gaze and
cara's is no dainty playful talent; in some of finely proportioned outstretched hands. Small
his work he might even be called Donatello- details, such as the flying scarf and the bow
esque. He is especially noteworthy for his of the girdle, are worked out in both. There
group compositions; until he appeared, single are differences, however, especially in the
statues were generally the order in Quito. arrangement of the cloaks and in the estofado;
His Assumption (fig. a) tells a complicated in the one, glowing red roses are widely
story. The group occupies the topmost part spaced on a silvery base, in the other, mille
of the transept altar dedicated to St. Anthony fieurs are scattered over a white ground. The
in the church of San Francisco in Quito. So former has a remarkably fine encarnacion,
high is it placed and so heavy is the goldwork enamel-like in its sheen. Similar bowknots can
around it that the scene is almost lost, but be seen on Chinese ivory figures shown earlier
when considered apart from its surroundings, (see PL 62).
it comes to full life and has the power of a In the Tota Pulchra (all beautiful)— the
much larger composition. The upward move- phrase from the Song of Solomon— we have
is
ment of the Virgin's figure is emphasized by an authentic Legarda piece (fig. b); it too is
the strong horizontality of the astonished in the monastery of San Francisco in Quito.
earth-bound group below. Her expression is Compare it with the Caspicara beside it. The
sublime but at the same time warmly human. effect of Legarda's work is generally more
The cherubs bearing her heavenward are de- massive, the figure is fuller, and the hands are
lightfully unconventional; one even seems to heavier. The carving is executed with longer
support her with a hand under her elbow. lines and bolder angles, and there are no flying
The curly by now familiar, recall the
clouds, or sharply protruding sections— the cloak en-
representations of Heaven in early manuscripts folds the figure. Legarda's estofado has more
and woodcuts. Despite the vehement gestures verve; larger motifs are used, spaced farther
of the Apostles gathered below, they are not apart.
playing theater; they are the ecstatic eyewit-

nesses of an overwhelming drama. Although As has been suggested the estofado on a
each is portrayed with a certain independence, statue may furnish a clue to its general pro-
together they convey a single sweeping im- venience and epoch. The manner of its appli-
pression. The five huddled figures beyond the cation has already been described in Chapter 7.
coffin produce a contrast that strengthens the On this plate are gathered samples of estofado
effect of the whole— a minor chord between from eight statues to show the wide range in
two major ones. style (PI. 84).
Mary's gown has the small metallic all-over The examples from Bogota and Tunja,
pattern of the Rococo, and the estofado of the Colombia (figs, a and b), are probably among
Apostles' robes shows considerable variety; the earliest, in this group. Both have much of
[43]
the traditional Spanish manner— for instance, gold; the surplice has deep and rich-toned
in the fine lines drawn across the surface to Rococo bouquets on white, and the medallions
reveal the gold beneath; but even in the first are outlined in ochre. The scarf is Roman-
sample, with its black and gold striatiori, the striped in soft colors. Coarse irregular stars-
flowers are unusually large for the Spanish later additions— stud the mantle, out of har-
style. In the second, mild tints bring out the mony with the rest of the distinguished piece.
variety in the motifs, which however remain (See also PL 82.)

carefully subordinated to keep the total effect The sample from Honduras (fig. g) is char-
serene. (See also PL 174.) acterized by a large diapered pattern formed
The example from Queretaro, Mexico (fig. by a chain of golden leaves; within it are
c), is decidedly original. The cloak carries painted nosegays of bright flowers. The gold
deeply indented tooling, and the white field ground is roughly striated, and the whole little
of the gown is scratched with lines to expose piece is full of sparkle. It is outspokenly Ro-
the metal base and painted with numerous coco, recalling porcelain or ivory figurines.
motifs. The pattern is stiff, not fluent as in This detail is taken from a small Dolorosa
most of the others; some may see elements which may be a product of the local school
suggestive of pre-Columbian characters in it. or may have been brought down from Guate-
Note the painted lace edging. mala.
The next three examples come from statues Our last sample of colonial estofado (fig. h)
from the Quito circle. Contrast the manner of comes from a late-eighteenth-century figurine
tooling on a gold ground from the Vision of in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, possibly
the Fifth Seal in Popayan, Colombia (fig. d), from a Queretaro atelier. The tooling produces
with the more simple and spotty punchwork a staccato line, somewhat like that in the pre-
pattern in the Mexican example just seen. ceding piece, but there is no garland to hold
Though complicated in design and execution, the design together and the painted pattern is
the Popayan estofado has clarity and fluency, large, loose, and free. Colors stand out from
calling to mind a rich, heavy brocade. (See a dark ground and little metal is visible except
also PL 19.) in the punchwork. The impression is of subtle

A predilection for large spreading flower but rapid work which has dash and vibrancy,
patterns is noticeable throughout the colonial strongly on the coloristic side.
epoch. This type of work was not too popular The quality of such carvings and the perfec-
in contemporary Spain but is found in early- tion of detail depended to a certain extent on
and mid-Renaissance Italian wood statues, the price paid for them. Extant contracts show
which are polychromed, with little or no how precisely both size and coloring were
metal. The next robe (fig. e) shows such a var- specified. The artist who contracted in Seville
icolored flower design applied on a silver to paint and gild the Martinez Montafies altar
ground. Tooling appears here only in the foli- for the church of La Conception in Lima (see
ated medallions, best seen in the lower center. Pis. 15, 60) guaranteed that gold and not half-
Painting instead of tooling decorates the edge gold would be used in his work and that the
of the mantle, which seems to have been re- garments would carry estofado in all manners
touched. (See also PL 87.) —with the point of the brush, on open fields,
The last detail from Quito (fig. f) has no engraved with a gimlet, eyeleted, prinked,
tooling; the motifs which lent themselves so hatched, and wrought with scales or wavy
well to that technique in the two others— the designs, as in watered silk; also that the en-
large medallions and the edging— are both carnacion would show differences in tone,
painted here. On the skirt (lower center) conforming to the character of each figure,
small bright flowers are scattered directly on with the mouth, eyes, eyebrows, the roots of
[
J
44]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
27
the beard, and the wrinkles done in fresco. before her. This work is said to be a Legarda.
The same careful craftsmanship is evident in However, new light is shed on its author-
the work of many colonial masters. ship by the recently found Baby Jesus (see
PI. 12) signed by Caspicara. That infant and
Santa Rosa of Lima (i 586-1617) became a the one in Rosa's arms have so much similarity
favorite subject in the colonial art of the —in the extended left arm and the bend of the
eighteenth century. She was an accomplished leg— that the attribution to Legarda is subject
musician and was known also for her charming to considerable doubt.
and gay temperament, in spite of the acts of The third Santa Rosa (fig. c) presents a
penance which she had practiced even in statuesque woman in full command of beauty,
youth. Against the wishes of her family she within and without. Although this powerful
entered a Dominican convent at an early age. figure stands in the Quito cathedral practically
Catherine of Siena was her ideal and, like her, at the crossroads of the town, no one until
she had a vision of the "mystic marriage." now has taken enough notice of her to photo-
According to her legend she was seen walking graph or study her. The estofado here has a
in the nunnerv garden with a radiant child rich pattern of deep red roses, in contrast to
of about twelve, who instructed her in the that on the other figures, which is mild and
healing of the sick and whom she called her silverv, with little color.
"little doctor." All three carvings show the saint dressed in

The commemorative prints issued upon the nun's robes, with a wimple and dark mantle.
canonization of a saint provided the iconogra- But thev differ not onlv in general interpreta-
phv for later representations. At the splendid tion but also in such details as the modeling
ceremony which accompanied Santa Rosa's of the hands and the arrangement of the dra-
canonization in St. Peter's at Rome (1671), pery. The Christ Child in the last portrayal
the basilica was hung with painted banners wears a new silk dress and even kid baby shoes.
displaving scenes from her "true life," one of

which pictured her, for the first time, with Caspicara is the sculptor of all the statues
12
the Christ Child in her arms. In two engrav- on the next plate except the first; the carving
ings (one is dated 171 1 )
she is holding a minia- of San Pedro de Alcantara is said to be by
ture portrayal of the Infant Christ as an Padre Carlos, who was active in the second
emblem, such aswas used by professing nuns, half of the seventeenth century (PI. 86, fig. a).
encircled by a sheaf of roses. In Spain she was A dramatic representation of this saint, from
painted with the Child floating before her on Mexico, was shown earlier (see PI. 57). The
top of her workbasket. Quito carving presents a less ecstatic but more
In Quito, Santa Rosa is depicted with espe- humanly touching figure and is more realistic
cial affection, as is evident from the three all round. He is the only one in this group to
figures illustrated (PI. 85), all of them made wear a robe of textile.
there within an eighty-year period. The first Caspicara's angel (fig. b)— probably one of
statue (fig. a) occupies a lower niche of the the band that stood in wonder before the
altar by Caspicara in San Francisco, Quito— manger— speaks for himself in his gracefully
on which the Assumption is the central group endearing pose. Even in this small piece the
(see Pi 82). In this version Rosa, radiating estofado is worthy of study. Different textures
inner serenity, is represented as a heavenly are brought out in the different garments, in
figure kneeling on clouds. both the carving and the painting; the surplice
The smaller carving in the center (fig. b) could not be finer in its delicacy and floral
shows a happy young girl, reserved and shy, decoration if it had been painted in Botticelli's
somewhat astonished at the miracle unfolding studio.
[45]
St. John Nepomuk (fig. c) is portrayed in frequently appears with a strongly theatrical
ecstasy. As is characteristic of most Quito presence. In the costumed figure from Quito
sculpture and especially of Caspicara's .work, (PL 8j, fig. a), the face and hands of which
the hands by themselves convey much of the are said to have been carved by Caspicara, we
mood. The estofado is quiet but varied; the see a composed though suffering woman; the
technique as well as the composition relates bent head and the gesture of the hands are
this figure to that of the first Santa Rosa on sentimentally touching. This representation re-
the preceding plate, its companion piece on minds one of certain fifteenth-century Flemish
the altar. Nepomuk was the patron saint of paintings, which were imbued with a rare in-
Bohemia, and his presence in Ecuador is sig- tensity and even showed pearl-like tears but
nificant, calling to mind the nationality- of had no suggestion of the larmoyant so evident
some of the friars there. here. The Quito statue, half life-size, is dressed
Three aspects of St. Francis of Assisi are in a brocaded damask gown and a taffeta cloak;
presented in the lower row. In the first (fig. d), real pearls adorn the veil, the gold and silver
the saint is shown in penance, stripped to the threads of the edging and medallions are of
waist, with iron bands and chains about his pure metal, and precious and semiprecious
waist and upper arms like the San Pedro above stones are strewn on breast and girdle. It is
him. Of the two carvings, Caspicara's is the regrettable that the statue is not better pro-
more idealized. There is a gentleness in the tected, for the textiles are crumbling and the
portrayal, which characterizes many works of threads which fasten the jewels are breaking.
this Quito master. Note the superiority of Mary mourning in solitude between the
wood over textile in the representation of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection— La Soledad
garment. —was also a favorite subject in Latin America,
Another episode in the life of St. Francis and many churches there are dedicated to her.
shows him supported by angels as he receives In the seventeenth century the Spanish sculp-
the stigmata (fig. e). In the upper left is a tor Pedro de Mena carved a famous statue of
vision of the Crucified, clasped in the sixfold this Virgin, in which her whole figure is en-
wings of a seraph— an early mode of depiction veloped in a cape edged with gold lace; she
used by Giotto and revived in the Counter is wringing her hands and her expression is
12
Reformation. The saint's body is in a rather one of deepest anguish. That Spanish depiction
cramped position, and the entire carving sug- may have influenced the artist who created
gests the two-dimensional, in the tradition of the Soledad in Oaxaca, Mexico (fig. b), but
some of the early altars ( see PL 24) only remotely. Here also the figure is com-
As the Seraphic Father (fig. f) the saint pletely enveloped in a cloak; gold braid edges
himself wears sixfold wings, which, like his the entire garment, giving a pronounced ver-
halo, are of silver. His robe has a tapestry-like tical emphasis. But the hands, thrust out very
pattern and a real cord bound about the
is slightly, are held in the calm pose of prayer.
waist, a real rosary pendent from it. The sheep, The pale face, partly covered with the somber
symbol of the congregation, is a later addition; cloak, has a withdrawn expression. The Mexi-
note its separate base. Metal loops are fastened can example uses a different artistic language,
on the pedestal of the statue through which and for many may be more immediate.
it
carrying poles were slipped when it was borne A carving of Mary Magdalene, kneeling,
in processions. A resemblance in the features the work of an unknown artist (fig. c), is part
can be noticed in all three carvings. of a Crucifixion group in the church of El
Tejar in Quito, Ecuador. Although grief and
In contemporary European representations pain permeate the figure, again the gesture is
—especially the Spanish— the Mater Dolorosa controlled; the look and clasped hands tell the
[146]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
story of suffering. Remarkable is the estofado and by another
159
to Manuel Cuellar, who was
of the gown, showing a large floral pattern on active in the second half of the seventeenth
a silver ground, one of the rare examples un- century. In this sculpture the position of the
touched in later centuries. The shiny encarna- Christ is reversed; Mary's right hand holds his
cion also is well preserved, the type of finish arm, while the left is placed so that it could
which Quito seems to have specialized in clasp a sword piercing her heart.
throughout her colonial greatness. The bold In these three compositions— from Ecuador,
and vigorous lines of this carving indicate Colombia, and Guatemala— the Christ figures
another master, as yet unidentified but quite show considerable variation; still greater dif-
different in manner from either Caspicara or ferences of approach are manifest in the por-
Legarda. trayals of Mary. Caspicara, perhaps through
the addition of the two other Marys, has pro-
convey the drama of
Caspicara's ability to duced the fullest drama. The Bogota piece is
a scene without hyperbole comes out elo- fervent and sincere, somewhat transcendental
quently in his Pieta, a group composition in in its feeling. In the Guatemala sculpture the
the cathedral of Quito (PL 88, fig. a). The mystic bond that unites mother and holy Son
three mourners gathered around the Christ finds moving expression. (Compare PL 21.)
furnish emotional background. The body of
the dead Christ has an ivory-like quality. He When in 1760 the Virgin of the Immaculate
is stretched on the ground, his head resting Conception was declared the principal pa-
against his mother. This is post-Reformation troness of Spanish possessions, she was already
iconography; in earlier representations Mary is beloved in the New World. Two interpreta-
holding her Son on her lap, as in Michelan- tions of this subject are shown here, both from
gelo's famous statue in St. Peter's at Rome. The late eighteenth century (PL 89).
two other mourning women here are Mary For over two hundred and fifty years the
Magdalene and Mary Salome, mother of Santi- cathedral at Quito, Ecuador, was enriched by
ago and John the Evangelist. As in all Caspi- the works of artists and craftsmen of high
cara's creations, the hands are communicative; attainments. In 1793 a suit over the estate of
those of Christ, still strong, hang like relaxed a wealthy man was settled by the king in favor
wings. The various gestures of the three of the cathedral, and the reigning bishop, the
women form a rhythmic pattern. Like many Quito-born Jose Eliodoro Mariano Diaz de la
of the Quito master's carvings, these figures are Madrid y Unda, used the money to redecorate
only half life-size, but they have monumental- the building. He put in windows and an elab-
ly. In this group the effects of unfortunate orate portal, presented the old Baroque altars
repainting are apparent. (alas!) to rural parishes, and installed new ones
Another Pieta (fig. b), executed by an un- executed on more classic lines, adorned with
known artist, stands in the church of La Can- paintings.
164
The choir, which in this building
delaria,Bogota, Colombia. It is said to date occupies a semicircular space behind the main
from the early eighteenth century. 170 Here, in altar, must have been redone about this time.
the older tradition, Christ lies more in the lap In its midst the archbishop's throne, uphol-
of his mother and hers is the more dominating stered in red velvet, stands under a shell-shaped
figure. The estofado seems to be untouched, baldachin. To right and left are four statues
but the large halo and silver heart pierced with attributed to Caspicara. He may also have co-
a dagger are probably later additions. operated in the general embellishment, for his
A third Pieta (fig. c), in the left transept of onlv known date (1792) coincides with the
El Calvario in Antigua, Guatemala, has been time of this work.
141
attributed by one writer to Julio Urruela \ figure of Mary stands on the new moon
1
'47]
at the top of the throne, a section of her mantle emperor of the New World and sovereign
flyingbeyond one shoulder and her hands in of the Conquistadores, lingered in the colonies
the praying pose of the Immaculate Concep- long after the Bourbons replaced the Habs-
tion (fig. a). Two angels, above horns of burgs on the throne of Spain. A small statue
plenty, grasp the points of the crescent, and, of him— twenty-eight inches high— was made
below them, framing the chair back, are two in Quito probably in the first half of the eight-
peacock-like creatures, their feathered bodies eenth century (fig. e). Two European like-
highly decorative. In early Christian art the nesses of him, both posthumous, are placed
peacock symbolizes eternal life. The arrange- beside it (figs, c and d), the first a painting
ment of the creature, divided and used in a by Peter Paul Rubens (from 1634-1635) and
conventionalized form, reminds one of the the second an engraving by the Flemish master
double-headed eagle, perpetual favorite in Pieter Balten (1580). Such representations
Spanish-American art. The columns and the circulated in the colonies and doubtless passed
applied motifs on the choir walls are gilded, from generation to generation. In certain de-
but the entire background is a smooth cream tails the statue is similar to them— the white
color, in keeping with the changing taste of neckband, the armor and mail shirt beneath,
the era. the greaves, the sword, and the orb with its
The other Immaculate Conception (fig. b) cross; absent are the gloves, the crown or
originally stood in the chapel of the Hacienda wreath (which may have disappeared), and
Purisima de las Flores, near Guanajuato, also the Golden Fleece, so meticulously in-
Mexico, but in 1 894, when the descendants of cluded in the European depictions. In general
Count de Rul sold the Flores mine, it was a simplification is noticeable. The long face
removed to the church of La Valenciana." with its heavy Habsburg chin and protruding
Though contemporary with the statue beside under lip are not represented, and the mantle
it, this carving shows very different taste pref- that hangs in dignified folds in both European
erences. The crescent moon is absent, and the portraits is carved in the Quito sculpture with
figure floats above a cluster of cherub heads— verve, much like that of the Inmaculada above.
a popular arrangement ever since Raphael's Commemorative statues and paintings of by-
time. What healthy unsophisticated faces they gone rulers of Spain, beginning with Ferdinand
have! While in the Quito statue a restraint and Isabella, were common in Spanish Amer-
is noticeable in the lines of the drapery— only ica; some still survive today in remote cor-
above one shoulder is a sweeping movement ridors and dustv attics.
allowed in the mantle— here it billows about

the hips and is blown outward on either side By mid-eighteenth century the fame of
of the figure. The estofado has a floral pattern, become widespread. Between
Quito's art had
mild in color. This figure, polychromed in 1779 and 1788 over two hundred and fifty
7
true Rococo spirit, stands in its own niche and chests of art products— sculpture and painting
is framed by a fantasy garland of leafy fronds. —were shipped out by way of Guayaquil. The
Wooden candelabra emerge from a shell at the technical methods that were so well exempli-
bottom, and two others branch at the sides fied in the larger statues were applied in the
from the garland. Compare the heavy volutes manufacture of figurines. Oriental trade, legal
in both compositions. Quito's strong spiritual and illegal, had already made the colonial
heritage shows itself in the gentleness and household familiar with Chinese porcelains
refinement of the first carving, while the and ivorv figures, and traffic with Europe was
Mexican figure has the dash and fluency char- bringririCT into the New World finely colored
acteristic of that land. Rococo statuettes. Quito itself had a ceramics
The legendary fame of Charles V, the first factory, established in 1771, which turned out
[148]
SCULPTORS OF QUITO
not onlv Nativity groups but also genre pieces painted, and eyelashes of hair are attached.
and its renowned basket arrangements of native Though Queretaro, with its distinguished stu-
fruits and flowers. dios of sculpture, was near, it is easily possible
The next two plates present miniature fig- that these pieces were made locally. In colo-
ures and groups in which naive realism blends nial times San Miguel had its own mint, and
with deep sentiment, creating a religious folk the silver coins of Charles III (17 16-1788)
genre. issued there show a beauty in design and ex-
The popularity of the manger scene has ecution which leaves little to be desired.
alreadv been discussed. Quito specialized in A slight digression with reference to Charles
such groups and exported them widely in the III of Spain offers a revealing study in the
Spanish colonial empire. The three doctors (PI. intricate international relationships that col-
po, fig. a)— not quite six inches high— show ored art as well as politics around many a
the same virtuosity in their carving and color- Rococo ruler. His father was the Bourbon
ing as the larger statues. The archangels (figs, Philip V of Spain and his mother, a Farnese
c and f), charming in gesture, are also care- of Parma. Through the rights of his mother,
fully detailed as to feature, hair, and draper} 7
. he was the Duke of Parma and Tuscany. Later
Both have a certain pastoral air, characteristic (1738) he ruled over the Kingdom of the Two
of the Rococo, somewhat like the kneeling Sicilies; after he inherited the throne of Spain
angelson the archbishop's throne just seen. (1759), his relationship with Naples and Sicily
Noteworthy are the gilded and tooled patterns continued, for his son succeeded him there.
of the estofado, in each case different. During his rule in Naples he built the famous
The figure of St. Peter (fig. d)— without San Carlos Opera House. When he left, he
the base only a little over three inches high— transferred the Capodimonte porcelain fac-
alsomight have belonged to a Nativity group. tory from Naples to Buen Retiro in Spain. His
His bright yellow gown and rose-colored cloak wife was a daughter of the king of Saxony,
are finely harmonized, and the quality of the who was also king of Poland. Thus again
encarnacion recalls ivory figurines. The kneel- with Charles III artistic influences from
ing shepherd, on the other hand, has the France, northern and southern Italy, and Cen-
softness of a Rococo porcelain (fig. e). The tral Europe came into Spain, and eventually
coloring is generally light, the plastic detail into her colonies.
masterly. A delightful story-telling atmosphere
pervades all of these carvings. From the naive story-telling Nativity groups
In comparison, another group, the Magi produced in was only a step to the
Quito it
(fig. b), from San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, portrayal of scenes from the lives of the saints.
has a more folkish touch. One is a white Like a stage in a doll's theater is the urna
man, one is a mestizo, and one a Negro. Durer which presents St. Anthony in his chamber
was among the first European artists to intro- with the Christ Child (PI. 91, fig. a). This min-
duce the African king into the Adoration iature stage, about fourteen inches high, is
scene; soon in the Spanish colonies, particularly framed with light balsa wood into which mir-
in Mexico, another of the kings was turned rors with a chased pattern are set in the Vene-
into a mestizo, or sometimes an Indian. tian tradition. A provincial eighteenth-cen-
These three statuettes, about twelve inches turv interior provides the setting. The figure
high, are remarkably light in weight. The of the saint is carved entirely of wood and
costumes, with their broad collars, are made bears a fine estofado. The Christ Child lies
of starched material, in contrast to those in on a real lace coverlet. The tiny candelabra
the Quito group, which are cntirelv of wood. are of glass, but the books on the wall are
The eyes, though as lustrous as glass, are painted. Slippers stand under the bed, a skull
f *49l
rests on the shelf, and a pilgrim hat and staff The little scene of the Flight into Egypt
are placed in the corner. (fig. d) makes its appeal through its simple
The relief (fig. b), only two and one-half humanity. It shows a mestizo or Indian couple
inches in diameter, tells the storv of the Na- very much as they appear today traveling
tivity amazingly well within a very limited along the road home from the market in town.
surface. Its material is tagua nut, called vege- The costumes are, in part, of starched tex-
table ivory because it takes on an ivory-like tiles; the rest is of wood, painted. Thousands
hardness and tone when dried; it is not easy of such pieces were produced. They never
to carve even when green. Three halos in lost their grace because they never lost their
strong relief direct attention to the main char- sincerity.
acters. Space was found, behind the cradle, Wax also provided a medium for the colo-
for even an archangel and the Dove. To pro- nial artist. The domestic scene of Mary watch-
vide the atmosphere of a manger two engag- ing over the sleeping Christ Child (fig. e) was
ing cattle are carved in the lower section. fashioned of that material around mid-eight-
Rays radiating from the Eternal Father above eenth century by Toribio Avila, a sculptor
176
fill the background. In this diminutive com- known for his wax portraits of nuns. Here
position each element is picked out with poly- the stage is set in a shadow box. A silver halo
chrome or gilt. is placed behind the head of the Child, and

A spirit of intimacy is conveyed in the his hand clasps what may be a crown of
group showing St. Ann, St. Joachim, and the thorns. Mary is making pillow lace, while a
child Mary which stands on a side

(fig. c), cat sits at her feet and pigeons peck at the
altar in San Diego, Quito. These figures are floor, just as they might in some local peon's
half life-size and are dressed in starched tex- house.
tiles, polychromed with care. Again espe- In the stimulating artistic atmosphere of
cially expressive are the gestures of the hands. Quito, in which a Legarda was inspired to
The setting displays the best tradition of Quito create the Vision of the Fifth Seal, there was
Rococo, with painted patterns of widely room also for the production of such delight-
spaced flowery vines; note the column at fully original pieces of religious folk genre,
the right, encrusted with grapes and grape each in its place and in harmony with its sur-
leaves, carved with virtuosity. roundings.
[150]
VICEREGAL PERU I
From tlie Pacific to Arequipa
A ll Spanish territory in South America,

from the fog-enveloped rocks of the Strait of
up and down and frozen paramos
with fertile stretches
alternate
of emerald-green, trav-
Magellan to the steaming jungle of Panama ersed bv rushing torrents; in some spots dur-
and from the sylvan bay of the Rio de la ing the day the equatorial sun beats hotly
Plata to the bleached sands of the Pacific, at down upon the traveler from almost directly
first was formed into the Viceroyalty of Peru, overhead, while at night puddles freeze.
with its Lima (1544). Not until
capital at The diversity in environment and popula-
almost two later (17 17) was the
centuries tion in the various regions of the Peruvian
Viceroyalty of New Granada established at viceroyalty is manifest in their colonial art,
the north, comprising present-day Panama, the outstanding remnants of which date from
Colombia, Venezuela, and Ecuador; still later mid-seventeenth century to the end of the
(1776) the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata was eighteenth. An accumulation of strongly local
carved out, embracing Bolivia, Argentina, characteristics can be observed, explained in
Paraguay, and Uruguay. part by the fact that the distances separating
The original Viceroyalty of Peru was eight- the cities were so great that outside influences,
een times as large as the mother country, and whether European or colonial, often were fil-
in climate and topography it showed even tered not merely by space but by time. Fur-
greater diversity than the northern viceroyalty, thermore, by mid-seventeenth century the ar-
Mexico. The official who tried conscientiously tistic inclinations of the Indian and the mestizo
to review his domain— or even had to traverse had stamped many imported ideas with a
a part of it on his way from Spain— could not native mark; in such regional work the tradi-
fail to observe the enormous distances and tional ideology of European art can be de-
differences, which for us fall into pictorial tected at first glance, but a strangeness, some-
focus from a high-flying plane.It took weeks times even a barbaric touch, is evident in many
to travel from one administrative center to examples.
another. The official himself rode on horse- Lima, the Peruvian capital, in contrast to
back, accompanied by a packtrain of mules— Mexico City, had no hinterland with large
those most reliable live engines used even to- Indian settlements to draw upon for labor.
day. The ladies and those who were unable Along the sandy Peruvian coastal plain, Indian
to sit in the saddle rode in palanquins or horse towns were sparsely populated and widely
litters, lying on mattresses and protected from scattered, existing only where rivers brought
the sun and dust by awnings and curtains. down from the Andes life-giving water for
In the Andes and the Cordilleras, roads climb irrigation. Through Callao, Lima's harbor
'5' 1
town, common laborers and artisans soon be- and plaster, painted gray, but the portal is of
gan to enter— newcomers from Spain and her stone. Despite the horizontal lines that cross
other American colonies, as well as Negro the towers— belfries as well as bases— there is
slaves and even Asiatics, by way of Manila, a verticality in the fagade as a whole, empha-
from her Far Eastern colonies. Thus a cos- sized especially in the doorway. Here the
mopolitan atmosphere developed early in the columns are paired according to Baroque tra-
Peruvian capital and is reflected in its colo- dition. Above the lower broken pediment
nial art. The conditions there were not con- stands a statue of Mary between two Fran-
ducive to the full development of the Indian's ciscan saints and above them rises another
artistic talents— he was crammed into a com- pediment, broken to give space for the oval
munity in which he had no roots. Eighteenth- window at the top. Wethey calls this the
203
century Lima presented a brilliant spectacle, first important retable fagade in Lima. In
drawing for its color on the tradition and composition somewhat similar to La Com-
it is
talents of all layers of its varied society. pania in Cuzco (see PL 109). Note the two
The city's supremacy in South America re- stone lanterns above the outer columns, almost
mained unchallenged during the entire colo- Oriental in their effect.
nial period, and it made the most of its unique A general rebuilding of the living quarters
position. Its ecclesiastic and civil buildings in this monastery was effected between 1669
inside and out still reveal a strand scale of and 1674. The cloister (fig. b) shows the sim-
living. ple and high arches on the ground floor from
the earlier epoch, and the fine picture tiles,
Rustication, fashionable in the Baroque pe- imported from Seville, which cover the walls
riod in Europe, is common in viceregal Peru, of the lower corridor, are dated 1620. A majes-
executed in stone in the High Andes, where tic stairway of brick leads to the upper gallery,
stone is abundant, and on the coast in stucco where in a more elaborate fashion large and
over brick. Such extensive use of it as is seen small arches alternate. Here is an earlv use of
in the church of San Francisco in Lima (PL 92, the oval in Peru, a favorite shape of both the
fig. a) is quite rare in Latin America. The Baroque and the Rococo.
Franciscans established themselves here in The sacristy with its imposing stone portal
1535 on land granted by Francisco Pizarro, (fig. d) is a most characteristic example of
and later viceroys added to these holdings; Lima's ecclesiastical splendor. On the entrance
the actual foundation of the monastery, how- is inscribed the name of the architect, Lucas
ever, did not occur until 1546. By mid-seven- Melendez, and the date 1729. This inside por-
teenth century it had grown to be the great- tal, which is approached through an impres-
est religious establishment in the capital, hous- sive antechamber, presents an architectural
ing more than two hundred friars and sustain- composition, heavy with plastic emphasis; a
ing a hospital as well as an adjoining building niche and statue occupy the space in the cen-
of the Third Order. ter of the flaring segments of the pediment,
The present church was designed bv the and rustication echoes the pattern of the
Portuguese Constantino Vasconcellos, 192 but fagade.
its side portal bears the name of Manuel de Through the half-open door the elaborate
Escobar, who took over on the death of the woodwork within the sacristy is visible. Chests
first architect and finished that section in line the walls; above them stand thirty-five
1674. The interior contains early specimens Franciscan saints framed in niches (fig. c).
of cane and plaster vaulting and considerable From their style these statues appear to be
Mudejar ornament in plaster. earlier than the hall where they stand. Though
The church itself is constructed of brick the cartouches, directlv above the saints, and
[52]
VICEREGAL PERU I
the fluted columns are classicizing, the total design; and the two doors flanking the altar
effect, especially with the additional medal- table carrv only inscriptions within typical
lions at the top and their winglike scrolls, is Rococo panel frames.
Baroque. The earliest church of San Carlos in Lima,
named for San Antonio Abad, was started in
Two of the three altars from Lima churches 1606 as part of a Jesuit college for novitiates,
illustrated here (PL 93) stand in the conventual but the earthquake of 1-46 severely damaged
church of Jesus v Maria, which occupies the thiscomplex and a new church went up be-
site of an earlier chapel. It was finished in tween 1758 and 1-66. The exquisitely carved
i~:i but after the earthquake of 1-46 was wooden tribune (fig. d). one of a pair on the
192
considerably rebuilt. The side altar dedi- side walls near the main altar, provided a loge
cated to St. Ignatius (fig. a) is so designed from which the superiors and visiting digni-
that the missing segment of the heaw broken tariescould witness the Mass unobserved.
pediment below seems to have been placed About twelve feet long, it has the swinging
on top the second tier. The columns are sturdv line of a Baroque coach, but the lucid decora-
and rather squat; their twist is emphasized bv tive motifs in the grillework and on the solid
heavy garlands of flowers. This altar and its bodv are Rococo. The wood, extremely hard
unusuallv homogeneous companion pieces in and of a very fine quality, is almost ebonv in
the same interior must have come from the color. The matching pulpit is illustrated on
same workshop. Plate 183. Johann Rher. the Austrian Jesuit,
The main retable in this church has finer was connected with this work, as well as with
and lighter lines. Again the columns are wound the reconstruction of the cathedral.
with flowers (fig. c); compare the side ear- With the expulsion of the Jesuits only a
lands in the two altars, the first compact, the year after the completion of the building—
second graceful and more lacv. Below the during the viceregal administration of Amat
statue of St. Francis a blind door in the shape —both college and church were closed. In
of a panel has as its main ornament a decora- 1770 the college was reopened as part of the
tively developed vase of flowers. Jose de Roval College of San Carlos, but it was soon
203
Castilla designed this retable. which was it became a center of the
closed again because
commissioned in 1-08. independence movement. The monastery now
A product of the Rococo period, the main houses part of the L'niversitv of San Marcos,
altar of La Conception (fig. b) was finished and the church serves as the national Pantheon.
in 1 -8 3. the work of the sculptor Llorente.
It is painted gray, and much less sold
a pale The Dominicans, the administrators of the
was applied than was customary in Baroque Holv Inquisition, were present at the found-
times. Here again a protruding pediment closes ing of Lima and bv the beginning of the sev-
off the lower section, which might almost be enteenth century already had an imposing es-
a unit by itself. A general upward movement tablishment there. Their church has been a
is achieved through the many undulating lines victim of various neoclassic and modern re-
and the flaring wings; also, each section of the storers, but their chapter house, dated about
central panel pushes above the horizontals of 1-30, has fared better (PL $j, fig. b). The
the wings, a tendency frequently encountered large shell vaults above the entrance and the
in the High Andes. What were once columns niche have a magnificent plastic quality; their
have been turned into fanciful urn shapes, scallops are finished in the neo-Mudejar man-
some of them carved with attributes of the ner. Baroque are the massive volutes applied
rosary. Vertical side garlands are present here, as consoles and the rustication, executed in
too. but very liquid and uncomplicated in plaster. The wood carving is excellent through-
1
153]
out, especially in the tribune over the door- bears the date 1776, which may applv to the
way. Scenes from the lives of St. Dominic entire woodwork, as the earlier sacristy was
and St. Thomas are depicted in the paintings. ruined by fire in 1773. At that time the grow-
Antonio Vazquez de Espinosa, an early-sev- ing spirit of worldliness, fanned by books and
enteenth-century traveler, remarks that this prints from Rococo Europe, was bringing
monastery contained works by the Italian new stimulus to colonial artists in Peru. With-
Mateo Perez de Alesio (or Alecio), who es- out the religious paraphernalia, this place could
tablished a school of painting in the viceregal be an elegant drawing room. Note the neo-
capital. Mudejar in the ceiling pendants.
The church and monastery of San Agustin Above the chests, instead of statues are a
also were laid out on a grand scale. The first number of paintings interspersed with mirrors.
church on the present site, erected during the They are painted on glass and set in wide
last quarter of the sixteenth century, was re- mirror frames, Rococo in outline and chased
placed late in the seventeenth. Work pro- in the Venetian manner. Illustrated here
ceeded slowly because of several destructive (fig. c) is a scene from the life of Jacob—
earthquakes; the facade was completed in 1720 probably his meeting with Esau— executed
but was restored in the early twentieth cen- with folkloristic charm. Others depict a Rake's
tury and is now totally stiffened with modern Progress with the verve of a Hogarth.
cement. (For the richly gilded coffered ceiling
in the antesacristy of this monastery see PL Torre Tagle Palace (PL 95, fig. b), a unique
181.) civil building in Lima, stands in the old sec-
San Agustin's sacristy has great artistic tion of the metropolis. It was more or less fin-
merit (fig. a). Lowboys with squarish Rococo ished in 1735 as a city mansion for Jose de
panels line the sides, and above them is a Tagle y Brancho, a Spanish knight who came
series of thirty Augustinian saints. Among to the New World as captain of the lancers.
these may be the twenty-eight statuettes con- After successful exploits in Chile against the
tracted for by Diego de Medina in 1643; the Araucanian Indians he was elevated to Mar-
surrounding lacelike woodwork, however, is quis of Torre Tagle and given the highly
in the style of 1 760-1 770 (see also PL 179). Permanent Paymaster of
lucrative position of
Note the richly carved table in the center of the Royal Armada of the South Sea— the Pa-
the hall. cific silver fleet. Two cannon barrels placed
The lavabo, or washstand, behind the sac- beside the gateway signified the right of
risty (fig. e) is formed of three shell-shaped asylum within. Despite favors from the crown,
marble basins, upheld by angels, and the shell the fourth marquis of this line supported the
motif is repeated in the niche above. With cause of Peruvian independence and for his
colored tiles on its base and the side walls, rebel activities died a roval prisoner. The edi-
the whole piece has a sunny radiation. It is fice has since served as the presidential resi-
dated 1669. dence and the headquarters for several com-
Another of Lima's wealthy monasteries is missions; today it houses the Ministry of
that ofLa Merced. Its monks, many of them Foreign Affairs.
sons of Spanish aristocracy, lived in consid- Hard palm, cocobolo wood, and the best
erable luxury. In the seventeenth century this cedar and mahogany from Central America
monastery boasted five cloister patios, some went into its construction. Bronze and iron
with fruit trees and flowering shrubbery. Em- of fine workmanship were used for the rail-
bellishments were added throughout that cen- ings, locks, and hinges, and glazed tiles were
tury and the one following. 192 In the sacristy ordered from Spain for the courtyard, corri-
(fig. d) one of the bulging Rococo chests dors, and staircases. The facade is strongly
[54]
VICEREGAL PERU I
neo-Mudejar, the most striking elements of one of his light operas, entitled La Perichole.
which are the ornately carved closed wooden She was born in 1737 and is described as lively
balconies. Such latticed enclosures were in and charming. According to political com-
keeping with the Lima custom that required mentators, she influenced the viceroy in affairs
ladies to go fully veiled in the streets— a Mos- of state. Her forthright disposition and char-
lem tradition against which repeated edicts itable spirit have received almost unanimous
41
were ineffectual. The stone entrance, splen- praise.
did with the flaring segments of its broken Quinta de Presa, with its rustic Rococo
pediment and the large grilled window, rises (fig. a), reminds one of provincial manor
above the roof level. On the ground floor houses in contemporary Central Europe. It is
subtle stone and stucco frames encase the built of brick and adobe and trimmed with
windows. stone, fine woods, and tile. Its large bay win-
Inside, the main patio was once paved with dows, painted in a dark color, are remarkably
colored from Seville, now replaced with
tiles effective against the pink and white plaster
modern ware. Monumental in its daring yet surface of the wall. Once water ran through
graceful in line is the Baroque molding around the open stone basins in front of the building,
the principal doorway (fig. c), which opens making bridges of the walks just beyond the
on an elegant stairway leading to the seignioral low steps.
rooms on the second floor. The upper galleries The great reception room on the second
carry a series of trefoil arches; only after the floor (fig. e) has many Rococo features—its
earthquake of 1746 were the wooden pil-
tall shape, undulating moldings, paneled doors,
lars added for support. The beam ends, all mirrors, and gilded ornaments. At the back
carved, rest on elaborate brackets (fig. d). of the villa a covered veranda, almost as spa-
Torre Tagle Palace has a certain similarity cious as the interior, looks out on the garden
to the Palace, of the Inquisition in Cartagena, and a charming view. With its tall slim col-
Colombia (see PL 22); the Lima structure, umns and its many floor levels, it makes one
however, is much more elegant and complex think of sixteenth-century Persian pavilions.
in its architectural decoration. Quinta de Presa was never owned by the
Few buildings in all South America approach mestizo actress; her property— today part of
in romantic association the Quinta de Presa a brewery— lay nearby. But considering the
(fig' a )-> a country seat across the river from friendship between the count and the viceroy
the city yet near enough for its owners to it is probable that she attended many a garden
spend many leisure hours amid its gardens. It party and candle-lit dinner there. This villa
was built on the property of Count Fernando was no more her home than the House of
Carrillo y Albornoz early in the second half El Greco was that of the great Spanish mas-
of the eighteenth century (1 766-1 767), and ter; just as that reconstruction in the quarter
legend would have its plans drawn up by the of Toledo where the artist lived calls up the
contemporarv viceroy, Manuel Amat y Jun- atmosphere of his epoch, so Quinta de Presa
yent Planella Avmerich y Santa Pau, who preserves the last flourish of viceregal Peru.
reigned in Lima between 1761 and 1766; be-
sides his administrative and militarv talents, In 1557 an Indian cacique donated to the
this Catalan possessed notable abilitv as a Franciscan order a plot of ground and an ad-
draughtsman. His amorous relations with the joining irrigated vegetable garden, then lying
seductive dancer and actress Micaela Villegas well outside Lima but now a pleasant suburb
—better known as La Perricholi— are immor- of the city. Here the church of Magdalena
talized in several exquisite works of litera- Yieja was erected (PL 96, fig. b). After the
ture. Around her life Jacques Offenbach built earthquake of 1746 it required considerable
[55]
repair, and its present fa9ade dates from 193 of its fruit, both Spanish and native, the sump-
—one of the better examples of Peruvian neo- tuous houses among the vineyards, with their
colonial style. Its reconstruction was made pos- winepresses and storerooms, and the many
sible through the munificence of Victor Larco chapels for the Negro plantation workers.
Herrera, a member of a distinguished Peruvian The former conventual church of the Jes-
family which has done much to further arche- uits there (fig. c), finished about 1723, is a
ological and historical research in that coun- characteristic example of the coastal type: a
try. Typical of the smaller churches in and relatively small structure with an elaborate
around Lima, it preserves, both inside and out, portal. A sheltering arch is formed by a pro-
certain qualities of local Baroque from the jection of the barrel-vaulted roof, fashioned
late seventeenth century and the early eight- here, as it often is along the coast, of cane
eenth. and plaster. As at Surco, shadow play is pro-
Its dark portal, standing out against the duced by a reduplication of the pilaster lines—
plain white walls, is fairly elaborate, and the a favorite device in colonial Spanish America.
application of the twin belfries is ingenious. The portal section is encrusted with lacy
Eight windows of Huamanga stone— a sort of stucco work; note the heraldic shield flanked
alabaster— still survive from a time when glass by lions over the entrance between the seg-
was not available. The church contains six ments of the broken pediment. The ornamen-
magnificent eighteenth-century side altars, one tation on the belfries draws the twin towers,
of which will be shown later (see PL 175). with their wooden galleries, into the compo-
Stylistically the facade of the church at sition. (See also PL 2j.) A right-angle arrange-
Surco (fig. d), near Lima, differs from the ment of the entrances to church and convent
others on this plate. A close series of pilasters was frequent in Spanish America, especially
provides the vertical in the design, and mul- in the eighteenth century.
tiple moldings in the cornices and base fur- El Belen in Trujillo (fig. a) dates, for the
nish the horizontal. The side niches are placed most earthquake of 1759. The
part, after the
very high, as are also the two circular win- photograph reproduced was taken before the
dows, framed like pictures. The window in rebuilding of the second belfry, which fell
the espadana is notable for its gracious line. during a recent shock. In design the entire
Johann Rher has been suggested as the archi- portal recalls that of the citv's cathedral. Note
tect of this building also, which was once part the rustication in the upper section and the
of a Jesuit college. Many members of the deep niche, which contains a Nativity group.
various religious orders in the New World—
especially Jesuits— came
from Central Europe, In coastal Peru most of the buildings were
and Central European Baroque and Rococo in- constructed of material locally available, such
fluence can be detected in Latin America more as adobe— either in bricks or in tapia (clay
often than has been generally realized. (Com- poured into a form)— reed, and cane. Though
pare PL iji.) the exteriors of ecclesiastical buildings here

Pisco, a city one hundred and fifty miles sometimes show restraint, inside is a lavish
south of Lima, originally was built on the Pa- display. Documentation is lacking for the two
cific shore but because of disastrous floods was gilded and polychromed retables from Tru-
later relocated farther inland. Thus the town jillo churches illustrated here (PL 57), but
itself now lies at a distance from its port, stylistically both would seem to date from late
which is the most important between Lima's seventeenth century or very early in the
Callao and Mollendo. The region is well known eighteenth.
for its vineyards; as early as 1620 the travel- The first (fig. d), which is devoted to scenes
ing friar Vazquez remarked on the abundance from the Passion, stands in the left transept
[is*]
VICEREGAL PERU I
of the church of San Francisco (for the com- and projecting even beyond the altar table.
panion piece opposite depicting the life of The use of enormous crowns was widespread
Mary see PL 1 84). It is dedicated to St. Nich- in the involved cult of Mary (see PL 184).
olas, a relief of whom appears in the oval at Several other instances of such crowns above
the top of the central panel. He was a con- retables occur in Trujillo; one is over the main
temporary of Constantine and is the patron altar of El Carmen, where the date 1759 is in-
saint of manv seaports as well as the protector scribed and the Indian Fernando Collao is
of children, travelers, and sailors. Other reliefs named as the sculptor.
present, in the center, the Last Supper, to the The triangular surface of the pendentive
right, the Crowning with Thorns, and below furnished another opportunity for sculptural
it the Flagellation; in the lower left is the decoration; traditionally, four archangels— or
Ecce Homo (with Pilate's wife waking from sometimes the four Evangelists or the four
her dream) and above it, Christ Carrying the Latin Fathers of the church— filled this space.
Cross. Over the altar table is Christ Crucified, However, on the pendentives in the nunnery
carved in the round against a painted back- church of Santa Clara in Trujillo, angels sup-
ground. port group scenes from the life of the patron

In the composition of all five panels the saint. In one she is taking her vows before St.
influence of prints and title pages from books Francis (fig. a), and another (fig. c) shows
—largely of Flemish origin— can be felt; this the angelic meal. These reliefs, executed in
subject, already touched upon, will be dis- stucco and polvchromed, carry a number of
cussed at greater length in Chapter 12. The persons effectively composed into the curving
work of translating and enlarging a small surface. Some of their charm has been lost
two-dimensional picture into a larger relief through repainting. This church was founded
and keeping a proportional arrangement is in in 1743.
general successfully carried out; there is much Trujillo, after the capital, was the most im-
movement, even in the poses of minor persons, portant citv on the Peruvian coast and en-
and an archaic touch, produced unconsciously joyed a favored position in the viceroyalty.
through technical limitations, gives added ap- A seignioral manner of living was engendered
peal. The decorative frames which set off the by the wealth of the surrounding ranches and
story-telling scenes are designed with exquisite plantations. Local poets eulogized the beauty
clarity. of local ladies, and the many fiestas and balls,
The other retable (fig. e) is dedicated to occasions of intense preparation, were the sub-
the Virgin of the Rosary and stands in a ject of animated correspondence for weeks
chapel of Santo Domingo, which was pre- ahead and months afterward. While the ro-
sented by devotees of the Rosary in 1641. mantic and gallant life here was pursued by
This retable, with its several planes, its niches, most young men, others left the town for
and its statues in the round, produces a quite greater adventures and their Dulcineas re-
different effect. Grapes and leaves alternate tired to the nunneries. The manor houses tell
in the squares of the diapered background, much of this lavish and picturesque epoch.
and domes crown the lower niches, decorated Usually they were rambling structures, one
with great scrolls of carved and gilded wood story high, with several patios, one bevond
which once served as candelabra. The panel the other. The first— reached through a short
on the lower right is a door that leads into the passageway which a coach might enter with
sacristy. At the very top, between angels ease— opened onto the reception rooms of the
blowing trombones, are a crown and Mary's house; the second, more intimate, was re-
monogram held by two angels, tipped for- served for the family, and the third and sub-
ward to follow the curve of the arched ceiling sequent courts belonged to the kitchen, the
[157]
servants' quarters, the wash house, and the severely damaged a large part of the church
stables. interior. The nave from the crossing to the
Such a colonial mansion was that o.f the entrance had to be restored, a work which
Ganoza Chopitea family (fig. b), situated di- took more than a decade. At the end of the
rectly opposite the monastery of San Fran- eighteenth century even travelers who were
cisco and a few blocks from the main plaza not interested in the fine arts mention it as the
and the cathedral. Its portal carries above it an showplace of the town. And such it remains
ornamental gable flanked with heraldic lions. today. Manv of the treasures presented in the
Iron grillework screens the windows, above chapter "Sculptors of Quito" stand within its
which, in stucco, are draped curtains. At the walls or in the monastery.

right is a closed wooden balcony, where in The church facade (PL 98, fig. b) shows
this tropical climate the ladies, eager to see, a somewhat austere, late Renaissance design,
though not dressed to be seen, could watch given a Baroque touch by the paired columns
the passing show. and the bands of rusticated stonework that
extend even across engaged columns and pilas-
The high valleys comprising the Kingdom ters. Notable are the large rectangular win-
of Quito (present-day Ecuador) saw much dows, grilled with heavy iron. The choir-
righting even after the Conquest. Indians bat- light section, with its powerful arching cor-
tled with Spaniards and the Spaniards fought nice and curving lines at the sides, is treated
among themselves, Conquistadores against vice- as if it were a gable. There is very little sculp-
roys, until finally in 1569 Francisco de Toledo, ture; decoration is provided by the great
an enlightened viceroy, established peace and variety in the stonework. In the earthquake
strengthened the power of the Quito audiencia, of 1868 the towers again fell and only recently
which had been functioning somewhat hesi- were replaced.
tantly since 1563. Twice this high court was This facade, built of a local gray stone, is
abolished and the whole province transferred greatly enhanced by an impressive stone
to New Granada, but each time it was re- atrium, which stretches across the entire front
established. After 17 1 7 the Kingdom of Quito of the complex, and by the stairways, espe-
was administered from Bogota instead of cially the broad flight of elliptical design
Lima, but by that time its artistic founda- which leads up from the vast sloping plaza
tions had been laid and the art of the region below. The dark stone contrasts sharply with
had already developed the special character and the mass of whitewashed brick masonry on
powerful contours which it never lost. The either side of it.
artistic and cultural background of colonial As is so often the case in colonial Latin
Quito can be gleaned from the preceding America, the architect who drew the plans
chapter. and the various persons who directed the con-
In 1 58 1 the Franciscan church here is men- struction during the years are not known.
tioned as one of the noblest in the kingdom. Except for the participation of a few Euro-
It was built of limestone and brick and had pean friars, the work was carried through by
a ceiling of richly carved cedar paneling cov- natives. An Indian from the Peruvian high-
ered with gold. Conquistadores and landed gen- lands, Jorge de la Cruz, "builder of houses in
167
tlemen endowed its private chapels. Mid- the Spanish manner," and his son Francisco
seventeenth century saw the establishment Morocho took part as master craftsmen for
complete. It was an elaborate complex, cov- more than twenty years in the construction
166
ering four city blocks and boasting four clois- and decoration of this establishment.
ters adorned with altars and hung with many Within, the church is magnificent (fig. a).
paintings. In 1755 a convulsive earthquake So much remains of its undiluted colonial
[58]
VICEREGAL PERU I
splendor that few churches in Latin America redecorated and made the center of their reli-
outrank it in grandeur, not merely in size gious festivities. The names of Caspicara and
but in the quality of its artistry. Mudejar other notable artists of the epoch are perpetu-
work has survived in the ceilings above the ated in the work. (See also Pis. 86, 101.)
transepts and the choir (see PL 180) as well
as in the octagonal cupola, which rests on The Jesuit church of La Compafiia, con-
squinches at the crossing. Not at all Moorish, structed later, shows greater homogeneity. The
however, is the frieze around the cupola; here Jesuits came to Quito at the end of the six-
polvchromed wooden reliefs of saints remind teenth century, the last of the religious orders
one of the panels in some enameled Bvzantine to arrive there. Their primitive church, built
tabernacle. The lower part of the nave is in 1595, was razed in the seventeenth century,
sheathed with gilded wood carving, richly and in its place the present sumptuous edifice
polvchromed, and above the cornice, figures was erected. Work on it commenced in 1605,
of the Apostles are placed at regular intervals; but it was more than eighty years in the build-
large canvases fill the spaces between the high ing.
windows. An inscription on the arch facing The

present fagade (PL 99, figs, a, d) has an
the nave states that the restoration of this part unusually dramatic build-up. It was begun in
was completed in 1770. Low transverse arches 1722 by the German friar Leonard Deubler
divide the side aisles into separate chapels. and was completed, after a destructive earth-
Light from a large dome centers upon the quake, in 1765 bv Venancio Gandolfi, an
sanctuary, which here is raised to an unusual Italian from Mantua who had recently (1754)
height on a stone foundation. The high altar come to the New World. 183
Spanish and Italian
fills the entire apse and even flows around the Baroque are fused in its decoration in an
corners into the cross aisle; some of this is amazing and original blend. The edifice itself
said to be the work of Legarda and thus would is set back slightly from the monastery beside
probably date from the second quarter of the it, and the pedestal bases of the columns and
eighteenth century. In the arrangement an ex- pilasters protrude, so that an uneven line is
quisite balance of Baroque elements is evi- presented. Thereno towers; a large dome
are
dent, as well as a tasteful counterbalancing on a high drum marks the meeting of the
of sculpture and canvas paintings. (See also nave and transepts, and a lower one rises over
PL 80.) A donation is recorded in 1792 from the apse.
the bishop Jose Eliodoro Mariano Diaz de la The interior (fig. b) is constructed entirely
Madrid y Unda towards the altar of the Im- of stone. A barrel vault pierced by lunettes
maculate Conception in this church, together covers the nave, and domes with lanterns are
with a thousand vards of crimson damask for placed over the side aisles, which, like those
hangings. 164 in the church of San Francisco, are parti-
Two smaller churches, San Bonaventura and tioned into separate chapels. Unlike the shad-
—on the extreme left in the photograph— the owy atmosphere of the Franciscan church,
Cantuna chapel are included in this massive the light here is even and bright. Subtlety
Franciscan complex. The former building is is revealed in the treatment of the great piers,
believed to stand on the site of the first church the railed gallery, and the frieze, which runs
erected by Friar Ricke. Cantuna was con- not only the length of the nave but also on
structed in mid-seventeenth century and was into the upper story of the main altar. A
named for the wealthy Indian whose bequest lively interlaced pattern, cut in stone on the
provided the funds. It was the headquarters piers and continued in stucco across the walls
ot the painters' guild, and when the confrater- and ceiling, embellishes the nave. The Mudejar
nity took it over as their own in 1781 it was character of the design is brought out by the
[ 59]
coloring— gilded strapwork on a red back- Peter's in Rome, so often referred to as proto-
ground. Baby angels enliven the frieze; the types, have the fluted section at the bottom
pendentives carry the figures of the Evange- and the ornamentation is spread over the bulg-
lists. ing sides of the columns. Further discussion
A richness truly Baroque characterizes the of the salomonic column will be found in
side chapels (fig. c), where figural elements Chapter 15.
abound. Above the arch seen here is a curious Both the Franciscan and the Jesuit church
blend of Mudejar and classicizing motifs, re- at Quito have time and again received addi-
minding one in their continuity and pattern tional decoration; yet each has retained its
of a tile-covered surface. Paintings on canvas own individuality. One might say that San
are incorporated into many of the retables, Francisco embodies the inspirational in the
framed by and blending with the general dec- colonial church, and La Compania, the intel-
oration of stucco and polychromed wood. lectual.
(The massive composition of the mampara be-

low the choir loft at the entrance is illustrated The America into which Christianity was
on PL 101.) transplanted was a different world from Eu-
La Compania at Quito is often said to be rope. Cities were few and separated bv great
a blend of two Roman Jesuit churches— II distances. A social life comparable to Europe's
Gesu and Sant' Ignazio. 177 The first of these did not develop until the eighteenth century,
Italian churches dates from late sixteenth cen- when was enjoyed and better
greater security
tury (1584), the second, from mid-seventeenth roads made communication easier. The popu-
century (162 6- 167 3)— that is, it was begun lation of a colonial town tended to become
later than La Compania and was being built ingrown; the Spanish and Creole circles were
at the same time. A comparison with either small, and all aspects of its life were circum-
will point up the great individuality of the scribed and interwoven. Even the monasteries
Quito edifice. Whatever similarity exists is and nunneries acquired additional importance
found mainly in the ground plan, which is in the New World. As in Europe during the
not surprising since both of the Roman struc- Middle Ages, they became cultural centers,
tures are recognized prototypes of Baroque and they were headquarters for missionaries
churches in general. Both of them have on and educational work. Their social prestige
their facades a rigidly academic pediment, increased. In addition, they provided a retreat
drawn out to include the entire upper section, for the wealthy, protection for the woman
and straight classicizing lines throughout. alone, either young or old, and retirement for
Neither of them is enlivened with statues. the official after a life of activity and adven-
Within, their apses are shallow and low, domed ture.
in the back, their aisle separations are less mas- It is understandable that the main cloister
sive than those in the Quito church, and the of such an establishment became its pride.
side chapels are more open. The interior of Invariably a fountain with statues stood in
La Compania is more intimate in its propor- the center. Pure water was all-important for
tions; it has a restrained yet positive exuber- the life of the population, and the play of
ance, in distinct contrast to the lofty and cold water, refreshing to look upon. Flower beds
lines of the two Roman churches. in great variety as well as fruit trees and fra-
It worth while to point out that the

is grant shrubbery flourished here in the warm
twisted columns on the facade of La Com- climate. Since the ground floor of the main
pania have the fluted section in the center and patio usually was open to visitors, they could
a thin garland spiraling up the crevices (fig. d), admire the luxurious growth nourished by
whereas those in the Bernini baldachin at St. loving care.
[160]
VICEREGAL PERU I
The cloister of La Merced (PL wo, fig. a), second cloister was constructed under the di-
adjoining its church, was built in the first half rection of the Negro architect Jose de la Cruz
of the seventeenth century in the heart of the between 1698 and 1705. The structure (fig. c)
town. But the complex repeatedly suffered is barnlike in shape and has a heavy base for
from severe earthquakes— in 1645, again in its belfry. The facade shows us an early portal
1660 when Pichincha (upon the
erupted designed in a sober Renaissance style and re-
slopes ofwhich the city lies), and still again cessed within an arch. Its pediment is broken
in 1698 when Riobamba was engulfed. Thus for the insertion of a niche, which in turn
much of the present structure dates from the is topped bv a smaller broken pediment and
first half of the eighteenth century. In the a stone ball. The door, with its iron nail heads,
photograph the plain gable of a transept of hinges, and heavy lock, is in character with
the church is visible, the rectangular windows the rest of the portal, and the small atrium of
of which, inside the church, are deftly incor- native stone, typical of early colonial rigid-
porated into one of the retables. The second ity, harmonizes with the serious mood of the
and lower dome over the apse, as in La Com- retreat. Though the interior was refurbished
pania, provides ample lighting for the sanctu- in the eighteenth century, remnants of a
ary. Also discernible is the lantern above one Mudejar ceiling are preserved. The raised choir
of the domed side chapels. roof, visible in the illustration, may date from
An interesting effect is produced bv the this later period.
doubling of the cloister arches in the upper Like many other religious establishments, the
gallery. Large paintings decorate the walls of nunnery of Santa Clara, founded in 1593, first
the patio. had an adobe church; a new church was com-
Above Quito, with a thrilling view across pleted in 1 657-1 658, according to plans by
the housetops to snow-crowned peaks, stands Antonio Rodriguez. 177 In this place were gath-
the Mercedarian retreat of El Tejar; beyond ered members of Quito's most distinguished
lies a blue-toned eucalyptus grove. The brick families, and it was furnished and decorated,
and tile kilns that were once in this vicinity outside and in, with rare artistry; the embel-
gave the place its name. El Tejar, founded in lishment continued into the second half of
mid-eighteenth century, underwent consider- the eighteenth century. Its two doorways,
able reconstruction in 1832, but the outline of which are placed in a lateral wall as in many
the cloister proper was little changed (fig. b). nunneries in Mexico (see PL 38), are sur-
The sturdy columns of the lower arcade are mounted bv rounded pediments, within which
somewhat squat and without pedestals. A are clay reliefs, almost like retable scenes.
connecting wall of masonry constructed be- One of them (fig. d) presents the Corona-
tween those above them produces a rhythmic tion of the Virgin; its once tasteful poly-
line in its counterplay with the curves of the chrome today is roughly whitewashed over.
arches. Note the tight spirals used to represent clouds
Early in the seventeenth century the Fran- —a manner found also in wood sculpture in
ciscans founded a retreat, La Recoleta de San Quito and reminiscent of the depiction of
Diego, on the other side of the city on land clouds in medieval manuscripts.
donated by Marcos Plaza and his wife Beatriz
de Cepeda, a niece of St. Theresa of Avila. The Dominican monastery in Quito occu-
Enclosed by high walls with a heavy gate, it pies an immense tract. Its buildings were laid
offered a quiet place for meditation and pen- out around four large patios arranged in the
167
ance. It is said that the friar Antonio Rod- form of a cross, and the whole conventual
riguez was the principal architect of the build- area— gardens, orchards, and the various build-
ing in mid-seventeenth century and that the ings—were protected by high unbroken walls.
[!«•]
Francisco Becerra drew plans for the Domin- folk his name has replaced that of the patron-
ican church about 1580, but no traces of his ess. Highly original details are evident in the
participation remain in the present construc- gilded main altar (fig. b), a masterpiece of
tion, which was completed around 1640. wood carving and design. Powerful columns
As earlv as the seventeenth century, chron- twist in opposite directions, and the pediment
iclers paid tribute to the magnificence of the is completely lost in convolutes. Note the
Rosario chapel here, which belonged to an doors at the sides, leading into the sacristv.
Indian lav brotherhood. In 1733 the munici- Seldom does one see such a well-preserved lacy
pality granted the Dominicans a piece of land frame of gilded wood as that around the arch
for the addition of a camarin for the Virgin of the recess into which the retable is fitted.
of the Rosarv. To prevent this addition from This retable is considered bv some to be the
blocking a public thoroughfare, a large stone work of Legarda, but it may have been altered
arch was erected over the street, and on that when the chapel was redecorated in 1-S1.
foundation the necessary extension was con- (For statues of polvchromed wood in this
153
structed. In keeping with Quito's colo- church see PL 86.)
nial tradition this chapel is paneled almost The mampara, a screen which shuts off the
throughout with gilded wood carving, set interior of a church from the entrance way and
off bv touches of carmine (PL 101, fig. a). usually stands directly under the choir loft,
Mirrors and candelabra are incorporated in provided another vehicle for the extraordinary
the design, and here and there an oil painting wood-carving talent in Quito. The sagrario,
adds to the artistic variety. The sanctuary is adjoining the cathedral, was erected in the
raised unusually high even for Quito, doubt- seventeenth centurv; work on its portal was
less because of the arch upon which it stands. finished in early eighteenth centurv. but its
The low heavily embellished proscenium arch mampara (fig. c) was not ready until around
and the light focused upon the altar produce 1 -4-. Technical mastery is evident, and a rare
a theatrical effect. In the center stands the pa- virtuosity characterizes the design, a filigree
troness, depicted in painting as well as in sculp- pattern of fine small leaves and elegant detail.
ture, and above is carved a Trinity group. Again red and gold are combined, giving a
Especially noteworthy are the two great scenic warm rich effect. Especially felicitous is the
doors of gilded wood at the sides of the altar ebullient side garland (left) with its human
table, carved with a Baroque boldness that figure.
makes them fit for a palace. The four tall More architecturally conceived is the mam-
columns, entirely non-functional, hold the para of La Compafiia (fig. d), the gilded
composition together splendidly. Note the sections of which are set off against a white
fanciful shell shapes, the volutes and curves lacquered ground. The section immediately
in an unusual arrangement. above the cornices echoes, in gilded wood,
The small church of Cantufia, already de- the stucco strapwork seen on the walls of the
scribed within the Franciscan complex, was church. Both screens have heavy volutes on
erected about the middle of the seventeenth the pedestals of their columns. Both use broad
centurv. after plans, it has been suggested, of overhanging cornices, central niches with
Antonio Rodriguez, the architect of San Di- curving pediments, like baldachins, and cor-
ego and Santa Clara. 166 It was dedicated to Our bels ending in smooth medallions. Yet each
Lady of Sorrows, in whose honor a cofradia embodies a different concept of decoration,
already flourished. The wealthy Indian who executed with assurance.
financed the project. Francisco Cantufia, is It would be difficult to overestimate Quito's
buried in the chapel— his tombstone bears the contribution to the spiritual and cultural life
date 1699— and somehow in the mouth of the of South America. It was a center of vigorous
[162]
VICEREGAL PERU I
missionary work throughout the colonial artificial flowers, delicate lace and embroidery,
77
epoch, sending men as far away as the Cen- delicious confectionery, and dried fruit.
tralAmerican wilds and reactivating establish- In the fagade of the nunnery church of El
ments such as those at Popayan and Cali. Its Carmen at Cuenca (PI. 102, fig. a) we see the
art works were exported all over the colonies. simple barn type of structure, with towers
which may have been added later. The Ba-
Cuenca, in southern Ecuador, was founded roque twin columns of the doorway twist in
in 1557 on the site of a pre-Columbian settle- opposite directions. No real pediment tops the
ment and took its name from the Castilian city. entrance and the upper niche, which contains
It lies at an altitude of 8,640 feet on the Royal a relief of the Virgin of Carmen; rather, the
Highway to Lima. The nearby mountains, lines of a pediment are indicated bv the side
rich in gold and silver, also produced the in- scrolls, decorated with grapes and pomegran-
valuable quick silver, so important for extract- ates. Note the two small figures below the
ing metal from ore. Fine marble in several spring line of the arch and, in the spandrels,
colors was quarried here and exported as far the double-headed eagles. (Compare Pis. 50,
as Lima. 180 The unpolished stone was used for 69 .)
building in Cuenca and gives the citvscape a Las Monjas (fig. b), another nunnery
special warmth. church, is known also as El Campanario (the
In the early seventeenth centurv Cuenca had belfry), from its perforated espadana where
some five hundred Spanish inhabitants, who hang a number of bells. Its fagade retains a
were attended by countless mulattoes, Negroes, suggestion of flanking towers. According to
and Indians. It boasted a large parish church local information there was once a doorway
and five monasteries and nunneries, served bv in the end wall; at present the only entrance
more than fiftv clerics— mostly Creoles born is at the side, visible on the extreme right.
in the vicinity. A torrential stream coursed Although doubtless this building was altered
through the city, supplying power for the nu- in post-colonial times, its turret-like pinnacles,
merous mills along its banks and water for agri- the ceramic work in the green balls and balus-
cultural projects, even the growing of sugar ters, and the bright tiles around the central
cane. Cinchona bark, from which quinine is pediment give it enough colonial character to
extracted, was another source of wealth. At warrant its inclusion here.
the end of the eighteenth century one traveler Even more individual is the treatment of
reported its population as near ten thousand the lateral entrance to this church (fig. d).
exclusive of the Indians, whom he numbered The decoration, in stucco on brick, now
as some ten thousand more. painted bright red and white, probably was
Cuenca gentry were criticized for their once enhanced by polychrome. From the high
arrogance, their hot-tempered feuds, and their pedestal bases of the twin pilasters to the bold
showy pretentiousness, which led them to pineapple finials the designs are strongly re-
erect two- and even three-storied houses in gional. Above the arch is the suggestion of a
an earthquake region. Here as elsewhere in pediment, serving to connect the simple rec-
the colonies, white people considered it be- tangular window with the pilasters; this section
neath their dignity to work, and many are has been whitewashed and repainted too often
said to have preferred to live in proud bank- to carry more than a hint of its original effect.
ruptcy. The folk of this region were famed The heavily carved wooden door seems to be
for their excellent weaving; today the best of a later date.
straw hats— known to us as "panama"— are The doorway of a colonial dwelling in
produced here. In colonial times the nuns in- Cuenca (fig. c) speaks a rugged and rustic-
structed their young pupils in the making of language. Its pilasters are single but, framed
[>6 3 ]
and protruding, are powerful enough to pro- 1 76 1. Connected with the church was a men's
vide adequate support for the heavy frieze. hospital.
A spool pattern— like the Mudejar cane weave The interior of the church shows no less
—extends the length of the shaft, while a zigzag originality. Bands of the waffle-iron pattern
motif decorates the horizontal band above. seen on the exterior adorn the nave. The deco-
The pediment here is treated still more inter- rative scheme culminates in a large stone
estinglv, for the apex is completely separated cupola (fig. c). Windows all the way round
from the two sides, as if pressed down from its the drum furnish the main illumination for
logical position by the circular window im- the church. Above is a ring of angels, their
mediately above it. Both doorways display upper bodies human, their lower limbs lost in
the power of unsophisticated craftsmanship. a leafy fantasy. Although all hold up their
(From Cuenca comes one of the cathedral arms in a stereotyped gesture, they support
organs shown on PL /jj.) nothing, documenting again how single ele-
ments were applied in a purely decorative
Much farther south along the Royal High- manner. The result has a naive charm. In the
way—which here, as often, follows the Inca upper part of the dome, chainlike garlands of
Royal Road— lies Cajamarca, Peru. This city, double spirals alternate with two rows of
though not far from the Pacific shore, lies at cherubim, carved in the large ring to look
an altitude of 10,000 feet, high in the Sierra downward and in the smaller to face the sky.
del Norte.Here again the superimposition of (For other cupolas decorated in a folkloristic
Spanish culture on the Indian produced a spirit see Pis. 55, -jj, wj.)
fascinating blend, revealed in many facets of An inscription over the doorway of the
the old town's art. Its cathedral, discussed former Women's Hospital, now used as a col-
earlier (see PL j), was under construction lege, dates this building as of 1 763-1 767. Its
between 1682 and 1762, a period which also portal (fig. a) also reveals the indigenous
saw the erection of several other impressive idiom. Floral and fantasy motifs are inter-
buildings. woven, tapestry-like, and the familiar waffle-
A strong local flavor is evident in the rich iron pattern covers the surface of the belfry.
ornamentation of the church of El Belen. Its The church of San Antonio (fig. b), a
retable facade (PL 103, fig. d), tall and narrow, Franciscan establishment, presents another un-
is flanked by massive undecorated stone sur- usually tall facade. In its whole design it shows
faces. Some will be reminded of Inca stone considerable similarity to El Belen and perhaps
cutting in the squarish uneven blocks, and even more to the cathedral, which stands
material from that earlier epoch may have directly across the plaza. The main portals of
been reused here. In the decoration a rustic these three buildings have no pediments and
idiom is applied, a hold-over from the Plater- in their spandrels are carved two angel trum-
esque and similar to that seen on the cathedral. peters contrapposto. San Antonio's columns
Unusual is the third tier, with its three niches carry rich carving in all three tiers; nude babies
drawn up high, producing an espadafia squared among the leaves provide an original touch.
Note the shell-shaped niche
off at the sides. There are indications that the carving was
below the choir window, almost too small to planned to extend across the entire front. The
have contained a statue (compare PL 168). side sections, with their cold rusticated sur-
This building was commenced about 1699, faces, distract attention from the virile center.
but, as an inscription states on the facade, it In the two side entrances, inspired by the
was not finished until 1744, under Jose lateral portal of the cathedral, broken pedi-
Morales. Thus it was more or less contempo- ments are suggested. The sloping roof on the
rary with the cathedral. The belfry is dated right, the upper section of the gable, and the
[164]
VICEREGAL PERU I
belfrv were added in 1941; formerly the tower churches and shrines. It is reported to have
had three bell arches, like the cathedral. San always been full of transients, for it lay on
Antonio is larger than the cathedral and has the Royal Highway and enjoyed an active
a dome. There is little interior carving, but the trade, furnishing an abundance of excellent
stonework is extremely fine throughout. supplies.
The plans for this church were drawn by Avacucho's colonial buildings, with digni-
Matias Perez Palomino about 1699, and work fied portals but no ebullience of carving on
on it continued into the middle of the follow- the facades, are characterized by a sort of pro-
ing century, at which time Jose Manuel and vincial Renaissance. Typical of their sturdy
Francisco de Tapia are mentioned as architects. sobriety is the portal of a small chapel which
According to edicts preserved in the Archive stands to the right of the Jesuit church and
of the Indies, both the king and the viceroy probably dates not later than 1583 (PI. 104,
urged that the edifice be turned over to the fig. d). Its patrons were the Orue family, as
Indians "who built it." This is one of the rare Wethey proves, for emblems from their coat
instances where documents definitely mention of arms— griffins and an elephant— guard the
the contribution made by natives to colonial monogram of the Virgin in the central medal-
architecture. lion. The adoption of a heraldic symbol out
YVethey points out that these two churches, of context for decorative purposes can be
as well as many others in the central Peruvian observed throughout Spanish America in the
valley, incorporate interesting features of both use of the Habsburg double-headed eagle. We
the coast and the Andean plateau: the heavy have also seen heraldic animals separated from
wall-like piers dividing the nave from the side the family shield and used as finials on the
aisles derive from Trujillo, while the structures Plateresque portal of a family mansion (see
were built entirely of stone, the material fa- PI. 34). In Ayacucho a number of dwellings
vored in the Andean region. show such an arrangement. The elephant,

though not among the most frequently en-
Cajamarca in the north of Peru and Avacu- countered animals of heraldry, appears in medi-
cho in the central valley are important names eval bestiaries as a symbol of Christian mo-
in Peruvian history. At Cajamarca, Inca power rality. It was known in Europe after Hannibal's
received a fatal blow in 1532; at Avacucho march across the Alps and is immortalized on
(the Quechua for "corner of death"), a plain Trajan's Column in Rome. Elephants are de-
near the town of Huamanga, a decisive battle picted in a procession on a Flemish tapestry
was fought in the war for independence in from the first decade of the sixteenth century,
1824. After freedom was won, that city illustrating a Petrarch poem, and in a mural
adopted the Quechua name for the nearby in the Cuzco cathedral the Virgin herself sits
field of victory. Huamanga— or Guamanga— in a tower mounted on an elephant's back.
was founded in 1 540 by Pizarro at the halfway The church and nunnery of Santa Clara in
point between Lima and Cuzco. In the first Ayacucho were inaugurated in 1568, built
quarter of the seventeenth century Vazquez through the generosity of Antonio de Orue,
described its buildings of excellent brick and corregidor of the district, who derived his
cut stone as among the most sumptuous in wealth largely from nearby silver mines; his
Peru. Its population then numbered about four family arms are emblazoned also on the choir
hundred Spanish residents and mestizos, be- wall. This small conventual structure has as its
sides the native and imported mulattoes and greatest attraction a Mudejar ceiling over the
Negroes, and the Indians. In addition to its sanctuary (fig. b), composed of interlacing
cathedral, the city had at that time six and gilded medallions and said to be the earli-
conventual establishments and several other est of its kind in Peru. This type of octagonal
[165]
cupola was probably common in much of are dissolved into a playful symphony of truly
Spanish America in early colonial days, as is regional Baroque. The scale is enlarged, so-
indicated by survivals in Colombia and Central briety is exchanged for exuberance, and re-
America (see Pis. 74, 181). The main altar, serve for volubility.
though quiet in its effect, has several note- At the other end of the nave in Santa Teresa,
worthy features. Its columns, fluted obliquely above the entrance with its shell-shaped arch-
at the base, its massive cornice over the first way, is the enclosed nunnery choir (fig. c).
order, and the whole ornamental build-up, The perforated wooden choir screen, gilded
terminating in a central cartouche, retain and inlaid with shell and mother-of-pearl, is
the dignity of the Renaissance; these parts date unique. Fortunately, despite its fragility, it is
from around 1670. Its protruding central sec- well preserved. (Compare PI. 178.)
tion, on the other hand, shows a Baroque spirit,
with playfully twisting columns, encrusted Arequipa was an important Inca city be-
with carving, and ornate garlands along the tween the Pacific coast and Cuzco on the route
sides. The four angel figures supporting convex over which relays of runners in pre-Columbian
mirrors, which magnify and reflect the lighted times carried fresh sea fish to the royal table.
candles, belong to the eighteenth century. According to legend, when the runners asked
Above the niches typical Peruvian scrolls, their leader to let them make a halt at this
auricular in shape, flank small oil paintings, point the reply was, in the Quechua tongue,
and beneath the uppermost arch is a larger "Are quepay" ("Yes, rest"). In 1540 the
painting, the Coronation of the Virgin. Spaniards established a stronghold on this site,
The church of Santa Teresa was founded called the Villa Hermosa de la Asuncion, but
by three Carmelite sisters 196 who came from the name derived from the Indian has persisted
Lima in 1683. Twenty years later the building throughout the centuries.
was consecrated; the main retable (fig. a) also Arequipa, today the second largest city in
may date from about that time. This church, Peru, lies at an altitude of 7,500 feet on a vast
like Santa Clara, has a single nave, the unusual open Andean slope, which falls in about sixty
height of which emphasizes the major charac- miles to sea level. Unforgettable is the land-
teristic of the retable, its striking depth. A scape; at the horizon rise the volcanic cone of
dramatic overhang is achieved through stag- Alisti and the ranges of Pichu-Pichu and Cha-
gering the mass of ornament. x\t the top God chani. The climate is mild and dry, flowers
the Father looks down between two angels. bloom all year round, and fruit and even excel-
The cornices thrust far beyond the columns, lent wheat are grown. It is an earthquake
and the many niches are considerably recessed, region and many disasters have befallen the
their upper parts worked out in shell designs city; especially tragic were those in 1582, 1600,
that in some cases are repeated just above on 1687, 17 5, 1784, and 1868. The last one was
1
the next plane forward. Sprays sprouting from the more devastating because by the time the
the capitals combine with fruitlike pendants to colonial buildings were being reconstructed
form graceful baldachins. The single columns a railroad existed, which brought, in quantity,
are twisted and ornamented with floral gar- horrid examples of French, Italian, and Central
lands. Statuary, convex mirrors, and paintings European nineteenth-centurv church art, dis-
on canvas all add to the unusual effect. (Com- figuring the taste with a mirage of pseudo
pare Pis. j, 97.) Gothic. Nevertheless, the colonial remnants
In a comparison of these two retables, the are powerful enough to give a grand impres-
restrained early Baroque of Santa Clara's con- sion.
trasts with the joyful spirit of Santa Teresa's, First among these is the Jesuit church, La
a later work. In the latter all classicizing motifs Compania (PI. 105, fig. c). That it survived
[166]
VICEREGAL PERU I
the later catastrophes is a high tribute to its vaults that cover side chapels are visible in
builders; only the tower has toppled, and the the foreground. The open stairway is cus-
present reconstruction is of recent date. The tomary in this district, the treads here worn
entire facade has great vitality. It contains not merely by those on official business but
numerous decorative motifs from the reper- by the many who knew that the roof offered
tory with which the mestizo artisans in the a sweeping view of Arequipa's unequaled
Andean area worked, whether in stone, wood, skyline.
silver, or textiles. The lines of both the lower The sacristy is roofed by a deep and intri-
and the top sections are amazingly fluid; the cately coffered dome, which rises from very
central section is more static, put together like low pendentives. The walls are whitewashed,
a sampler of patterns, one above another. but all the curving surfaces are painted with
The Jesuit fathers established themselves in fluent gaily colored designs (fig. b); birds pick
Arequipa in 1578, and two Jesuit churches at bowls of exotic fruit, and baby angels climb
preceded the present one, which was com- among flowering vines. The coffers carry
menced in mid-seventeenth century. The more conventionalized floral patterns, similar
facade bears the inscription "EL ANO" in to those applied to wooden ceilings or on
the medallion on the left, and in that on the stone portals. Carved busts of saints occupy
right, "DE 1698." An arch in the adjacent pedestals on the cornices, and paintings of the
cloister, now partly in ruins, is inscribed with four Evangelists fill the pendentives. The effect
the date 1738, though its decoration is quite of the mural is like that of a native tapestry
similar to that on the facade— proof of how from the same epoch.
tradition persisted.
To designate this region's indigenous style, The side portal of La Compania in Arequipa
in which the original contribution of the (PL 106, fig. c), together with certain other
Indian far surpassed that of the white man, portions of the structure, was contracted for
the term "Indo-Hispanic" has been used and by Simon de Barrientos in 1654. The relief
also "creole," implving native-born. Wethev above the doorway shows Santiago Matamoros
calls it "mestizo style." The phrase is apt in- (killer of Moors), the patron saint of the
deed. "Mestizo" denotes a person of mixed church, whose legend is told more fully else-
white and Indian blood. Generally the father where (see PL 63). Here he brandishes a sword
was Spanish and the mother, Indian, and since with a wavy blade. His garments, his hair, and
the mother usually brought up the children of the horse's mane and tail are all stylized to
such a union, they absorbed her traditions and harmonize with the framing garland. Pome-
reflected her psychology. How powerful was granates and grapes are recognizable amid the
the mother's influence is evident in the origi- tight swirls and curls, which are characteristic
nality manifested in the art. As we have seen, of Andean carving. The saint's halo is devel-
similar conditions prevailed in nearlv all areas oped to imitate a shell, a motif often carved in
where Spanish colonial art achieved a charac- the top of a niche. Sustaining the figure are
ter of own. Therefore Wethey's nomencla-
its two mermaids, provided with wings. These
ture might be modified to read "Andean creatures appear with surprising frequencv in
mestizo style." In the Puebla region of Mexico, the mountain-locked region of the Andes, as
poblano covers about a similar blend. well as in sections of Mexico, notably the
In the roof of La Compania in Arequipa state of Puebla. Usuallv they are associated
(fig. a) the distinguished stonework of these with either the Virgin or Santiago. Of interest
regional craftsmen can be studied— in the in this connection is the costly litigation be-
domes, the barrel vaulting over the nave, and tween the Portuguese crown and the Grand
the huge buttresses which support it. Domical .Master of the Order of St. James as to who
[167]
should have the possession of any mermaids the upper part of the shafts. Niches fill the
cast up on the shores of Compostela, Spain. second story. Of the many figures on this
The suit was settled in favor of the crown, facade, note especially the statues of St. An-
but seemingly mermaids had some special rela- thony of Padua and St. Vincent Ferrer sil-
61
tion to Santiago. Perhaps they were involved houetted against the sky, as if on a great
with the mysterious translation of his body Baroque balustrade. The framing garland at
from Palestine to the shores of Spain. The asso- each side contains a profile mask (center) and
ciation is also borne out in his aspect as pro- down-swooping angels holding cornucopias.
tector of sailors. Through sloppy and frequent repainting, this
The main facade of the church of Santo facade has lost much of its plasticity. Prob-
Domingo in Arequipa faces a narrow side ably it was painted in several colors originally,
street, while the lateral portal (fig. a) opens which gave it still more folkloristic charm.
on a broad atrium and thus gains importance. About the same artistic vocabulary was used
A plaque on one of the piers inside gives the in the decoration of Arequipa's seignioral
date of consecration as 1680. In this side portal houses. In the Casa de Moral (fig. d) the
the heavy arching pediment on two rests nobleman's coat of arms fills tympanum
the
pilasters, the unornamented panels of which over the portal, and the monograms of Jesus
stand out against the relief work on the walls. and Mary are incorporated into the design
In the medallion, rays which form a shell pro- over the windows. Note the effective use of
vide background for the figure of the patron the vase shape in the corbels beneath the win-
saint; on either side of it grapes hang, like dow ledges. The inner patio, filled with flowers
giant berries, and spirals are turned into leaf- and palm trees, has beautifully carved orna-
sprites wearing feather headdresses. The two mentation in the same manner on the door and
contrapposto trumpeters in the spandrels are window frames.
more like elves than angels. Masks in profile This type of one-story house is thought by
are carved in the side garlands at the level of some to be closer to the civilian architecture
the main cornice; nude babies stand upon of the Canary Islands than to that of Spain. 194
them, and toward the bottom others clasp the Indeed in the early seventeenth century Juan
twining vines. The human elements blend per- de Mesa y Lugo (1605-1665), a councilman
fectly with the floral— a good example of how of Tenerife in the Canaries, became the gover-
the local carver worked over the models put nor of Arequipa, and in 1803 an archdeacon
before him into an expression of his own. Note from the Canaries was made bishop of the
the squarish rosettes— seven different designs— colonial city. Doubtless both of these officials
around the arch, another feature strongly brought with them a considerable follow-
Andean. ing, with pronounced taste preferences in art.
In and around Arequipa a number of other The stylistic relationship between the Canary
examples of this mestizo style of carving sur- Islands and Spanish America has been little
vive, covering about three-quarters of a cen- investigated, but a comparison of photographs

tury. The parish church at Yanahuara (fig. b), from the two regions reveals many similarities.
dedicated to St. John the Baptist, is dated 1750. Tenerife was the main harbor where ships
Here we see a three-lobed pediment, such as from Spain bound for the New World called
that on La Compania, and a medallion in the to take on final provisions and fresh water and
center, as in the side portal of Santo Domingo. to round out their crews— one way for many
The paired columns, however, are divided in to make the passage who could not obtain a
their decoration; cherubs wearing flowing clearance on the mainland. In Arequipa's Com-
feather headdresses and leafy collars adorn pania this author photographed a large canvas
[168]
VICEREGAL PERU I
entitled the Virgin of the Canaries. It pictures with arms upraised, so posed that it seems to
at her feet a galleon, flying an immense have flown up from the corbel beneath its feet
streamer, as it sets forth under full sail, while in the ecstasy of some "Gloria." Above each
a procession of angels bears her statue along figure is Mary's monogram, and beyond it is
the shore. a stylized crown that resembles a flower. A

tight garland of cherubs, grapes, and pome-
Of the three colonial nunneries in Arequipa, granates encircles the open center of the dome.
Santa Catalina was the first to be established White sets off the reliefs from the lively blue
(1576). The massive wall of the convent background. The local artist must have been
church (PI. 107, fig. a) has a rugged monu- allowed considerable liberty in choosing the
mentality, dramatized by the shadow play on motifs from the standard vocabulary and in
its evenly cut volcanic stones. Buttresses and arranging the decorative elements.
walls have a fortress-like quality, and its tower Before considering the region of High Peru,
is the onlv colonial tower in Arequipa which where the Andean mestizo style had further
survived the earthquake of 1868. The dome manifestations, the village church of Huata
resembles somewhat that of La Compania. is presented (fig. c) to show how decorated
The cloister entrance (fig. b) shows the portals were treated in some mountain valleys
same austerity as the rest of the complex. farther north. Huata lies south of Cajamarca,
Unusual are the two arches, one above the some 9,000 feet above the sea in the Callejon
other, on the same plane. Except for the flower (strait) of Huavlas, a sort of lane between two
band that flanks the niche of the patron saint, major Andean ranges about four miles across
there is little decoration. At the end of the at the narrowest point and twelve at the widest.
seventeenth century this establishment prob- From the floor of the valley twelve snow-
ably stood more or less as it is today, though it capped peaks are visible, including Huascaran
was restored in mid-eighteenth century (the over 22,000 feet high. Despite the altitude,
choir gallery carries the date 1758). Its walls parts of the valley have tropical vegetation
are washed with golden yellow, its entrances and an abundance of fruit, poultry, and fish.
and dome with white— producing an uncalcu- According to an early-seventeenth-century de-
lated yet striking impression. As it stands, scription it contained seven Indian villages,
almost medieval in its massivity, amid the under the charge of the Dominicans. Rich gold
Baroque buildings of the city, it rounds out and silver deposits were already being worked
the picture of colonial Arequipa. there at that time, and, before the end of the
The church at Chihuata, a more distant century, textile mills were producing blankets,
village in the Arequipa district, was a Domini- cloth, grosgrain, and other woolen fabrics; the
can foundation, like that of Yanahuara. It is raw material came from the sheep and llama
dedicated to the Holy Ghost. Though small, ranches which flourished in the higher regions.
poor, and undistinguished on the exterior, This valley, very much isolated, was far from
within it has a highly unusual sculptured dome any center of the Andean mestizo style, but
in stone (fig. d). The pendentives carry, in- it too had an ancient culture and a numerous
stead of the Evangelists or the four Latin Indian population with considerable artistic
Fathers so often seen, reliefs of St. Francis, skill.
St. Dominic, Anthony of Padua, and St.

St. The elaborate, retable portal of Huata's vil-
Vincent Ferrer. The surface of the dome is lage church is placed in an arched recess, a
divided into twelve segments bv twelve vases manner of building encountered frequently
with tall stylized floral garlands. In each seg- in the High Andes. The building is constructed
ment is carved an angel in a flounced skirt of adobe bricks, with thin bricks lining the
[169]
recess. Only the base of the portal is of stone In Arequipa we have seen powerful and
and much of the rest is of stucco. Small figures articulate examples -of the Andean mestizo
placed on the extensions of the twin twisted style. As we continue our architectural pil-
columns uphold segments of the broken cor- grimage in the following chapter, considerable
nice, and two others decorate the pilasters that differences within that style will become
flank Mary's niche. evident.
t 17° ]
VICEREGAL PERU II
From Cuzco to the Atlantic
T .he city of Cuzco, rebuilt after the earth-

quake of 1650, preserves a unique colonial
whose arms adorn the entrance. The belfries
on both buildings are similar. What a din must
atmosphere despite the catastrophe of 1950. have filled the air when on festive occasions
Perhaps only Antigua in Guatemala can offer or in emergencies all the city's bells were
the visitor such a telling colonial picture. rung at once. The doorway has little Baroque
Some of Cuzco's history was given earlier character. A large splayed oval choir-light fills
(see PL 4). Its Incaic past strikes the eye the broken pediment, dwarfing the niche,
wherever one goes, for many of its colonial which is flanked with auricular motifs.
buildings were constructed of stone from The interior (fig. d) shows the typical
former Inca edifices or were built on ancient single-nave church structure of the High
Indian walls. The steep narrow streets catch Andes, roofed with timber; though windows
the sun for only a short time during the day, are few, the lighting is satisfactory because of
and the shadow harbors the penetrating chill the brilliant sun. In the upper corners of the
of the city's great altitude— 11,000 feet. Thus photograph the carved and tooled beams of
doubly welcome are the small plazas, fre- the choir gallery are visible. Large canvas
quented by children who frolic among tele- paintings line the walls, their heavy gold
phone and electric-light poles against a back- frames ornamented with twisted columns. The
ground of pre-Columbian remnants. open timbers of the roof were once concealed
Upon such a square stand the nunnery of by woven material, stuccoed and painted with
Las Nazarenas and the church of San Antonio scenes or geometric patterns. A richly gilded
Abad (PL 108, fig. a). The former (left), retable fills the end wall, and at the left is a
originally a military school for Inca scions, pulpit exquisitely carved to harmonize with it.
was not made a nunnery until late in the seven- Thus a modest structure was transformed into
teenth century. Inca serpent symbols decorate an impressive interior.
a section of ancient stonework incorporated The detail work displayed in this small
into its walls. The heraldic composition above church reveals the high standards of Cuzco's
the doorway is practically identical with one colonial craftsmen. The pulpit (fig. b) is
on the "Broad Street of the Smiths" in An- topped by a crownlike baldachin, and twin
tigua, Guatemala. columns twisting in opposite directions frame
The church of San Antonio Abad (right), itscarved reliefs. Note the row of gilded
connected with the seminary, was rebuilt wooden candelabra under the painting at the
about 1678 under Cuzco's munificent bishop, right.
Manuel de Mollinedo (held office 1678-1699), In the retable the closed niche, or sagrario,
[171]
in the center (fig. c) usually guards the cult the multiplication of corbels below the cornice
image behind its Here the
sliding doors. —an Andean feature. The vaulting, ribbed in
convex shape, very difficult to carve, is em- the Gothic manner, is of brick.
bellished with a delicate relief of the Annun- Stylistically the main altar, the upper por-
ciation. The Apostle Peter stands in the panel tion of which is shown here (fig. d), is singu-
on the left and St. Paul on the opposite side. larly harmonious with the rest of the building.
The dividing columns carry a pineapple pat- The columns stand away from the general
tern, while the heavier twisted shafts of the plane of the retable, and paintings and statuary
retable (left) are entwined with garlands of alternate in a meticulously balanced design.
blossoms. Moldings, surface decoration, scrolls, and vo-
lutes all are immensely varied. Especially the

Despite legal steps taken by the canons of open segments of the broken pediments and
Cuzco's cathedral in the sixteenth century and the shift of horizontals in the central section
after the earthquake of 1650, the Jesuits erected produce an upsurging effect, leading the eye
their Compania (PL 109, fig. a) on the plaza to God the Father at the top. Particularly
obliquely across from the cathedral and later ornate, yet kept in the spirit of the whole, are
rebuilt it on that site. Many declare it to be the portrait medallions at the sides, surmounted
the most artistic and impressive church in by carved heads crowned with fruit.
Cuzco, if not in all Peru. Its unity of style is The grille enclosing the tribune to the right
explained partly by the fact that it was erected in the sanctuary (fig. b) has an exquisite inter-
in less than twenty years (1651-1668), a rela- lacing pattern cut out of wood, strongly
tively short time in the colonial era for such A4udejar in feeling, with even a suggestion of
a vast edifice. Its ground plan is a Latin cross; tilework in its lines (compare PL 178). At
a large dome covers the crossing, and shallow the right, as a side garland, is an excellent
niches form side chapels— both new features example of the winged scroll— another favor-
203
to the Cuzco of that period. ite motif of the Andean region— which was
The building is constructed of the same rich used in considerable variation also on the
brown andesite as the cathedral; but the ca- retable.
thedral shows a horizontal emphasis, and in

La Compania the vertical prevails. Its towers After the earthquake of 1650 little was left
are an integral part of the composition, tied of the Mercedarian establishment in Cuzco.
in by means of the massive shelflike platforms Within twenty years, however, both church
and the heavy cornice. Its portal, of the and monastery were again standing. The lines
retable type, is stepped back somewhat and is in the monastery entrance (PL no, fig. b) are
composed under a trefoil arch. The niches, elegant, classicizing, and severe; even with its
the many openings, and the different planes curving broken pediment it could be early-
in the facade produce a finely proportioned sixteenth-century Italian. Bullet marks on the
articulation, seldom encountered in this region. left call to mind political upheavals in recent
Inside, the pendentives are carved with times.
heraldic designs framed by a cord, and the In La Merced's elaborate main cloister
Evangelists— in this illustration, Mark and his (fig. d) the arcades are carried on rusticated
lion— occupy niches at the top of the piers masonry piers, and slender carved columns
(fig. c). A balustraded gallery runs around stand before them. The vaulting in the lower
the building above the broad cornice, facilitat- gallery beside the church as well as in each
ing the decoration of the church on holidays, corner is of stucco; otherwise the ceilings are
when much drapery and the apparatus for fine examples of carved and gilded woodwork
special illumination have to be arranged. Note (see PL 181). Two sides of the upper gallery
[.7^1
VICEREGAL PERU II
are covered with corrugated iron sheets, vis- gateway, the Arch of Santa Clara (fig. c),
ible in this illustration— an inexpensive and raised to commemorate the Peru-Bolivia Con-
rapid modern method of roofing, ugly but federation in 1836-1839. It is constructed of
practical. Large paintings, in quite good con- the same rich brown stone as the colonial
dition considering the two centuries or more monuments, cut into blocks in the Indian
of exposure, hang on the inner walls. Two manner, and bears extenuated single columns,
magnificent stairways connect the upper and finials, and statues still in colonial tradition.
lower stories. Until the railroad connected Cuzco with the

The church of San Sebastian (fig. a), outer world in the 1870's, carrying in the
founded in 1572, stands in an Indian suburb products of the machine age, the skill and
of that name about three miles from Cuzco. style of her craftsmen preserved much of her
This village is said to be populated with de- great heritage.
scendants of the Ayllos, families of Inca blood, Venice, Bruges, and Toledo each had its
who were assigned this spot after the Con- poets; Cuzco is still waiting for some worthy
200
quest. Originally the church had a single pen to eulogize its unique beauty.
nave, with adobe walls over six feet thick. In
1696 arched openings were broken through One is apt to visualize the land of the Incas
each side wall and side aisles added. Influ- as a barren wind-swept region, inhabited by a
ence of both the cathedral and La Compania stubborn and starving people. A quite differ-
in nearbv Cuzco can be seen in the build-up ent picture unfolds for the traveler as on his
of the towers and facade. The elliptical win- way to Cuzco he traverses the fertile valley
dow frame in the center and the architectural of the river Vilcanota through fields of yel-
ornament above the cornice are individual fea- lowing grain and patches of green pasture.
tures. Even from a distance the portal has a Here, before European animals were im-
definite elegance and clear sharp outlines. On ported, the llama and alpaca grazed. The vil-
closer observation it can be seen that it is lages of the valley, populated bv mestizo and
ornamented with dense carvin?. Effective and Quechua people, energetic and cheerful, lie
original use was made of the winged scroll near the river, and strips of cultivated land
and large medallions. Some of the sculptors run up the steep deforested mountain sides.
who worked on the cathedral choir stalls Checacupe, one such village about sixty miles
(about 1 657-1678) may have carved the por- from Cuzco, goes back into prehistoric times,
tal, as similar motifs occur there. Noteworthy according to some sources before the Inca
is the raised atrium, which lends distinction regime. Its population counts, besides the
to the structure. The right tower carries two Quechua, members of the Avmara nation, who
inscriptions, the one giving 1664 as the date are numerous in the Lake Titicaca region and
of its completion and mentioning by name farther on into present-day Bolivia. The name
seven caciques, and the other bearing the name Checacupe is from the
said to derive either
of the Indian Manuel de Sahuaraura as the Quechua word chchecca, meaning "union,"
architect of that section. The left tower is and kope, an Aymara word for "road," or
dated 1799. Bishop Mollinedo's escutcheon is from checca, meaning "right" in Quechua,
placed above the central window. His inter- and kupe, meaning "left" in Aymara. 187 Fran-
est and munificence were felt throughout this cisco Pizarro resided in this village at different
region; in 1678 he wrote that the facade of times, and his second will was dated there
San Sebastian was finished and was as beauti- June :z, 1539. The name of the able viceroy
ful as if it had been worked in wax. 203 Francisco de Toledo— one of the few admin-
At the southeast end of the Franciscan istrators who inspected his realm thoroughly
establishment in Cuzco stands a monumental —also is connected with Checacupe; by royal
[1 73]
grant he presented the village and the terri- the statues within niches in the first order and,
tory belonging to it as an encomienda to the in the second, on corbels against an intricate
widow of his good friend Diego de Silva. In golden grillework. The crownlike baldachins
colonial times a prosperous gold mine was above these figures recall the pulpit canopy
worked nearby; and even today the dance of in the seminary chapel in Cuzco. Paintings on
the Tucumanos there commemorates the mule- canvas also are incorporated into the compo-
trains that kept this region in contact with sition.
202
Bolivia and northern Argentina. The communion rail, seen in its full length
Small wonder that Checacupe's parochial in the foreground, presents the figures of the
church mirrors its favorable economic posi- Apostles, a poignant reminder of the Last Sup-
tion. This adobe building (PL m, fig. b) lies per. In some medieval churches (such as the
with its long side on the main square. Its stone Duomo at Torcello, near Venice) the Apos-
portal has simple columns and carries no fig- tles were depicted on the screen before the
ural decoration. The bell tower stands sepa- sanctuary, and they are still to be seen on the
rate, an arrangement not too usual in this re- Greek Orthodox places of worship.
iconostas in
gion, and the ample raised atrium is closed Apparently these figures were later placed on
off by an adobe wall. the communion rail in European churches, un-
All the more striking is the richness of the til the Renaissance supplanted the railings of
interior. The walls of the nave are covered wood with bronze and marble balustrades.
with large murals in tempera, which are fre- One such panel from Lombardy, gilded and
quently interrupted by superimposed retables polychromed, is preserved in the author's col-
or bv broad canvas paintings in ornately lection (see Appendix, PL 192, fig. e). The full
carved and gilded frames. Near the entrance series of Apostles on the altar rail of Checa-
door at the end of the nave is an immense cupe's church is probably a unique survival.
wall painting of Santiago in battle (see PL 139). In the detail (fig. c) Mark is depicted on the
It would appear that the murals, cane ceiling, right and beside him, iVndrew. On the left
and painted beams date from the last quarter panel, the gate opening into the sanctuary,
of the sixteenth century, at which time the the figure is that of St. Paul, who sometimes
187
whole interior was decorated in this manner. replaces Judas among the Twelve.
Probably the tray ceiling of the apse survives
from this early period. It is covered with tex- Andahuaylillas, another Andean village, lies
tile fastened to a reed base, the whole smoothed about thirty miles from Cuzco. Squier re-
with gesso, and this surface painted with fig- marked on the rich mountain-locked valleys
ures which have the character of enlarged in this region suggesting the beds of former
book illustrations (see PL 144). Though Mude- lakes and on the number of extensive haci-
jar in construction, the beams carry decora- endas here, with their comfortable houses en-
tive portrait medallions in the center. closed by heavy walls. The parish church of
About a century later (1 690-1 700) a re- Andahuaylillas is shown on Plates 112 and 113;
furbishment, which brought in the canvases the lettering of the two plates runs consecu-
and wood carvings, replaced the main retable tively for the sake of clarity. Founded in 1580,
with the one that stands there today (fig. a), this church is said to have been built on the
though some of its details seem to be of a still ruins of an Inca temple. Today it appears too
later date. The amazing skill revealed in the large for the shrunken population of the vil-
wood carving throughout this interior is es- lage, but more people and greater prosperity
pecially evident in the main altar. Its columns existed here in colonial days. Constructed with
are decorated with garlands of grapes, heavy adobe walls and a pitched roof of cane and
and protruding. Variety is gained by placing timber, with a separate bell tower of stone, it
[174]
VICEREGAL PERU II
belongs to a tvpe met frequently in the high- nearlv all of the statues at Andahuaylillas. it
lands and found also in other, widelv scat- is an armature figure, made out of the pulp
tered mission districts. The portal is of brick of the ma°-uev or centurv plant, covered with
(fig. c). The four Latin Fathers are painted plaster, and dressed in starched and painted
in the niches, and a monogram of .Man*— thick varments.
with repaintins— is over the door above an The sanctuarv of this church, raised some-
inscription which seems to contain phrases in what, is set off from the nave bv a wide toral
Quechua. .Murals line the second-storv gal- arch, embellished on the altar side with clus-
lerv. which is accessible from the choir loft. ters and swaes of fruit; in the frieze is a lively
The general view of the nave (fig. e) shows series of putti (fig. e). A splendid ceiling in
the barn shape of the interior, the sloping roof, the Mudejar manner covers the apse (fig. b),
its surface plastered over and painted, and the painted in the clear tones that characterize the
long beams, which are not entirelv Mudejar decoration throughout
C
the building
D
and liber-
in their decoration. On the walls are large allv gilded. Especiallv striking is the shell that
canvas paintings mounted in wide lavishlv curves above the main retable. This retable
gilded frames with crests that reach to the ceil- presents a number of unusual motifs (fig. a),
ing. There are two pulpits, now in disrepair. notablv the baskets holding three elements,
The lower part of the walls, as well as the like thistle blossoms, repeated here again and
entire choir loft, is painted in tempera with again. Small squares of mirror are composed
elaborate designs (see PI. 153). The large mural into an arch about the Virgin and above her
beside the entrance (fig. d) seems to derive into a crownlike canopv. In stvle the retable
from a book illustration. It shows a man in his appears to be late seventeenth or earlv eight-
prime leaving the feast of this earthlv life- eenth centurv, and the mirrors were probablv
note the fruit pie, the planked fish, the scat- added somewhat later.
tered flowers, and the fork. He is bidding The toral arch was decorated in 163 1 at the
farewell to his companions before he passes expense of the parish priest of Andahuavlillas.
through the narrow gate to enter the Man- Juan Perez de Bocanegra. 157
He was a oreat
sion of the Lord. Angels are assisting souls who published a Quechua dictionary,
linguist
over the final hazardous bridge— even perform- which may account for the Quechua inscrip-
ing last-minute rescues— while three voune men tions over the entrance and baptistrv doors.
exactly alike, a svmbol of the Trinitv. lean Probablv the beginnings of the rich interior
from their high rampart to encourage the date from this period. The earthquake of i6>o.
newcomers, and the Apostles and Marv watch however, must have caused damage here also
from windows. Roman letters are strewn over and occasioned considerable repair. Note the
the composition as in didactic books where crack in the adobe arch. Some of the silver
various figures are explained in the text; but objects in the church are dated 1-6;. whereas
the quotation below the painting contains the wooden screen behind the Coronation
verses from the Psalms and seems to have no group at the top of the altar has the follow-
direct connection with it. ing inscription: "Through the veneration of
At the left of the entrance bevond the mu- an Indian devotee :-.;;."
ral is the door to the baptistrv (fig. f), in-

scribed with the text "I baptize thee in the A comparison of the churches which dot
name of the Father and of the Son and of the the countrvside of High Peru reveals the cjreat
Holy Ghost, amen"— in Latin in the medallion architectural variety that occurs in districts
held by angels, in Spanish across the painted not far distant from one another. The parish
frieze, and. over the arch, in Quechua. \ church in Mamara. department of Apurimac
statue of Peter stands beside the door. Like (PL 114. fig. a), dedicated to St. Michael, fol-
[175]
lows the twin-tower type seen in Cuzco. It is Cauchi, a gold-mining district, lies the village
said to date from late seventeenth century or of Huaro. In the first quarter of the seven-
203
early eighteenth. Most unusual is the divi- teenth centurv it had a population of about
sion in the decoration of its twin columns that seven hundred. Its church, enormous for the
flank the narrow niches. The suave ovals in size of the village today, follows in type the
the belfries and the choir-light recall Cuzco's barn-shaped structure of the Cuzco region,
Compania and San Sebastian. As in the latter, built of adobe and with a pitched roof of
an all-over decoration, extremely rich, covers cane. Within, the lofty choir gallery rests on
the portal section. Flat fanlike shell motifs three arches, forming a vestibule beneath
alternate with fanciful rosettes, and cherubim (fig. f). Murals cover the arcade walls: above
fill the spandrels. The massive gateway also the arch on the right are the Annunciation of
is elaborate; stone finials are placed along the the Virgin and the Baptism of Christ; over the
wall as well as at the corners, and above the center arch are the Coronation of the Virgin
arch stands a figure of St. Michael dressed in and St. Michael Conquering Death. The sculp-
Baroque costume. tured medallions apparently portray the four
In the interior, unusually well-integrated Latin Fathers. Larger murals decorate the ves-
woodwork is preserved in the railing and beams tibule and the choir; the ceiling and even the
of the choir which rests on a heavy arch
loft, railings are painted. Two skeletons are de-
(fig. b). The main retable (fig. d) has vigor- picted here, another example of the occupation
ously twisted columns, divided into sections of these people with the representation of
by broad rings. These features, together with death— one beneath the feet of St. Michael and
the use of much mirror and glass, suggest that another, a large one, on the side wall under
at least portions of the retable might be a few the choir loft at the right in the illustration
decades later in date than the building itself. (see also PL 116).
In the portal of the hermitage of Oropesa Probably different persons with varying de-
(fig. e), dated 1685, fairly flat rosettes are grees of talent contributed to this religious
used in rows, each on a separate stone. The miscellany; some of the scenes are painted
only figural elements are the two archangels with considerable knowledge of composition,
in the spandrels, executed and arranged with while others are rather crude attempts at re-
the charming simplicity of honey-cake sculp- ligious story telling. In Europe such naive
ture (compare PI. /07). The columns should murals survive from pre-Renaissance times,
be noted for their leafy bases and the puma turned into folk art by the repeated retouch-
masks carved in the blocks above the capitals. ing of itinerant painters.
The side garlands are simplified, composed of To the southeast of the Cuzco plateau, across
an auricular scroll alternating with flowery a 15,000-foot pass, lies the immense expanse
crosses. On his trip in 1875 Squier found the of Lake Titicaca. On the eroded sun-parched
principal quarries of the Incas still in use slopes around it neither tree nor shrub will
in Oropesa; from here Cuzco, some twenty grow, and the mountains— strangely two-di-
miles away, received its chief supply of the mensional in this thin atmosphere— are trans-
reddish stone which went into its edifices. formed into the green-brown shapes of a fan-
Immense piles of stone blocks of every size tastic stage setting. The town of Juliaca is
and in every state of processing were scat- situated at an altitude of nearly 12,500 feet,
tered over an area covering more than half where the route from the Pacific joins the
a square mile. Close to the site stood the rough road which connects Cuzco with Puno, on
stone huts of the workers and the more pre- Lake Titicaca, and continues on to Potosi,
tentious dwelling house of the overseer. 200 Sucre, and, finally, Buenos Aires. In the first
East of Cuzco, in the department of Quispi quarter of the seventeenth century the town's
[176]
VICEREGAL PERU II
population numbered almost twenty-five hun- gion where a play with figures was favored.
dred; today, a railroad junction, it has some Note the horizontal accent in the numerous
seven thousand inhabitants. moldings on the double pedestals. This por-
Juliaca's parish church (fig. c) has some fea- tal shows a suavity in design and treatment—
tures that remind one of Cuzco— notably the especially when compared with the facade
handsome tower; others, such as the place- illustrated beside it— rarely encountered in this
ment of the main portal within an arched re- region.

cess and the use of stone throughout the struc- Asillo, a small village north of Lampa and
ture, are characteristic of the Puno-Potosi area. about forty-seven miles from Lake Titicaca,
Especially imposing is the dome with its many is guarded by peaks nearly 14,000 feet high
finials; finials are distributed also on various and is close to several pre-Columbian ruins.
levels of the roof and on the corners of the In Vazquez' day it had no mines; nevertheless
building. Vigor and strength are expressed it boasted fortv-f our hundred people, occupied
in the lines of the transept, but apparently the with agriculture and animal husbandry, and
chapel just off the entrance was added with paid more tribute than either Lampa or Juli-
little regard for the general effect. Splendid aca. Today the population numbers only about
barrel vaulting in stone— rather than brick- eight hundred.
work, as was commonly used for Cuzco's ceil- The church here, of red stone, started in
ings—distinguishes the interior. The church is 1678 and finished in 1696, has a broad raised
dedicated to St. Catherine, and the facade car- atrium, twin towers, and a cane cupola raised
ries the date 1774. on an octagonal masonry drum. 203 Originally
it was covered with thatch. Like several other
Only fifteen from Juliaca and less
miles churches in the Titicaca region, it has power-
than thirty miles from the northeast point ful transepts and two side chapels near the en-
of Lake Titicaca lies the small village of Lampa, trance, which in this case are beautifully in-
in the valley of the river by that name. In tegrated into the building. The amazing feature
early seventeenth century its inhabitants num- of its facade (fig. c) is the strongly Indian in-
bered nearly thirty-four hundred souls; both terpretation of the architectural decoration.
silver and copper were then being mined Here through the grouping of triple columns
nearby. An eighteenth-century visitor noted a forward thrust is achieved, as of clustered
that cochineal was prepared here and traded piers. .Much of the peculiar Baroque quality
by the Indians to provinces that used the red of the whole derives from the columns, which
61
dye in their woolen mills. are of various sizes, tapered, and banded with
The parish church at Lampa (PL 1/5, fig. b), leafy crowns and broad medallions. Mermaids
built between 1678 and 1685, is constructed hold Mary's monogram above the door. Flam-
of the reddish stone of the region. It has a ing hearts, so strongly stylized that thev look
chapel opening off either side just beyond the like fruit and the flames suggest shells or
entrance, barrel vaulting in stone, and a large plumes, are placed over the three second-story
dome. A bell tower is set at some distance from niches. They are inscribed Sanctus Dens, Sanc-
the main building. Again the portal stands tus Fortis, and Sanctus bmnortalis— phrases
within a shallow arched recess. Influence from which are found in abbreviated form also
Cuzco, especially from its Compama, can be on the facade of La Compania in Arequipa
seen in the steeply flaring segments of the (see PL /05). Angels, some with feathered
pediments, the columns with their leafy cap- headdress, flank the various medallions and
itals, and in the absence of figural ornamen- the relief at the top— a seated figure of God the
tation—except for the mermaids upholding Father which has a touch of the archaic.
Mary's monogram above the door— in a re- Most of the churches just seen, whether near
[ 177]
Cuzco or in the Titicaca region, stand in once- Chucuito, the residence of the governor as
powerful Indian villages and manifest a com- well as the main station for the traveler who
mon—non-European—spirit; each expresses in had to cross that section of High Peru. Some
an original and articulate way the regional silver mines were worked near the western
idiom. border of the province, but great prosperity
Have, on the shore of Lake Titicaca, figured arrived only after 1660, when exceptionally
prominently in Inca history after the twelfth rich deposits were discovered. A veritable
century. The facade of the church of Santa silver rush followed; Andalusians, Basques,
Barbara here (fig. a), in contrast to the others Castilians arrived in numbers, carrying their
on this plate, has no carving whatever, al- Old World antipathies even into the highest
though it too is built entirely of stone. Orig- Andes. Such anarchy ensued that the famous
inally the portal may have carried modest col- viceroy Conde de Lemos (governed 1667-
umns, but decoration now appears only on 1672) came personally to quell it. 193
the gateway. In the center (at the top), flanked Around this time (1669) the town of San
by twin twisted columns, stands a statue of the Carlos de Puno was founded about seven miles
patron saint; reliefs of four saints, carved in a from Chucuito on the site of the pre-Colum-
flat cutout technique, make the gateway un- bian Indian village Laicacota. The prosperity
usual (inset). Carved rosettes are distributed of this place continued well into the follow-
evenly over the piers and arch, and a lacy ing century, when the present cathedral (PI.
decoration fills the friezes. The austere archi- 116, fig. a) was erected. Built entirely of stone,
tecture of the building and the Byzantoid man- it is noteworthy for its excellent masonry as
ner of the reliefs evoke the sober spirit of well as its apselike camarin, unusual in this
early Christianity; indeed, such a spirit was in region.
keeping here where the Christian religion had The sculptured retable facade, placed be-
not yet been established two hundred years. tween two solid towers, is inscribed as finished
(For a painting discovered in this church see in 1757 by Simon de Asto. While certain ele-
PI. 131c.) ments in the structure suggest the Cuzco type,

its decoration places it among the Baroque
Lake Titicaca, the highest navigated body examples of its region. Here niches appear
of water in the Western Hemisphere, covers only in the first order. Above, the short flar-
an area of 3,200 square miles. Beyond the sur- ing segments of an open pediment recall those
face of its wind-swept waters, playing now in Arequipa's Compania. The upper half of
green now dark blue, rise the endless snow the facade contains panels carved in high
fields of the dazzling Cordillera Real of Bolivia. relief surrounded bv interwoven straplike dec-
Since before the Conquest the Titicaca region oration. At the top is a figure of God the
has been the heart-land of the Aymara Indians, Father, reaching far out beyond the plane of
a powerful and individual people. Here there the wall; note also the overhang of the cor-
is little mixture of Spanish and Indian blood. nices. The towers with their many pinnacles
Indeed, the colonists shunned this infertile and drawn-out corbels remind one of Juliaca.
soil and wearing climate, where the average In this area a number of large crosses still sur-
altitude is 12,500 feet and the temperature vive, erected outside various churches against
rises during the day to summer heat and sinks the front wall. They are decorated with the
below freezing at night, where, because of the instruments of the Passion and the Crucifixion
scarcity of wood, llama dung is used for fuel —a strange bit of realism among so much ob-
and hardly burns for lack of oxygen. scure religious symbolism.
Until mid-seventeenth century the admin- In the next illustration one of the niches of
istrative center for the Titicaca region was Puno's facade can be studied in greater detail
[178]
VICEREGAL PERU II
(fig. b). The columns are not twisted but are form intrigued many European artists. One
wound obliquely with garlands of grapes, wonders whether Holbein's woodcuts of the
wide-open flowers, and nut or melon shapes; Dance of Death ever reached here, in which
their capitals are complex and heavy. Above a skeleton is shown consorting with all classes
the niche is carved a mermaid plaving a of society, from pope and emperor to the
charango, a native version of the guitar, and, modest burgher.
below it, a bird pecks at a bunch of grapes
which resembles a huge berrv. The statue has The town of Juli lies at about the center
an archaic immobility, and its halo, developed of the southern shore of Lake Titicaca on a
into a shell, stops at the top of the head in- bay at the delta of the Juli River. Copper and
stead of extending high into the niche, as in silver mines in the vicinity made it important
Arequipa. The iron bands on the right-hand immediately after the Conquest. It has been
column are recent additions to hold the said that the native population yielded more
cracked sections in place. readily to the Dominican friars than to the
The north door (fig. e), dated 1754, reveals Spanish soldiery. By mid-sixteenth century,
the same type of decoration. Small caryatides monasteries and houses of this order had been
with upraised arms seemingly hold the heavy established in all the large Aymara settle-
corbels of the niche and the cross above. ments around the lake. The Dominican mis-
Within the panels of the pilasters twisted col- sions rapidly became so rich that they aroused
umns are carved, almost flat— a good example the jealousy of other orders and were expelled
of a three-dimensional member translated into from the region on the charge that they had
the purely decorative. exacted excessive tribute; in 1569 the Jesuits
The great divergencies to be found in An- took over. In those earlv days in Peru, Chucu-
dean regional carving are seen in the transept ito and Juli were outranked number and
in the
portal of the church of Santiago Pomata splendor of their churches only by Cuzco and
(fig- c )- While the Puno side portal has an Lima. 201 In 1612 an Aymara dictionary was
iss
embroidery-like pattern, Pomata's carries a printed in Juli.
bolder design— a single spray of flowers to In 1579, Juli and its suburbs had an Indian
each unit— executed with a strong feeling for population of about fourteen thousand souls;
the sculptural. Note also the differences in thus, understandably, several churches were
architectural build-up. necessary. Of the five or six great churches
Less than a mile south of Puno lie the erected there, four remain today, which, as
town's cemetery and mortuary chapel, a build- the inhabitants point out, are so arranged as
ing surprisingly large even when compared to form a cross; according to tradition they
with the unexpectedly pretentious edifices were built to accommodate the different dia-
found throughout this region. It has the dimen- lects of the region.
sions of a church, and in its general lines Perhaps the retarded Renaissance spirit of
it bears a strong resemblance to the Puno this earlv period is most tangible in the church
cathedral. However, its portal (fig. d) carries of La Asuncion, finished in 1620, now used
little decoration. Plain columns support a as a depository. It is a lofty cruciform struc-
powerful cornice. The central window, placed ture of adobe and brick and has an unusual
within a niche, is flanked by singularly appro- polygonal apse. One of the side retables is
priate carvings: on the left, Jerome, who en- still good condition (PI. uj, fig. b). Built
in
visioned the Last Judgment, and on the right of masonry and covered with stucco, into
a skeleton, crowned and holding a scythe. The which delicate Plateresque details were
skeleton occurs also on a tapestry from this worked, it was painted over and, in parts,
2 "*
region, dated around 1621. Death in human gilded. Masonry retables are extremely rare
[1 79]
in Latin America today, and this one, prob- hanging melon shapes; a spiraling band gives
ably dating from the beginning of the seven- the columns a twisted effect. The carving
teenth century, may be among the earliest above the doors, characteristically undercut,
extant examples. A time lag is perceptible recalls houses in Arequipa. On the larger is
not onlv in the piece as a whole but also a detailed heraldic transcription; on the small
within the work itself, especially between cer- one are religious symbols, flanked by animals
tain architectural members and the figures. The probably intended for lions. (See also PL 126.)
statues, quite stolid in expression, have the To many the thatched roof above such elabo-
stiffness of tomb figures; even the angels at rate portals may appear incongruous, but
the top stand as if congealed in this frigid at- thatch belongs to the traditional building ma-
mosphere. At present the building is roofed terials of the region. Large timber was very
with corrugated iron, visible above the piece; scarce here, but reeds from the nearby lake
though completely out of tradition, it provides were available in unlimited quantity; balsas,
the safest roofing in a region where the prin- the unique boats on Titicaca, are constructed
cipal hazards to buildings are earthquake and entirely of them. Besides, thatch keeps the
lightning. interiors warmer— an important consideration
On the inner surface of a transept arch are in this icy climate. Pre-Columbian temples
panels painted in tempera, bearing the phrases and palaces had thin hammered sheets of gold
Quasi Cedrus, Quasi Oliva, and Quasi Falma or silver laid over their thatched roofs.
from the Psalms, attributes of the Virgin
(fig- c )- Archangels holding the various trees The parish church of San Pedro .Martir in
are depicted, framed in stucco relief work, Juli (PL 118, fig. b) stands on one side of the
thickly gilded and lacquered. One is reminded main plaza, opposite the Zavala mansion. A
of pages from illuminated books, with their contract dated 1590 calling for the erection
great initial letters and phylacteria, brought of three churches in Juli was let out to two
into this wilderness bv the friars. (For a large carpenters and a mason with the common
relief from the main altar of this church see names of Gomez, Lopez, and Jimenez. 203 In
PL i 74 .) 1592 money was collected through taxation
Although the tower (fig. a) probably dates for an altar for the parish church. This build-
from the late seventeenth century or perhaps ing, however, has gone through many trans-
the early eighteenth, it also has a certain Plater- formations; the Jesuits are said to have rebuilt
esque feeling. It stands independent, its huge the entire nave at the end of the seventeenth
bulk made up of the brownish stone found in century or the beginning of the eighteenth.
the region. The two arched bell openings at It was constructed of brick and a mixture
the top were partially destroyed by lightning of adobe with small stones. At one time the
not long ago. Single columns with a mild twist fagade may have had more extensive stone
form the main decoration and star-petaled facing. With its plain Doric columns and the
rosettes are evenly distributed over the inter- shells in the spandrels, the entrance— todav
vening panels. Highly dramatic are the two cruellv whitewashed— has the stark simplicitv
cornices with their many moldings and their of an austere Renaissance, while the Rococo
tapering entablature blocks, which end in small-paned window in the tier above it, dec-
knobs shaped like blossoms or bells. orated with flowers and leafv garlands, sug-
From the Zavala mansion (fig. d) one gains gests mid-eighteenth centurv. In the walled-up
an idea of a colonial manor house in this re- opening at the left of the door are remnants
gion. It is somewhat weathered, but the deco- of a similar decorative frame, showing that
ration of two portals is in good condition.
its the structure has undergone several changes.
The motifs include grapes, open flowers, and The tower dates from the eighteenth centurv.
[180I
VICEREGAL PERU II
A riled arcaded wall, a very decorative ele- also originally Dominican, was built about
ment, once enclosed the atrium. 1590 of adobe, rubble, and wood. At the end
San Pedro Martir is a cruciform church with of the following century it was greatly trans-
a broad nave and side chapels set in bays. The formed by the Jesuits, who added the lateral
upper part of one of the side altars (fig. a) portal and constructed a new apse and tran-
shows the intricate cutout pattern of the gilded septs, a domed baptistry, and a vaulted sac-
retable and the matching sheathing of the risty—all of stonework, richly carved. The
arch. Mural painting covers the wall space severe lines of the tower, the main portal,
between. Here we have an unspoiled example and the low cupola— made of wood on a ma-
of the eighteenth-centurv regional school, sonry drum— hark back to earlier types. Styl-
which combined angels, fruits, flowers, and ized flowers and other favorite elements in the
vines into a tapestrv-like covering, whether regional idiom are carved on the elaborate side
in carving or in painting. Sharply drawn out- portal. Note the walled-up arches.
lines emphasize the contours of each element, On the inside, the walls of the long nave
giving the effect of applique needlework, pop- are covered with large oil paintings on canvas
ular in that period (compare PL ioj). representing scenes from the life of St. John
An architectural design painted on the wall the Baptist, patron saint of the church (fig. d).
(fig. c) frames the grille and the gilded wooden They are placed in elaborate frames— if indeed
pediment of the baptistry door (compare PL the word "frames" can do justice to the carved
US)- The two angels at the sides of the arch and gilded compositions in wood which line
are both flying in the same direction; seem- even the recessed windows, giving the church
ingly thev were copied without a knowledge interior an extraordinary richness and warmth.
of their traditional treatment, contrapposto. In the paneling around the window are crea-
In the baptistry is a marble baptismal font of tures which resemble peacocks and monkeys
early date. The mural painting on the dome amid tropical fruits, such as the papaya, pine-
of this chapel is illustrated later (see PL 137). apple, and banana. This wood caning is exe-
cuted in a rather flat strapwork technique,
Within the church of San Pedro Martir similar to the tapestry-like stone carvings seen
pointed arches meet at the crossing, above in the region; there is scarcely an attempt to
which is a cupola constructed of reed and come out in the round and make use of the
occupy the
plaster. Statues of the Evangelists depth of the third dimension. It would seem
"pendentives." Shown here (PL up, fig. c) that the European idea of plasticity" was not
is Mark, dressed in textiles, starched and fully digested by the craftsmen; a rare folk
painted. The fanlike cluster of three gilded art resulted from the transplantation of Euro-
stucco shells, repeating the shell motif on the pean illusionistic styles. An alien psychology is
facade, is an original arrangement. Note the evident in all this work, whether the composi-
figure used as corbel. The angel at the side— tion is carved in stone or wood or painted on
an excellent carving— doubtless once held a a wall.
hanging lamp, like figures so placed in Span- The window panes are not of glass but of
ish churches. alabaster. Even in the Old World before glass
At the time of our visit (1945) a l ar g e ru g, was reinvented in medieval Europe, window
in its last shreds, lay in front of the high altar. openings were covered with translucent mate-
Mermaids playing charangos were depicted rials—semiprecious stones planed very thin,
among floral arrangements on a yellowish parchment, or and
fine cloth, bleached, oiled,
background— an exquisite sample of colonial stretched on wooden frames. In Peru such

weaving vcrv rare todav. panes began to be replaced with glass in the
The church of San Juan in Juli (fig. a), seventeenth century. 186 The ceiling at Juli was
181 ]
covered with woven material, coated with rank of a monastery, and less than two decades
gesso and painted; today much of it has rotted later Vazquez mentions it as a priory. Of the
away or hangs down in strips, revealing the entire complex nothing remains today except
method of roof construction general in the re- the great church, which is dedicated to Santi-
gion, with reeds and small poles bound to- ago and the Virgin of the Rosary.
gether (upper left). Its main portal (fig. a) is placed within an
The retables with their polychromed fig- arched recess between two tower bases, only
ures, competently executed, probably date one of which now has a belfry. A large,
from the time when the Jesuits did over the deeply splayed choir-light emphasizes the aus-
interior. The main altar, a section of which is terity of the facade. Except for a rather flat
illustrated (fig. b), is another of those rather relief of God the Father, placed tight under
rare pieces built up of panels in relief. Though the arch, only the columns and moldings are
Baroque in its design, the work as a whole is decorated. In contrast, ornament is lavished
somewhat cold. Columns decorated with small on the lateral portal, which also has an arched
painted patterns over gold frame the reliefs, outline but it does not stand in a recess. Its
here the Vision of St. Ignatius. Little rapture columns are beribboned, and its surface is cov-
is to be felt in the scene; rather it is humanly ered with a virile pattern of grapes, palmettes,
simple, almost matter of fact. As is the case in canephorae, birds, and animals carved in such
many statues in the High Andes, the estofado low relief that one is reminded of an etched
pattern is too small to lend dash to the total design. In the repeated use here of puma heads
effect. Of all the carving, freest in line is per- and the sun disk, the old pagan religion of
haps the side garland at the right. the region comes close to the surface—although
these symbols had ostensible justification in
As the traveler leaves Juli and continues the name of the town or in Christian iconog-
along the southwestern shore of Lake Titicaca, raphy.
the road winds across brown-red patches of Outside and in, the church is built of native
grazed-down land and tops a slight rise, from stone, a deep rose in color. The barrel-vaulted
which the town of Pomata comes into view nave (fig. c) has a steely perfection of line.
in the distance (PI. 120, fig. b). It is situated on The side arches form niches for altars, and
a promontory at an altitude of nearly 13,000 the windows in the vaults are deeply splayed.
feet and offers a broad view over the lake. Tasteful and well-spaced carving accents the
The name is said to derive from the Aymara architectural elements. Throughout the build-
for "House of the Puma." Pomata seems to ing the carved ornamentation of the stone is
have been one of the stations on the relay shallow but characterized by vigor and assur-
road into Bolivia in pre-Columbian times. It, ance. Star-shaped flowers and a vase with a
too, was first assigned by the Spaniards to the spreading bouquet are the principal motifs,
Dominicans. Within five vears of their arrival used also on the pendentives of the lofty
(1540) they had built a chapel. Their estab- semispherical dome. The development and
lishment was probably still small when the origins of this dome, one of the most famous
viceroy Francisco de Toledo transferred this in Latin America, have been studied in de-
region to the Jesuits (1569). After the turn tail by Wethey.
of the century, the Dominicans again were The same decorative motifs appear also in
permitted to take over in Pomata, and they the apse windows beside the main altar (fig. d),
remained there until 1754, when the church at the top of which is Mary's monogram up-
was secularized and given into the hands of held by angels. The pattern again recalls tapes-
a parish priest. In 1606 the "house" serving try, with not an inch of free space. This illus-
as an abode for the friars was elevated to the tration shows one of the heavy ornate corbels,
[182]
VICEREGAL PERU II
extending down the wall, and immediately a more rustic manner, with painting playing
beside it a portion of the main altar, composed an essential role. Acora, which lies on the road
to fit into the allotted space. The combination between Puno and Have, also was a settle-
here of rose-colored stone and brilliant gold ment in pre-Columbian times and has several
wood carving is stunning. The upper columns churches from the colonial era,
preserved
of the retable are cut with gemlike facets. A though now only one is kept up for the use
scalv dragon makes up the main part of the of the small parish. Here the entrance is
side garland, and the capitals of the twisted flanked bv two thick engaged columns orna-
columns— just below the small niche with its mented with grapes. The lintel, with its pecu-
statue— are developed into dragon heads. liar Mudejar shape, repeats the same subject
The dating of this church is far from defi- as at Pomata, and angel heads are placed at the
nite. Inventories in the sacristv mention the right and left. Basically the design on the
completion of the high altar in i~:: and re- wooden door is similar to that at Pomata;
-
pairs to the vaulting in 1-29 and i ^:. The but it possesses nevertheless an individuality
arched gateway to the atrium is inscribed of its own. Note the tassel-like ornaments at
1-63, but stylistically it has little connection the height of the capitals— elements which in
with the church building. On the base of the Juli are exquisitely digested into the composi-
left tower, which is now only a stump, is in- tion; it has been suggested that these were
scribed, in Spanish: "Quiroga finished this. bases for candelabra.
203
In addition to much
1-94." In the proportion of its parts and the gold and the flesh tone of the angels, the out-
homogeneity of its spirit, this church ranks standing colors are a brilliant red, silver, and
among the most distinguished in the region. green.
Pomata's two other churches even in neglect
The sacristy door in Pomata (PL 121, fig. a) reveal how much artistic fantasy was expended
also demonstrates how well wood and stone on such buildings in this town. To the simple
blend in this strange artistic idiom, not only thatched structure of San .Miguel, finished in
through a similarity in motifs but also to a the first decade of the seventeenth century, a
certain degree in technique. In the paneling of choir loft was added probably some hundred
the door proper, two alternating motifs van* years later. The piers (fig. d) are of stone,
an eight-petaled flower; the stone jambs and carved with great skill and plastic feeling. On
low frieze each carry a single flowering stalk. either side of the niche mermaids playing the
Heavy cornices accent the horizontal. Above, charango are so exactly balanced that one has
in a heraldic arrangement, two angels, with a to perform left-handed. Under the arch is
remarkable hairdo, hold .Mary's monogram and carved a masklike face, surrounded by deeply
a crown; their wings blend into the scrollwork undercut motifs. Two profiles can be dis-
of the pediment. A vase stands on each side cerned on the sides in the turns of the scrolls,
as a finial, holding three stiff stylized flowers. and in the side garland a caryatid supports
Note the animal head in the side garlands. with one raised arm the scroll above it. The
Compare that doorway to the one leading columns are covered with a chain-mail pattern,
into the sacristy of San Juan at Juli (fig. c). the links of which diminish in size as the shafts
Here the carver worked with a larger vocabu- taper upward.
lary (though still regional) and a more com- All four examples of regional carving lie
plex design, which is so thoroughly integrated within thirty-five miles of one another, and
that the stone seems to lose its hardness. all were created within half a century or less.
The third sacristy doorway illustrated here A comparison shows with what originality
(fig- b), in the church of San Pedro in Acora, and exuberance the Indian and mestizo made
shows a different composition, carried out in use of the forms and patterns which the Span-
[183]
iards put before them. The Juli portal has on the columns and pedestals, which is bold
subtlety of composition and a certain monu- and monumental, shows a relationship to the
mental quality. In Pomata's sacristy door the choir-loft ornamentation in San Miguel there.
design is simplified and the arch absent; but it Zepita's columns, however, carry considerably
is executed with plastic clarity and remarkable more variety of motif, and grotesque masks
verve. The Acora doorway, the least articulate are introduced among the meshes of the chain
and the latest, by reason of its naive compo- mail. It is worth noting that though technical
sition and its lively use of color, is undiluted mastery is evident in all this stonework, the
folk art. In the free-standing columns and the column is not twisted; salomonic columns in
decisive undercutting on the pier of San Miguel stone, features of contemporary Baroque else-
Pomata a much stronger feeling for plasticity where in Spanish America, are infrequent in
is apparent than in any of the others. the High Andes.

Great originality distinguishes the side gar-
The virility of this regional art has left its land of the portal (fig. c), an unusually wide
imprint on monuments all along the lake. One and involved composition, where a half-figure
of the masterpieces survives in the tiny settle- wearing an enormous headdress is resolved
ment of Zepita, close to the Bolivian border. into the inward-turned spirals of the frame.
This is the church of San Pedro (PL 122, Probably it will never be fully established
fig. a), set on a platform at the top of a from what sources these regional stonecarvers
sloping grass-grown plaza. Its tower, its digni- drew their inspiration. Their imaginations
fied dome, and especially the broad arched might have fed on engravings, woodcuts,
recess of its portal strike the traveler's eye, pages from illuminated books— secular as well
even at a considerable distance, above the as religious— on designs in tapestries or em-
thatched roofs of the hamlet. And again the broideries, and even on costumes and ritual
question comes to his mind, how was it possi- objects still from pre-Columbian
preserved
ble in mid-eighteenth century in a remote and times. There seems to be no justification for
sparsely populated region to erect a building the claims of some circles, who, disdaining the
that required so much constructional knowl- Indian, go out of their way to explain such
edge and embodied such an artistic flair. strange sculptural details as derived from the
The church has the shape of a Latin cross Hindu or other Asiatic peoples rather than
and is without side chapels. Its end portal appreciate an artistic phenomenon autoch-
carries practically no decoration; all attention thonous to this soil.
was given the lateral entrance (fig. d). As is Today the interior of the church (fig. b)
common Andean Baroque, its niches are
in is practically bare. A few canvas paintings
flanked by two smaller columns, with pedestals hang on the wall, and along the base runs a
and entablature effects of their own, compris- narrow masonry bench. Such a construction,
ing almost isolated decorative elements. A a hold-over from the sixteenth century, is rare
comparison of familiar motifs— the large me- in an eighteenth-century building— another ex-
dallions with supporting angels and the carv- ample of the clinging to tradition. A sweeping
ing in the spandrels— with those at Cajamarca arch resting on corbels supports the choir gal-
(see PL j) and Arequipa (see PL /oj) will lery and, as is frequent in Andean churches,
demonstrate how differently the same schemes the ribs of the stone barrel vaulting terminate
were carried out. in corbels. These are massively developed and
In the Zepita portal the carving on the wall decorated with wide leaves, but they have
surfaces, which is delicate and complicated, been so cruelly whitewashed that much of
reminds one of the work in the church of the finer detail work is lost. Just below the
Santiago in Pomata. On the other hand, that cornice, patches of wall painting can be de-
[184]
VICEREGAL PERU II
tected, forming a sort of border of thistle and The material of the church is brick— with
pomegranate-like motifs. (For a detail of the occasional stone— painted to resemble stone
main altar see PL 189.) masonry. The lateral portal, its chief entrance,
is placed within an arched recess. This com-

The village of Copacabana is set on the plex has features common to some other
slope of a rocky promontory overlooking a Auûstinian foundations, notably those in
lovely crescent-shaped bay and the sacred Mexico (see Pis. 31, 32): the atrium walls
island of Titicaca, dedicated to the sun god of are crenellated, as was also the edge of the
the ancient Aymaras. Its name derives from church roof before restoration, and four posas
the Aymara kgopa and kgivana (rock from stand in the atrium corners. There is also an
217
where one sees). Protected from winds and open domed structure, like a huge outdoor
open to the sun it has a genial climate, which baldachin (at the right of the gateway), which
seems an impossibility to one remembering doubtless functioned as an open chapel. It
Puno, the harsh, at the other end of the lake contains an altar and a large cross, and a few
at the same altitude. statues of an apostolado remain around the
Copacabana's famous shrine, like the one in cornice of its dome.
Esquipulas, Guatemala (see PL 72), was a reli- The lanterns and cupolas are covered with
gious pilgrim place long before the Spaniards modern jade-green tiles, probably in the tra-
took over. In both, large basilicas replaced the dition of earlier decoration, and pottery vases
pagan temples, and both still attract visitors of the same color are placed as finials along
from distant places. Here the cult centers the edge of the walls. Colonial ware from
about a statue of the Virgin which was carved nearby Pucara has a beautiful green tone, and
around 1576 by the Indian Tito Yupanqui, a even today that village and its neighbor Aya-
native of Copacabana who worked in La Paz. viri manufacture earthenware animal figures,
A few years was brought to

later the figure toys, and candlesticks, often colored a fine
Copacabana, and soon miraculous powers were green though crudely painted and glazed.
attributed to it. At that time a Via Crucis led Especial interest attaches to the side altar
up from the lake to a Calvary with three (dated 1618), which stands at the left of the
crosses, much revered. The royal permit to principal entrance (fig. a). Seemingly this was
build a sanctuary was issued to the Augois- the main altar of the earlier chapel, and it con-
tinians in the 1580's, and shortly afterward tinues to be a favorite of the Aymara Indians
they commenced a custodianship that contin- today. Stylistically it resembles some of the
ued for almost two hundred and forty years. work in Juli. It was made bv the friar Juan
During the early decades of independence the Viscaino and painted by Dionisio Sebastian
place was in the hands of various religious Acosta Inca, an Indian as his name implies.
orders; by 1842 the Franciscans from La Paz A Donatello freshness marks the entire plastic
had assumed the guardianship, and thev still composition. Angels adorn the spandrels of the
216
hold it. central niche; the classical egg-and-dart pat-
The large chapel, begun in 16 14 and finished tern is rather originally applied above the edge
four years later, is now incorporated into one of the shell. On either side of this niche medal-
of the transepts of the basilica. Its capacity lions in polvchromed stucco portray sibyls,
proved inadequate for the masses of pilgrims, studies in costume and hairdo. Of the thirteen
and in 1668 a trulv monumental building com- ancient prophetesses, the six who appear here
plex (PI. 123, fig. b) was started under the seem to be, starting at the upper left: the
architect Francisco Jimenez de Sigiienza and Erythraean, who spoke scornfully of pagan
the patronage of Viceroy Lemos; it was in- wisdom; the Cumaean, prophetess of the
augurated in 1678, but construction continued. Golden Age of Christ's coming; the Cuma-
[8<
nian, often depicted with a cross; the Samian, graph shows clearly the domical vaults that
who sometimes carried a cradle; the Lybian, cover the arcade, as well as the battlement-
who proclaimed the Light of the World; and like crenellation on the roof.
Agrippina, who foretold the conversion of This basilica is the scene of pilgrimages on
strange lands. The Virgin's statue in the niche holy days, when Mass is said every hour and
is dressed in modern garments, but crown
the columns of pilgrims, coming and going, people
and the silver basket, appurtenances of La the landscape. The environs are dotted with
Merced, appear to be of colonial workmanship. wayside crosses and shrines, many of which
The main retable (fig. d), finished in 1684, are temporary, erected specially for the great
is unusually high, filling the apse completely. processions of the fiestas.
Its columns are heavily encrusted with carv- As the traveler proceeds southeast toward
ing; broken pediments, heavy scrolls, and or- the outlet of Lake Titicaca, the road follows
nate medallions bespeak the Baroque. The about the same route aswas used in pre-
earlier type of images in wood is found, Columbian times. On the border between Peru
carved half in the round against a plain gilded and Bolivia lies the village of Desaguardero.
background, together with canvas paintings Here passage across the river was early effected
and statues placed in deep niches. Note the by means of a floating bridge, first constructed
atlantes beneath the overhanging cornices in in 60 on the order of the Inca Capac Yu-
1 1
the first order, thrusting boldly forward and panqui. It was in service in the first quarter
extending beyond the line of the moldings of the seventeenth century, made of heavy
(see also PL 189). The central silver frame strands of reeds bound together, much in the
and the tabernacle are out of harmony. No manner used for the native balsas, and was
doubt some changes occurred in the latter half renewed and strengthened twice a year by
81
of the nineteenth century and again in 1924, local Indians. As the lake is left behind, the
when large-scale restoration was undertaken land descends and a broad view of a vast arid
on the occasion of the first centenary of Bo- plateau opens ahead. The slanting rays of the
livian independence. Nevertheless the retable afternoon sun bring out strange shapes of
retains considerable individuality as a result yellow, red-brown, or gray in sand and stone.
of the fusion of local and imported motifs. On the horizon of this Martian landscape
(Compare PL 109.) The decorative ribbed stand, like a gigantic screen, the snow-covered
vaulting of the interior, in late Gothic tradi- peaks of the Cordillera Real. The road winds
tion, is visible in this photograph. toward the most lofty and fantastic in shape,
More homogeneity can be observed in the the Illimani, more than 21,000 feet high. As
retable that covers the corner pier at the right the details of this giant emerge, the traveler
of the apse (fig. c), below one of the penden- comes upon the city of La Paz, lying in a deep
tives of the large dome. Here the columns are and sudden ravine, its electric lamps glittering
twisted and garlanded with grapes. Especially in the dusk of the narrow valley, eclipsed by
the relief of the penitent Magdalene and the the towering mountain tops still red with the
elegant spirals exhibit the high standard of setting sun.
late-seventeenth-century craftsmanship. La Ciudad de Nuestra Senora de la Paz was
founded in 1548 as an important rest station
Copacabana's single-story cloister, with its on the journey to or from Potosi. Its history
air of meditation, harks back to the earlier is full of struggle and bloodshed, battles be-
period; it is important because most colonial tween Indians and Spaniards and later between
cloisters received a second story in the eight- political factions within the independent na-
eenth century, or even before, obliterating the tion. Since the turn of the present century
original aspect (PL 124, fig. c). The photo- La Paz has developed into the active center
[186]
VICEREGAL PERU II
of government, finance, and society, though the central vault. Several benefactors of this
Sucre is still the legal capital of the country. church are recorded, especially one Diego
The La Paz River— originally called the Baena y Antipara, a wealthy mine owner who
Choqueyapu— runs through the canyon, divid- contributed more than half a million silver
208
ing the city. In the early seventeenth century pesos towards its But not one name
erection.
the Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, of the artists and craftsmen connected with
Mercedarians, and Jesuits all had establish- the work has come to light.
ments here. Construction on a Franciscan The church of Santo Domingo, lying in the
church and monastery was started in 1549 in northern portion of the old town where the
the Indian quarter— which still surrounds it— Spanish and Creoles lived, shows a facade
but the buildings were not finished until the strongly regional in style (fig. d). It served
first years of the following century. In 16 12 as the cathedral for more than a century
the church collapsed. The present edifice prob- ( 1 830-1 932) while La Paz, like many other
ably was begun around 1743. According to Latin American cities, was building a Greco-
an inscription, the dome was finished in 1753; Roman imitation.
another date, 1772, is found in the choir vault. The Dominicans set up a priory here and
The building was consecrated in 1784. began to build their church in the first decade
iMore than a decade ago the distinguished of the seventeenth century; reportedly the
scholar .Mario J. Buschiazzo noted similarities architect of the Copacabana sanctuary, Jime-
220
in the ornamentation of this church and that nez de Siguenza, later assisted in the work.
of certain churches in the Titicaca region. Within an arched recess are a trefoil portal
In the facade the central doorway (fig. b) and four niches, the latter today unfortunately
shows relationship to Santiago Pomata in the closed with cement. Larger elements are used
undulant spray on the two jambs, the fronds in this carving than on the fac/ade of San
on the multifoil arch, the puma heads below Francisco and in a warmer and more sweep-
the columns, and notably in the monster heads ing manner. The grape design seems almost
among the fernlike leaves on the spandrels. rambling, and many of the motifs have a
Wethey points out that the columns wound vagueness of line, especially in the second
with spiral bands suggest carving at Puno and story. Most unusual are the large parrots
Juli (see Pis. 116, 121). On the other hand, pressed into the space on either side of the
the second story offers a different scheme- choir-light, flat and unrealistic but highly
bold medallions that include grotesque figures. decorative. Every protruding angle of the
In ground plan, too, the Franciscan church at cornices is developed into a puma head, remi-
La Paz is quite different: it is rectangular, a niscent of pre-Columbian carving. Mid-
three-aisled basilica, while the others men- eighteenth century is suggested as the date
tioned here are cruciform. for this building; the tenor of its decoration
Inside, the carving, though much less elab- suggests palaces in La Paz and Potosi (see
orate, is even more closely related to that of PL 126).
Santiago in Pomata. The dome is constructed Sucre, southeast from La Paz, lies in a broad
in a similar fashion and divided into four major valley at an altitude of over 9,000 feet. The
and four minor fields for decoration. In both place is often called the City of Four Names,
churches the pendentives carry great rlower- for in the course of its history it has been
filled vases almost identical, and some of the known as Chuquisaca, Charcas, La Plata, and
bosses bear the same irregular star-shaped finally Sucre, in honor of General Antonio
flower. Jose de Sucre (1795-1830), a lieutenant of
Panes of translucent alabaster, used instead Bolivar. Founded in 1538 on the site of the
of glass, are still preserved in the windows of Indian village of Chuquichaca (golden bridge)
[ 187]
the city was the oldest Spanish settlement in some 350,000,000 gold pesos paid to the Span-
this region and was destined to be an im- ish crown as the royal fifth assessed on the
portant stationbetween Lima and Buenos metal from its mines, it earned the title of
Aires. Its proximity to fabulous Potosi added Very Loyal Imperial City. In the first half of
to its prosperity and its prominence. As the the seventeenth century the population reached
capital of the province of Charcas and the its maximum, 160,000— one Spanish household
186
seat of the audiencia, it had full administrative, for every 10,000 souls. Thereafter it slowly
military, and religious staff's. A mint dating declined, until in 1825 there were no more
from 1572, a spacious well-outfitted town hall, than 8,000.
and an impressive archiepiscopal palace are It lies at the foot of the famous Cerro Rico
mentioned by Vazquez. Indian artisans plied (rich hill) in a harsh and restless landscape
the trades of silversmiths, silk weavers, potters, full of jagged rocky hills, fantastic in the sharp
tailors, shoemakers, and carpenters; and more light of the overhead sun and the weird per-
than a hundred mulattoes and sambos lived in spective (see PL i2j). No
of this altitude
the city. crops grow within some twenty-five miles of
Sucre's University of San Francisco Javier the city; in its most prosperous days it was a
was founded in 1624, the fourth in Spanish paradise for merchants. Supplies poured in
America, and was under the charge of the from outlying valleys, from Cuzco, and even
Jesuits in 1767 when they were expelled from from Arica on the Pacific coast. It is reckoned
the Spanish colonies. Soon after it became that at the end of the sixteenth century more
a royal academy, and members
later some of its than two thousand Indians were requisitioned
played important roles in the movement for yearly from the region around Chucuito for
independence. Its buildings have been mod- forced labor in the Potosi mines. They fur-
ernized with the exception of the cloister nished their own supplies, each coming with
(fig. a). This section, constructed largely of a packtrain of fifteen to twenty llamas, most
stone, has two different orders of columns in of which eventually were slaughtered for food.
the two galleries of its somewhat somber method of processing the
In 1573 the "patio"
arcades; through a doubling of the arches ore with mercury was instituted and traffic
in the upper story a change of rhythm was began to deliver this precious material to Potosi
achieved. The tower beyond, which belongs from Huancavelica eight hundred miles away.
to the former Compafiia, now the church of The safest route for its delivery, as finally
San Miguel, is imposing in outline, though decided, ran from Huancavelica down to
today it is repainted to imitate stone— a ques- Chincha on the Pacific, then bv ship to the
tionable refurbishment. port of Arica, and finally by llama train again
into the mountains to Potosi; in 1603 over
The story of the city of Potosi, situated in three hundred Indians and five thousand ani-
the Bolivian Andes at an altitude of more than mals were required for this traffic. Mercury
13,600 feet and four hundred miles from the had priority for shipment; when the year's
nearest seaport, is perhaps the most incredible supply was safe, the transport of merchandise
in the Spanish colonial world. According to was a sure and lucrative investment. A return
legend, silver was found here in Inca times of 1,000 per cent was not unusual in this
but was not exploited because a thunderous market, the most unscrupulous in the New-
voice forbade it, saying that the precious metal World. 210
must be kept for a later comer; thenceforth Potosi was situated, roughly, midway be-
the place was called Potosi (noise). The Span- tween Lima and Buenos Aires, some 1,200
iards founded the city (1547) on discovering miles from the former and around 1,600 from
the ore. Fifteen years later, in recognition of the latter. Although Lima controlled the mo-
[188]
VICEREGAL PERU II
nopolv of commerce for the whole vicerovaltv pania's plastic elements stand out with special
and ships were forbidden to enter at Buenos vigor against the plain wall of rose-colored
Aires, as time went on the Atlantic port served stone, unmarred bv whitewash. The repertory
more and more as a "back door"' for profitable of motifs is richer than at Santa Teresa; in
trade in both directions. places its columns are coupled and its niches
In Potosi the Andean mestizo style reached are framed with petaled rosettes. The tym-
its last impressive station. Of the thirtv panum above the entrance is semicircular and
churches, monasteries, and nunneries here is flanked bv two semicircular bases topped
when the great past was the living present, with large leafy finials. Human faces are woven
some are todav in ruins, others are closed, and into the side garlands. The two-story espa-
one has even been converted into a moving- dafia, rising 1
1
; feet above street level, is a
picture theater. .Most of the ecclesiastical and monument in itself, decorated with twisted
manv of the civil buildings are decorated in columns even inside the largest bell arch.
the regional stvle. manifesting variations in Xo documentation has vet been found for
accordance with changing tastes and the talents the dating of La Merced {fig. b), but gen-
of the craftsmen; a notable exception is the erally it is placed in the last quarter of the
nineteenth-centurv cathedral (see PL 10). seventeenth century. The retable arrangement
The Carmelite church of Santa Teresa was of the facade, with two niches one above the
founded in 16S5. and the tvmpanum over the other in the first storv and a small niche under
nunnerv door bears the date 1692— a few years the window, reminiscent of San Francisco in
earlier than Arequipa's Compania— but the La Paz. is not unusual in Potosi. It is a ques-
facade of the church (PL 125, fig. a) mav be tion whether the portal originally stood under
214
somewhat later. It is constructed of brick an arch or. as today, beneath a protecting
and stone, whitewashed, and is not the retable gable. Its restrained ornamentation contains a
tvpe. The portal is ornamented with small all- blend of various familiar motifs, rather sug-
over patterns, and the more ornate upper gestive of wood carving, and makes its con-
section is connected with the lower through tribution to the variety offered here. At the
lambrequin-like corbels. The belfrv— a true left the tall belfrv, which dates from a con-
flying facade— almost doubles the height of siderably earlier time, stands separate, without
the building. Single twisted columns flank its ornamentation— an infrequent occurrence.
bold arches and small carved stone tablets
enrich the walls. The scroll-like wings at the As has already been seen, civic buildings
sides, vaguely suggestive of towers, make an also displayed the regional stvle. The House
effective transition to the belfrv. of the Corregidor in Potosi (PL 126, fig. a)
Scrolls and leaves, carved in low but clean immediately captures the eve with its lacelike
relief, adorn the frame of the nunnerv door- caning, which even several thick layers of
way (fig. c). The pediment above it seems whitewash do not obscure. This was the office
somewhat detached. Three ornamental stone of the town's mavor in colonial times, and the
panels display the arms of the order and carvers outdid themselves in producing a pleas-
probably those of its local founders and sup- ing aspect. Two of its three portals— all dif-
14
porters.- ferent—are visible in the photograph. The
The decorative tendency seen in the facade more distant has peculiar pilasters with undu-
of Santa Teresa comes to a more ebullient lating profiles. Short columns and sections of
effect in La Compania {fig. d)\ its portal and pilasters on different levels produce an effec-
tower are dated 1 -00-1-07. The carver was tive play of light and shadow. Note the large
the Indian Sebastian de la Cruz, who was also windows with iron grilles above each door-
connected with San Francisco Potosi. La Com- way and the beautifully carved panels of the
[189]
wooden balcony in the foreground. In the pent; in the spandrels are abstract figures, also
third entrance, which stands to the right of with pre-Columbian echoes. The tall column
the balcony, the pilasters with undulating (one of two flanking the stairway) is banded
lines are repeated and a massive carved pedi- with a medallion featuring a heraldic bird,
ment carrying a heraldic device rises under and above the capital the mask on the block
the gable. in the frieze section may be a puma head.
Imposing in its primeval quality is the portal These palaces bespeak authority, culture,
of the National Bank in Potosi (fig. d), built and wealth. At the same time thev reflect,
( 1 750-1 785)
as a residence for the Marquis perhaps more clearly than many of the ecclesi-
214
Otavi. Here, as elsewhere in this area, astic edifices, the powerful differences of the
spiraling bands give the columns a twisted region— racial, climatic, and material— as well
appearance (see also PL 116). The arch is as its remoteness from the motherland.
framed with blocks containing large four-
petaled rosettes; similarly uncomplicated are The church of San Lorenzo in Potosi has
the patterns of the side garlands. In the heraldic two towers and a central pediment; the latter
composition the two lions seem to be hanging was struck by lightning in 1896 and later re-
from the shield instead of upholding it. Espe- stored. In ground plan it is a cruciform struc-
ciallynoteworthv are the moon with a star ture, with a dome at the crossing and three
212
and the full-faced sun on the blocks above the half-domes over the apse and transepts.
capitals; between them the frieze is filled with According to history a church dedicated to
stars and a cherub head. This ornamentation San Lorenzo stood on this site as early as 547- 1
as a whole is developed in the same way as 1552. Many scholars regard the facade of the
on church portals; compare the three-cornered present church (PL 127, fig. a) as the culmina-
fern motif in the spandrels with that on La tion of Hispano-American art— the masterpiece
Merced just seen. of the Andean mestizo style. Its portal stands
Another sun face occupies the center of the within a sheltering arched recess. The pedestals
lintel in the doorway of the Herrera mansion of the columns are high and slender, each
(fig. c), now a part of the university in Potosi. carrying a panel of small motifs; the moldings
The carving here, with its double outlines, is protrude sharplv, isolating this lower section
extremely delicate throughout, reminiscent of somewhat from that above. Ornate finials on
work in wax. The motifs emerge from two semicircular bases top the main columns (com-
vases at the bottom;two birds are worked in pare Pis. 10 j, 125). We have seen columns
among the foliage. The design above the neo- divided by crowns or rings and sometimes
Mudejar arch is skillfully composed into its each section differently treated; usually the
limited space. A medallion in the upper right- heaviest decoration has been placed in the
hand corner carries the date 1781. lowest third. In San Lorenzo the upper por-
The former city palace of the Marquis tion is transformed into a caryatid with arms
Villaverde (fig. b), in La Paz, is judged as akimbo, exotically costumed in a flounced
somewhat earlier, about mid-eighteenth cen- skirt. Below it more of a twist is attempted
tury. The photograph shows one corner of the than is usual in this region, though here too
patio, just at the right of the stairway of honor, the effectis augmented bv a spiraling band.
which up to an open corridor in the

leads Masks look out from among the leaves of the
second story. The stone columns of the arcade entwining garlands. Two other carvatides,
are carved with festoons that end in bunches with leafy bases as pedestals, are worked out on
of grapes, and the balustrade carries a broad- the piers of the arch, taking the place of inner
leaved garland spreading out from a central columns. In the second order the single niche,
vase, its undulating stem suggestive of a ser- containing a statue of St. Michael, harmonizes
[ 190]
VICEREGAL PERU II
in build-up with the doorway below it. On pean. The quality of the stone itself— soft when
the flat surface of the background an opulent quarried and hardening upon exposure— con-
yet homogeneous effect is achieved by a repe- tributed to this difference, for a sculptor could
tition of motifs in many separated fields. One use his tools on it in a very different way or
of the richest and most varied of side garlands perhaps even employ tools which in Europe
is to be seen on this facade; the favorite vases were more commonly applied to wood carving.
of flowers are included, but much subordi- By now it is obvious that the term Andean
nated. mestizo style includes a wide variety of re-
Above these side garlands are two mermaids gional characteristics. On La Compania in
playing the native charango. The sun is carved Arequipa (see PL ioj) the motifs are shallow-
over the head of one, the moon over the other, cut and cover a broad surface; one is placed
and the space around them is studded with beside another in a somewhat casual sequence,
stars. In these symbols Marco Dorta sees reas on a sampler. A larger variety of motifs,
minders of the redemption on Golgotha and made up of small elements, and much more
the promise of Heaven. Herein lies perhaps an figural representation can be seen at Zepita
explanation for the presence of those mysteri- (see PL 122); here more closely
the patterns are
ous creatures, the mermaids, so favored in interwoven and the carving more deeply is
certain regions of Spanish America yet seem- undercut. On Puno's cathedral (see PL 116)
inglv out of context amid a galaxy of holy powerful architectural members— free-standing
figures. The same symbolism is borne out in columns and shelving cornices— are placed
Milton's lines from "At a Solemn Musick": against a background of fine continuous
"Blest pair of sirens, pledges of heavenly tracery. The portal of San Lorenzo in Potosi
joy. . .
" shows an all-over covering and a preference
The facade is dated 1 728-1 744 in an inscrip- for small elements; its effect is that of filigree,
tion at the very top, above the images of the sometimes even approaching the appearance of
patron saint and St. Vincent. It speaks the work in wax, and its design is among the best
same regional idiom as many other colonial integrated in this group. The lower sections
buildings but with greater eloquence. Jose of the cathedral and El Belen in Cajamarca
Kondori has been named as its sculptor, but are comparable in the virility of their regional
no documentation has ever been offered in manner (see Pis. j, 103).
substantiation. It has also been suggested that Through the present-day demand for tin,
he must have come from the tropical lowlands Potosi has recovered some of its former im-
of Mojos, in Bolivia, and have been expert in portance. Mining in silver, copper, and lead
carving and inlaying wood in the produc- also is carried on here, and the population has
219
tion of furniture. Be that as it may, it is increased to about thirty-five thousand. Its
clear not only that he had fully digested the tile-roofed houses of one or two stories, facing
idiom of the Andean mestizo style but also one another across narrow and often crooked
that he added certain flourishes out of his own streets, have preserved in stone the great epoch
talent and imagination. The section of the city when Baroque was a living expression. In the
in which the building stands has always been cityscape (fig. b) one can see the cathedral
an Indian quarter, and there can be little doubt (right center) ; toward the
La Compania, left is
that the carver was a mestizo if not an Indian. and somewhat farther domes and rise the flat
To this author it seems that he was not so arched roofs of the Casa de Moneda, the fa-
much imitating the manner of wood carving mous mint. Against the mineral color of tree-
—though he probably worked also in that less hills, the various cupolas and towers, the
material— as he was approaching his task with clustered roofs, and the outlines of patios all
a different tactile sense from that of a Euro- combine into a picture that stays with the trav-
[ 191 ]
eler long after the colonial bridge has been recess, turret-like pinnacles and a dome, as
crossed on the way south. Before the Argen- well as a small atrium enclosed in an adobe
tine border is reached, the landscape becomes wall. In this church, which faces the highway
milder. One passes haciendas, vineyards, and still called Camino de los Incas, is buried the
orchards; but the massive range of the Andes last roval governor of the region.
still marks the horizon. As in Mexico the large estates, whether civil
or ecclesiastical, each had its chapel, the quality

San Salvador de Jujuv, capital of the north- of the architecture depending on the pros-
ernmost province of Argentina, is situated perity of the land. Sugar cane, wheat, corn,
where the rough country ends and the great and grapes were grown here, and cattle and
plains begin. The terrain, desolate and semi- mules were bred for the mines in the High
arid in places, is populated largely bv mestizos Andes— an old industry. Here also were gath-
and Indians. Jujuy was founded in 1593 on ered as many Indians as possible from the sur-
81
the site of a Quechua village. In the early rounding countrv7 to be instructed in the
seventeenth century it had about a hundred Christian religion; their settlements were called
Spanish residents, most of them muleteers who redncciones, or missions. Since the area was
freighted flour, grain, cheese, and other food- sparsely populated, the center of one estate
stuffs to the Potosi mines high above. Thriving lay far from the next and post stations or relay
mule and cattle ranches lav nearby. Ox-drawn houses were established to provide the traveler
carts traveled not only into the mountains but at the end of a full day's journey with shelter
also as far as Buenos Aires, about 1,500 miles. and food for his party and his animals. Many
From this province down to the Atlantic of these stations had existed in Inca times,
two tendencies can be noticed in the arts: called tampus, with a caretaker on the premises
trends brought in direct from the Old World and supplies of firewood, blankets, corn, and
bv way of the Atlantic ports— especially by water. Indeed the tampus greatly aided the
Jesuits in the eighteenth century— and the au- advance of the Conquistadores in Peru. During
tochthonous influence from the High Andes. colonial davs the administration kept up these
In the latter case local flora and fauna were inns and built new ones where the need arose.
stvlized in the archaizing art of the people. The system began to fall to pieces only in the
(For an example see the eighteenth-century first half of the nineteenth century, when it
pulpit from the Rosario chapel at Jujuy on was no longer of pressing interest to the sep-
PL 182.) arate republican governments to maintain such

Although the colonial monuments in Argen- close and relatively easy connections.
tina may not show the range in originalitv The inn at Sinsacate (fig. c), not far from
which is to be found in certain other Spanish Cordoba, is such a colonial rest house. This
American countries, scholars there have inves- drawn-out single-storv building, constructed
tigated the field with praiseworthy thorough- of brick, adobe, tile, and wood, has high spa-
ness and illuminated many significant points. cious rooms to insure coolness, one large
(The reader with a special interest in this area dining room, and quarters for servants. A
is referred to the Bibliography.) chapel with a free-standing belfrv adjoins it,
Southwest of Jujuv, in the Calchaqui Vallev, entered through an arched recess which con-
lies the small settlement of Molinos (the mills). stitutes a vestibule. Square columns support
In this smiling countrv the somberness of the the slanting roof, forming the colonnade to a
altiplano is broken and even oranges are culti- wide brick-paved corridor which runs in front
vated. The parish church of Molinos (PL 128, of the rooms for shade and cleanliness.
-fig. b), of adobe brick, shows characteristics This type of chapel, modest in size and
of the Andean area: two towers, an arched built of local material by local labor, can be
[92]
VICEREGAL PERU II
found inmany areas of the Spanish colonial and scrolled buttresses— strongly simplified de-
empire. One example (fig. a), on the other vices of European Baroque— somewhat out of
side of the Andes, is situated near Huaras, proportion with other parts of the complex.
Peru, about 220 miles northeast of Lima at an The single-nave interior manifests a certain
altitude of nearly 1 1 ,000 feet. But while the stolidity, which, however, is neither crude
outer shell of these buildings more or less nor awkward. Today the ranch buildings are
follows a general scheme, the interior decora- in ruins, overgrown with destructive subtrop-
tion usually reflects local talent. ical vegetation, but they still show massive
The reducciones near Cordoba were con- high arches and other remnants of substantial
nected with a vast chain of missions in a terri- construction.
tory which was then entirely under Jesuit Alta Gracia, at an altitude of only 1,920
control and is now part of Paraguay, Argen- feet, also near Cordoba, was another settle-
tina, and Brazil. .Members of the order cir- ment for converted Indians. Juan Nieto had
culated freely and with them went their an estate there in 1588, called by its Indian
architects and artists, instructing the Indians name Parauachasca. His successors improved
how to build, carve, and paint. Young ecclesi- the property and in 1643 presented it to the
astics just out of seminaries came hither to Jesuits. That order installed a system of irri-
213
gain experience with land and people. Upon gation and set up a mill for the weaving of
the expulsion of the order (1767) many of wool and cotton cloth to provide apparel not
these missions fell into disrepair and ruin. only for the inhabitants but also for members
Santa Catalina (fig. d) is perhaps the most of the Jesuit college in Cordoba. The follow-
elaborate of the Jesuit establishments in the ing workshops were active: a carpentry shop,
hills around Cordoba. It was founded in 1622 an iron foundry capable of casting bells, a lime
for the maintenance of a novitiate; but the kiln, a brick kiln, and five looms; in addition
complex as it now stands was not completed there were printing presses, an apparatus for
213
until after mid-eighteenth century. The por- soap making, a dispensary, and a barber shop.
tal of the residence bears the date 1726, and Among the peons and personnel were num-
it is believed that the church was commenced bered 140 Negroes and 170 Negresses. The
about 1754 and finished shortly before the ex- estate— by no means the largest in the region
pulsion, with the assistance of Anton Harls, —owned nearly 4,000 head of cattle, over 5,000
a German. In this region the influence of the sheep, 1,300 mules, and nearly as many horses,
two Italian Jesuits, Andres Blanqui and Juan besides goats and several thousand domesti-
Bautista Primoli, who were active in the com- cated fowl. 213 As is clear, these reducciones
pletion of the main part of Cordoba's cathe- raised much more produce than they— or even
dral (see PL 9), must be taken into considera- the mother church in the city— needed and
tion. A somewhat protruding portal enlivens the surplus was traded in commerce. In 18 10
the two-towered fagade of the church. The Alta Gracia was bought by the viceroy Santi-
central pediment is characterized by graceful ago de Liniers y Bremond, a Frenchman who
undulating lines, which are echoed in the es- had commanded the Spanish fleet in the de-
padana above it. An imposing approach leads feat of the English in Argentina.
up to the atrium, as if to a Baroque theater. The church at Alta Gracia (fig. e) was fin-
Emphasis on rounded shapes is evident— in the ished about 1762 after designs drawn by An-
finials, the balustrade, the decoration on the dres Blanqui. Curving stairways provide a dra-
espadana, and the deep quatrefoil windows in matic approach. The long-drawn-out nave is
the towers. covered with barrel vaulting. Again the dome
\ view of the one-storv cloister (fig. f) is massive and provided with large windows
shows the bulging dome, with its large lantern and a tall lantern. Twin pilasters, undecorated,
[93]
extend the full height of the facade. There cedar brought from Paraguay, the exclusive
is no free-standing espadafia, but a section of mission territory of the order; it is said to have
the wall curves down on either side, mak- been constructed by the Belgian friar Felipe
ing the upper story seem part of a decorative Lemer. 213 The barrel vaulting and the cupola
gable. The gateway also is worthy of note, (fig. c) have remarkable elegance and warmth
with its flaring stairway and espadana-like of line, enhanced by the rich tonality of the
crown. The belfry is at the rear of the church. painted decoration, which suggests some man-
Both Santa Catalina and Alta Gracia evoke uscript border. Representations of the Evan-
reminiscences of rustic churches in Central gelists occupy the pendentives. (For the pul-
America and Mexico (see PL 49). It is regret- pit in this church see PL 183.)
table that their interiors, like others still to Buenos Aires was the eastern terminus of
be discussed in this chapter, were so thor- the Royal Highway. Pedro de Mendoza, with
oughly restored in the last century that much a contract from Charles V for the settlement
of the original flavor disappeared. of the lands bordering the Bay of Rio de la
Across the eastern range of the Andes lay Plata, founded the city in 1536 and named it
the Captaincy-General of Chile. Comparatively Puerto de Santa Maria del Buen Aire (the
little art from the seventeenth and eighteenth port of St. Mary of the Good Breeze), patron-
207
centuries has been preserved here. ess of sailors. But quarrels among the settlers,
harassment by Indians, and fires all led to the
Cordoba de la Nueva Andalucia, located in abandonment of the site five years later for
the center of Argentina at the heart of a vast Asuncion in Paraguay. In 1580 Buenos Aires
and immensely rich agricultural area, was was refounded. Forty years later local gov-
founded in 1573 by Spaniards crossing the ernment was granted and in many matters the
Andes. 211
It was named for the Spanish town settlement became independent from western
where the governor's wife was born. The Argentina. At this time it is described as hav-
Jesuits established themselves there in the first ing about two hundred Spanish residents;
third of the seventeenth century and finished wheat, corn, various fruits, and wine were
their "domestic chapel" about 1670. The produced nearby, and the country was full
mother church for the whole region (PL 129, of game— partridge, quail, pheasant, turkey,
fig. a) also may have been commenced at that guinea hen, rabbit, and deer. Around mid-
time. It was dedicated in 167 1, and its towers eighteenth century, though it had a popula-
bear the dates 1673 and 1674. tion of over ten thousand, its administrative
Recently the high angular facade of the jurisdiction was still confined largely to local
building was reconstructed to recapture its affairs. Its sea trade was restricted in favor
colonial aspect. It is built of irregular stones of Lima's, and ruthless duties were imposed
tinged a faint rose; the archivolts around the even on overland commerce. To such unfair
doors and windows are of brick. Above the treatment may be attributed, in part, the disin-
stark horizontal of the cornice rise two bel- clination of Argentina to co-operate with her
fries. Three widely separated entrances indi- sister republics in Latin America. But in spite
cate the three aisles within. The arrangement of restraints the colonial city throve. Goods
of the second-storv windows is similar to that smuggled in from Spain and other European
in some Brazilian churches; in Spanish Amer- lands, with or without the consent of cor-
ica at this date such a design was rare. (Com- rupt officials, made up a lucrative business.
pare Pis. 10, 111.) It is a matter of dispute The traffic was profitable enough in the sec-
whether a sheathing of stone was originally ond half of the seventeenth century to invite
intended for this facade or not. attacks by French, Portuguese, and Danish
Inside the building, the entire ceiling is of freebooters. By 1770 Buenos Aires ranked as
[i94]
VICEREGAL PERU II
the fourth citv in the Yicerovalty of Peru, all the same size, lead into a vestibule. Pro-
surpassed only bv Lima, Cuzco, and Santiago truding scrolls used as pilasters—echoes of the
de Chile. In i"6 it became the capital of the Italian Baroque— serve as central columns. On
Vicerovaltv of Rio de la Plata, the last in the the second storv the two panels to the right
New World, comprising present-dav Argen- and left of the window contain, in stucco relief.
tina. Bolivia. Paraguay, and Uruguay. vases of flowers, true Rococo in design. The
It prospered especially under the viceroy espadana, somewhat dwarfed by the towers,
Juan Jose de Vertiz y Salcedo (ruled 177&- is high and narrow, again like those along the
1784), who was born in .Mexico, one of the Brazilian coast; it has even a balcony before
few viceroys not a native Spaniard. He was the arch and, at the top, a large cross. An in-
active in effecting the exploration and settle- ventors* made shortly after the Jesuit expul-
ment of outlying regions. He introduced street sion shows that the embellishment of the
lighting into the capital— bv oil and candles— church was then far from complete; altars
and had the streets paved and even sidewalks were ungilded and many of the statues and
laid. Under his direction the liberalization of paintings were makeshift. 218
the teaching in the university came under Pausing at this Jesuit church one might well
discussion. He was an enthusiast of the theater, ponder again on the validity of the term "Jes-
which he considered the best school for the uit style" as applied to Latin American archi-
purity of language and for manners, and he tecture, in the face of the diversity found in
granted permission for a slave market to be the Compafiias of Cordoba, Salvador, Havana.
transformed into a house for comedies; as Bogota. Quito. Cuzco. and Juli (see Pis. 9, 10,
may well be imagined, the sophisticated and 25, 99, 109,119).

biting tone of some of the Rococo plavs was The former quinta. or country villa, of Gen-
not always to the taste of officialdom and the eral Juan Martin de Puevrredon (fig. d) stands
75
clergy. Buenos Aires then had nearly twenty- in the suburb of San Isidro, overlooking the
five thousand inhabitants, and in the country Rio de la Plata, twelve miles from Buenos
round about were thirteen thousand more. Aires. It has much of a posta about it. A solid
But its davs as viceregal capital were too dis- and unpretentious edifice, it reflects the so-
turbed and too short for the erection of mon- ciable air of the iiineteenth-centurv bourgeois,
uments comparable to those in .Mexico, Lima, with the emphasis on hospitality. A small cot-
or even Bogota. Furthermore, throughout its tage stood here at the end of the eighteenth
whole existence it lacked the mineral wealth century. In the early nineteenth a wing was
which brought spectacular prosperity* to cities built by a new owner, the wealthy Spanish
like Potosi. merchant whose daughter married General
One of the least changed of the capital's Puevrredon. As a loyal Spanish colonial offi-
colonial churches is San Ignacio. or La Com- cial. Puevrredon fought valiantly at the side
pania (fig. b), an important Jesuit center that of Liniers against the English, but later he
enjoyed wide influence until the expulsion. became a champion of liberation under Jose
The large three-aisled edifice was commenced de San Martin. The estate remained for some
in 1- 10 by the Jesuit Juan Kraus. a native of time in the hands of this family. About 1840
Pilsen, Bohemia, and it was consecrated about a son who had studied architecture in Europe
twenty-two years later. Among the archi- added the colonnade. Carefully restored in
tects who worked on this church were a the last decade, the quinta museum. 20®is now a
number of Germans and Italians, including Our architectural pilgrimage, which started
Primoli, already mentioned in connection with on the Pacific coast of Peru, mounted to the
1
1 he facade underwent changes even high valleys of the Andes, and then crossed
into the twentieth century. Its three entrances, the pampas, comes to an end at the Bay of
[195]
Rio de la Plata on the Atlantic. We have seen from Europe, most of these edifices have an
churches of basilican dimensions and modest individuality of detail and a rugged rusticity
adobe chapels of forsaken missions, orientally which set them apart from the architecture of
lavish palaces and thatched-roof houses with the Old World and differentiate them also
mud walls. In spite of ground plans, structural from buildings seen in Mexico and Central
elements, and decorative motifs which derive America.
[196]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
TJLh
he .
bols painted
sails of Columbus' ships had holy sym-
on them, and banners bearing
ifestations
proached
was the three-dimensional ap-
contemporary Europe. The In-
as in
pictures of Christ, the Virgin, and the saints dian, who showed such a mature sense of
landed in the New World with the Conquista- three-dimensionality" in his sculpture and mod-
dores. Thus painting in the European sense eling, had not come upon the manner of cre-
appeared on the American scene with the first ating the illusion of depth in painting by fore-
Spanish invaders, to run a spectacular course. shortening and the application of shadows.
To make such emblems was part of the Span- For that matter neither did Chinese, Egyptian,
ish painter's trade; Pacheco as a young man Indian, and Persian painting use it. How
(towards the close of the sixteenth century) strange and unnatural the chiaroscuro of a
decorated standards of crimson damask, thirty Rembrandt appeared to a Chinese connoisseur
to fifty ells in length, with the royal coat of of art, newly arrived in Europe, is manifest
arms and the figure of Santiago Matamoros for from his remark that the old man in the por-
the vovagers to the "Indies." The earliest trait must have been very poor since he had
chroniclers of the Conquest of Mexico relate soap enough to wash only half of his face.
that pagan idols smashed by the Spaniards were Even in Europe that ingenious combination
at once replaced with an engraving or a wood- of design and color which produces perspec-
cut of the "gentle figure" of the Mother of the tive was not achieved until the Renaissance.
Christian God. 94 Later, as the pacification of Oil painting is the flower of luxury among
the colonies proceeded, paintings were needed the arts, and the European master painter of
not only to decorate churches but also as a the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth cen-
story-telling medium for the instruction of turies was a prince of society. One has only
converts. to call to mind Titian's luxurious studio at the
The highly developed technique of paint- edge of the Venetian lagoon, where the wits
ing in oil as practiced in sixteenth-century of the sophisticated city gathered and musi-
Europe was novel to the Indian. In certain cians performed in the background, or the
pre-Columbian cultures mural painting was philosophizing circle that surrounded El
used to depict historical events and calendrical Greco, high in the hills of Toledo.
and religious symbolism. Sometimes human The subtleties emploved in the manufacture
and animal forms were painted on pottery ves- of oil colors, the blending of pigments, the
sels or woven into textiles. The Maya and fixatives, varnishes, and other related techni-
some of the Mexican cultures had illuminated calities are described at length bv Cennino
manuscripts. But in none of these artistic man- Ccnnini about 1439 and later by Pacheco and
[ 197]
other contemporaries of famous European col- eral does not show the brilliance in color and
orists. In Europe a highly developed trade the blending of tones achieved by European
brought in the raw materials that were used masters. And it is these shortcomings which
in the secret formulas of the great studios from make suspect many of the so-called Zurbarans,
Antwerp to Naples, from Nuremberg to Se- Murillos, Van Dycks, and others so proudly
ville. Merchants specialized in dyes, oils, pow- displayed to visitors in Latin America.
ders, liquids, and gums; another group han-
dled the hair and bristles for brushes, taken At this point two trends in colonial paint-
from a variety of animals. ing which developed side by side should
From both the inspirational and the tech- be differentiated— the one following European
nological points of view the situation in the tradition as closely as possible, the other com-
New World was quite different. The typi- ing close to folk art.
cally European commerce mentioned above The first always looked to the Old World,
never developed to any extent in the colonies. importing, copying, and imitating. In this cate-
Few could afford the most select of the im- gory belong the numberless canvases (and
ported materials, and the New World relied how many have been destroyed or sold away)
to a considerable degree on its own products. which show positive influence of leading Eu-
Some of these had excellent possibilities, such ropean painters, as well as of lesser artists who
as the red from cochineal, the blue from in- were fashionable in their time. It should be
digo, and the various tones of other vegetable kept in mind that in Europe certain favorite
juices and special earth colors available here. poses of a figure or of a group created by
But their suitability for oil painting was some master were copied again and again with-
largely untried, and the choice was limited. out any feeling of a breach of artistic integ-
A firm and evenly woven canvas is essen- rity. Many painters kept sketches of their suc-
tial for painting, and to augment the profit of cessful themes, which were repeated on order
the royal treasury—the Spanish crown held by their studios at the scale required, with as
the monopoly on linen— the law required that many touches and changes bv the master's
a new canvas freshly cut from the bolt be hand as came within the contracted price-
used for each picture. 94 Cotton cloth, however, often including a portrait of the "donor" who
was often employed instead of the scarce and ordered it. These practices held among paint-
expensive imported linen, for cotton was na- ers in the New World as well as the Old. But
tive to many of the New World regions. The for the former few of the great originals were
great Quito painter Miguel de Santiago (active accessible; second-rate productions and, as we
1655-1706) and his best-known pupil, Nicolas shall see, especially reproductions served as
183
Javier de Gorivar, frequently resorted to it. models.
But cotton cloth, no matter how tightly woven Despite the many some colonial
handicaps,
and firmly spanned, absorbs the pigments and painters rose to eminence. The Echave family
dulls the colors; a completely different ground- in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Mexico
ing would have been necessary to preserve the furnished three distinguished painters, and
top tones of the paintings. Also, cotton shrinks members of the Juarez and Rodriguez fam-
unevenly and soon sags. Under such condi- ilies, among others, attained wide recognition
tions it was not easy for the colonial painter somewhat later. In Colombia, Gaspar de Figue-
to develop a coloristic talent. Moreover, roa and Gregorio Vasquez Ceballos became
whether a layman or an ecclesiastic, he lacked famous; in Ecuador the aforementioned Miguel
the stimulating atmosphere and free exchange de Santiago and Nicolas Javier de Gorivar, as
of ideas usual in European ateliers. well as Manuel Samaniego v Jaramillo. En-

For such reasons colonial painting in gen- gaging paintings from Peru bv Diego Quispe
[198]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
Ttito and from Bolivia by Melchor Perez through technical limitations the result may
Holgufn will be shown in this chapter. be conventionalized or unconsciously expres-
The better-known names in colonial paint- sionistdc. In folk art the impression of three-
ing have by now received some attention from dimensionality often is attained by placing dif-
scholars and connoisseurs. Monographs have ferent scenes one above another, as in the
appeared on some, and others have been treated paintings of pre-Renaissance Europe; shadows
more or less intensively in general studies. But appear only occasionally and lack subtlety and
all too often their work has suffered from a effect, recalling the Italian masters of the Tre-
comparison with European art. It is a product cento.
of unparalleled circumstances and should be
evaluated as such on its own merit— which is Painting in the European sense made its en-
considerable. trance into the New World as an adjunct of
The second trend found in colonial Latin the new faith, and in many of its aspects it
America is among those painters— generally is closer to early Christian art than to con-
mestizo or Indian—who knew no other land temporary European Baroque art, even though
than that of their birth and had little Old it makes use of the latter's sophisticated ico-
World tradition in their background. Though nography and mannerisms. Frequently the un-
in some cases they may have learned their known colonial artist seems to have been drawn
craft from artists with European traditions, the to the transcendental and mystical aspects of
examples set before them from a remote and his religion. As in Byzantine art, personal char-
unrelated world brought forth a different re- acteristics are submerged— resolved, as a chord
sponse.The work of the unknown— and fre- in music— in the expression of the general de-
quentlv anonymous— painter mirrors a naive votional attitude. And the subject is repeated
soul, contending with handicaps both techni- over and over again with little variation be-
cal and compositional. Nevertheless his crea- cause the prescribed representation of the
tion is illumined by a spirit as compelling as theme was the primary objective.
an earthy folk tale. Indeed the story-telling The pronounced Byzantine air in certain
quality in such painting is as unique as the regional paintings may be traceable to more
psychological background which produced it. direct influences. With the fall of Constantino-
Folk art throve in many European coun- ple and the Mohammedan invasion of the Ro-
tries, especially before mid-nineteenth century; man Empire in the east (including the Greek
numerous articles, from furniture and house- Islands), artists, philosophers and writers, along
hold utensils towagon ornaments, received the with merchants, bankers, and professionals,
characteristic decoration. The United States, were driven into Western Europe. They
too, had its "primitives" and unknown if not brought with them their own culture and
completely anonymous artists— frequently itin- provided a great stimulus to intellectual life
erant—who painted portraits, family groups, there. With this new impetus, the Italo-Bvzan-
and landscapes or carved ornaments and ship tine school of painting persisted into the late
figureheads to order. seventeenth century in Venice, centering in
"Primitive" art and folk art tend to be the Scuola dei Greci. A conservative taste
non-realistic, for they deal with what the art- characterized leading economic and political
ist feels and knows rather than with what he classes even there where life was pulsing faster
sees. Thus the forms, since thev are not stud- than anywhere else. It is recorded that when
ied from life, tend to abstraction and conven- Titian was at his zenith the patricians of
tionalization; the backbone of the work is its Venice showed a preference for panels
still
63
design, not its realism. Moreover, even when by Domenico Veneziano and the elder Bellini.
the intention is to produce a realistic piece, Conservatism in Spain was especially com-
[i 99]
plex. At the time of the Conquest, Spanish was supported in the project by Philip II of
churches, convents, and castles were still full Spain, who sent to him a learned Benedictine
of Byzantine and late Gothic art. Greek refu- to superintend the work. The publisher earned
gees in their exodus reached even the hills little immediate profit from this undertaking
of Toledo, and some of them formed a circle ( 1
567-1 572), but he later received the priv-
about El Greco. It will never be known how ilege of printing all the liturgical books for
many panels of the early Spanish and Flemish the realm of Philip II, an empire upon which
schools came over to the New World in the the sun never set. Philip was then enjoying
first hundred years to fructify the imagina- a monopoly granted by Pope Pius V, giving
tion of local artists. Also, the time lag was him the right to print and distribute the reli-
accentuated in certain regions there; as late gious books for Spain and her colonies, and
as the eighteenth century some paintings in he made Plantin his chief printer—prototypo-
Spanish America were executed in what might graphus regius.
be termed a Byzantoid manner. Plantin's business soon grew very large; of
Besides favoring the rather hieratic figures twenty presses manned by seventy-three work-
of saints and holy personages, the indigenous men, fifteen were run exclusively for the Span-
painter in Spanish America turned his talent ish trade, domestic and colonial. The first par-
to group scenes and often depicted various cels of his Antwerp late in 1571,
books left
actions on the same canvas, each in a differ- and an order was agreed upon for 6,000 brevi-
ent section. Here perhaps he approached most aries, 6,000 diurnals, and 4,000 missals quar-
18
closely contemporary European models, espe- terly. Besides this contract, he brought out,
cially the genre scenes of the Low Countries. in 1576, the monumental opus of Clusius Ca-
Such paintings, through their special handling rolus, the first basic work on the flora of Spain
of perspective, their characteristically propor- and Portugal, illustrated with manv woodcuts.
tioned figures, and above all through their He even published music.
touching naivete and delightful irrelevancies, His trade with Spain was organized through
form a group bv themselves, best called "re- the Jeronvmite order of San Lorenzo in the
ligious genre." Escorial, which held the privileges of sales and
distribution of Plantin publications and sold
Among the great influences which shaped them exclusively in their Madrid and Seville
the iconography of painting in the New World shops. By 1 58 two of Plantin's associates had
1
were imported prints and illustrations from established in the Spanish university town of
books. These woodcuts and engravings were Salamanca a branch of the firm, which han-
by no means exclusively of Spanish origin; in dled—besides religious subjects— classics and
fact many of them came from Flanders. books on historv, geography, and science.
One of the earlv Flemish printers to bring After Plantin's death his son-in-law Joannes
out books in Spanish was Nuyts Van Meere, 15 Moretus took over the workshop. He was suc-
better known as Martin Nucio, who was active ceeded by Baltasar Moretus (born 1605), who
in the first half of the sixteenth century. His devoted himself to keeping up the vast enter-
workshop in Antwerp was taken over by Guil- prise established bv his forebears. In 1680
lermo Simon and then came into the hands Baltasar Moretus III made a trip to Madrid to
of Christophe Plantin ( 1
5 14-1 589) Plantin un-
. confer with his clients and agents, the Jerony-
dertook an ambitious enterprise: the publica- mite friars, because their payments had been
tion, in five languages, of the Biblia Poly- There he discovered that
falling into arrears.
glotta, which was intended to clarify the trans- the monks had been ordering religious books
lations and interpretations of Holy Scripture. from Lyons, France, copying his firm's prod-
Despite opposition bv some of the clergy, he ucts and distributing them under the imprint
[200]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
of the Plantin press. Finally an agreement was craftsmen who were either unwilling, or under
reached which upheld the rights of the Ant- contract elsewhere, or out of the city. He men-
werp publisher and compensated him in part tions, however, that the Wierix brothers were
for his losses. In 1692 he was made a noble- excellent engravers and available but were rep-
man bv Charles II of Spain, with the privilege rehensible characters, living in debauchery.
of continuing as a printer. After vears of negotiations from Rome to Ant-
The Plantin press export to Spain included werp and back across Europe, the Jesuits
eleven tvpes of breviaries, missals in three sizes. finallv solicited Anton, Hieronvmus, and Jan
Books of the Hours in four sizes, hymnals, and Wierix. together with several other craftsmen,
other religious works in various editions. This to design and execute the plates. The book,
trade flourished for nearly two hundred and Evangelicae Historic Imagines, appeared in
fifty years; bv mid-seventeenth centurv it had '593-

taken on such dimensions that the press printed The Wierix brothers— also spelled Wierx and
hardlv anvthing else. Toward the second half Wiericx— were Flemish designers and engrav-
of the eighteenth centurv, however, it began ers, active in Antwerp between 1552 and 161 5.
to slacken. Yet in 1757 in a single month 1.S20 Their output totaled several thousand en-
books were exported to Spain, and the invoices gravings; 2.055 separate sheets from their hands
1785—1786 show that 260-odd volumes per are named in one catalogue. Thev engraved
month were still being shipped there. In 1804 paintings of the Flemish and Italian schools,
direct trade with Spain ceased; but as late as including manv of the works of .Martin de
1844 Spanish America received a number of Yos ( 1

536-1603). and also designed plates of
religious works directlv from the Plantin press. their own. In addition thev were much sought
One of the great attractions of all these after for book planning. Their consummate
books was that thev were copiouslv illustrated. skill and immense productivitv were respon-
The list of artists and master engravers who sible in part for the copperplate supplanting
worked for this press and others Antwerp
in the woodcut/
is well-nigh endless. To mention onlv a few It is apparent in the correspondence that
from the sixteenth centurv, there were Pieter Plantin was reluctant to undertake the project
van der Borcht. Martin de Yos. Philip Galle, — particularlv under Jesuit surveillance— be-
and the Wierix brothers. Rubens' studio col- cause of the unsavorv reputation of the Wierix
laborated closely with the Plantin firm when brothers. This reluctance is all the more under-
Baltasar Moretus I was its head. Among the standable when it is known that Plantin him-
later artists were Jan Collaert. Abraham van self was once under the suspicion of heresv. It
Diepenbeek, Richard Collin, and. in the eight- is now established that though outwardlv a
eenth centurv. Richard van Orlev and Cor- faithful son he was till his death a member of
nelis Joannes d'Heur. 11 a mystic sect banned bv the Roman church;
One chapter from the important but little- it has also been proved that the Plantin press
known story of the adventures of Flemish en- published, without the printer's name, books
gravings in the Spanish Empire deserves re- and pamphlets which never would have re-
counting. Ignatius Recalde Lovola, founder of ceived the imprimatur of the religious authori-
the Jesuit order, planned a book presenting ties.
episodes from the lives of the Evangelists with There were manv ways for such noncon-
pictures, an explanatory text, and pious medi- formist literature to reach both Spain and her
tations. The Jesuits requested Plantin to rec- colonies. Antonio Perez, the rich and power-
ommend engravers to illustrate the work. In ful secretary of Philip II,became head of the
a letter' dated November Calvinist Consistorv in Antwerp in <66 and
5, 1585, Plantin re- 1
lates his unsuccessful attempts, naming several had 30,000 copies of Calvin's Institutes of the
[201]
Christian Religion smuggled in barrels into disfavor should not appear on any of his maps.
64
Spain. Other Protestant tracts followed. On maps, as on the title page of a book, the
The thousands of prints that were issued— text was at first placed within a standardized
in black and white or carefully illuminated by cartouche, which somewhat later came to be
hand, reproducing the favorite paintings of enclosed bv a cord, an emblem often used to
the time or presenting original "inventions"— frame the coat of arms of the pope or some
soon became an inexpensive substitute for member of a royal family. Gradually the car-
paintings and were favorite collectors' items. touche became increasingly elaborate, with
Around 1650 the painting and engraving stu- heavy strapwork and rolled edges composed
dios in Antwerp outnumbered the bakeries and into intricate patterns. Such strapwork was
meat shops about 300 to 169 and 78 respec- taken over bv the engravers, who invented
tively.
7
A Flemish connoisseur traveling in all kinds of variations on it. Sphinxes, sirens,
Spain in the seventeenth century recognized cherubs, and busts that resolved into leafy
with surprise that engravings from his home- swirls began to adorn the cartouches and even
land had been used as prototypes for a num- the empty spaces on maps; figures dressed in
ber of Spanish religious paintings. 5 contemporary costume were drawn so accu-
A wealthy merchant house of the mid-sev- rately that today they serve as sources of in-
enteenth century and early eighteenth in Ant- formation. 2
werp, the Forchoudt family, arranged for the Of this vast output of publications a per-
shipment of many consignments of engravings, centage certainly reached the New World. Be-
as well as oil paintings, fine furniture, tapes- sides the Spanish merchant navy, privileged
tries, and maps, all over Europe. Each country ships of the English, Dutch, French, and other
had its preference— Spain for religious sub- nations brought into the colonies at least to-
jects, Portugal for pagan and secular scenes, kens of the artistic and intellectual life of Eu-
and the Germanic countries for landscapes and rope. Secular literature came in, as well as
battle scenes. Orders from the branch of this illustrated Bibles, catechisms, Books of the
firm in Cadiz, then the main port of export Hours, calendars, and lives of the saints. There
to the New World, include wool, hides, lace, were treatises on architecture— such as works
brandy, and leather tooled in gold; only occa- by Vitruvius and Serlio and later Palladio and
sionally is there mention of art works, but Piranesi— books on perspective and stage de-
in 1671-1672 two hundred pictures are listed sign, on hydraulics and gardens, descriptions
as shipped to the Spanish colonies. 6 of voyages, emblem books, albums of samples
In the rapidly expanding world of that era, with floral and geometrical decorations, de-
maps had a great and sustained vogue. Two signs for jewelers, and the like. Some were
of the most famous cartographers of all time ordered and others arrived in the private libra-
were the Flemings Gerard Mercator and Abra- ries of travelers, from the entourage of the
ham Ortel or Ortels— better known as Ortelius viceroy down to the nameless friar.
—a good friend of Christophe Plantin. When The colonies themselves were full of enter-
Ortelius published his magnificent Theatrum prise in publishing. Pedro de Gante (1480?-
Orbis Terrarum (1570), the first geographical 1572), Flemish-born Franciscan lav brother,
atlas in the modern sense of the word, the who was among the first missionaries to reach
Low Countries were seething with revolt. He .Mexico, wrote a little catechism in the Na-
had been cautioned bv a Lisbon friend as to huatl tongue for the Aztecs, which was
the type of material that could enter Spain: brought out in Antwerp in 1528. The first
there should be no pictures that might be con- book was printed in Mexico in 1539 bv Juan
strued as obscene, and special care should be Cronberger, a German from the Holv Roman
taken that the coat of arms of some family in Empire. Another printer, Antonio Ricardo, a
[202]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
native of Turin, Italy, was working in Mexico traveler remarked on the fact that this artist
in 1577; three years later he appeared in Lima, had never left his native city, though his paint-
and in 1584 he obtained royal permission to ingswere widely admired and some were sent
establish a press there.
57
In 1600 Santo Do- as far asRome. One instance of the far-reach-
mingo had a press; in 1607, Cuba; three years ing influence of engravings on colonial paint-
later, Bolivia; and in 1660, Guatemala. By ing was shown in Chapter 4 in connection
the last third of the seventeenth century a with a Wierix print; others will be seen in
significant number of locally produced prints, this chapter. Even in the Far East there is evi-
especiallv woodcuts, were in circulation, pre- dence of Wierix prints, brought in by the
senting in a popular vein holy figures and missionaries, influencing painting and sculp-
14
events. However, no book treating American ture. The leaf-sprite and mermaid— favorites
subjects, whether published in Spain or the of folk art in many regions of Spanish Amer-
New World, could circulate in the colonies ica—may have entered the New World on
66
until approved bv the Council of the Indies. maps and the title pages of books, where they
This explains in part various manuscripts still are commonly found.
lvincr forgotten in librarv corners both in Eu-
rope and Latin America. The work of the colonial painter is per-
The field of printing also includes the man- meated with devotion, intensity, and a folk-
ufacture of plaving cards. It is known that ish stylization— and nearly always with a dis-
cards brought in bv the Spanish soldiers ex- arming naivete. Often a peculiar inward-
cited the interest of the Aztecs. Bv the time turned spirituality is perceptible, which is
of the Conquest many designs were in use more akin to the spirit of the Christian cata-
in Europe and some card games had been combs than to that of the brocade-hung stu-
turned to didactic and instructive purposes. dio of a Velazquez in the royal palace at Ma-
In 1572 the viceroy in New Spain forbade the drid.
domestic printing of plaving cards in order to A detail of the Codex Monteleone (PL 130,
protect the roval monopoly on imported items. fig. b) presents one of the earliest renditions
A decade later, however, nine thousand packs of the Virgin and Child by an Indian. For a
were being produced yearly in Mexico and the time after the Conquest such tribute rolls,
local cards were preferred to those engraved with their pre-Columbian picture writing,
94
in Spain. were made use of by the Spaniards, who ac-
As has been pointed out, the colonial painter cepted temporarily certain devices from the
did not have the opportunity of his European pagan past so as not to disturb too much the
contemporary to enrich his knowledge and rhvthm of native life. It is clear that the In-
craftsmanship through travel. Generally he sat dian scribe was adept in rendering his ances-
in some isolated town on a high plateau or in tral ideographs. He also simplified the repre-
a mountain valley and had to rely for instruc- sentation of the Holy Mother and Child to
tion and inspiration on what he could find a remarkable degree. Executed on cloth and
there. The Italian painter Mateo Perez de with local paints— not in oil technique— the
Alesio, a resident of Lima, signed a promis- picture has all the fundamentals of the con-
sory note in 1587 to pay the librarian of the ventional representation, but cut to the bone.
main church at Seville 520 ducats for a lame Probably the most novel details for the Indian
album of drawings and one containing "all the artist were the portrayal of a head en face—
prints" of Diirer and other masters.-' In Quito 7
the pre-Columbian painter invariably depicted
an album of Flemish and Dutch engravings is it in profile— and the delineation of the rela-
still extant which once belonged to the mestizo tionship of Child to mother in the prescribed
painter Miguel de Santiago. 1
"
A contemporary pose.
I 203 ]
In a canvas of the same subject in the of the hands, the veil, and the calligraphic line
Behrens collection (fig. c), in Mexico City, of nose and eyebrow.

the composition is outlined with a thin brush
stroke and more detailis shown on the larger Miraculous power was attributed to some
surface, but linear economy and coloristic re- of the paintings in the colonies, and the
straint are again evident. The Baby has a cru- churches where they hung became the goal
cifix in his hands, and the position of his head of masses of pilgrims. One such canvas is that
is almost the same as in the other example. of the Virgin of Guadalupe, which occupies a
The Virgin's left arm, as she holds him, subtly chapel of its own in the cathedral of Sucre,
closes the circle. Her right hand holds a flower Bolivia (PL 131, fig. a). The Virgin of Guada-
with a daintiness and an emphasis amazingly lupe was introduced into the New World
well expressed. This painting is reputed to when in 1493 Columbus named an island in
have come from around Toluca and to date the West Indies after the Santa Maria de
from the second half of the eighteenth cen- Guadalupe in Estremadura, Spain. In 1531 she
tury. is reported to have made a miraculous appear-
A panel in the Orihuela collection (fig. a), ance near the Mexican capital. The name
in Urubamba, near Cuzco, Peru, belongs spir- Guadalupe was used to designate several towns
itually and pictoriallv to the two preceding and shrines in Spanish America.
depictions; here, however, greater depth is The Sucre canvas was painted by the friar
221
achieved and there is more color. More for- Diego de Ocana about 1601. It can be locked
malizing is to be seen in the handling of the behind a door, an understandable precaution
neckline and head covering, picked out with in view of the valuable gifts of the faithful
a gold stitch. This painting has about it some- hung upon it. Hieratic in expression to begin
thing of certain Catalan panels. Though in with, it has taken on the appearance of an icon
spirit it suggests the early Christian world, through its covering of jewels; pearls outline
it may date as late as the second half of the the pattern in the cloak, and precious and
eighteenth century— when Europe was cajol- semiprecious stones fill the spaces in between.
ing Tiepolo, Watteau, and Gainsborough. All An inventory made in 1784 enumerates her
of these paintings in their simplification of line valuables, including several elaborate chate-
and color show a definite relationship to the laine watches, pinned to the front of her gown,
style of the santos panels of our Southwest and miniature animals fashioned of irregular
which has survived into the present century. pearls and other precious stones. Note the
The Virgin of Carmen from iMexico (fig. d) diamond swallows flying toward her crown
is seated in a chair, her feet on a cushion, and and the bird at the right carrying a pearl
the curtain arrangement above suggests a (fig. b). Her scepter alone presents a veritable
niche. Both mother and Child hold the Car- display of jewelry, and her crown, affixed
melite scapularv in their hands. On the two through a slit in the canvas and sewed on at
columns at the sides stand two saints, with the back, has a base of silver, completelv cov-
decorative ribbons of golden text emanating ered with pearls and stones. The faithful, it
from them. In the lower right-hand corner, is said, presented her with so much jewelry
completely outside the rich atmosphere of the that the friars had to rule that the pieces be
center, is painted a small figure in praying given them to attach. Milagros, votive offerings
pose, perhaps the donor. Despite the lavish shaped like human heads, arms, and legs, hang
brocade dress of the Virgin and the theatrical all over the painting.
setting, she is basically similar to the others Like the Guadalupe of Mexico, this figure
illustrated here, notablv in the position of the was so popular that it was reproduced again
head, the small stylized mouth, the drawing and again, growing more formalized the more
[204]
a
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
it was repeated. One version of it, a statue- other representations on this plate. Note the
painting (fig. c), was discovered by this author face on the new moon.
in the village church of Santa Barbara at Have, A much more romantic setting surrounds
Peru. The Virgin stands on a base carried by the Virgin of the Rosary (fig. f), also from
two angels, and two others hold back the folds Ecuador and now in the village church of
of a curtain which might have been copied Lican, near Riobamba. She is painted as stand-
from some altar. The outlines of the Child ing on a processional base and in a niche, which
blend into the geometrically developed dec- is decorated in an illusionistic manner with
oration of her robe; the pearl rectangles seen angels, vases, and garlands. Little gold is used
on the Sucre painting are recognizable here. on the gown, but all the more delicate is the
A special light falls from above, and the edges flowered pattern of the textile.
of the curtain are outlined with staccato white

dots in an amazing stvlization, Bvzantoid in In Spanish South America three distinct cen-
its effect. ters of painting existed in colonial times, usu-

In 148- the citv of .Malaga, in Spain, was ally designated as the "schools" of Cuzco, in
retaken from the .Moors after a protracted Peru, of Quito, in Ecuador, and of Potosi, in
siege bv the troops of Ferdinand and Isabella, Bolivia. "Circle" might be a better term, for
and that battle is celebrated in the figure of the influence that emanated from these three
Our Ladv of the Victory of .Malaga. A paint- centers spread out in an ever-widening circle,
ing of this subject from Cuzco (fig. d), now like the ripples made on a pond when a stone
in the Frever collection, at Denver, Colorado, is dropped into the water.

shows the Virgin standing in a gilded niche. The three paintings next illustrated (PI. 132)
Exquisite tooling in gold, a characteristic of the —one from each of these circles— show three
Cuzco circle, covers her robe and crown in different interpretations of the crowned and
intricate and varied patterns. The new moon, seated Virgin holding the Christ Child on her
small and dark, has become part of her cos- arm. In the first (fig. a), the Virgin of Belen,
tume. Two small angel musicians are placed or Bethlehem, from Cuzco, the colors are al-
at the spring of the arch. Carefully painted most entirely red and gold except for the flesh
and enamel-like, the flesh tones of all the faces tones. Gold tooling is evenly applied against
stand out of the surrounding decoration. the background in varied but well-harmonized
The Sanctuary of Quinche, situated in a patterns. The stalk of lilies is naturalistic, but
smiling, luxuriant vallev not far north of the the figure of the Child is stylized and blended
Ecuadorian capital, is one of the pilgrim places into the composition. The round halo, elabo-
most frequented by the country's Indians. The rately tooled, has a three-dimensional effect
statue of the Virgin of Quinche, venerated and resembles that of the Virgin of Malaga
there, is carried out on special holidays and just seen. This Virgin has an enigmatic dig-
possesses a complete travel wardrobe, includ- nitv, Bvzantoid in her hieratic aloofness—
ing a raincoat and an umbrella to protect her truly roval personality.
in inclement weather. The statue-painting of From the Potosi circle comes the Virgin of
her (fig. e) represents her as she borne forth Carmen on an oval
is
(fig. b), a canvas stretched
on the shoulders of lav brothers. No light panel of wood. Patroness of the Carmelites, she
shines down from above or bevond her, nor holds in her right hand a scapularv bearing
are angel figures present, indicating that a their emblem, which is also embroidered on
more or less realistic depiction of the statue the front of her gown. The Child is portraved
was intended. Perspective is meticulously ex- with one hand on the globe and in the other
pressed, especially in the canopy. Both crowns a red rose. Both faces have the whiteness of a
are emphasized, which is not the case in the doll and a star-eyed expression. However, the
[ >°5 ]
9
loving care lavished on details— the orna- a representation which sometimes is called
mented veil, the pearls and earrings, and the the "predestination of Mary." In the six-
flowery robes (the stars traditionally scattered teenth and seventeenth centuries, particularly
over the Virgin's cloak are here transferred to in Spain, paintings of her followed the pre-
her dress)— will bring this painting closer than scribed iconography strictly; engravings and
the others to many hearts, for through its un- woodcuts made after famous canvases were
spoiled and charming naivete it speaks the most carried far and wide. An example is the Im-
direct language. It should be mentioned that maculate Conception by Baltasar de Echave
the Aymara Indians have a special fondness Ibia (PL 133, fig. a). A son of the famous col-
for ear-bobs, a sign of prosperity among them orist Baltasar de Echave Orio, young Echave
even today. (c. 1 582-1650) had the advantages of living
Many small colonial paintings, especially at the viceregal seat. The canvas shown here,
those of the Quito and Potosi circles, were signed "Echave ft. ano 1620," shows clarity
painted on metal plates and wood panels, as of arrangement and considerable success in
well as on canvas, and were executed not representing the three-dimensional. Though it
on an easel but lying at an angle on a table, is somewhat didactic in composition, it makes

like a manuscript for illumination. The re- a sympathetic contact with the onlooker.
sult is a flat and "bookish" representation. Iconographically the representation is the
In the circle around Quito, a district un- most complete of those on this plate: the Vir-
surpassed in its sculpture, the style of painting gin is "fair as the moon, clear as the sun" (Song
was perhaps the most literal of the three— it of Solomon, 6: 10); the little angels have intel-
adhered more strictly to the letter of the icon- ligible symbols of the rosary in their hands—
ographical formula; even emotion was filtered the ladder to Heaven, the mirror without
through this literalism. The Virgin of the Ro- flaw, and the gate of Heaven. The landscape
sary (fig. c) comes from the church of Santa is carefully delineated according to tradition,
Rosa in Riobamba, Ecuador. The gold tooling including the walled city, the tower of David,
in this painting differsmarkedly from that in the well of living water, and the lily. The Vir-
the Cuzco example. The arrangement of the gin stands in a praying pose looking upward.
cloak, especially at the right, suggests a statue, A rosy orange radiance surrounds her. Rays
and the crescent moon with a human face has emanate from her figure, and the Holy Ghost
already been encountered in the picture of the is poised above her head. At her feet is a new
Virgin of Quinche. moon with its points turned downward, fol-
Among the three compositions on this plate lowing Pacheco's preference (discussed in
the Quito painting reveals most clearly its re- Chapter 9) though not the solid body which
lationship to the printed page. The one from he advocated; between its horns is placed that
Potosi possesses the playfulness and loving de- iconographically problematic figure, the mer-
tail of a fairy-tale illustration, while that from maid. Care is given to the detailing of the Vir-
Cuzco has spiritual impact and the sweep of gin's heavy robe, wind-blown to reveal the
monumentality. Despite the fact that Cuzco lining. The colors are brilliant and fresh, and
and Quito were twin capitals of the Inca Em- the plastic quality is remarkable.
pire—connected by a three-day runner serv- At first glance the anonymous painting from
ice, increased to eight days in the colonial a private collection near Cuzco (fig. b) appears
epoch— the two cities retained their individ- not too different from the Echave beside it;
uality. its iconographical details, however, are blurred.

It is not clear whether Mary stands or sits; her
The Jesuits favored the Immaculate Con- hands clasp a book, and she looks out of the
ception surrounded by attributes of the rosary, canvas, not upward; as for the angels, it would
u 06]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
seem that the artist was more concerned with canvas bv the Spanish artist Juan de las Roelas
grouping: them into a decorative garland than (1559-162 5), even to the flowered robe and
with a display of symbols. In the lower center the large brooch on the breast. But through
is pictured a pedestal with handles, such as the the new interpretation the whole impression
processional bases for statues are wont to have is changed.
—indeed, the figure has a certain rotundity Not angels but flowers surround this figure.
which suggests that a statue served as model. Breughel and Rubens especially popularized
It has been remarked that the pedestal might the fashion in Europe of framing a portrait
represent a coffin, thus involving the Assump- with a colorful garland; often special painters
tion of Mary with her glorification. were called in for this part of the work. It is
Gold tooling played a prominent role in possible that in the colonies, too, specialists
South America, where often it was an inte- supplied the flowery frame just as they applied
gral part of the composition, while in Mexico the gold tooling. Sometimes it is so loosely and
it was sometimes used only to touch up the carelessly executed that it covers details of the
decoration and sometimes omitted. main subject.
Another Cuzco painting (fig. d) shows the

Virgin as a young girl, seated, her hands out- Even as late as the eighteenth century, Span-
stretched. The stars in her halo are accented. ish and Portuguese painters seldom repre-
Two on high hold her crown,
angels floating sented the human body in the nude, and this
and little angels without symbols form a ring conservatism was even more pronounced in
around her. In this picture there is more econ- the colonies. Nevertheless the colonial painter
omy of color, and the tooling as well as the often found a way to transmit a sense of physi-
large spreading pattern in the gown is quite cal beauty. A large canvas of the Inmaculada
different. (PI. 134, fig. a), in the cathedral of Cuzco,
.Mary with a Distaff (fig. c), also from shows a voung woman dressed in an elaborate
Cuzco, gives the impression of a dressed-up velvet costume. The conical contour of the
child. Her figure fills the entire canvas as she figure holds the eye from the first. No attempt
sits in a straight-backed chair, late seventeenth was made to present the iconographicallv tra-
centurv in style. Under one arm she holds a ditional three mystic garments in three colors.
distaff, and with her right hand she twists the Bodice, skirt, and cape are all of the same ma-
thread, weighted with a spindle whorl. This terial, worked in amber on a gold background.
bv hand can be observed
process of spinning The collar and cuffs are a creamy shade, and
today as Indian women
prepare their wool even the veil over the hair, studded with large
while they walk to or from market. The stars, is kept in a mellow tone. The costume is
features here are Indian, especially the eves. in the style of about 1660-1670 in Spain, but
and the jeweled headband holding the lock on there the line of the bodice was pointed. Con-
the forehead is an Indian touch. She has been siderable plasticity is given the bows on breast
interpreted as an Inca princess in her finery. and sleeves. The eves in the pale face are
and it has been noted that the Inca em-
first downcast but nevertheless have an intense
press, "Daughter of the Sun,''was supposed gaze, and the small but alive mouth is lightly
to have brought the art of weaving to her closed. Her hands, with their heavy rings, are
189
people. However, it should also be men- in a praying gesture. No halo is visible; did
tioned that Italian and Spanish painters se- wear the crown usually associated with
she not
lected the child Mary performing various Mary Queen of Heaven, she might be, in her
household tasks as a subject, and many Flemish gala costume, avoung noblewoman attending
books depicted the youth of the Virgin. The Mass— and not without accelerating the heart
painting here reproduced is very close to a beat of many present at the service.
[ 207 ]
Though Cuzco deprecatingly
the Creoles of admonishing silence and the other moving off
dismiss this canvas as the work
of some mestizo with a pottery jug in his hand. A romantic
whose name is not worth searching for,, the landscape fills the background. Holguin's al-
portrayal has become a favorite of the Indi- leged apprenticeship to Murillo is not corrobo-
ans. The large picture hangs high on one of rated bv this picture. Any European influences
the columns on the left side of the nave amid that may be found in it are rather in the anec-
more spectacular objects, and the visitor might dotal spirit of the Italian Baroque or the Flem-
even pass it by without noticing it. But the ish genre. This work by Holguin proves how
Indians call her Mamacita, dear little mother, strong the popular vein was in Spanish Amer-
and come in to kneel before her on the bare ica; whatever he may have learned while
stone blocks of the floor. Occasionally one of abroad was absorbed by and blended into the
them places a burning candle or flowers at powerful folkloristic atmosphere here. In its
the foot of the column, and the next day an- well-arranged composition, its lively hues, and
other lump of cold wax or handful of wilted the underlying charm of its unpretentious
petals remains to annoy those who know how story-telling, this painting is a fascinating ex-
to offer their oblations with propriety. This ample of Andean Rococo.

painting of Mamacita, intensely human but
with a certain aloofness, has a psychological No region in the Spanish colonies in South
relationship to a portrait of a Mexican nun America was more densely populated by virile
(seePL i jo). Indians articulate in the arts than was the area
Melchor Perez de Holguin, a son of a prom- around Cuzco. During the Conquest the once
inent Potosi family and a Bolivian painter of cheerful and friendly folk here turned into
considerable individuality, is reputed to have grim fighters, but when peace returned, in
studied with Diego Quispe Ttito, a Cuzco In- general they settled down to a life that in many
dian, but the disparity between the dates of ways was not too different from that of pre-
these two artists makes this claim highly im- Columbian times. The unknown painter of
probable. It is also said of him that he later upper Peru gave expression to the religious
went to Spain and became a pupil of Murillo, image which his folk formed in their imagina-
but, to date, his association with the Spanish tion. In all probability he had never been out
master has not been documented. Another re- of his own district, where shamans still prac-
port, quite possible, describes him as an albino, ticed magic with ritualistic objects of the pre-
whose eyes were so badly affected by the bril- Columbian religion. Even the Sunday Mass was
liant light of high altitudes that he worked said only partly in Latin; the rest was in
only at night. Neither the year of his birth Quechua or Aymara.
nor that of his return from Spain known, is A miraculous image of the Virgin of the
but this author has seen canvases by him dated Rosary is recorded in Pomata in mid-sixteenth
between 1705 and 17 12. The latter year ap- century, made after she had twice appeared
pears with his signature in the lower left of there, and the main church of the town is ded-
his Rest on the Flight to Egypt (fig. b), now icated to her (see PI. 120). The Virgin of Po-
in the Cuenca collection at La Paz, Bolivia. mata as illustrated here (PL 135, fig. a), several
In this painting Mary, dressed like a lady versions of which survive, is in the Osma
for travel in the fashion of the early eighteenth collection, near Lima. For her costume the art-
century, is washing out clothes, while St. ist drew on two very different civilizations for
Joseph and a cherub are wringing them; one inspiration. Rose is the predominating color
small article has alreadv been hung up to dry. and there are touches of sky-blue in the plumes.
The Baby Jesus lies sleeping under a blanket, In her right hand is a lily (or is it an Inca kan-
with angels at his head and feet, one of them tuka?). Her robe has a courtly elegance and is
[208]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
tooled so thickly that the gold stands out from lower classes. When the viceroy's wife in gala
the canvas. Her crown, as well as that of the dress passed in her palanquin or caleche, to
Christ Child, is in the shape of a papal tiara, the simple folk she must have been close to a
but they both have feathers rising from them. vision. The hats of both mother and Child
Feathers are also suggested by the radiating indicate travel, perhaps even a pilgrimage. The
rays, which terminate in cherub heads. The Virgin is seated; the chair is visible above her
spectacular headdresses still worn by the Ay- left shoulder. She holds the Child on her right
maras when they impersonate legendary he- arm— usually it is on the other—and in her left
roes in dance and pantomime are very sim- hand she carries flowers and the Mercedarian
202
ilar, with their flowers and long feathers emblem, which is also on her brooch. Note
shooting upward, to the two crowns on the the crosses at her neck and girdle. Two bottles
canvas. of flowers stand at her feet, and across the
In this painting the pyramidal contour is front are ranged a row of candles in an elab-
again encountered. Such treatment might arise orate silver holder. Columns and curtains
from the ambition of the artist to decorate the frame the scene, suggesting another statue-
figure with an abundance of ornament, disre- painting.
garding realistic proportions. But one also
might find here an intention to make the fig- The Order of Mercy, whose members are
ure as imposing as possible, even superhuman; known as the Mercedarians, was founded by
bv its sheer mass it evokes awe. Note that the St. Peter Nolasco and the King of Aragon in
painted garland does not belong in the compo- 12 1 8 for the purpose of ransoming Christian
sition and covers some of its details. captives in the hands of the Moors. Their
The painting of the Virgin of Merced in white habit bears the arms of Aragon as their
Cuzco (fig. most revealing and

b), one of the badge. Their patroness, the Virgin of Mercy,
beguiling examples of the Cuzco circle, looks is a favorite figure throughout Spanish-speak-
like a colored fashion plate from around the ing countries. She is represented with angels
end of the seventeenth century. The social holding her mantle protectively above a group
and religious life of the topmost strata of of kneeling figures.
Spanish and Creole society in the New World In the three paintings of her here, the pope
was accompanied by considerable pomp and ison her right and the king on her left. Deli-
circumstance. The ladies of high officialdom cate gold tooling was applied to the canvas
were kept informed by friends in Europe of from Arequipa (PI. 136, fig. a), in Peru, and
changes in fashion, and by mid-seventeenth special attention was paid to the folds in the
century, when travel had become less strenu- drapery, while in the one from Quito (fig. b)
ous, even they crossed to and from Europe. the coloring is emphasized. In the third ex-
Also, sometimes the family of an official ac- ample (fig. c), also from Quito, the mantle
companied him on his visits in the colonies, has become a veritable canopy and two addi-
and, as the seasons changed, the landowners tional small angels hover about the crown.
with their families moved to or from their Here particularly one can sense the adherence
haciendas, often at some distance from their to some printed source, frequently a character-
winter quarters. Thus fashion was spread. But istic of Quito paintings. The two small chil-
the Baroque and Rococo costumes created for dren kneeling close to the Virgin may repre-
European elegance stood out here strangely, sent those of the donor. This canvas, which
for the overwhelming majority of the people hangs in the refectory at El Tejar, a Merce-
wore either the untailored garments of the darian retreat, is signed Francisco Alban, 1772.
Indian, little changed from pre-Columbian Alban was one of the very few artists who,
times, or the drab clothing prescribed for the even in that late period, signed and dated their
[ 209 1
BAROQUE AND ROCOCO IN LATIN AMI RICA
paintings. He was a native of Quito, is reputed other iconographical practices, the depiction
to have been an Indian, and worked especially of the Holv Trinity either as three identical
76
for the Dominicans and the Mercedarians. figures or, because of its grotesque appearance,
The wood relief of La Merced (fig. d), also as one head with three faces. Nevertheless,
from Quito, is a small traveling piece and has both of these prohibited versions were re-
doors that can be closed over it, like a trip- peated in Spanish America to the very end of
tych of earlier times but here the wings are the colonial period.
left plain.From the multitude represented on A Peruvian version of the latter representa-
the canvases, room was found on this carving tion (PL 757, fig. d), probably dating from
for only two persons. Perhaps the Tejar com- late seventeenth century or the early eight-
position influenced the carver to include two eenth, shows a figure with three faces holding
small children at the feet of the Virgin, a not a geometric symbol of the Trinity. Along the
too frequent addition. Above, the tympanum edge of the triangle the text reads "Father is
is given over to a figure of God the Father, not Son," and toward the center, "Father is
iconographically not necessary in this case but God." The figure wears churchly vestments,
much liked by the folk artist. and the pendulum-like end of the triangle is
In the parish church at Cuautitlan, Mexico, suspended directly above a papal tiara held by
a large colonial painting of La Merced shows two angels. In the four corners of the picture
a group of white men in eighteenth-century are busts of the Evangelists. Lettering along the
laces and silks on her right and, on her left, bottom of the canvas indicates that again an
Indians in gala serapes and headbands. This illustration from a book was used as model.
church also contains two of the rare Martin It is difficult to trace the beginnings of this
de Vos canvases still extant in the New World. delineation, but it appeared in 1491 as a wood-
cut in a Florentine edition of Dante's Divine
Soon after the invention of oil painting, Comedy, in 1506 on the title page of Lyn-
some painters directed their imagination to woodd's Canon Laii-, brought out in London,
what would be called today abstract or sur- and 1524 in a Book of the Hours printed by
realist art. It was an age in which a king Simon Yostre. 4
might occupy himself with astronomy, or as- A mural painting on a pendentive in the
trology, or perhaps with the invention of baptistry of San Pedro in Juli (fig. e), Peru,
perpetuwn mobile. Interest was developing in reminds one of a woodcut. Two of the Latin
chemical and physical experimentation. Yet it Fathers, Augustine and Ambrose, are depicted
was an intellectual climate, too, in which the in a Byzantoid manner, as if enlarged from a
fantastic, the grotesque, and the visionary had page of some book. The flowers and straw-
a great part. Holbein's Totentanz and Bosch's berries in the frame are typical marginal deco-
surrealistic landscapes are creations of a period rations in illuminated manuscripts.
in which monsters, witches, and distortions of The simple Indian folk of the mountain
both humans and animals played important valleys in the High Andes, accustomed to use
roles. That age was interested not onlv in the material at hand, sometimes painted reli-
physics but also in metaphysics. gious pictures on animal skins that had been
In spite of the vigilance of the Inquisition prepared with a chalklike sizing as base, not
to prevent any but orthodox representations unlike that for a fresco. Such pictures can be
of religious subjects from reaching the colo- found in regions as far apart as New Mexico
nies, artistic and literary material survives there and upper Peru. The example here (fig. f)
today which does not conform to the regula- shows St. John the Baptist, dressed in skins,
tions laid down by the Council of Trent. This and John the Evangelist holding a quill pen
extended church convention forbade, among; in his hand. Their features are drawn in much
[210]
)
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
the same way as those of the Trinity on the guage of the Indians and many of the mestizos
same plate.The ribbon on the staff of the is Quechua. This Cuzco painting might be
Baptist bears his name, though the letters are placed in the second half of the seventeenth
garbled to read "Johino." At the saints' feet century; Manuel Villavicencio, a printer of
are numerous scenes from pastoral life— weav- religious woodcuts in Puebla, Mexico, repro-
ing, spinning, milking, and grinding corn. duced a somewhat similar version toward the
Both saints are barefoot, as are all the other end of the eighteenth century (see Appendix,
figures in the painting. The village artist who PL 191, fig. g), evidence of the continued
116
made this picture in the Peruvian Andes at the popularity of this subject.
end of the colonial epoch is related through In the painting of the Carmelite martyr San
his manner Codex Mon-
to the painter of the Anastasio (fig. b), also from Cuzco, demons
teleone (see PL 130), which dates from the are being exorcised. This saint, a native of
very beginning of the era. Whether a Mexican Cordova, Spain, was condemned to death in
or a Peruvian, each was working with a lan- 853 and beheaded for publicly professing the
guage of which he knew only the most basic Christian faith. Despite the gruesome details
words. of severed head and dripping blood, the face
Metaphysical passages in the Bible also pro- has a warmly human expression. In the lower
vided an outlet for the painter. The sixteenth- portion of the canvas, kept in somber tones
century Franciscan church at Tecamachalco, against the brilliance of the center, two tailed
in the state of Puebla, Mexico, has a number demons crouch in terror; the text describes
of oval paintings in its choir vaults, among their overthrow by the saint.The coloring in
them the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse this picture is unusually subtle. The radiant
(fig. a). One rider brandishes a sword, another light encircling the saint's head accentuates the
an arquebus, and a third carries a scale. darkness around the demons and also illumi-
The fourth, Death, below them, pushing
is nates a city in the distance; thus in the one
the damned with a triton toward the jaws of picture are suggested the celestial, the terres-
Hell. A strong bookish atmosphere emanates trial, and the infernal worlds.
from the whole series, which is dated 1562
and work of
is the the Indian painter Juan The immense role played by prints in the
Gerson. The series of paintings was copied diffusion of iconographical concepts and pic-
from a Bible printed in Lyon in mid-sixteenth torial compositions in the New World has been
century, fragments of which were discovered noted repeatedly in this volume. In Europe
recently in a Mexican library and were identi- sometimes a famous painting was reproduced
fied by this author. Certain iconographical as a print in the atelier of its creator, but
formulas seem to have been fixed at an early usually it was engraved by a specialist. From
date and carry over even into the work of such late sixteenth century on, engravers were
masters as Martin Schongauer ( 1453?— 1491 attached to one publishing house or another,
and Diirer. which in turn had its agents in distant lands.
A portrayal of the tortures of the damned On the next plate are shown two engravings
(fig- c), from Cuzco, presents a terrifying executed by members of the Sadeler family.
scene, a chained victim being
gnawed by seven born Brussels about
Jan Sadeler, in 1550,
monsters (the seven deadly sins?). Below the appears to be the first of this name to enter
picture are several lines of text, showing that the recorded history of art. At the beginning
it was taken from a book. But only a very of his career, while living in Antwerp, he en-
small percentage of those who saw the paint- graved Martin de Vos's Christ Child Treading
ing could read, especially Spanish,
for in the on the Serpent (1576), as well as other works
Cuzco Valley even today the common lan- of that artist. He later traveled and worked
[m]
in Mainz, Frankfort, Cologne, Munich, Ve- mae Arbori, dicatum"— which points unmis-
rona, and Venice (where he died in 1600)— takably to the message of the original: Christ
revealing list, the route of the northern artists as a baby choosing the Cross instead of his
as they moved southward and of the Italians mother's breast. The Cuzco painter has put on
when they traveled northward. the canvas a warm earthy group scene. Except
Raphael Sadeler made an engraving of the for the Christ Child, whose visionary trance is
Vision of the Cross (PI. 138, fig. a), another still perceptible, the whole picture takes on a
work by Martin de Vos, in Munich in 16 14. dark-blooded undertone. Some time after this
In this print the translucent and mild colors chapter was written, Martin S. Soria found in
of the Flemish master are translated into the Quito, Ecuador, a similar painting, also closely
exacting and sober medium of copperplate. related to the engraving, and signed by An-
Nevertheless the characteristic late Gothic tonio Montufar, a painter of Guatemala who
atmosphere of the original is preserved. was around mid-seventeenth century.
active
A painted version of the same subject The engraving of the martyrdom of St.
(fig. b), executed
in Cuzco, is illustrated be- Sebastian (fig. c) was made after a painting
side it. This canvas is said to bear the signa- by Jacopo Palma the Younger (1 544-1628)
ture of the Indian Diego Quispe Ttito, one of by two Sadeler brothers— Egidius the drawing
whose works is dated 163 1. Thus in the first and Marcus the engraving. The "inventor's"
half of the seventeenth century a theme by name appears on the quiver in the right fore-
Aârtin de Vos reached Cuzco in the form of ground. The martyr is shown as he is being
an engraving bv Raphael Sadeler— made only fastened to a tree by two men. In the back-
a decade or so earlier— and inspired a painting ground are pictured two episodes from the
by a pure-blood Indian of the Andes. The story, and in the sky is an angel bearing the
likeness is apparent at a glance. The Baby crown and palm branch of martvrdom.
Jesus, the cross borne by six angels, the back- This Sadeler engraving was doubtless the
ground, the house with its garden— all are prototype for the anonymous oil painting in
identical in the two. The Virgin's pose is the Cuzco illustrated beside it (fig. d). But the
same; even the fold in the garment breaks at Sadeler work went through an intermediary
the same point on her left shoulder. But while transformation, for somewhere along the way
her hair hangs loose in the print, in the paint- the composition was reversed, a quite frequent
ing it is completely covered by a head cloth. occurrence with engravings in general. Per-
The bed has acquired four large buckles, a haps one engraving was traced onto another
Baroque touch. plate, or perhaps the original was copied by
However, in the Cuzco version not only another engraver directlv onto the new plate.
were buckles added to the curtain and loose Another reversed version of the same theme
strands of hair put out of sight; important was executed 132 in Mexico by the painter Jose
new elements were introduced that have a real de Ibarra (1 688-1 756). The unknown Cuzco
significance— at the left the kneeling St. Jo- artist, like Quispe Ttito, transcribed quite lit-
seph and at the right the youthful Baptist. erally, though his figures are all brought for-
By the addition of these two figures the tra- ward, the facial expression of his saint is more
ditional representation, iconographically cor- larnwyant, and his background scenes are
rect in the engraving, is so changed that the more pedestrian. In the oil, the tiees and vege-
painting is entitled Sagrada Familia (Holy tation have taken on a lushness and the cos-
Family). This raises the question as to whether tumes a more tactile quality.
the Indian painter understood the Latin text This painting strongly resembles the St. Se-
at the top of the engraving (omitted by him) bastian statue being carried in a religious pro-
—"Augustissimo Crucis Trophaeo, Foelicissi- cession in Cuzco illustrated earlier (see PL 6$),
[212]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
while a statue from Guatemala (see PL $$) may printed in 1737 for the Spanish tradeby the
have been inspired by the engraving. Plantin press in Antwerp (fig. e). copy of A
this book is in the Museum of Religious Art
Santiago Matamoros, as discussed in some in Mexico City. Its title page carries a Latin
detail in Chapter 7, was the patron of Spanish text to the effect that it is the proper holy
knighthood. Each newly anointed knight of missal of Spain in general use in that country
the Order of Santiago received a parchment and carries the apostolic concessions by four
decorated in polvchrome miniature technique, popes; it was printed in the "architypographia
his carta ejecutoria de hidalguia, which bore Plantiniana, M.D.CC. XXXVII." From the
the figure of the saint. The scene on one such representation of the saint in profile, with all
patent of nobility (PL 139, fig. a), granted in his paraphernalia— including his shell symbols
1 6 10 to Gaspar Guerta de Canamal of Seville on the saddle blanket— to the placement of the
by Philip III, issomew hat condensed within
r
two fortresses in the background and the array
its wide frame. The Spanish lances are visible of the soldiery in the two camps, the Quito
bevond the saint's white charger; to the right painting is a faithful copy of the Flemish page.
are the fleeing Moors, and in the foreground The regional artist added one detail— the angel
is a group of fallen heathen. These parchments, in the sky pointing his lance toward the enemy
proudly displaved by their owners, must have and sounding the victorious charge. The re-
been a source of inspiration for the regional peated use of a popular representation through
artist in Spanish America. Even the decoration decades is proven by other missals from the
on the frame provided ideas for various motifs Plantin press. One published in 1693 has a
—note the leaf-sprites, favorites in the colonies. picture of Santiago on the appendix leaf.
A large mural in the nave of the village Another Santiago, with slight variations, en-
church at Checacupe, Peru, presents the same graved by Louis Fruytiers in 1756 after a
X1
subject in an arrangement more or less identi- drawing by Cornells J. d'Heur, appears on
cal (fig. b). The routed Moors occupy about the title page of a missal issued in 1761 (see
the same proportion of the available space; but Appendix, PL 191, fig. i).
here because of the rectangular shape and the The Santiago from a Peruvian collection
larger area Santiago has more breathing space, (fig. f) is said to be in the image of Philip
more Moors were included, and the Spanish IV, but it is the costume of the epoch that it
soldiery behind the saint received more detail. reproduced rather than the king's likeness,
A bit of empty surface in the background is familiar through portraits by his favorite
filled with a lone rider, placed against a little painter, Velazquez. In the liveliness of its color
landscape with houses; in a cloud in the skv this painting is the best among the colonial
is another miniature, showing Christ holding examples illustrated here, and the tooling, so
the cross and at his feet the Virgin. The frame thick that from the canvas, is
it stands out
is painted in the local tradition of fine dadoes, exquisite. The
Moors on the ground,
three
and the beam ends above show how harmoni- unmistakablv identified bv the double cres-
ous was once the decoration in such a village cents on their turbans, are all alive and looking
church (see also PL ///). up at the rider with admiration. In certain
The three canvases on this plate (figs, c, d, paintings of the Cuzco circle the saint is rep-
f) come from Mexico, Quito, and Cuzco, re- resented as killing Indians, recognizable as such
spectively. They reveal characteristics of these from their patterned Inca ponchos and head-
three circles of painting; in size thev range bands.
from 64 inches by 50 (on the right) to 36
1
; In some wavs the Mexican picture c)

(fig.
inchesby 24 (on the left). The Quito example is the crudest. Both hands of the saint are
(fig. d) was taken directly from a missal occupied— the right with his swinging sword
h'3]
and the left with a standard— a difficult feat teenth-century gentleman; the large feathered
for a rider. The armor is picked out by gold felt hat, the knee breeches, the shoes with
tooling. In the lower right the words Sr. Sn bow ties, the laces, and the long wavy hair
Tiago (Sefior Santiago) label for the country- are all in the mode of the day. He carries not
folk their favorite hero. a saber but a gun, which he is loading. This
The horses in every instance have the un- must have been a mystifying weapon, almost
natural posture of the animal trained in the supernatural, to a people who at that time
Spanish riding school, as seen in the paintings were still using arrows and spear throwers.
of Velazquez, Van Dyck, and others. The penitent Magdalene in a theatrically
In European art this aspect of James the larmoyant pose doubtless appealed as a subject
Apostle, as slayer of Moors, occurs chiefly in to many sentimental Spanish ladies. A canvas
Spain, and even there it is rare among the from a church near Riobamba, Ecuador (fig.
works of great masters from the seventeenth c), shows her in the finerv of her repudiated
century on. 30 However, the militant figures of mundane life contemplating the Cross. The
St. George and the Archangel Michael as interpretation here has a certain literalism that
riders— the latter on a winged steed— appear was tvpical of the Quito circle; all the attri-
frequently in Byzantine painting and in other butes of the story are carefully recorded. This
countries into the eighteenth century. composition might have illustrated a mid-
eighteenth-century romance. It undoubtedly
One archangel as the subject of a painting had a famous painting as prototype which
also was Western Europe; some notable
rare in circulated in the colonies as a print.
exceptions are representations by Guido Reni The placing of the figure in an exquisitely
and Zurbaran and that by Martin de Vos at detailed landscape suggests the manner of
Cuautitlan, Mexico. In this case, too, the colo- Manuel Samaniego y Jaramillo, a native of
nial mentality established its own pictorial pref- Quito active during the last quarter of the
erences; statues and paintings are common eighteenth century and in the early nineteenth.
throughout Spanish America in which an arch- Samaniego left a compendium, 183 called Tra-
angel, usually St. Michael, is the principal actor tado de pintura, which contains sections copied
if not the only one. from Pacheco's El arte de la pintura and notes
Both pictures of him shown here come from from a book on the precepts of painting which
Peru. The first (PI. 140, fig. a) presents him he says was written "en Lengua fiamenca
among clouds, brandishing a flaming sword [por] Carlos Bexmandes, Natural de la Ciudad
with a wavy blade as he subdues the Devil. de Hadem en Olanda." After some research
The composition has immense swing. The this artist was identified as Carel van Mander,
centrifugal whirl beginning with the down- a native of Haarlem, whose notes Pacheco had
sweeping weapon is intensified by the flying appended to his own volume. Such confusions
cloak and the heavenly radiation behind him. result from the repeated copying of cherished
The textures are well differentiated, and the works.
gold tooling emphasizing the figure of the Samaniego's notes throw light upon some of
archangel is varied and carefully done. the characteristics and procedures of colonial
In the depiction at Zepita (fig. b), on Lake painting. For the artist who lived out his life
Titicaca, St. Michael has lost much of his in his native colonial town, traveling little if
metaphysical radiation but in exchange has at all, the technical observations and artistic
become more immediate and human. He stands interpretations of his predecessors were all-
against a dull-colored background. His gar- important. They constituted a vade mecum,
ments are elaborately patterned and tooled. He furnishing him not only chemical formulas
wears the costume of a mid- to late-seven- but also directives on how to represent certain
[2.4]
UNKNOWN" PAINTERS
established subjects. Samaniego gives exact academic has been lost, but special attractive-
proportions for drawing a head in profile or ness was gained through the infusion of the
full face, explains how to bring the arms and folkloristic.
hands into the composition, discusses the size

of feet and the different tones of encarnacion Though the artist in Spain was conditioned
to be used, and how to paint a gloriole or in the selection of his themes by the life about
color the living or the dead Christ. He gives him, which was surcharged with religion, from
the attributes and manner of representation of the last decade of the sixteenth century he
allegorical figures from Prudence to Ignorance began to produce for the taverns (bodegas)
—a fleshy, stronglv painted, and richlv bejew- still-life paintings, the flowers and foods of
38
eled woman of deformed features— and offers which are often exotic in provenience. Dur-
183
a recipe for Chinese ink. ing the first half of the following century such
As late as 1782 it appeared necessarv in bodegones became popular. Further impetus
Spain to publish instructions reiterating the for non-religious painting came from the pica-
resolutions of the Council of Trent. This resque romance, peculiarly Spanish, and from
work, written in Latin in the early part of secular books and prints from other lands. In
the centurv bv the Spanish monk Avala and addition tapestries with secular subjects, often
then translated into Spanish, bore the descrip- allegorical, first from the famous Flemish
tive title, The Christian and Erudite Painter, workshops and laterfrom the French and
or a Treatise of the Errors Frequently Com- Spanish, exerted their influence; these wall
mitted in Painting or Sculpturing Sacred hangings were welcomed for their decorative
Images. It gave exact norms— the degree of effect and, in chilly climates, to help keep the
nuditv permissible without danger of scandal- rooms warm.
izing the sensitive— as w ell
r
as the proper age, All of these sources stimulated the art of
stature, and gestures for numerous saints and the colonies. The bringing- forward of a land-
94
Virgins. scape out of the background, the compact
In the portrait from the Cuzco circle (fig. d) defined shapes of a woodcut, the tight com-
we see a definite leaning toward the sentimen- position of a tapestry, and the sharp thin lines
tal tvpe illustrated beside it. Distinctlv a so- of an engraving— all can be perceived in its
cialite, the lady is dressed up in her best for pictorial language. Bv including common folk
her sitting. A quadruple string of pearls ex- in a landscape and emphasizing the flora and
tends across her shoulder like a sash, and in fauna, the supporting details of a religious
addition she wears manv rings and earrings, painting often were so strengthened that its
hairpins and feathers. On the table are more Biblical message was obscured. This tendency
of her valuables. Through the long window is exemplified in the canvas from the Cuzco
are visible the palm and the cedar, recalling circle representing St. Anthony preaching to
the attributes of the Virgin. Her head, eyes, the fishes and birds (PI. 141, fig. a). Though
and tearful pursing of the mouth are similar to the saint standing among his finny and feath-
the .Magdalene's, and her right hand has the ered congregation is the largest figure in the
same pose. The essence of this portrait lies in picture, our eye is first attracted to the stage-
the dolorous expression of the sitter as she design landscape with its lush vegetation and
turns away from her earthlv possessions and, is then led on up the broad expanse of the
with her left hand indicating the cross at her river. The scene in the right foreground is so
throat, raises her eves to Heaven. full of descriptive detail that it could well be
The two paintings on the left are somewhat an illustration for a story. In this composition
sophisticated interpretations of European pro- especial! v, the influence of landscapes bv
totypes; in those on the right much of the Joachim dc Patinier (1480?-! 524) and the
5]
atmosphere of woodcuts from Central Euro- loving detail. The inherent artistic sense of the
pean travel books can be felt. natives which made this shop scene so attrac-
The inclusion of the worldly often gave to a tive continued beyond the colonial period, for
religious or symbolic theme the appearance of even today the lively exhibitions of many
a painted romance. In the Prodigal Son (fig. d), Latin American markets are real spectacles.
also from Cuzco, less than half of the canvas
is devoted to the main subject— the merry- In the vast repertory7 of Biblical scenes few
making with banquet and music. For this sec- subjects have the enduring charm of the Flight
tion Murillo's Prodigal Son might have served into Egypt. The imagination of countless
as inspiration; even more similar are details artists— from the greatest of the Italian masters
in Raphael Sadeler's Amor, engraved (1591) to the unknown colonial painters of Latin
after Martin de Vos. The loving couple in the America— was fired to tell the oft-repeated
foreground seems a separate story, and still story. The Flight hanging in the museum at
more independent are the idyllic groups at the Queretaro (PI. 142, fig. a) is signed in gold
left, divided by the stream. Note the deer- "Joannes Rodriguez Xudrez fcT Four painters
hunting scene in the background; hunting from this Rodriguez family came to the fore
with spears was still usual in that age. Thus in colonial Mexico: Antonio, Jose, Juan ( 1675—
a composite arrangement of several episodes 1728) and Nicolas. Juan's father was Antonio
was presented on one canvas, as if to make the and his mother was the daughter of Jose
picture as entertaining as possible. Juarez, a noted artist.
Without apparent religious content but The Queretaro canvas is 7 feet by 5^4.
probably with allegorical significance is the Maturity is manifest in the composition, and
carnival scene from the Cuzco circle (fig. c). a rare delicacy of sentiment pervades the work.
The greater portion of the foreground is given The scene is set in a romantic landscape that
over to seven masked dancing figures, familiar has much of tropical Mexico about it. Mary
from Venetian prints of the second half of the is depicted with the tenderness of devotion;
seventeenth century. Farther back, the figures St. Joseph is portrayed as solicitous and digni-
on the bridge, in the water, and on the shore fied. The two cherubs leading the ass by its
and the sailing ship on the horizon tell their halter rope reveal an exquisite feeling for plas-
own stories. The presence of animals emerging ticity. The same artist executed another Flight,
from the forest, as if charmed by the music still larger in size (about 13 feet bv 6), as one
of the banqueting party at the edge of the of a series of ei^ht canvases for the cloister
woods, suggests a knowledge of the Orpheus of Tepotzotlan. Whether the success of that
legend, which was popular in that period. painting causedhim to repeat the subject or
Since the eighteenth century knew many ro- whether the example here was the earlier has
mantic stories now long forgotten, it is difficult not yet been established.
to comprehend all the literary allusions in these Juan Rodriguez Juarez signed his paintings
paintings. in several ways: as "Juan," then again as
The well-stocked booth in the Market Scene ''Ioannes," or even as "I," and often Juarez
from Mexico (fig. b), dated 1766, is easier to was spelled "Xuarez"; fecit was written out
understand. The viands displayed range from or variously abbreviated. The dates in his sig-
vegetables and fruits to shrimp and other fish. natures range from 1693 to 17 14; the painting
Judging from the marked difference in their shown here carries no date.
132
A self-portrait
dress, the two men at the right are employees, of this painter hangs in the San Carlos Gallery
while the others are customers. Note the in Mexico City. It is executed in an amazingly
fine pottery jars, the beautiful tightly woven impressionistic style and shows a youngish
baskets, the bottles and boxes, all depicted in man wearing a braided mauve-gray coat,
[216]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
which contrasts with his dark hair. Sensibility buildings, birds, and vegetation, very much
is revealed in the narrow face, the finely subordinated in spite of its many details. The
wrought nose, and the mobile fingers. It is in- grouping, with St. Joseph occupying the
teresting to note that he was a contemporary center, is somewhat unusual. All of the fig-
of Holguin, active in Bolivia. {Compare PL ures, elaborately tooled, are outspokenly two-
1 34-) dimensional. Note in the foreground the two
An unknown Cuzco painter tells his storv birds kissing— a folk motif— and the parrot eat-
of the Flight (fig. b) with charming naivete. ing grapes. Highly decorative in quality, this
While in the Rodriguez painting the couple is painting belongs to the best of the Cuzco
traveling light, here both St. Joseph and the circle— a sublimation of folk art.
mule are heavilv loaded. Joseph in the Mexican The Return from Egypt from (fig. b),
rendition is looking at Marv and her face is Quito, has a landscape background made up
turned toward husband and Babv— all three are of elements basically similar to those in the
enclosed within a single circle of affection; in Cuzco paintings shown here and on the pre-
the Peruvian, each gazes in a different direc- ceding plate. But it is more integrated into
tion. The minor scene in the background refers the whole, especially through the general mel-
to the apocrvphal storv that relates how the lowness of its coloring. The Quito circle never
little group in their flight came upon a man applied eold tooling as lavishly as the circles
sowing wheat, whom .Marv begged to answer of Cuzco and Potosi, and thus the main figures
to all who might inquire that he had been were not lifted out of context in the same way.
planting when thev passed; overnight the field In contrast to the Bvzantoid aloofness that per-
sprang to full maturity and the next dav when vades the preceding group, a subdued rhythm
the soldiers of Herod heard the man's truthful is perceptible in the movement of the Holy
reply they gave up the pursuit as futile. Family, and the little anêl leading the mule
The Return Holy Familv from Egvpt
of the is full of action. The painter is said to have
(fig. c), another Cuzco painting, has the atmos- been Manuel Samaniego.
phere of a fairy tale. Jesus, now a young child, With the next two pictures from Quito
is walking, and flowers spring up before his we reach the best religious £enre. Both are
feet. The mule at St. Joseph's side has become attributed to Samaniego, and they are close
a shadowy background figure, and no inci- to each other in their evenly distributed in-
dents of the journey are recorded. Little terest and their touching atmosphere— primary
subtlety is evident— either in compositional requirements of this tvpe.
rhythm or coloristic display; all the brilliance The Carpenter's Shop (fig. c) shows the
lies in the rich and careful toolinsr in the Holy Familv at home in Nazareth. Nine little
several patterns. A single large tree is pointed angels are busv about them, two sawing a
up as center and background, and before it board, one carving on a spoon, and two others
the group is placed almost as if in a tableau gathering chips; in a second group, as two
vivant. blow the fire a companion recoils from the
The tropical trees have a considerable mas- rising smoke; the last one is scattering food
siviry in all three canvases,
and birds are given for the chickens. The Child Jesus is holding
an important place. Note the different treat- the spindle from which Man* winds a ball of
ment of the halos. thread, and St. Joseph is planing. Framed in
the window is a landscape very similar to that
Cuzco depiction of the Rest on the
In a in Cuzco painting above it— a stairway
the
Flight (PL 143, fig- a) most of the canvas is leading up a hill where stands a chapel, an
devoted to the Holy Family; the remainder arched gateway at the left and a cliff on the
shows a fantasy landscape with mountains. right. In the Quito piece this detail is brought
[217]
out with the clarity of a Rococo wallpaper, In spite of the general monotone coloring, a
while in the Cuzco canvas it has the rather transparent veil-like quality gives the canvas
fat chiaroscuro quality of a seventeenth- especial attraction. Note the vase of flowers in
century Dutch or Flemish work. the foreground and the sprays scattered over
A composite character is again evident in the floor, which is drawn in careful perspec-
another Quito painting, the Rest on the Flight tive.
(fig. d). One angel is offering Mary food, Luis Juarez studied with Baltasar de Echave
two are in the fruit tree, and a fourth is laying Orio and was engaged to furnish paintings for
132
a fire in a hollow. Somewhat farther away the Mexican cathedral. Canvases which he
three little angels are occupied in guiding the signed and dated place him in the first half
ass to water, and in the distance the story of of the seventeenth century. His Annunciation
the soldiers and harvesters is repeated. Flemish (fig. d) brings some new details. Mary here
emblem books and albums of sketches contain isplaced on a low podium and the angel stands
many small engravings featuring a jolly com- on an even lower level, but since the Virgin
pany of babv angels about the child Alary is kneeling, he is still the taller.
or the Infant Jesus. Upon comparing these four Annunciations,

one finds that in two of them the angel stands
The mystically beautiful theme of the on the floor in a simple and quiet scene that
Annunciation was treated with great diver- is typical of early European representations;
sity bv colonial painters. The first painting of in the other two he floats in greater splen-
12
it shown here (PL 144, fig. a) is on the ceiling dor, a concept of the Counter Reformation.
of the apse opposite the main altar in the Mary's figure and that of the Dove are de-
church at Checacupe, Peru (see also PL m). picted differently in each case, and the halos
Again apparently the subject matter was trans- and heavenly radiance show considerable va-
lated and enlarged from a book illustration. riety. In the two Cuzco paintings the angel
The scene takes place in a bedroom depicted points upward to the Holy Ghost, a gesture
in the matter-of-fact Gothic tradition of found also in Mexican works. In the Quito
Schongauer and Diirer. Mary kneels at a prie- and Mexican examples God the Father is send-
dieu; the angel, standing before her on the ing down the Dove, and in the latter he wears
patterned floor, carries a staff with a phylac- a papal tiara. These similarities and differences
terium inscribed with his greeting, "Ave Ma- reveal how manifold were the sources from
ria Gratia Plena?"
1
which the painters could make their choices.
The second example (fig. b), an oil paint-

ing from Cuzco, has a strong Baroque char- Colonial families of standing had house altars
acter in its display of chiaroscuro. The third if not house chapels, for which at least one
Annunciation (fig. c) is one of the countless large religious picture was required. Among
art pieces belonging to the monastery of San their favorite subjects were the Virgin and
Francisco in Quito. Here Mary kneels at the Child (PL 14.J, fig. b) and St. Joseph with the
right and the angel floats in above her from Child (fig. a). In these two paintings from
the other side; thus their positions are re- Cuzco the arrangement, pose, and gestures are
versed. The words of the Annunciation, in and the existence of a common for-
identical,
Latin, are most decoratively used in a band mula can be presumed, although thev are
of gold lettering, and her reply, "Behold the distinctly executed bv different hands. The
handmaid of the Lord . .
." (Luke 1:38), figures are drawn as large as the space permits,
is in mirror script, indicating the direction and garlands of flowers frame the canvases, a
from which the communication comes. Grace popular feature, as has been noted. The Joseph
and a genuine sweetness are in Mary's bearing. picture is somewhat glassy, while the other,
[2.8]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
though less skillful in composition, has con- and engravings bv several hands before it
siderable warmth. reached the high valley in the Andes. The
Already it must have been observed that Gothic spirit in the blonde femiiiinity and the
in Latin America St. Joseph is not the old man translucent headdress was translated here into
— frequently a bit doddering—depicted in the Baroque ebullience; the dark hair and massive
.Middle Ages and occasionally in the Renais- head cloth are in the fashion of Latin America.
sance. From late sixteenth century on. espe- But nearly all of the purely compositional
cially in Spain, he was portrayed as a younger details are retained. The Holy Child's pose
man. for his was a figure particularly rever- is copied even to the folds in the cloth about
enced bv St. Theresa, who regarded the Holy his loins. Mary's square decollete and the fall
Family as symbols of the Trinity on earth. of the head cloth also are drawn from Diirer's
According to the Apocrypha, to signify that panel. Taken over exactly are the line of the
he was to become Mary's husband his staff eyebrows and nose and the mouth. But the
flowered in the wilderness. This start as pic- hair,which with its hanging strand was ob-
tured on the canvas in the sagrario chapel of served with a keen eve and daringly depicted
the cathedral in Comavagua. Honduras, is as bv the European master, has been changed;
thin as a pipe stem (fig. c), evidence of the here every lock is under control, conform-
refining influence of the Rococo. The build-up ing to the pruderv of the time and place.
in this painting differs from that above it. and Diirer's much-discussed tuft of cloth, or
the tooling— exquisitely done in that work— is '"pear." in the Christ Child's hand has been
here limited to golden flowers on the garments turned into a rose, and the intricacies of the
and the edging of Joseph's robe. The com- drapery beneath his arm have been obscured
position and clear transparent coloring indicate in shadow. The widening of the eyes, the
a good tradition. This painting bears the name darkening of the pupils, and the nearly im-
Gomez and the date 1778; the same artist perceptible rounding of the faces contribute
(Jose Manuel Gomez, born in Honduras) to the fascinating transformation.
wa
painted the dome and pendentives in the
cathedral of Tegucigalpa in 1786 (see PL 11). St. Christopher was so generally beloved
Numerous examples in this volume have that the Council of Trent tried to curb his
shown the vast influence of Flemish and Cen- popularity, though with little success. Even to-
tral European
on that of colonial America.
art day he attracts painters and sculptors, for, in
The second Virgin and Child from Cuzco this subject, revealing contrasts can be por-
(fig. d). in the warmth of its atmosphere and trayed— between the tall and small, the old
the manner of its gold tooling, harmonizes and voung. the one striving and the other
with other eighteenth-century works of that serene and assured.
circle. It gains additional interest when it is The present church of Santiago in Tlate-
compared with the Durer Virgin and Child lolco. Mexico, erected in the first half of the
painted on wood in 1512 {see Appendix. PL seventeenth century, was refurbished in mid-
l 9l t fig- /)• Reproductions of the Diirer panel centurv. In the decoration of the whole
served as prototype in the distant New World, complex a strongly Indian interpretation of
whose pre-Columbian treasures that artist ad- European forms occurs {see PL SS Above ] -
mired " on his visit to Brussels in 152a the side entrance of the church a mural of St.
The translation from Durer to the Cuzco Christopher {PL 146. fig. j ) fills the vast arched
canvas reveals much of the compositional space. Here is the legendary giant of a man,
method of colonial artists. The original paint- presented in heroic proportions, his staff a
ing, an important item in the Habsburg collec- veritable tree trunk. His halo has the shape
tion, may have been reproduced in woodcuts of a metal disk, such as is often pinned on the
[» 9]
heads of statues. Note the new moon with a Paul that hangs near the baptismal font in the
human profile in the right corner. At the bot- church of Santo Domingo in La Paz (fig. d).
tom of the mural stands a hermit, framed in For many the static quality and the general
the mouth of a cave— a detail which accentu- Byzantoid atmosphere will evoke memories of
ates the Byzantoid atmosphere of the scene. Catalan frescoes. This work, executed on cot-
In their compositional approachsome modern ton cloth, is one of a pair which once formed
Mexican frescoes parallel this wall painting the outside wings of an organ; musical sub-
which goes back to a century or so after the jects painted on the other were discov-
side
Conquest. ered under a heavy layer of dust and dirt by
Another St. Christopher (fig. b), dating this author when the pictures were removed
from around the end of the seventeenth cen- for photographing (see PL 153).
tury or the early eighteenth, comes from
Cuzco. Here he is seen wading through a river Eligius, later St. Eloi, born in 588 near
full of fishes; his two garments are differenti- Limoges, France, gained prominence as chief
ated by the patterns of the tooling. Jesus car- coiner to the king. Though appointed Bishop
ries a large globe topped with a cross, as in of Moyon, he continued to hold his former
the Mexican mural, but here it is like a toy post. He died after 650. A wealth of legend
balloon and the Child's leg is wrapped around arose around him and he became the patron
it. He returns the giant's gaze mischievously, saint of jewelers, metalworkers, and kindred
as if enjoying the situation. The position of the trades.
palm tree used as a staff is unrealistic but re- St. Eloi was portrayed infrequently in eight-
inforces the oblique lines that give movement eenth-century Europe, but his figure evidently
to the figure. At the left is the chapel of the caught the fancy of an unknown Cuzco
hermit. This painting also must have been painter. This conception of him (PL 147,
made after a prototype that was repeated fairly fig. a), strongly in the spirit of religious genre,
often in South America, for nearly an exact shows him, dressed in elaborate flowered ec-
replica hangs in the presbytery of San Fran- clesiastical robes, as he is working on a crown.
cisco in La Paz, Bolivia.
208
(For other Chris- A large silver candlestick stands on the table,
tophers see PL $2.) and some of his tools are lying about. His
To Holguin is attributed the canvas of St. chair has not the stiff straight back so often
Francis de Paul, La Paz (fig. c). The figure of depicted but the bulging line and gilt orna-
the saint is flatter than that in either of the ments of the Baroque; the drapery held back
two paintings above, and detail is emphasized. by a heavy tassel also is Baroque. A twisted
The face has innumerable wrinkles in pseudo column divides the canvas in two, and on the
realism, the nose and beard are carefully de- other side unrelated picturesque groups are
lineated, and amazingly warm and expressive presented. The European tradition for such
are the eyes. The hands are a study in them- a division harks back to the woodcut pages
selves, isolated from the rest of the body by of fifteenth-century block books and even to
the gold tooling. A flat geometrical stamped Byzantine manuscripts. Though the figures
pattern, applied to the garments without any here are dressed in Rococo costume— note the
attempt to show folds, offers startling contrast three ladies and the men clustered around a
to the three-dimensionality of the crucifix, spy glass in the background— the scene has
skull, and books and to the charming conven- the atmosphere of a Chinese wallpaper.
tionalized landscape. The cock on the church A delightful representation of the Adora-
roof symbolizes the preacher. tion of the Shepherds was realized by another
A sweeping brush stroke, covering much unknown Cuzco painter (fig. b). The naked
surface, was employed in the depiction of St. body of the Christ Child is set off by the
[220]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
voluminous gold-tooled garments that form a attention was concentrated on the coloristic.
kind of background for it. For the four shep- The lingering tradition of the Byzantine can
herds-all bearing gifts-the tooling is less elab- be felt (compare Appendix, PL 191, fig. d).
orate. Aliniature animals in the foreground This painting retains its original wood frame
help provide the atmosphere of the traditional with a bishop's miter incorporated into the
scene. Seated on a distant hilltop a Rococo decoration. Note the flowing ribbon motif
shepherd, like a porcelain figurine, is blowing twisting among the flowers and foliage, carved
on his pipe. Sheep are grazing in corrals close in filigree that has the exactness of metalwork.
by, and an angel is emerging from lively-col- The Mexican painting of Jerome (fig. c),
ored clouds. The large angel above the stable, another of the Latin Fathers, is attributed to
with a phvlacterium inscribed "Gloria in Ex- Juan Tinoco, active in Puebla in the second
132
celsis Deo," though iconographically not pre- half of the seventeenth century. Signed
scribed, is an enriching detail. The subordinate works of his dated 1683 and 1685 are extant.
plein-air scenes in both pictures are infused The saint is seated in his study at a table cov-
with a graceful Rococo touch. ered by a velvet cloth with a gold border and
In much colonial painting, especially that tassels; two pens again are evident. A large
executed by folk artists, the absence of color- library provides an effective backdrop, calling
istic brilliance and contrast can be felt. Tech- to mind what a proud thing was the posses-
nical limitations and the paucity of available sion of books in those days. Jerome's lion has
colors account for this in part; but many of a somewhat human face; probably few natives
these paintings— oftenon cotton cloth— were of Puebla had ever seen the actual animal.
prepared with red ocher, a damaging ground A rather expressionistic detail is the trumpet
color which, though it produced a vibrant thrust through the ceiling. The emphasis on
tone at first, ate through and with time oblit- the checkerboard pattern of the floor and the
erated the more varied and brilliant hues ap- perspective of the arches on the left remind
94
plied as upper layers. one of the interest of early Flemish and Italian
painters in such studies.

The depiction of saints was everyday work Bordering on the sweet but not offensive
for the colonial painter. Many canvases were in its sentimentality is the representation of
needed, and the larger the picture, the more the young Italian Jesuit, St. Louis Gonzaga,
impressive it was to the illiterate masses. Cuzco from the Quito circle (fig. d). His youth
produced the over-life-size portrayal of Greg- makes him especially appealing. The crucifix
ory (PL 148, fig. b), one of the Latin Fathers, he holds seems somewhat out of proportion
who became pope. He is crowned with his to the rest of the composition, but this was
triple tiara, and, as a symbol of divine inspira- one method of securing emphasis. Book, lilies,
tion, the Dove flutters at his right ear. Books cord, and cherub heads— all are present as icon-
make a picturesque background. ographical accessories, but they add no par-
The painting of Augustine (fig. a), from ticular pictorial interest. Through the inclu-
the Potosi circle, is one of a set showing all sion of arches and the angles of a few steps
four of the Latin Fathers. The Eye of God this painter displays sound knowledge of per-
in a triangle is his symbol; his bishop's miter spective.
is painted with much detail and two pens are The strength of these Cuzco and Potosi
visible on his table. The tooling differs from paintings lies in their monumental line, in a
that on the Cuzco canvas in its engraving-like powerful sense of decoration, and in their folk-
cleanness and widely spaced pattern. A more loristic imagination. Intellectual mannerism
advanced knowledge of both technique and permeates the Mexican and Quito canvases,
design is evident in the Potosi work and more resulting in bookish overtones.
[221]
The colonial artist, with his flair for the (fig. b). According to legend Indians attacked
decorative, recorded textiles in loving detail. the Spaniards, who had sought refuge in their
Sometimes he went further and applied real first small church, and set fire to the roof, but
textiles, working them into the composition. the Virgin, descending, smothered the flames
The Holy Family in Mongui, Colombia (PL with her robes. Her costume is made of
l 49i fig- a )i shows this technique. Velvet, silk, starched textiles, painted, and her jewelry is
linen, cord, and tassels make up the garments real. Through repeated over-painting, the fab-
affixed to the painted figures. Metal stars stud ric has become so stiff that it now has the
the Virgin's cloak and the new moon is a piece appearance of a lacquered relief. The expres-
of silver. Crown, chains, and rings are all cre- sions of the angels also have suffered through
ations of the jeweler's art, inserted into slits over-painting. The clouds are executed in spi-
in the canvas and sewed on at the back. The rals, like those seen in Quito sculpture. Com-
effect is not so much that of an icon (see pare the defenders in their coats of mail with
PL 131) as of low relief. the poncho-clad Indians.
A painting of the Virgin of Chiquinquira The Inca Princess (fig. d), from Cuzco, is
and her attendant saints Anthony and Andrew important because it offers a painted record
(fig. c) occupies the center of a side-chapel of Indian textiles, today very rare. She is
altar in San Diego, Quito. These figures are depicted in the stiff, stereotyped pose familiar
dressed— as were many statues— in clothing to the artists from the many pedestrian "por-
which was stiffened and painted. In its stage traits" of Spanish nobility displayed through-
settings the Baroque epoch often combined out the colonies. Most of the canvas is given
painted surfaces with real materials. The Vir- over to her; other details— the fortress, the
gin's cloak shows a fine small-patterned rnille- high cliff with its shrubbery, the attendant
fleur estofado; the two saints in dark garb have Indian dwarf and his macaw— are crowded into
enough gold to give them distinction. Andrew, the margin. The lady's untailored garments,
leaning on his cross, holds a book that pro- still pre-Columbian in cut and pattern, are de-
trudes from the canvas. Delicately carved and lineated in great detail. In her right hand she
gilded latticework frames the group; artificial holds the sacred flower of the Incas, the red
flowers are hung across the top and votive bell-like blossom of the nukchu, and in her
paintings fill the Rococo frames at the bottom. left, a spindle— perhaps a reminder of the god-
(For a wing of this altar see PI. 56.) dess queen who introduced spinning to her
The original painting of the Virgin of people, but it also recalls Mary with a Distaff
Chiquinquira— the one here is a replica— hangs (see PI. 133).
in the town by that name in Colombia; but This Inca princess probably was painted in
the figure was much venerated throughout the second half of the seventeenth century.
the Kingdom of Quito also. Bernardo Recio In a scene from the Corpus Christi procession
(1714-1791) writes that when he stopped at in Cuzco, an Indian cacique of about the same
Cartagena on his way from Spain he received period marches in native gala attire before the
from the Dominican provincial there— in re- chariot of St. Sebastian (see PL 65), and a
turn for some little .devotional books which painting in La Compania there records the
he had brought with him from the mother- marriage of an Inca princess, also in Indian
land—a painting of this Virgin, which subse- costume, to a relative of Ignatius Loyola.
quently he presented to another monastery
180
on his route. For the convenience of the reader the four
A somewhat different combination of mate- portraits from Mexico on Plates 150 and iji
rials is seen in the panel of the Miracle of the are lettered consecutively.
Matriz in the church of Santa Clara at Cuzco By mid-eighteenth century luxurious living
[222]
UNKNOWN PAINTERS
had become more general in Mexico. Begin- St. Eloi— she is shown holding a large book;
ning with the viceroy Francisco Fernandez de a rosary and the scapulary of a sodality' lie on
la Cueva, who reached Mexico in 1702, influ- the table beside her. She wears no wig; appar-
ences from Versailles, via Madrid where the ently the artist's intention was to portray her
Bourbons had succeeded to the throne, began informally as she appeared in her home, with-
to enter New Spain. The services of dress- out pretensions, reading and relaxed. Never-
makers, shoemakers, ribbon and silk weavers, theless her gown is a brocade of dark peacock-
and corsetieres were at the disposal of the fair wrought in gold, scarlet, and white.
blue, finely
sex and medicinal baths and beauty treatments Though there is no display of jewelry, a mod-
were available to enhance or to preserve their est double string of pearls and her earrings
charm. Though some noble family's house show affluence. In the first portrait the mate-
might be in dire need of repair and the serv- rialistic prevails, here character. A real per-
ants' pay long in arrears, on public occasions sonality is delineated, who is no longer a vounsr
the ladies had to appear in full elegance of dress woman but a shrewd and clever one, wise in
and jewelry. the ways of life.
The portrait of Dona Maria Romero (fig. a) In eighteenth-century Mexico, where vice-
was painted bv Ignacio Maria Barreda in 1794. roys, church dignitaries, and high society' were
According to the inscription she married Don immortalized in decorative fashion, the young
Jose Manuel Garcia Aurioles de Leon at the girls of distinguished families who were about
age of sixteen and is portrayed here at the to take the veil also sat for their portraits.
age of thirty-four, after having had nine births Several such paintings exist in Mexico, exhibit-
and three miscarriages— the last only the year ing considerable individuality of feature and
before the portrait was made— from which, costume and all dating from about the same
the text goes on to say, it is clear that she period. The likeness of Sister Maria Ignacia
has fully recovered. One cannot begrudge her of the Blood of Christ (fig. b) is signed bv
the gay life implied bv her finery. Her gown Jose de Alcibar. An inscription states that she
is of black and gray, with a velvet stripe and was the daughter of Don Manuel de Uribe
y
silver embroidery, and her tall coiffure, pow- Sandoval and took her final vows in Mexico
dered gray, is adorned with ribbons and City as a Clarissa nun on May 1, 1777, at the
plumes; the metal disk at the temple adjusted age of twenty-two years and three months.
the wig. Her two chatelaine watches, prom- Over her dark habit is hung a rich blue cloak,
inently displayed, her collar of pearls, and the heavily embroidered in silver.Her crown and
trinkets laid out on the table (note the scis- the emblems in her hands (note the shield with
sors) recall the affectations of Quito and Cuzco a wax? figurine of the Woman of the Apoca-
(see PL 140). A saffron curtain lined with pea- lypse) are of colorful bead work; similar ex-
cock-blue, draped across the background, car- amples of this craft, a specialty of colonial
ries a coat of arms executed as precisely as nuns, still survive in Mexico.
that on a patent of nobility. The portrayal of religieuses was not entirely
Dona Josepha Rosa de Sardeneta, Legaspi, unknown; Velazquez painted a Franciscan nun
Oxeda, Espejo, Torres Luna (fie. c), painted before she left Spain to found a Clarissa con-
by Joannes Fernandez in 1-70, bears the name vent in the Philippines. 38 But that Spanish
of the first Marquis de la Ravas, the owner of painting, which is dated 1620, is kept a mono-
the silver mine near Guanajuato (see PL 41). tone—in browns with onlv a touch of white
Her family was a distinguished one from Jal- and red— and concentrates on the character of
isco and Zacatecas, and sonic of its members the reverend mother, who carries a puritanical
held high ecclesiastical positions. Seated in a wooden cross in her hand. Colorful portraits
red lacquer chair-somewhat similar to that of of nuns, such as survive from eighteenth-cen-
[223]
turv Mexico, have not been found by this scarce in the colony whereas firm and lasting
author either in Spain or in other areas of glues were conveniently at hand.
colonial Latin America. Certain differences can be noted between

A young "donor" by Juan Correa occupies paintings from Mexico and those from South
the lower right-hand corner of a large canvas America. In Mexico composite landscapes are
of the Virgin from Zacatecas (fig. d); a fold rather infrequent. Gold tooling is more rarely
of Mary's skirt and a part of a tall candelabrum encountered there and never attained the same
are visible in the background. In contrast to compositional importance as in South Amer-
the hieratic representation of the holy figure, ica. Also, less cotton cloth was used. The Mex-
a statue-painting, the young girl's portrait is ican artist often left the edges of his canvas
realistic, full of personality. No detail of her unpainted to be folded around the strainer.
highly decorative dress and rich jewelry has These various characteristics can furnish clues
been overlooked. Two colonial artists of this to the provenience of a painting.
132
name are recorded, probably father and son. The production of paintings in the colonies
The signatures of the older date from 1686 to was a widespread industry. To estimate its
17 14, of the vounger, from 173 1 to 1760. In size accurately is impossible. But to attempt
this portrait the costume suggests the early an approximation—one source m states that
part of the eighteenth century. colonial Mexico alone had 15,000 churches; an-
other
57
places the total number for the New
Colonial painting in Latin America has sev- World at about 70,000. If each of these had
eral peculiarities which this author has never only ten paintings— and some cathedrals, ba-
found noted. Very frequently the canvas or silicas, and convents boasted hundreds— the
cotton cloth was glued onto the strainer, not number of colonial paintings could be put at
nailed. In South America often the picture three-quarters of a million without danger of
was painted over the entire surface to the very exaggeration. Both fate and time have been
edges; also, no strip was left unpainted for cruel to them; thousands are gone, and with
folding over on the sides of the strainer. When them doubtless many excellent works. But
the strainer had a crosspiece, as was sometimes those that remain form a vast and revealing
the case for a large picture, the fabric was panorama, one which could unfold only here
usually glued to it, too. One explanation of this in America where many diverse artistic streams
practice mav lie in the fact that nails were converged.
[224]
THE SPLENDOR OF COLONIAL ORGANS
TXh he history of the organ can be traced

back to the third century before Christ, when
the time of Charlemagne (742?-8i4), the or-
gan began to be used widely in Western Eu-
243
Ktesibios in Alexandria is said to have con- rope.
structed the first one. The Romans knew the By the year iooo, the organ had grown
instrument as a hydraulus because it was driven very large and sometimes was so powerful
bv water power, and its loud and penetrating that the townsfolk are said to have had to plug
tone offered an appropriate accompaniment to their ears when it was played. It was still prim-
the robust entertainments of their circuses. itive, however, with only a few notes— held
But they also used an organ equipped with down by the fist— each of which probably
bellows. Parts of such an instrument from sounded a number of pipes simultaneously.
early in the third century after Christ were Smaller instruments were used to accompany
found on the site of Aquincum, a Roman city plain song. It was not until the thirteenth cen-
in the province of Pannonia (West Hungary), tury that projecting levers, the forerunners of
in a cellar among the ruins of the fire brigade's keys, were invented, which could be worked
chapter house; seemingly it was a custom at by the fingers. There were then about three
that time to have at least one singer, with octaves on the manual. The organ was the first
organ accompaniment, to entertain the fire- instrument to become entirely chromatic, al-
men on duty during the night to keep them though at first not all the half-tones were
242 238
from falling asleep. The importance of the present.
organ in classic times is evidenced bv the fact Organs were made in Spain as early as the
that to date it has been found represented in fifth century. It should be noted that this coun-
some forty reliefs, paintings, and manuscripts. try developed its own liturgy, independent of
The early Christian church was reluctant to the rest of Europe, from the time of its con-
make any musical instrument, and the
use of version to Christianity and that it can also
organ especially was looked upon with dis- boast its own tradition of music, in which the
favor as too suggestive of gladiatorial battles, peculiarities of the Arabic melody line can
245
the blood of the martyrs, and other pagan cus- be felt. As early as the thirteenth century
toms of the recent past. But before long it Alfonso X established a chair of music at the
took its place in the service of the church, University of Salamanca. Philip the Fair of
and religious writers mention it with praise. Burgundy, when he came to Spain in 1501,
Byzantium was the first organ-building cen- brought with him an "orchestra" of Flemish
ter in the Middle Ages and sent craftsmen and musicians, consisting of fifteen singers, nine
treatises on the subject into Europe. About trumpets, three musettes, and two tambours. 232
[225]
239
In 1 5 17 Charles V, Philip's son, enlarged this especially the various trumpets. The tiers of
orchestra into the Real Capilla Musica, which projecting horizontal pipes— with their inevi-
he took with him when he retired into the table suggestion of fanfare— are quite peculiar
monastery at Yuste, Estremadura, in 1557." to this country, appearing here in late seven-
During the Renaissance a number of tech- teenth century. Also typical are the grotesque
nical improvements made on the organ effected faces which utilize the slits in the pipes as
a greater ease in handling and a finer quality open mouths, found frequently on even the
of tone, so that by the time it was introduced most ornate and suavely decorated instru-
into the New World it was already the queen ments; bizarre decoration of organ pipes oc-
of instruments. The great organ in the cathe- curred on Gothic and early Renaissance instru-
dral of Seville, dating from the sixteenth cen- ments from the Low
Countries, but it was out
tury, had 5,300 pipes and 1 10 stops, or sets of of fashion thereby late sixteenth century. 250
pipes of different timbre, arranged in musical The pedal organ, which probably developed
progression. The list of organ builders in from the drone note peculiar to pneumatic
Catalonia in the sixteenth century contains instruments (notably the bagpipe), was neg-
German, French, and Flemish names, notably lected in Spain until well into the eighteenth
one Pedro Flamench (Fleming), who is de- century, as indeed it was everywhere except
scribed as being singularly expert and within the Low Countries and Germany; in gen-
out an equal in the whole Kingdom of Ara- eral, early organs in the United States also
241 246
gon. were without pedals.
Flemish organ builders were invited to con- As to the type of music performed in Spain,
struct the famous organs in the Escorial, each the forms of the Flemish school of religious
of which has two manuals as well as a pedal music, which became the official style in the
244
work, rather unusual in Spain. Antonio de fifteenth century, persisted until the eighteenth
Cabezon (1510-1 5 66), the Spanish organ vir- century, and then, when the rest of the world
tuoso, born blind, traveled in England, Flan- was being carried away by the operatic, Span-
ders, Italy, and the Germanic lands, and was ish religious music returned to the plain song.
influential in the establishment of the Nea- Various accompanying instruments, each with
politan school of virtuoso playing. He exer- its own part, appear in the church about this
cised considerable influence on the English time; among them, harps, strings, clarinets,
composer William Byrd; Cabezon was mem- a flutes, and sackbuts.

ber of Philip's retinue in London when the Italian, French, and Spanish organs were at
Spanish crown prince married Mary Tudor. their best in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
He published several books on the art and turies, while the organ of the Low Countries
technique of organ playing, which were re- kept its high technical level longer. German
edited by his three sons after his death. Also and Latin American instruments reached their
worth noting is the fact that the Neapolitan highest development in the eighteenth cen-
Domenico Scarlatti (1685-17 57), who was pit- tury. The latter, however, show pronounced
ted against Handel himself in Rome in a com- architectural and mechanical differences from
petition of harpsichord and organ playing, the former and seem to have been influenced
spent the last thirty-seven years of his life in little by this parallel flourish; they had no
the Iberian Peninsula. About 1720 he came to pedal work, an important part of German or-
Lisbon as music master to the Braganza prin- gans, and thev rarely had their small stops built
cess, and when she married the Bourbon king into the choir organ, which stood at the front
Ferdinand VI nine years later, he followed her of the choir gallery. In Latin America the in-
to Madrid. strument itself was not noticeably incorporated
Spanish organs had certain individual fea- into the church architecture but was embel-
236
tures. Emphasis was placed on the reed stops, lished as a separate unit.
[226]
The few extant Baroque organs that can be flageolet), and the organ, as well as other key-
183
heard todav have a mild sweet tone, usually board instruments.
quite reedv, like a great choir of woodwinds. In 1576 Bernal Diaz, looking back on the
Polyphonic effects are amazingly clear and first decades of colonial life, remarks on the
untangled and have none of the "smear" and many bells in Guatemala and the part-singing
stridencv occurring in motor-driven mecha- of the chapel choirs. He reports that several
nisms. Serene and rich in timbre, they present churches had organs and most places had at
a straightforward musical line. least an orchestra, with flutes, oboes, sackbuts,

trumpets both large and small, and dulcimers,
One of the greatest contributions which the many of which accompanied the festive pro-
white man's civilization made to the New cessions. When the friars entered our own
World was music. Although musical instru- Southwest, music went with them, and as early
ments were part of pre-Columbian life and as 1590, organs were transported hither, going
no ceremony among the higher Indian cul- overland from points as far away as Mexico
247
tures was carried on without an accompani- City, in those days a six months' trip.
ment of shell or clay trumpets, flutes of pot- Under the supervision of Spanish and Flem-
terv or reed, drums of various types, and ish experts the Indians soon were able to con-
singing and dancing, potentially the Indians struct organs and other instruments for use in
had far more musical ability than had been their churches; Vazquez observes that the
brought out by their own civilization. Just Indian easily learned to make everything that
as thev seized upon steel tools to further their he saw the Spaniards making. At the begin-
talents in carving, so they appropriated the new ning of the seventeenth century, Colombian
musical instruments and modes to their joy Indians constructed a rustic organ with pipes
and elevation. of bamboo and some other large cane. Guil-
The first missionaries to land at Veracruz lermo Hernandez de Alba found the records
in 1523 observed that music was one of the of local organ construction in Bogota in the
most effective means of interesting the Indians seventeenth century, among them the contract
in Christianity, and therefore they requested for an instrument for the church of Santo
that new missionaries if possible be men who Domingo {see PL 27). Julian Lopez is docu-
248
could plav some instrument. The school mented as an organ builder in iVntigua, Gua-
240
established before 1527 at Tlatelolco, Mexico, temala.
by the Flemish Franciscan Pedro de Gante The instrument maker, or violero, of colo-
gave special attention to the training of musi- nial Mexico belonged to the same guild as the
cians. Prayers and responses, it was found, fine cabinetmakers and woodcarvers. In 1568
could be learned more easily by the Indians a master violero had to know how to make
when set to some simple chant. Soon orches- an organ and other keyboard instruments-
tras as well as singing and the dance were harpsichord and clavichord— a harp, a lute, and
employed to serve the new religion. The first various kinds of fiddles and guitars; he also
mention of an official organist in Mexico City had to pass an examination on their form and
234
is in 1539. decoration as well as on their tone. Berlin
Jodoco Ricke, another Flemish friar, also observes that he has found no clerics among
installed a music teacher in his school in Quito, the organ builders mentioned in the Mexican
Ecuador. A list of musicians and singers from archives from the eighteenth century; appar-
there (1568) does not contain a single Spanish ently organ construction belonged to the
or creole name; all were Indians from the vari- regular crafts. Many of the names are defi-
ous districts of the Kingdom of Quito, profi- nitely Indian, and often the skill was passed
cient in singing, in reading and writing music, from father to son."
and in playing the flute, the chir'miia (native In Latin America, as in Europe, the organ
[ 227]
was used in church services to accompany fig. d), in the village church at Pisac, Peru,
other instruments as well as voices and to fill might be called a portable, for it is small
in the periods of silence; there evidently was enough to be carried about from chapel to
much less virtuoso solo performance than in chapel.
Europe— at any rate practically no manuscript Even in pre-Columbian times Pisac was a
for the organ alone has been found here, famous market town; it lies on the shores of
though organists were doubtless excellent in the Urubamba River about forty miles across
improvisation then as now. The first music a mountain range from Cuzco and is sur-
book published in the New World seems to rounded by fertile fields, many of them ter-
be Juan Perez Materano's Canto de organo y raced in the Inca manner. Sunday Mass brings
canto llano, printed in Cartagena, Colombia, the Indians from their distant villages to the
in 1554. At least seven "gradual antiphonals" weekly fair on the church plaza. Their cos-
and similar works appeared in Mexico before tumes, bright with red and blue and elaborated
1600, and in 1604 Juan Navarro brought out a with compact multi-colored designs, lend a
246
book of Passions for use during Holy Week. rare picturesqueness to the scene. The church
Organ music was forbidden at any service is a seventeenth-century structure with evident
—even funerals— from Maundy Thursday until eighteenth-century alterations. On one side is
the Gloria on Easter Saturday, although sing- an arcade painted with murals, and in its
ing was allowed. While strings and such wood- shadow the Indians are wont to take their
winds as the flute, clarinet, and bassoon were Sunday meal, brought with them from home.
permitted in the church, the use of clamorous Within the barren whitewashed walls the
instruments— the drum, chinesco (bell-tree), congregation turn their strong clay-red faces
tambourine and cymbals— as well as the guitar, toward the altar, where the priest conducts the
mandolin, and even the harp was frowned service partly in Latin but chiefly in their own
upon. In certain parts of the New World Quechua tongue. The floor is tamped earth-
attempts were made to bar the panpipe, clay there are no benches— and a primitive character
trumpet, chirimia, and other instruments of prevails throughout. The small organ stands on
the pre-Columbian past, but the testimony of an adobe podium against the left wall of the
the chroniclers suggests that such efforts were nave, its two bellows attended bv two voung
unsuccessful. The author has heard the Indian Indians dressed in their native best; their stoic
flute and small drum playing on the ground expressions are in keeping with the automaton
floor of El Oratorio de San Felipe Neri in movement with which they steadily work the
San Miguel de Allende, Mexico, while the levers. The organist brings out a labored some-
organ was sounding in the loft; and, as will what wheezy tone, and, at the elevation of the
be seen, at Pisac in the Peruvian highlands Host, the sonorous penetrating roar of conch
conch trumpets are used in the celebration of trumpets is added to the instrument's for-
the Mass. tissimo. Similar shell trumpets are used today
In this chapter a number of colonial organs in the pagan ceremonies of the Lacandon
are illustrated. A full musicological appraisal Indians, a fast disappearing Maya tribe in the
of them lies outside the scope of this work; depths of the Chiapas forest.
they are included here because thev reveal This primitive organ at Pisac is most un-
another colorful facet of colonial art. usual in the graduated arrangement of its pipes,
set according to size in chromatic sequence, so
A fair idea of the small primitive organ that the case which encloses them looks like
used in the earlier centuries in the colonies that of an upright harpsichord. 250 Its bellows
can be gained from the examples still extant are small, but then they have only a few pipes
in remote places. One such instrument (PL 152, to feed. This example also shows the disposi-
[228]
tion of the key connections— the trackers—in many threads above the keyboard give a
a radial scheme that is rare in Europe but not glimpse into the complicated mechanism. Both
infrequent in Latin America. All these atypical cases are modesty itself.
points suggest that the organ was made in the

region. The Andean village churches at Andahuay-
Another primitive instrument is found in and Checacupe, near Cuzco, were
lillas dis-
the church of Yalle (fig. a), a Peruvian village cussed in some detail in Chapter 11 (see Pis.
situated at an altitude of 6,600 feet in the m, 112, 113). The interiors of both churches
Huanuco Valley. This organ stands in a loft were complete by mid-seventeenth century,
at the rear of the nave. It has Rococo lines; the and much of the early decoration still sur-
doors are decorated with graceful paneling, vives, though considerable refurbishment took
and the shell is treated as an independent place just before the eighteenth century*.
ornament. Here both keyboard and radiating In each the organ is placed at the front end
trackers are visible. The arrangement of the of one of the arms of a U-shaped choir loft
pipes is again curious: an even row extends (PL 153, figs, a, b). M. A. Yente, a Dutch
across the front and all of them seem to have authority on ancient organs, believes that
the same diameter, a fact which suggests that these two instruments date from about 1630,
the instrument has no stops and is capable of or at least within the first half of the seven-
few changes and combinations of timbre. teenth century7 .

250
He calls attention to the
More the type of a "portative" are the two few trackers— denoting a small number of keys
small organs from Mexico (figs, b, c). Con- —as well as to their primitive construction.
venient for choir practice, mission work, and Also, the tall center sections of the cases show
the plain song of the monks, such instruments the earlv type of arrangement, with the longer
were widely used, even in communities which pipes in the middle. Both organs are closed by
boasted larger and more lavish ones. The first means of painted canvas doors, following a
stands in the choir loft of the monastery tradition that Qfoes back to the Gothic organ,
church of Santo Domingo in Zacatecas, Mex- which had folding wings like a triptych; Hans
ico. Silver mines early made this place an Holbein the Younger (1497?-! 543) painted
important center; its rights as a township were the wings for such an organ in the Miinster
established in 1585. The church was not erected at Basel, still preserved.
until the eighteenth century, but it does not A group of angels adorns the Andahuavlillas
necessarily follow that the organ is contempo- organ, all playing musical instruments which
rary with the building. The second example, are in the tradition of the seventeenth century.
now at the Conservators' of Music in Mexico The guitar at the lower left has a shorter neck
City, appears to be somewhat later in date. than the European type and resembles the
Both rest on simply carpentered stands. native charango, a favorite instrument of An-
The bellows are visible behind them, heavily dean mermaids (see PI. 116). In its shape the
weighted to compress the air. Their several portable harp suggests the native adaptation
rows of small tubes, like series of panpipes, which is still the backbone of Indian orches-
contrast interestingly with- the gigantic show tras in the High Andes. The fiddle beside it
pipes of the larger organs on the following seems an invention of fantasy, but the bass
plates. The keyboards cover about three and viol and the lute— in spite of the peculiar
one-half octaves, and the half-tones are raised placement of their sound holes— and the little
and placed as in the modern manual. A lever drums are all more or less realistic.
251
for the manipulation of a stop or of some The spacious choir loft at Andahuavlillas
special sound effect can be seen in the Zacate- opens onto an outer gallery. Murals cover both
cas instrument, and the horizontal rods and ceiling and walls; note the flower vase at the
[«9l
right of the organ. A detail of the dado beside a few stops, each of which affects only half
the instrument shows a bust of St. Paul en- the keys of the single manual.
closed within a medallion held by two cherubs Tradition has it that the works of the organ
(fig. c). Its heraldic scrolls, framing bands, shown— on the right as one enters— were of
and Medici "balls" placed at regular intervals Flemish construction, and several features bear
recall illuminated manuscripts of the Quattro- this out. Its pipes are massive, unpainted, and
cento, particularly those from the Attavante without the bizarre decoration which both
studio. A series of anthems celebrating the Spanish and colonial organs carried prior to
Incarnation of the Word were discovered the nineteenth century. Also, the various ranks
here; Juan Perez de Bocanegra, the priest of the cornet stop are placed just behind the
who had much
to do with the embellishment large front pipes in a typically Flemish arrange-
of the building, was an excellent poet and ment introduced in late sixteenth century
wrote verses in honor of the Virgin. 187 (fig. b). Vente dates this instrument accord-
At the left of the Checacupe organ is an- ing to its style between 1600 and 1625, by
other dado, different in style but also contain- which time in the Low Countries its compass
ing putti (fig. b). The wings of this instrument was already outmoded. Since there are no
bear paintings of Peter and Paul and a few records of organs being shipped directly from
angelic musicians. Again the charango type of Flanders to the New World, probably the
guitar and the portable harp are in evidence, works were manufactured in Spain by a Flem-
both popular in the region. ish organ builder. The case, however, may
Portrayals of Peter and Paul, painted on two have been carved in Peru.
long narrow strips of cotton cloth, hang in The two fluelike wooden pipes at one side
the nave of Santo Domingo in La Paz, Bolivia. of the instrument (left, in the illustration) may
When thev were removed by this author for be drone pipes, or sub-octaves, which sustained
photographing and cleaned of their inch-deep the richness of tone in the tenors and basses.
accumulation of dirt, they were found to have They must have been connected bv a special
pictures on both sides; apparently they were stop, for there are no pedals. This organ is
once organ wings. St. Cecilia at the Organ equipped with two other special sound effects:
(fig. d) became visible on the lower part of in the lower corner of the left pipe compart-
the panel representing Paul (see PL 146), and ment the small cistern with a few tiny pipes
above her, separated bv the crosspiece of the issuingfrom it is so designed that when filled
flimsy strainer, was an angel plaving a shawm- with water and manipulated by a special stop
like instrument, very similar to the alto re- (not a key) it gives out a high trill— hence its
corder popular in Elizabethan England. These name "nightingale"; the other device, at the
paintings show a certain Byzantoid manner, extreme right, is called a lyre.
and from their style they probably date from
the second half of the seventeenth century. The position of these organs above the ca-
thedral choir can be seen in the illustration
The cathedral in Cuzco, Peru, boasts a pair showing the second of the pair (PL 155, fig. a),
of organs, placed opposite each other above which is reported to have been constructed
the high partition which encloses the choir. in the colony to match the imported instru-
Pipes that differ in height and caliber are deco- ment. The choir stalls here, perhaps the most
ratively grouped across the front in a manner interesting and elaborate in all Peru, carry
common to Renaissance Europe,
250
and gilded forty-three full-length figures carved in relief
wooden scrollwork screens the upper open and above them a row of women saints and
203
spaces (PL 154, fig. a). Small paintings have martyrs. These stalls are dated between 1657
been fitted into the console. There are only and 1678. Thus quite an interval separates the
[230]
date assigned by Vente to the works of the was a flourishing industry in the colony, and
older organ and that of the choir stalls or even less important churches had very beauti-
even of the building, which was erected soon ful instruments, for the craftsmen, besides be-
after the earthquake of 1650. Possibly the im- ing expert, were also clever at selecting good
ported instrument was used in an earlier struc- materials at a low cost. In addition to the
ture and refurbished when moved to its present grand organs little portatives were used in
location. The wings, one of which shows a combination with stringed instruments— so as
St. Cecilia in a flowered and beribboned gown, to comply with the letter of David's Psalm:
are painted in the style of late seventeenth in chordis, et organo— making as harmonious
180
century. Fruit and flower bowls in the same music as anyone could desire.
stvle decorate the locally made instrument. To the author's knowledge no one had ever
The organ La Merced in Cuzco (fig. b)
in photographed for study the great cathedral
stands, as in most conventual establishments, organ at Cuenca, Ecuador, before his visit in
on one side of the choir loft and well toward 1945. It occupies the center of a deep choir
the front; so deep is this loft that it forms a loft (fig. c), and its elaborate decoration sug-
secluded room where monks can partici-
the gests that it was designed for that position.
pate in the service unseen by the congregation. Excellent feeling for the architecture of the
At the left of the instrument are visible the instrument is revealed in the columnar group-
arches of the nave and the windows above ing of the pipes; even the vents were put to
them, framed in canvas paintings. These choir decorative use. The curious application of
stalls, too— dated by Wethey about 17 10— have small paintings, irregular in shape, recalls the
a double row of figures, somewhat as those wings on earlier instruments. Two mermaids
above; a detail is presented in Chapter 15 (see contrapposto are reclining against the central
PL i~6). The organ may be one or two column, holding bunches of pale blue grapes,
decades earlier: it has the same shape as the and ten small carved figures— paired, girl and
cathedral organs and like them has undeco- boy— are blowing chamade pipes. Their cos-
rated pipes, grouped conservatively. Special tumes are delightfully varied; those at the top
sound effects, such as the nightingale and lyre, wear pink and gold garments and pale green
rest on the heads of the carved grotesque hose, while the others show such combinations
figures at the base of the dividing columns. as green and pink with blue hose, blue and
In a book published in Europe in 1773, pink without hose, and yellow and green, also
Bernardo Recio, a Jesuit chronicler, describes without hose. A clear blue covers the back-
conditions in Ecuador before the expulsion of ground of the large gilded medallions in the
that order from the Spanish colonies. He lower section of the case, and some rose is
praises the musical talent of the natives and used about the pipes, bringing out their silvery
remarks that many churches as well as cathe- color.
drals there had their own orchestras. The vio- No documentation on this organ exists ex-
lin had become popular with the Indian— cept for the inscription just below the pipe
reportedly through the efforts of a German compartments: the instrument, dated August
friar-and also the harp, ten to twelve of which 30, 1739, was made by Antonio Estevan Car-
were sometimes played together at festivals doso when Gregorio de Vicuna was the rector
with a marvelous effect. Bells were the pride of the church and Campo Domingo Gonzales
of those communities which possessed them. the treasurer. Cardoso himself, a resident of
Quito had its own foundry, but many bells Cuenca, supposedly designed the organ. In
were imported from Spain and carried up the 1924 it was carefully repaired and the colors
arduous jungle-covered slopes on the shoul- were touched up. 23 Though more than a hun-
"'
ders of the Indians. The manufacture of organs dred pipes are said to be missing, it is still
[231]
played regularly at the services. Four large matriz (parish church) of Tiradentes offers a
bellows feed two on either side, so that
it, charming example of that late Rococo style
each pair can be worked by one man. Its single which prevails throughout the district. The
manual has only two and one-half octaves and organ (fig. b), like its companion on this
fourteen stops, seven on a side, arranged as plate, is so placed that the organist can watch
follows: the service and at the same time direct the
choir. According to report, its pipes were
Left Right
imported from Porto, Portugal, and assem-
voces humana cromornos bled in a case that was constructed in the
Ueno menor Ueno mayor
mining town." 6 They are grouped in a colum-
rte mayor quintas
vinuenas nar design and garlanded with scrollwork.
tda segundo
ova avierta mdio rde corta Much of the case is painted, in keeping with
tda primera ata do primero the Rococo style. The angel trumpeters on
angeles (unnamed) the top are less forceful than those in the
Quito piece but more ingratiating. This sec-
La Merced in Quito, Ecuador, manifests the tion of the choir loft, enclosed by an airy
same solidity in its interior construction as balustrade, tapers into a slender, elegant con-
was observed in its cloister, dome, and outer sole, which carries a medallion painted with
wall (see PI. wo). Its organ (PI. 156, fig. a) a Biblical scene in a Rococo setting. Sup-
might be dated within a decade or so of the porting the gallery are pilasters of a delicate
completion of the edifice (1736). Like others estipite form, exquisitely harmonious with the
shown here, it occupies the front end of one rest of the interior (see also PL i~2).
arm of a U-shaped choir gallery. Its loft is Unpublished music manuscripts from the
a riot of wood carving, in gold on a deep red eighteenth century, found by Francisco Curt
background; small figures placed against the Lange in the cellar of an abandoned colonial
pilasters keep the whole fluid mass from com- house in Ouro Preto, in Minas Gerais, testify
mingling like a jungle vine. to the musical activity there. They were
The instrument rather boxlike. Its
itself is mainly sacred works written bv mulattoes and
pipes are grouped in a conservative pattern, Negroes for use in local churches. The scores
with the tallestones in the center, and are include a motet and other forms in the style
topped by a heavily gilded balustrade, con- of contemporary Europe. 2 " Here is stimu-
trasting with their silver. There is no series lating proof that much may still exist to add
of horizontal pipes above the manual, but to our limited knowledge of musical life
three appear on either side in the hands of throughout colonial Latin America.
boys, which end in leafy scrolls. Set amid The Jesuit establishments in Argentina and
honey-cake arabesques in stucco, which cover Paraguay were famous for their music. Among
walls and ceiling, this organ is another telling the nationalities represented by friar musicians
example of the decorator's art in Quito. in the missions around Cordoba, Argentina,
The Minas Gerais district in Brazil was not are the Austrian, Belgian, French,German,
opened until early in the eighteenth century. Italian, and Swiss. The Tvrolese Anton Sepp
Its art, as will be seen in the next chapter, had taught (1601) the Indians of these regions to
no indigenous stylistic past, and by the time make organs and other instruments. It is in-
substantial edifices were being erected there, dicative of the versatility of such friars that
the century had passed the halfway mark. in addition Sepp practiced painting and carv-
Into this artistically virgin territory the Ro- ing; he also discovered lime in Paraguay, a real
coco swept like a prairie fire, with no tradi- contribution to architecture there. Domenico
tions from earlier centuries to block it. The Zipoli, born in Prato, Tuscany, in 1688, gave
[232]
up his outstanding position as organist of the angles and protruding curves in an animated
Jesuit mother church in Rome and in 1716 rhvthm. The pipes are prominently displayed,
entered the novitiate of the order in Seville. and decorative use is made of the varying
A vear later he joined an expedition to Rio de calibers and lengths. Nevertheless, this organ
la Plata as a missionary and became the or- remains a big box for music: the carved case,
ganist of the principal church in Cordoba. though gloriously Baroque, reveals little of the
He died there in 1726, a highly respected instrument's structure; the opulent cornices,
figure in the musical life of colonial Argentina. shells, and medallions, the garlands, and the
Among his pupils was an Indian named Jose, figures all attract the eye first. When not in
who followed in his footsteps as a music use, the keyboard is closed by a panel bearing
233
teacher. a heart-shaped medallion, like those on either
As earlv as the beginning of the seventeenth side, to produce an unbroken pattern. The
century the Italian-born Jose Dadey held a double tier of horizontal pipes that once pro-
distinguished place as a musician in Colombia. jected between the great shells above the key-
The Neapolitan Carmine Nicolas Caraccioli, board must have constituted a harmonious
Prince Santo Bueno and viceroy of Peru from unit by themselves; photographs from the late
17 16 to 1720, brought many Italian musicians 1920's show a few still remaining then, but at
to Lima who spread music everywhere. 72 By the time of our visit in 1947 all of them had
mid-eighteenth centurv every administrative disappeared. The organ is sixteen to eighteen
center in Latin America could boast a roster feet high, and its colors are chiefly gold and
of capable musicians. blue, with some touches of coral. It has three
and one-half octaves, with four separate keys

The Dominican establishment at Tlacocha- in the bass for sounding g, a, b, c, without
huaya, in the Yallev of Oaxaca, Mexico, was accidentals. Its twelve stops are all placed on
founded late in the sixteenth centurv, but one side.
much of its interior decoration dates from An inscription dated 1759 in the lambrequin
the seventeenth and even the eighteenth. A at the base of the long pipe states that the
strongly folkloristic all-over design charac- chaplain of the "college" met the cost of the
church organ (PL 157, fig. c), in
terizes its instrument and Ignacio Casas, a native of the
harmony with the charming provincial style town, built it. This sculptor, Ignacio Mariano
of the painting on the walls. A lively floral de las Casas, is credited also with the plans
pattern covers the front and sides of the in- for the church of Santa Rosa (finished in
strument and even the vertical show pipes; 1752) and with some of its altars. In the Que-
the only figural element is an angel with a retaro archives a contract, dated 1758, signed
viol, placed in a medallion on the side panel. by him gives detailed specifications for an
The carving is confined to the garlands which organ for the nunnerv church of Santa Clara
relieve the boxlike 91
contours of the piece. This there. But the onlv old organ to be seen in
instrument has a row of horizontal chamades, that church todav is a pitiful shell of painted
favored in the Viceroyalty of New Spain canvas and flimsv wood braces; the works may
more than in Spanish South America. The have been transferred to another case. Two
keyboard open to view and seven stops can
is other eighteenth-centurv organs stand in the
be counted on each side. choir gallerv of La Yalenciana near Guana-
In contrast to this instrument, which makes juato (see PL 42).
its effect largely through painting, the organ Although the strong new church of La
in thelower choir of Santa Rosa in Queretaro, Merced in Antigua, Guatemala, withstood the
Mexico, depends on sculptural ornamentation catastrophic earthquake of 1773 with minor
(fig. a). Here the verticals are broken bv damage, nevertheless, when the abandonment
[*33l
of Antigua was decreed, the Mercedarians with much originality. Spanish South America,
with all the other religious orders had to on the other hand, kept in general to the more
follow the administration to the present capi- conservative Flemish practices, developing in
tal. The new Merced there was not dedicated its own way that which had been implanted
until 1 8 1
3, and then the interior decoration at an early date.
was transported from ruined Antigua. The Four organs from /Mexico show the variety
great processions of images and treasures over achieved there in the eighteenth century. The
a route of more than twenty-four miles were neo-Mudejar choir stalls of inlaid woods in
among the spectacular events of that period. the Puebla cathedral were constructed be-
Most of the altars of La Merced were in place tween 17 19 and 1722, and the two imposing
by 1815, and probably the organ also was organs above them probably date from about
transferred about that time. Juan de Leon and that time. The instrument shown here stands
his son are named as its builders in the memoirs at the left as one enters the nave (PL 158,
of the Guatemala-born archbishop Francisco fig. a). It has all the attributes of the monu-
de Paula Garcia Pelaez (1785-1867). The mental organ, which reached its height in
same source mentions a number of native Latin America in the eighteenth century. The
organ-makers who provided instruments for storied columns of vertical pipes, used archi-
even small and distant towns. worth noting
It is tecturally, overpower the single bristling line
that some of these craftsmen were also skilled of those arranged horizontally below them.
as clock-makers. 139 Sham pipes are added, mainly in the upper
Merced's large organ has an elaborate case tiers, some of them placed upside down with
of gilded wood (fig. b). This system of co- their vents above, to give balance to thecom-
lumnar grouping for organ pipes was used in position. Angelic musicians playing the flute,
Europe in the first quarter of the eighteenth bassoon, and trumpet are perched about the
century, but, considering the time lag that is structure as if on a retable; especially note-
often manifest in the New

World, this instru- worthy is the one with a violoncello (upper
ment is probably contemporary with the final left), an instrument which just about this time
decorative touches given the church in Antigua was approaching its present-day form. The
around 1 760. Especially striking is the bulging wood carving on the framework is restrained,
ornamentation at either side, which might be in keeping with the dignified atmosphere of
interpreted as a conventionalization of either this cathedral, in which the sheen of gilded
the "ship's figurehead" or the bust placed on grilles contrasts pleasantly with the many
238
a leafy base, a favorite motif in Latin Ameri- canvases.
can wood carving. The grotesque masks once The church at San Martin Texmelucan,
held chamade trumpets, huge panpipes pro- part of a Franciscan foundation, carries the
truding from their wide mouths. A fragment date 1782 on a tile tablet on its facade. The
from Antigua (fig. d) served a similar func- organ here (fig. b) manifests perhaps more
tion. The headdress especially, composed of than the others on this plate a powerful folk-
floral elements, has plasticity. loristic spirit. Curious and most original is the
design of its pipe compartments, as well as the
As can be seen from these and the following placement of the two large bass pipes, one on
illustrations the Viceroyalty of New Spain, either side of the instrument.
250
Two cherubs
much more than that of Peru, evinced a con- in the upper corners are playing coiled horns,
stant interest in the "up-to-date." Its organs and two mermaids, lying along the top of the
employed such typically Hispanic features as main pipes, are blowing long tubular trumpets
the ranks of horizontal trumpets and grotesque —to the knowledge of this author a unique
faces painted on the pipes, but applied them pastime for them. Just below the organ loft,
[234]
near the main entrance, are ranged on leafy- an organ master who wandered about, name-
pedestals a series of busts of mermen, playing less, intent on constructing beautiful instru-
chamade trumpets. ments.
Another Franciscan establishment, in San .Music was closely tied into the life of nun-
Miguel de Allende, includes four churches, all neries. Crowds of appreciative listeners flocked
founded in the eighteenth century. The license on holy days to hear the nuns singing behind
for the erection of the largest of these, El the curtained grilles of their upper and lower
Oratorio de San Felipe Neri, was issued in choirs, and many nunneries conducted schools
17 2, 1 and two years later it was completed. 112 of music, forerunners of our conservatories.
However, its interior represents various stylis- Documents from the College of Santa Rosa de
tic epochs. The organ (fig. d) bears carved Santa Maria in Valladolid, now Morelia (see
decorations in brilliant gold, and a delightful PL 38), reveal how carefully its yT oung pupils
painted Rococo pattern covers the two side were chosen; even though the tuition of an
doors that lead into the mechanism. A large orphaned or poor girl was usually paid by the
instrument, it has twelve stops on either side, bishop or some wealthyr benefactor, she never-
five auxiliary slides, and even a small pedal theless had to show a certificate of legitimacy
connection. On top is a series of sham orches- and "purity of blood." The archive of the
tral instruments: a cello, French horn, and convent contains music composed in the eight-
trombone on the right and, on the left, a eenth century for performance in the church
clarinet and a viol of a peculiar oval shape. or by the pupils. Numerous cantatas for vari-
This unusual organ was played as late as the ous occasions exist, written for solo or chorus
1930's. It has retained a more complete set and strings. Arias, motets, and carols have been
of horizontal trumpets than most; all too fre- found— in general much Christmas music— and
quently the supports were not sturdy enough several Masses, including a Requiem Mass for
to hold up the heavy constructions of tin and four-part choir, violins, and trumpets. The in-
lead. strumental compositions include sonatas, suites,
The cabinet organ on this plate (fig. c), and fugues, and several overtures. 236 It has been
about eleven feet high, is at present in the remarked earlier that there is very little music
Bello collection, in Puebla. Though its case is for organ among such manuscripts. But as
less typically colonial than the others, with in many of the smaller European courts, the
their strongly regional decoration, the front organist probably was the leader and supplied
pipes are painted with faces and arabesques, the basso continuo throughout, either on the
touched up with gilding. The native cypress organ or on the harpsichord.
of the woodwork was left in its original silvery Some nuns achieved fame as accomplished
color. A petaled medallion decorates each musicians. St. Rosa of Lima could play the
panel, and a lacelike side garland brings out harp and the guitar and sang "to rival the
the beauty of line in the instrument. This birds." Thomas Gage recounts with malicious
organ is believed to have been built around fflee the scandal that surged around the beau-
1700 and to have stood originally in the nun- Juana de Maldonado, a youthful nun of
tiful
nery of Santa Rosa in Puebla; indeed, it has La Concepcion in Antigua whom a wealthy
the delicacy and intimacy appropriate to a father and an indulgent bishop tried to force
nunnery. manual comprises three and three-
Its into the position of abbess. But out of this
quarters octaves, and it has sixteen stops— but story emerges also the picture of an unusually
no heavy basses— and nightingale and trumpet cultivated and talented young woman delight-
effects; the horizontal pipes issue from the ing her companions with witty improvised
sides. Concerning its maker, the story goes verses and entertaining them with music on
that he was a humble carver in Guadalajara, the several instruments at her command,
I
*35 I
among them an organ which stood in her ary mixtures of quints, octavos, fifteenths,
chamber. 55 twenty-seconds, and twenty-fourths to achieve
a balanced tone. And any novelties of which
The cathedral of Mexico, unique in size and Mexico had no experience would be accepta-
importance (see PI. 2), preserves two colonial ble if passed on by someone competent to
organs, worthy of the building in which they judge. Easy key action also was specified.
stand (PL ijp). They bring to a majestic cul- The measurements of the gallery it would
mination Mexico's long tradition in musical occupy were given so that it could be har-
performance as well as composition. Like the moniously proportioned to As for this space.
pair in the Cuzco cathedral, these organs are the general exterior design, the "modern"
placed in galleries above the partition that organs of the Spanish court were suggested
separates the choir from the side aisles. Also as models. The instrument was ordered com-
like those in Cuzco, one was imported, the plete with case and bellows, and accompany-
other was builtlater, and adjustments were ing personnel was requested to assemble it in
made to harmonize the two. La Gaceta de Mexico. The document notes, however, that
Mexico reported their dedication in October if for any reason the case offered difficulties
1736, praising their exquisite cases of unvar- it could be supplied in the viceroyalty, which
nished cedar and calling attention to their great possessed both exquisite woods and excellent
128
size. Each has more than 3,350 pipes, and five carvers.
large bellows, efficiently connected with the As a sequel to these specifications, a paper,
entire range of stops, are hidden away in the undated, presents an appeal for payment from
interiors. Jose Nasarre is named as the builder Tiburcio Sanz, who states that he came from
of the organ on the gospel side (fig. a)— the Spain to assemble the Spanish organ; he had
right as one enters the building. been given the commissions to make the case
A document dated May 31, 1688, in Mexico, and to construct the bellows and another
gives the specifications for the organ on the register of contras (lowest basses), as well
which the venerable dean
epistle side (fig. b), as four hundred mute pipes for the adornment
of the cathedral requested to have made in of the organ's facade. After he had carved
128
Spain: it should consist of a great organ, a the first story of the case, added an octave
cadareta, or small choir organ, and pedal work. to the cornets of the echo, and readjusted
The great organ should be pitched somewhat the basses and when the tone of the instru-
lower than was the custom in Spain because ment had been adjudged select and very so-
the voices in the viceroyalty did not have the norous, Sanz requested final payment and the
compass of the Spanish choirs; but since the permission to return home.
choir organ was intended especially to accom- The cases of the two monumental organs,
pany the winds in their natural pitch, it was though not identical, are well harmonized,
to have the same pitch as the Spanish organs framing the metallic beauty of the pipes with
so as to avoid constant transposing. These pe- a wealth of carved ornament. They are also
culiarities were stressed in the specifications carefully proportioned in relation to the choir
as essential to the requirements of this church. stalls, a detail of which will be shown in
As for the stops, very suave and full diapasons Chapter 15.
were requested with all the doubles, or sub- The illustration of the newer instrument
octaves, to sustain tonal richness; then, flutes (fig. a) shows the choir organ, placed behind
in all their diversity, all sorts of trumpets with the organist on the edge of the gallery with a
their tremolos, "birds," and echoes; the vox large angel on either side of it; a rather rare
humana stop and the one called "nazarete" feature in Spanish America, it is found only
should be included, together with the custom- with the more monumental organs there. In
[236]
such old instruments the tone of the grand Sanchez, a native of "Yxmyquylpan." (Ix-
organ is characterized by its strength and miquilpan is a town in the state of Hidalgo,
richness, while that of the choir organ is sweet known for its sixteenth-century Augustinian
and somewhat colorless. establishment.) Strictly interpreted, the term
The other photograph (fig. b) shows the "mixture" denotes a stop or set of pipes which,
towering height of the older instrument as by sustaining the trebles and strengthening
seen from the side aisle opposite. A gigantic the harmonics, adds brilliance and richness to
bracket, ornamented with compact Baroque the fundamental tones of the diapason; in this
motifs of angel figures among dense foliage, instance perhaps the new stop was a new and
forms an appropriate base for the whole bulk. special effect. Changes may have been made
With its extraordinary dimensions, its doors on the case at the same time, for the neoclassic
leading into the interior, and its suggestion of is discernible in certain motifs, particularly in
grilled windows, this huge organ looms over the bust medallions. A great flowery rug from
the spectator like some galleon destined to ride the Orient is said to have once covered the
the waves of music. entire nave of this church. With the magnifi-
cent altar here, the sparkling crystal chande-
While the majority of the organs illustrated liers, and the glittering garb of the priests, the
in this chapter are more or less Baroque in pomp of a High Mass must have been superbly
style, the instrument in Santa Prisca at Tasco, operatic, a scene for a Mozart or a Cherubini.
Mexico (PL 160, fig. b), leans toward the Since Tasco is on the route from Acapulco
Rococo. In the design of its case it is close to the capital, such an Oriental rug would
to the example at Tiradentes. It, too, has a probably come across the Pacific from China
column of long pipes in the center, garlands or the Philippines. The Rococo in Mexico, as
draping the dividing piers and the upper sec- in Europe, borrowed from the Far East; textile
tion, and angels perched on top. However, it patterns, wallpapers, and household furnish-
has more stops and is more monumental also ings imitated the Chinese. The same influence
as a decorative piece. Note the charming treat- is manifest also in the shapes of some Mexi-
ment of the choir organ at the front of the can pottery. The Chinese type of decorative
gallery' and the lantern-shaped bell racks, all screen— significantly called "Spanish wall" in
in harmonv. The cherubs that seem to be leap- some European languages— executed in leather
ing out of the side of the case once held long and wood, with painted and lacquered scenes
trumpets. and metal trappings, was a favorite and useful
Fourteen stops are grouped on the left and object of the gentry household.
thirteen on the right of its single manual. A highly effective Rococo atmosphere is
There are no pedals, but ten large wooden evoked by one such screen, made in Mexico;
bass pipes are ranged behind the case. it measures some 18 by 6 /2 l
feet, is divided into
The first organ in this parish church is said ten panels, and is painted in oil on canvas.
to have been installed in 1759, two years after Here an anonymous artist from the second half
the building was completed. Reparation and of the eighteenth century depicted scenes
alterations were effected in 1806. The fact that from garden party, held perhaps near some
a
this date is inscribed on a painted cartouche seignioral mansion in New Spain. Music is
on its case probably is responsible for its being made in the two panels illustrated. The
being attributed to the early nineteenth cen- flutist (fig. a) is quite realistically portrayed;
tury. The inscription states clearly, however, the young woman beside him may be holding
that the great organ work was at that time the notes or the text of a song. In the other
"aggrandized" by the addition of a new "mix- picture (fig. c) the bass viol is strung with
ture," which was installed by Jose Antonio only three strings, in the Italian manner of
[237]
that age. Color adds considerably to the ani- lushness of the vegetation and the volcanic
mation of the scenes; the flutist wears blue, peaks in the background, places the scene in
with a scarlet vest, the cellist a scarlet coat colonial Spanish America.
over a sky-blue suit, and the woman a gown In this chapter, over twenty Latin American
of a darker red. Jardinieres of majolica stand organs have been presented— from the primi-
on the garden wall, and meticulously varied tive to the most magnificent. Many more re-
bouquets are set about. The other panels in the main there, neglected, some mere shells, in no
screen show servants bringing up refreshments condition to be played. Their noble tone be-
and elegant men and women in costumes of the longs to the past. Silenced, they stand in dig-
period engaged in conversation. nity through much turmoil, monuments to a
Thus the screen, a furniture piece of Orien- splendid phase of colonial life, the beauty of
tal ancestry, is painted in the European Rococo which is known to all too few.
manner; but its entire spirit, as well as the
[238]
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
B
pope
y the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) the
effected a division of the New World
ning brazilwood was one of
assets— samples of the precious material
its chief economic
were
according to longitude between the two king- carried home by the first expedition— the whole
doms of the Iberian Peninsula. In contrast to region soon came to be known as Brazil.
the Spanish possessions, which spread widely The quantity and the quality of the other
throughout .Middle and South America, the native woods simplified many problems of
Portuguese holdings consisted of one compact construction for the Brazilian builder. Unlike
area, a single colony— Brazil. It covered an Europe, where wood was scarce and stone was
immense territory, however, larger than the the principal building material, here a virgin
United States and comprising almost half of forest offered an unlimited supply of durable
South America. Tropical vegetation came timber for structural beams and columns. Often
down to the water's edge on the Atlantic they carried an incredible weight of masonry.
shore, and the Amazon was a river of mystery In those days, too, every seafaring nation
and terror, whether the explorer set out from needed vast quantities of wood for its ships.
the delta or, more daringly, broached it at the The harbor just below the bulge, where
headwaters in the Andes. stands today the city of Salvador, offered an
This land did not reveal immediate riches, excellent anchorage for the first comers. The
as did the Spanish viceroyalties. The culture expedition of Pedro Alvares Cabral landed in
of the sparse aboriginal population was semi- the vicinity" in 1500— almost twenty years
savage, far below the level attained by the pre- before Cortes reached Mexico— and two years
Columbian peoples in either Middle America later the first settlement was founded. In 1530
or the Andean areas, with their splendid cities the first royal agent was sent over, and in
and religious centers. Furthermore, as the 1549 Tome de Souza, supported by a large
Portuguese widened his grip along the coast military force, established the Captaincy of
and inland, many natives retired into the Bahia and made the seaport its capital.
well-nigh limitless world of the interior jungle At first Brazil was divided into captaincies,
and distant high plateaus, greatly reducing the which were later consolidated under the ad-
available native labor. ministration of a single viceroy. Colonization
1 he word "brazil" was current before the was a private enterprise, that is, undertaken
discovery of the Americas, used to designate through the award of feudal grants. The land-
plants and woods that rendered a crimson dye. holders received practically full authority
Portugal's colony in the New World was first over, as well as hereditary rights to, their
called Santa Cruz, but because in the begin- lands, which they were supposed to develop
[239]
at their own expense. In return they made that they toppled vaulted constructions first.
regular payments to the king; the right of Indeed, much of Portugal's early architecture
coinage, the death penalty, and certain other had been destroyed by earthquakes, and thus,
matters remained under the jurisdiction of the side by side with the old styles, the new came
crown. into its own there (see Appendix, PL 192,
Before the end of the seventeenth century fig- a).
cities and towns had spread along the coast In coastal Brazil an ebullient Baroque arose.
and up the fertile valleys and river beds. Sugar, The coming of the Rococo coincides with the
cotton, rice, and tobacco were then the main discovery and exploitation of the mines in the
products; in the eighteenth century gold, mountains. A clean and undiluted Rococo
diamonds, and coffee became important. The flourished especially in the Captaincy of Minas
centers of development and wealth shifted as Gerais, and for this reason most of the Rococo
new were opened to production. Grow-
areas examples presented here were selected from
ing numbers of Negro slaves were imported. that region.
The Negro took to this climate, which was
well suited to his constitution, and today about Because Salvador was the first capital of
a third of the population has Negro blood, the colony and remained so until 1763, the
either pure or mixed. general trends of colonial architecture and art
The lack of native craftsmen with a high can best be traced there. Colonial towns in
indigenous artistic culture and the indifference Brazil were not laid out in a checkerboard
of Portugal toward her colony in the six- pattern, like those in Spanish America; like
teenth century are mainly responsible for the Lisbon and Oporto, they spread according
simple, unadorned buildings of the early epoch. to the need of the times. Salvador (also called
Only a few of these remain, but a number are Bahia, because of its location on the Bahia
preserved in prints and paintings. The wide- de Todos os Santos— All Saints' Bay) was no
spread activities of pirates along the coast exception and today it is virtually two cities
accounts in part for the destruction of many —the lower, with its magnificent harbor, and
early edifices. In the first century of Brazil's the upper, where colonial churches, monas-
colonial life, little attempt was made to trans- teries, and government buildings are still pre-
plant here Portugal's ornate Manueline Gothic served. By the end of the eighteenth century
style, as the Spaniards had done with their the city had a population of some seventy
contemporary architecture in Santo Domingo thousand; it boasted six monasteries and six
(see PL /). In Brazil the typical early church nunneries and buildings that were six or seven
facade shows a small entrance porch— usually stories high.
with columns of the durable native wood, One of the oldest structures illustrated here,
more rarely of stone— a single doorway, and the church of the Third Order of St. Francis,
a circular window placed between and above built in 1703 (PL 161, fig. a), stands in the
two rectangular ones. This type of structure picturesque section of the upper town. Al-
was quite different from the barn-shaped though at first glance its richly decorative
church of the early Spanish American colo- exterior of stone may bring to mind the
nies. A predilection for windows is noticeable Spanish colonial Baroque, a study will reveal
throughout colonial architecture in Brazil, differences. In this small building the three
while in the Spanish colonies it became mark- entrances leave little space for ornamentation
edly so only with the Rococo. On the other on the ground floor. The four allegorical
hand Brazil shows little preoccupation with figures in the second story are the most strik-
domes and vaults. For Portugal had already ing elements of its fagade. Noteworthy also
experienced violent earthquakes and learned are the wrought-iron balconies, typically Bra-
[240]
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
zilian, and the repeated use of volutes and break the second and third tiers in the facade
consoles. The pilasters between the doors as well as in the flanking towers— indeed, the
show heads below the capitals— a Baroque Jesuits are said to have introduced glass win-
229
arrangement frequent in Central European dow panes into Brazil. The pilasters, barely
architecture and already familiar in this vol- suggested, are ornamented with strongly tem-
ume from Spanish American wood carving. pered floral and geometric motifs, and pedi-
The pediment is not drawn up to any special ments are placed only over the entrances and
height but is dramatized with great scrolls the niche. That niche, with its twisted columns,
and with tall finials which suggest Portuguese and the bracket-like lines which define the
taste. major pediment are Baroque touches. Santo

A detail of the second order of the facade Alexandre exemplifies the dwelling-house type
(fig. d) shows a certain placidity in the various of facade that was common on the coast of
motifs when considered separately; each panel Brazil but most unusual in the Spanish colonies.
seemingly is a unit. In the pediment alone is a
flowing and florid effect achieved. But even The capital city of Pernambuco, Recife-
this mildlv Baroque ornamentation was found so-called from its outlying reef— is situated on
too strong for a later generation who stuccoed that great elbow of land which is nearest
it over; onlv recently was it restored to its to Old World. In colonial times ships
the
original beauty. arrived here weeks earlier than in Rio de
Adjoining this edifice is the Franciscan Janeiro and the other more southern ports.
monasters, with its colonnades (fig. b), and Beginning with three small trading posts and
beyond that stands the church of Sao Fran- a little fort, it functioned first as the harbor
cisco, finished in 17 10. Its twin towers are port for Olinda, an older town on the bluff
covered with tiles; between them rises a free- beyond it which has now dwindled in impor-
standing pediment with a tall cross, seen here tance to a suburb.
from the rear. (The interior of this church is During the period when Portugal and Spain
shown on Pis. 164, 165). The walls of the mon- were under one sovereign (1 580-1640), the
astery cloister are adorned with a scenic dado colony of Brazil was somewhat neglected be-
of Portuguese blue tiles presenting a series of cause it was thought to possess little mineral
allegorical pictures, each enclosed in Baroque wealth. Consequently, in 1630, the Dutch
scrollwork. Plain columns support both gal- West India Company was able to gain a foot-
leries, and the roof hangs low, producing hold here and establish "Holland in Brazil"
welcome shade in this tropical climate. along
it
the northeast coast. Realizing
o the Stra-
Belem, the capital of the state of Para, lies tegic importance of Recife as a harbor and
on the Amazon delta, the nearest large port impressed by the commercial possibilities in
to the motherland. Commerce in wood, oil, the nearby waterways, the Dutch laid plans
nuts, spices, fruits, honey, dyes, and skins to develop this fishing village into a beautiful
brought great wealth to the region, and in city. But in 1654 Portugal regained control
addition the fertile soil produced cotton, cocoa, once more, and the city continued to flourish
sugar, tobacco, and, later, coffee. The tre- and expand under Portuguese rule. A wide-
mendous opportunities for making quick for- spread republican uprising occurred in 17 10,
tunes found expression here in an exaggerated which expelled the governor and established
scale of living. its own government; not until aid arrived
Bclcm's church of Santo Alexandre (fig. c), from the motherland was this rebellion sup-
however, displays a rather sober and con- pressed. Built on strips of land between con-
trolled spirit. This structure, the third on the verging rivers, Recife has been compared to
site, was built by the Jesuits in 17 18. Windows Venice, its buildings, bridges, and squares
I 241 ]
gaining an especially picturesque touch from Recife has sixty-two churches, many of
the tropical setting. them built in the eighteenth century. The
The church of Sao Pedro dos Clerigos three grouped here (PL 163) have several fea-
(PL 162, fig. b) in Recife dates from 1729; tures in common. All of them were planned
its architect was Ferreira Jacome. In its facade, with lofty twin towers. In each the central
unusually tall and slender, many of the dis- doorway is emphasized. Elaborate French
tinguishing characteristics of coastal Baroque windows open onto balconies on the second
can be observed. It has three entrances, the floors, and round or star-shaped windows are
center one emphasized, and many windows; employed. The pediments are drawn high
even in the gable, where in Spanish America and kept somewhat separate from the towers;
one would normally find a niche, there is an when provided with a window they recall
atticwindow flanked by volutes, typically steep-sided Flemish gables (see Appendix, PL

European. The excellence of the plastic orna- l 9°> fig- a )- The whitewashed wall surfaces
ment can be seen in the detail of the main provide a pleasing contrast to the light gray
portal (fig. c). In Baroque fashion it has twin stone throughout.
columns; but they are classically fluted rather The church of the Carmelite Third Order
than twisted. The opulence of the Baroque is (fig. c) was started in 1687 on the site where
evident also in the bombastic heraldic shield formerly the palace of the Dutch governor
that fills the central space, in the garlands of had stood. In mid-eighteenth century it was
fruit at the sides, and in the mermaids ending provided with a new facade, the pediment of
in scrolls. The massive wooden door has the w hich
r
has been described as one of the most
quality of bronze. In the general design of its "contorted" in all Brazil. Nevertheless, when
facade, this church reminds one of that in it is compared with the two on this plate— as
Oporto, Portugal, dedicated to the same saint well as with others along the coast— it is un-
and built in 1 732-1 748 by the Italian Nicolo questionably a version of the coastal type.
Nasoni. Further, Central European architec- The tendency to modulate a basically uniform
ture mav have furnished inspiration especially design will become evident again when the
for the attenuated towers (see Appendix, architecture of the mining district is presented,
PL 192, fig. d). although the type there is quite different from
The entrance to the Saldanha palace at this. Carmo's ambitious facade reveals sculp-
Salvador, Bahia (fig. a), today a trade school, tural originality and verve, qualities which
is dated about 1720. When this portal, also later were abandoned in the interest of speedy
with a compared with that of
coat of arms, is production.
the Recife church, contemporary in date, the Individuality also characterizes the church
variety found in coastal Baroque becomes evi- of Rosario (fig. a), dated 1725-1777, espe-
dent. No attempt was made to have the figures cially in its exquisite central window, the
against the pilasters appear functional, as cary- Rococo hexagonal grilled opening in its tower,
atides. Somewhat like those on the facade of and the floral richness and fine design of its
the Third Order in Salvador, they stand as pediment.

statues, with massive volutes as pedestals and In the church of Santo Antonio (fig. b),
capitals. Note the spiraling grapevines with dated 1 750-1753, there are no statues and little
clusters of fruit on the engaged columns. In individualwarmth or vibrancy, except in the

the second story the carving is less protruding. pediment. Though many of the decorative
Again the general build-up is remarkably dif- elements seen in the others are applied here,
ferent from that presented bv Spanish Ameri- a certain formalism prevails. A somewhat uni-
can portals, in spite of a number of similar form ornament is used above the doors in the
decorative elements. first and second stories, and no attempt is made
f^]
1
ROCOCO IX BRAZIL
to break the monotonous regularity by vary- eenth-century tradition. The twin columns of
ing the system of openings. In its total effect, gilded wood on either side spiral in opposite
the building has great elegance. Here the directions. Note the saints under baldachins
uneven cornice line employed in the other two placed against the plain concave surfaces of
facades is used most effectively; the pediment the pilasters and, on the inner frame of the
rises gracefully from three scallops, which niche, the caryatides, whose upraised arms may
accommodate the three round windows below. once have held lamps. This altar is a fine ex-
This device of modifying the powerful ample of Brazilian Baroque— already moving,
horizontal of a cornice to free and lighten the in its use of color, into the Rococo. (For
ornate pediment can be observed very often interesting differences, compare this altar with
in Brazil. The bulk of the towers seldom pro- those in certain Jesuit churches in Spanish
vides contrast, as is so frequently the case in America, some of them contemporary, illus-
Spanish America. The large crosses which top trated on Pis. 43, 99, 109.)
all the pediments are typical of this country; The facade of the church of Sao Francisco
rarely in the Spanish colonies are they so in Salvador, Bahia, is quite plain, but the in-
dominant. terior is one of the richest Baroque manifesta-
tions in all coastal Brazil, lined with wood
Sometimes plain colonial buildings that sur- carving and stucco ornaments, gilded and
vived the vicissitudes of the sixteenth and polychromed (fig. a). It was completed in
seventeenth centuries were rewarded, so to general construction in 1723, but its decoration
speak, in the eighteenth with a magnificent took more than a quarter of a century longer.
interior. Such is Sao Bento (PL 164, fig. b), Panels in plastic relief, with deeply undercut
one of the earlier churches of Rio de Janeiro, motifs, alternate with the flatter carving. Cary-
dating, together with its Benedictine monas- atides support the garlanded columns of the
tery, from 1623-1642. In the early eighteenth altar (low er right), and others, more decora-
r
century it came under bombardment by the tive than functional, are represented as holding
French, and cannon balls are still embedded in up the baldachin to the pulpit. A plain strip
its walls. Inside, highly plastic and heavily of wall above the frames of the panels (upper
gilded foliage carved of wood constitutes the left) provides a welcome margin to set off
prevailing motif for the decoration. It is modi- the magnificent painted ceiling. Note also the
fied and varied to spread over straight and great oval medallions, with their candelabra,
arching surfaces and is ingeniously composed flanking the window.
to cover the bulging sides of the boxlike pulpit. In the other detail (fig. c) a composition
A number of cherubs can be discovered among from the left transept can be studied. In the
the leaves. The saints between the arches are center stands the Virgin of the Immaculate
quiet in appearance and gesture. Organization Conception, her robes executed in good Ba-
in this luxuriant mass of compact ornament roque estofado; but the swirling scrolls and
was achieved by dividing the surface into the various groupings of angels with their
fields and by the rhythmic repetition of line. alive gestures distract the eve somewhat from
The cathedral at Salvador, also rather austere the main figure. There are angels in figured
in its outer aspect, has a superbly ornate in- gowns, putti ending in scrolls holding the con-
terior; the edifice, as has been mentioned, ventional crown, and cherubs dangling in the
belonged to the Jesuits (see PL 10). Shown leafy background of the pilasters. Again con-
here is the altar in the left transept dedicated siderable organization is gained by the use of
to St. Ignatius (fig. d). He stands on a high panels and a precise balancing of the ornament.
pedestal, and below him is the Virgin, with Perched in the capital at the upper right is the
angels at her feet— all carved in the best eight- carved figure of a symbolic bird.
1
243
Many of the churches in Brazil, modeled covers the entire end of the apse, and light
after Portuguese structures, had a gallery from the outside is focused upon it. It should
above the side aisles opening onto the nave be mentioned here that Brazil is not an earth-
through a series of loges or balconied win- quake country.
dows. The effect inside was that of a clerestory
(figs, a, b); outside, this arrangement is indi- Beginning with the middle of the eighteenth
cated in the rows of second-story windows. century a distinct daintiness is apparent in the
coastal architecture. Light curves and cornices
Another interior view of Sao Francisco in replaced the heavy striving ones, and more
Salvador shows its sumptuous main altar and and more of the wall space was left empty
apse (PL 165, fig. b). The deep and narrow or filled with larger windows and doors. The
sanctuary is characteristic of church architec- parish church of Pilar, in Salvador (PL 166,
ture in Portugal and Brazil. Strips of white fig. a), from late eighteenth century, is a re-
define the intricate pattern of the barrel- markable example of this type. It has but one
vaulted ceiling and serve to emphasize the tower, which like its pediment is kept low.
burnished gold of the heavy coffered fields. Decoration is on an exquisite scale, every
In the altar the lines of the ornate engaged detail masterly in design and execution. The
columns and their arches are all but lost in windows might be regarded as out of propor-
the plethora of ornament, centered on the tion with the rest of the building were they
touching statue of St. Francis, embracing and not treated with infinite grace; divided into
embraced by the Crucified. The catafalque- small panes, they present a checkered pattern
like build-up, here comparatively low, pro- that fills in the dark openings. The surround-
vides a most effective podium for the sculp- ing decoration has the tenuousness of a picture
ture. On the wall beside the sacristy door the frame, and the lines of the fancifully shaped
soft blue and white of tile pictures add to gable window could have been inspired by a
the exposition of color. Rococo jewel box. Both the flaming urns and
A view of the sanctuary of Sao Pedro
full the cross are still present but scaled down to
dos Clerigos (fig. a), in Recife, shows the harmonize with the rest of the structure.
narrow and lofty interior indicated by the Standing on a steep flight of steps and bathed
exterior (see PL 162). The walls are plain, in the strong white sunlight of the tropics,
broken only by elegant balconies, but the ceil- the building has the unreality of a Rococo
ing of masonry vaulting is unusually elaborate. stage backdrop.
The columns are entwined with garlands spi- Throughout the state of Paraiba, farther to
raling in opposite directions. Behind the altar the north, are scattered churches that exem-
the usual catafalque-like construction rises tier plify an earlv and lavish Baroque; unfortu-
on tier, reaching nearly to the ceiling— a Portu- nately many of them are now neglected and
guese feature adopted in Brazilian churches. overgrown with
tropical vegetation, their
Both structures on this plate date from the windows broken or gaping.
first half of the eighteenth century and both In the church of Sao Francisco at Joao
are on the coast, not far from each other. A Pessoa (fig. b), the capital, the captivating
comparison of their interiors reveals consid- illusion of a stage setting is still more marked.
erable diversity in the local taste. Differences This church, renovated to its present form in
can be noted also between the typical Brazil- 1779, is approached through an atrium be-
ian sanctuary and the Spanish American. The tween tiled walls. A rhythmic series of scrolls
latter usually extends the full width of the decorates the coping of these walls, punctu-
nave and is separated from it by a broad tri- ated at intervals bv the finials of the piers and
umphal arch; furthermore, the retable usually the ornamental pediments that crown the Sta-
[=44]
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
tions of the Cross. Three broad low steps aug- containing canvases, gilded stucco work, and
ment the dramatic effect of the building. All wood carving. Fitted into a door frame
five doorways still possess their original (center) is a highboy of wood.
a beautiful local
wooden grilles. In the second story, French (See also PL 186.) The stone pavement— in
windows open onto balconies. The pediment two tones and varied in pattern, following
is low, but the scroll design carried down on the tradition of wall tiles— produces a pleasant
either side gives it the appearance of a two- coolness in that tropical climate. Despite the
storv structure. The tower, except for the altar with its crucifix at the far end of the hall
framing piers of stone, is faced with pale blue and the large statues of saints between the
tiles, even to the Oriental cupola. One cannot doors, the impression is that of a mundane
look at this building without visualizing the salon.
Rococo ceremony and splendor which en-

livened the scene about it— the palanquins borne A luscious Rococo spirit, adjusted to tropi-
bv barefoot Negro slaves in uniforms of velvet cal conditions, permeated the manner of life
and gold, the carriages with grooms and postil- in the coastal cities, and by mid-eighteenth
ions, the extravagant display of Oriental and century this region had established a style in
European finery. It has much of the mood which the Rococo was grafted onto the Ba-
of contemporary country mansions in the roque. The use of statuary, never in very great
motherland (see Appendix, PL 192, fig. f). favor here, gradually was discontinued; deco-
ration was concentrated on the pediment and
The pulsing enjoyment of the Brazilian the door and window framing. Increasingly
carver in his craft is revealed in many details the ecclesiastical building took on the worldly
of interior decoration whether small or large. elegance of a princely palace, both within and
Though the elaborate cornice inside the choir without.
loft of this church (PL 167, fig. a) may appear When the towers and cross of the church
heavy to some, it is not at all awkward. The of Conceicao in Salvador are covered (PL 168,
frame of the adjacent window overlooking the fig. a), few marks remain to identify the
nave shows the same approach, demonstrating edifice as dedicated to the service of God.
the excellence of the material and the expert- The ornamentation over the doorways is re-
ness of the craftsmen; its heavy volutes are strained in line and bulk, and the windows
typical of Brazil. And all this for a room re- above them are framed simply. Delightful is
mote from the public eye, used only by the bracketing together of the window cor-
members of the choir. nices, forming a single undulating line and
Like the two other examples on this plate, ingenious shadow play. Through the subordi-
the pulpit from Sao Francisco Xavier in Belem nation of other embellishment, the curves of
(fig. b) datesfrom the first half of the eight- the pediment are given dramatic emphasis, and
eenth century. Beginning with the two cherubs the cross at the top a striking position. In the
who hold back the looped drapery above its center is a shell, itself a holy emblem, con-
baldachin, the canopy rises in a polychrome taining a sickle moon; was scarcely
as there
pyramid of angelic and allegorical figures. room for a statue would seem that the
it
The supporting bracket carries angel busts— builders were content with this one symbol
perhaps Hope and Charity beside the blind- of the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception.
folded Faith— and ends in a leafy bouquet, The may have been constructed by
building
counterbalancing the crown and cross at the local artisans who were familiar with, and had
top. even worked on, much more pretentious edi-
In the sacristy of Carmo in Salvador (fig. c) fices. In this simply conceived and tastefully
both wall and ceiling are sheathed with panels executed church, without any striving for
! H5 1
pomposity, they achieved an expression of much from the Baroque of other lands, but to
sincerity. the student it reveals a character of its own.
The town of Igarassu, near Recife, grew up Throughout Latin America the climate, soil,
on the site of early plantations. Its church and vegetation, the materials at hand, and the
(fig. b), dedicated to the sainted martyrs presence or absence of aboriginal traditions
Cosmos and Damian, was founded in 1553 in art and craftsmanship all helped to individ-
and is reported to be the oldest in the country. ualize the arts of a colony. In Brazilian as well
Although it was redone in the taste of the late as in Spanish American Baroque, the emphasis
seventeenth century, such structural features was not on varied ground plans and brilliant
as the single doorway, the porch, and the tri- architectural solutions but on ornamentation.
angular placement of the windows in the In Brazil most of the colonial churches along
facade are preserved from the pioneering the coast adhered to a rectangular three-aisle
period. In the later decoration elements appear plan, with both apse and sacristy enclosed
that have been seen elsewhere; noteworthy is within the regular frame; the decoration is
the strong and rhythmic line of the cornice characterized by a discriminating balance,
below the modest pediment. often achieved by confining the ebullient
This photograph is one of a number fur- elements within panels.
nished for this chapter by Robert C. Smith,
eminent authority on the art of Portugal and As has been indicated, for almost two cen-
Brazil. He has pointed out that this little turies the major development of Brazil was
church in its tropical setting provided the along the coast. At the close of the seven-
Dutch artist Frans J. Post (i6i2?-i68o) with teenth century, however, both gold and dia-
230
a subject for a painting. Post was the first monds were discovered in the mountains of
painter of Brazil whose work can be identified. the south central regions of the colony. Gold
He lived in Recife during the Dutch occupa- had been the dream from the very beginning
tion, and his paintings of the sugar plantations in all Latin America. Scheduled armadas laden
and opulent landscape, the buildings, and the with gold and silver from the expanding mines
flora and fauna of the region, done with the of the Spanish colonies moved regularly to
clarity of a Canaletto, help reconstruct the Spain, and it was argued that, as Brazil was a
picture of seventeenth-century coastal Brazil. part of the same continent, her mountains also
The seminary church in Belem (fig. c) should contain precious metals. Numerous ex-
shows how the style on the coast was modified peditions were sent inland to seek deposits, but
for the comfort of the congregation. Here, in it was long before success came. Finally, in
the damp and heavy climate of the Amazon 1692, an iron-colored pellet scooped up from
delta, an open gallery, its roof drawn low, a shallow river bed in the pail of a thirsty
runs the length of the edifice. The facade has mulatto proved to be gold, and the feverish
the usual features: plain tall pilasters, a scrolled search began. Soon other veins in other valleys
pediment rising slightly higher than the roof, were discovered. The district was miles in-
and a squat tower. A simple and practical land, unexplored, and inhabited bv hostile
structure, it is well suited to the conditions Indians. After the natives had been driven out
of the land. Were not the date 1689 inscribed and the customary fights among the white
below the cross, it might be judged as some- rivals had decided who of them had the right
what later. to exploit the mines, the region was declared
When the coastal churches of Brazil were a captaincy under a Portuguese officer and
being erected, Baroque was the prevalent style called Alinas Gerais (general mines). It filled
throughout Europe. To the casual observer rapidly with settlers from other parts of Brazil,
this coastal Baroque may not seem to differ and a mass of immigrants poured in from
[246]
I
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
Portugal, resulting in one of the great mi- Negro lay societies competed with one another
grations in history. Mining on a grand scale in erecting and adorning their churches. A
was commenced. local quartz made its structural as well as its
The mining district was under vers* strict aesthetic contribution. Because of an abun-
surveillance to make sure that every grain of dance of superlatively hard wood for beams,
gold dust and every splinter diamond
of few of these churches were vaulted. Despite
reached the authorities. Five hundred Portu- the great wealth that was extracted from the
guese dragoons were stationed in scattered Minas district and the influx of new people,
companies about the mines to forestall boot- the architecture of the area possesses a rustic
legging. The roads over which the treasure beauty all its own. The region was still too
passed were bordered with stone walls, some- far from Rio de Janeiro— its nearest port and
times skillfully disguised with moss to prevent the seat of the new vicerovaltv— to emulate
anv bv-passing of toll stations and tax officials. the lavishness and elegance of the coast. Do-
For so long as it could, the Portuguese crown mestic architecture followed the pattern of
tried to keep this vast source of wealth secret northern Portugal, from where a large per-
from the rest of the world. No foreign trav- centage of the miners came.
elers or visitors of any sort were permitted in As for the church building itself, a rather
Minas Gerais; enslavement was the penalty. small, low was favored. It had an elab-
edifice
Agriculture andindustry were forbidden orately decorated single doorway and two
there; schools were not allowed; none of the towers, which usually were integrated into
religious orders was permitted to gain a foot- the facade. In the central section were win-
hold. Everv effort of the population had to be dows of a Rococo design, irregular and seal-
directed toward the mines. And these were so loped in outline, while for the towers elongated
productive ~~ that the value of the annual ovals were preferred. To the pediment went
mining output during the first fifty years is the dramatic emphasis. Rounded and oval
reported to have run as high as $8,500,000. ground plans, such as are rarely seen in Span-
The covetous motherland squeezed all possible ish America, were common.
wealth out of the province. Before the eight- Those dark grains which proved to be gold
eenth century had drawn to a close, the mines gave to Ouro Preto (black gold) its name; in
were exhausted and a general decadence had colonial times it was known too as Vila Rica
set in, aggravated by rebellion and revolution. (rich town). And the gold in the nearby hills
.More than half a century passed before even also gave the place its rich art and architec-
a fraction of the former prosperity was re- ture, making of it a unique site, a veritable
covered. open-air museum in which the artistic atmos-
The architecture of Minas Gerais was a phere of the golden era is today held fast. Its
purely eighteenth-century development. The thirteen churches, its numerous government
primitive clay and rubble chapels of the first buildings (dating from the period when it was
decades, with their thatched roofs, were built the seat of the captaincy-general), its ornate
on much the same plan as the very early public fountains, the graceful stairways and
coastal churches; the small porch was omitted ramps connecting the many levels of its hilly
and sometimes the bell tower stood free. By terrain, all are preserved. In 1933 a government
1730 larger constructions of masonry were decree declared the town a national monument.
being raised and on a more pretentious plan. A section of Ouro Preto (Pi 169, fig. a)
The eighteenth century had not passed its shows a winding street that probably has
halfwav mark before the mining cities could changed little in the last century and a half.
boast finely executed edifices. As both monas- Its houses are generally two-storied, sometimes
teries and nunneries were excluded, white and with a dormer added, and the heavilv tiled
h4-i
roofs project to shade the upper windows. cellent. The fountain is a comparatively recent
The windows have the same kind of eight- addition.
eenth-century framework as the churches. A The churchof Carmo (fig. d) was de-
goodly number of the balconies originally signed by Manoel Francisco Lisboa in 1766.
were constructed with wooden railings and Francisco de Lima contracted to execute the
shutters. Throughout Brazil, whether on the soapstone carvings on its fagade in 1771, and
coast or in the mountains, windows and doors the building was completed about a decade
were protected from the sun and the eye of later. The entrance and the "bull's eye" win-
the curious by wooden shutters, sections of dow—actually rather a carp's mouth in shape
which often were ingeniously fitted together —are one composition, with fine detail in the
in geometric patterns, Mudejar in manner. But petaled decoration. The molding about the
the Mudejar was not confined to the wood- central window is like a picture frame and
carver's craft; glazed tiles, imported from the cartouche serves as a connecting ornament.
Portugal and the Netherlands, were used for Noteworthy is the rounding of the main cor-
coolness and cleanliness, and they lent their nice, above this window, a feature often seen
brilliance and color to church and convent on the coast. Carmo is the church that stands
walls as well as to garden walls and the patios out on the hill in the photograph of the city.
of mansions. In the Mudejar tradition also, The Negroes town and their various
of the
geometric patterns were pressed into stucco lay brotherhoods were zealous in their reli-
225
surfaces. gious endeavors. The church of Rosario in
Most of Ouro Preto's public buildings re- Ouro Preto (fig. c) documents the high stand-
flect its prosperity. The former penitentiary ard of their work. Completed in 1785 by Jose
(fig. which combined the functions of
b), Pereira Arouca, the building, unique with its
town hall and prison, has a Rococo elegance doubled-oval ground plan and rounded facade,
in its lines; only a close view reveals that the is a brilliant example of the Rococo's imag-
small crisscross pattern at the windows is made inative use of the curving line. The problem of
up of iron bars. This prison building— the third a pediment is beautifully solved; shaped like a
of its kind to stand here— was designed by the coronet, it crowns the facade. 227
governor Luiz da Cunha e Meneses, and seem-
ingly it was his pet project; he impressed labor Certain churches in Ouro Preto immortal-
and forced contributions for the enterprise. ize the name of the great architect and sculp-
Despite the resultant scandals, the major part tor Antonio Francisco Lisboa, through whom
of it went up between 1784 and 1788, with the Rococo of Brazil achieved its most strik-
the aid of the architect Francisco Pinto de ing expression. He was born Ouro Preto
in
Abreu. Work stopped when the tyrannical in 1730, the natural son of a Negro slave, Iza-
227
official was recalled to Lisbon, and certain bel, and a Portuguese father, the carpintero
minor sections, together with some of the in- Manoel Francisco de Costa Lisboa just men-
terior, were not finished until 1869. This tioned as the designer of Carmo.
edifice is the only one in Minas Gerais con- The life of this famous artist is partly leg-
structed entirely of masonry and without a end—a legend that is still gathering fantastic
covering of plaster. A classically formal, allegations— out ofwhich emerges an arrest-
closed pediment tops the central section, and ing personality. He learned his craft from his
the pilasters and columns harmonize with it. father's contemporaries Antonio Francisco
Grace is lent especially by the statues at and Joao Bautista Gomes, when they were
the corners of the balustrade and by the working in the booming mining towns. As a
double stairway that leads up to the entrance. youth he drafted building plans, carved wood,
Throughout, the carving and masonry are ex- and cut reliefs and figures out of the local
[248]
1
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
soapstone; until then this material, which is pushed far upward into the pediment. Above
soft when quarried but hardens with time, the doorway and flanked by the Franciscan
had been little used. He is described as small coat of arms and that of Portugal's king, is
and sturdy of build, with a dark complexion, placed a medallion with the Immaculate Con-
a low forehead, short curly hair, a sharp-cut ception; the larger relief shows St. Francis re-
chin, and clear burning eyes. A man of violent ceiving the stigmata.
temperament, sensual and licentious, he seem- Inside, on the unplastered boards of the
ingly enjoyed life to the full until in his late ceiling— flat at the top and following the angle
forties he contracted a severe illness— prob- of the rafters on the sides— Manoel da Costa
ably leprosy. From his disfigurement he ac- Ataide, in 1 801-18 10, painted a Glorification
quired the nickname O Aleijadinho (the little of the Virgin (fig. b). The favorite Rococo
cripple); under this sobriquet he enters the shell frame is skillfully filled in with an or-
pages of art history. According to his biog- chestra of angels, some playing quite modern
raphy, written by his daughter-in-law, he lost instruments and others singing, holding their
some of his fingers and toes and was so re- music. The single column, used architec-
pulsive in aspect that he shunned contacts; he turally on the facade, is carried up pictorially
was carried through the streets in a curtained beyond the walls and across the slanting sides
palanquin. Like Renoir of a later epoch, he of the ceiling with an amazing feeling for
continued to work, however, fixing his pen or perspective, exaggerating the height.
carving tool to the stump of his hand. Some The painted illusionistic atmosphere is ex-
of his best and finest sculpture was produced cellently supported by the plastic decorations
during his last years. Up to the end of his life of the interior. Aleijadinho's creations are the
—he died in 1814 at the age of eighty-four— two delicately carved, small stone pulpits. On
he signed his receipts himself, in a thin and the one here Jonah and the whale appear be-
even script. Aleijadinho lies buried in the par- side a panel of John the Evangelist with his
ish church of Conceicao in his native town, symbolic eagle (fig. d). The precision of the
before the Altar of Hallowed Death. 231 carving— especially clear in the Rococo angel
The church of Sao Francisco in Ouro Preto heads amid flowery garlands on the base of
has much within and without that makes it an the pulpit— gives to the stonework the quality
outstanding example of Minas Rococo (PI. of bronze.
170, fig. a). The plan is attributed to Aleija- This type of soapstone carving, using small
dinho, under whom work was proceeding in motifs and exquisitely proportioned detail in
1766, as is also the sculptural decoration on the spirit of the best Rococo, characterizes
the facade. The building was finished about many churches in Ouro Preto ; outside, it was
1794. Its rather solid cylindrical towers are employed on the portals, and inside on pul-
lightened by elongated oval windows and the pits, lavabos, and other ornamented surfaces.
crownlike cupolas which cap them. The Tradition has it that Aleijadinho and his asso-
rounded walls of the towers are ingeniously ciates carved most of this work, though there
integrated into those of the building. In front is little documentation to prove However,
it.
of them the facade is set forward, its line de- the manner is singularly homogeneous and
fined by engaged columns and the broken ped- the attribution seems justified.
iment. Here the early arrangement of a single The subject of angel heads amid garlands is
doorway and a triangular grouping of open- used with immediacy in polychrome and
ings above it persists, though with Rococo gilded wood on the high altar of the parish
modifications. The center window has become church at Caete (fig. c); note the unusual man-
a medallion, a focal point for decoration; to ner of portraying the feathers in the wings.
accommodate it the cornice molding has been Caete was one of the smaller mining settle-
1
149
ments in the Minas district and was elevated cisco in Ouro Preto but it took three other
;
to a town only in 1855. The church, the plan architects and more than three decades to
of which is said to have been sent from Portu- finish the building and its interior. Here the
gal, was finished in the last third of the eight- bases of the rounded towers are interestingly
227
eenth century. It follows the familiar Minas digested into the facade of the structure; only
type. Comparable in the excellence of its inte- a suggestion of them remains in the small
rior and exterior decoration to churches in narrow windows and in the close triangular
larger and better-known towns, it documents grouping of the larger ones above the door.
the general high standard of the artists and Note the profile of the cornice and the roof
craftsmen in that epoch throughout the re- tiles. The pediment seems to spring from the
gion. towers. Two carp's-mouth windows adorn this
facade, the upper one an echo of the lower.

Four churches from other towns in the Sahara is one of the oldest of the gold-min-
Minas district, all started in the last third of ing towns and in its heyday had a population
the eighteenth century, show variations on the of eighty thousand. The Carmo church there
same theme. They are constructed on a no- (fig. d) boasts a painted ceiling and is lavishly
ticeably uniform principle— a rectangular plan, decorated throughout with gold leaf and Chi-
two towers, a single doorway, a flaring pedi- nese red lacquer. A touch of chinoiserie is ap-
ment with a stone cross, and pilasters in the parent also in the exterior, in the deep over-
original color of the stone. All have another hang of the cornice and the curving lines of
highly enjoyable characteristic in common: the pediments. A riotous composition, with a

the separation of the upper towers and pedi- "winged shell" as center, leans against each
ment from the lower section of the fagade by belfry wall, linking the towers with the orna-
means of a powerful cornice. However, as mental gable. The bell of this church is dated
closely related as they are in general design, 1772.
they differ in aspect because of the many va- Another version of the Minas district type
ried details. is seen in the church of Sao Francisco in Sao
The church of Sao Francisco in the town of Joao d'El Rei (fig. a). This town was named in
Mariana (PL 171, fig. b) was begun in 1763 17 1

3 in honor of the Portuguese king John V,
and finished in 1794 by Pereira, mentioned in who reigned from 1707 to 1750. The church,
connection with Rosario in Ouro Preto. Its dated 1774 on its facade, stands on a raised
facade is sober and distinguished. Here there atrium approached by stairways leading up
are no curvilinear walls. The central section, from either side of the gate. Its towers pro-
including the pediment, is stepped forward ject boldly. The pilasters are decorated with
somewhat from the towers, and the belfries delicate carving, and a framing of lacy de-
are set back even behind the plane of their tail sets off the large rectangular windows.
bases. The placement of the rectangular win- Above the doors the scrolled segments of a
dows brings out the horizontal. There are no sharply broken pediment make way for a
story-telling reliefs; a composition of small heraldic composition, which is surmounted by
Rococo motifs above the door provides the a relief of the Immaculate Conception. In the
only sculptural ornament. Interest is directed somewhat massive gable pediment, a second
toward the central window, which breaks into relief shows St. Francis at the foot of the
the pediment. Cross, an unusual sculptural detail. The large
On the same square in Mariana stands the round central window gains emphasis from
church of Carmo (fig. c). It was begun in its sheer simplicity and from the curving cor-
1784 by Domingos Moreira de Oliviera, who nice and moldings which accentuate its line.
had worked under Aleijadinho on Sao Fran- The narrow windows in the tower bases are
[mo]
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
characteristic of this Rococo; where they are with those of Portugal or of the Portuguese
found in Spanish America they often have the colonies in the Orient. Only Portuguese ships
shape of a star (see Pis. 41, 42, 49). were permitted to enter Brazilian ports, and
All four churches were the creation of lay their wares brought extraordinarily high prices
brotherhoods, which, since religious orders whereas native products were sold at the low-
224
were forbidden in Minas Gerais, attained more est. In accordance with general colonial pol-
than customary prominence and power. The icy everywhere during this period, colonial
Negroes, brought in as slaves to work the industry was discouraged by the mother coun-
mines, revered the Virgin of the Rosary espe- try. The great Portuguese minister of the
cially and honored a number of Negro saints. crown, the Marquis of Pombal (1690-17 82),
In this hard-working region, where a religious instituted various reforms under his enlight-
celebration was a major event, the Negroes ened rule, but they were too few and too late
had their own festivals with colorful pageantry, to satisfy the colonists.
dancing, and sometimes such barbaric touches In 1789 the Viscount of Barbacena became
as the crowning of a king of the Congo. The the captain general of Minas Gerais. The royal
churches of Minas Gerais fall into several fifth had been lazily collected and reluctantly
categories: the parish church, or matrix; those paid, in arrears. The newly ar-
and much was
raised by the brotherhoods— white, mulatto, rived official showed an energetic hand. By
or Negro; and the pilgrimage church. Archi- this time signs of discontent were apparent in
tecturally they all belong to one type; how- many parts of Brazil. Colonies in North Amer-
ever, as has been seen, rivalry stimulated many ica had already fought for and won their in-
original details. dependence, and revolt was in the air. Creole
officers, priests, and civilians gathered in the
There was another and grim side to the various villages and towns to air their griev-
delightful picture of Rococo splendor. From ances and indignation. Among those who laid
the very beginning the Portuguese law had plans for a republic was a young doctor—
discriminated against the colonist in Brazil, whose duties also included those of the den-
ruling that the opulence and luxury produced tist of that day. His name was Joaquim Jose
by the thriving colony should be, in the main, de Silva Xavier, but he was better known by
for the sole enjoyment of the Portuguese. The his nickname, Tiradentes (the tooth puller).
colonists were not allowed to use gold, silver, Though a slight and unimpressive man, he
or even imitations of these metals in their was a burning protagonist of the independence
households or on their persons. In 1 766, when movement, and upon the betrayal of the con-
goldsmithing was prohibited by virtue of a spiracy and the defection of most of those
royal letter, 142 goldsmiths' workshops, with involved in it, he took upon himself all re-
their forges, were demolished. (Less than a sponsibility. In 1792 he was hanged in Rio de
quarter of a century later, however, 375 mas- Janeiro and his body quartered; to augment
ters and 1500 workmen were practicing their the effect of the medicine meted out to revo-
craft illegally in the viceroyalty. 222 ) Negroes lutionists, his head was sent to Ouro Preto to
were supposed to wear only coarse sacking. be raised aloft in the public square. Now he
The gifts of a bridegroom to his bride were is spoken of with reverence and pride, and
limited, and any Portuguese who married a to honor him, an early martyr of Brazilian
colonist was declasse. No one could own oil independence, the name of the place where
paintings, and the importation of newspapers he was born and lived has been changed from
and printed books, except for a few religious Sao Jose to Tiradentes.
volumes, was forbidden. No agricultural prod- This little town is one of the many mining
ucts could be raised which would compete settlements which sprang up in the first years
[25 1]
of the eighteenth century. It has the typical mounted on the side walls. Gold is applied
winding streets of a mining village, with cob- to walls and ceiling in plastic motifs as thick
blestone pavements and low houses. Here a as jungle vines, kept separate by fields of
decorative fountain, there the Rococo contours white. On the main altar the lower section of
of a church give atmosphere to the picture. the twisted columns is lightly grooved, while
But wherever the eye falls, the mineral-bear- the upper part is garlanded. Angels sit in the
ing hills, silhouetted against the horizon, close arch and on segments of the broken pediment.
the perspective. Compare the Eternal Father here with similar
An from the parochial church
interior detail compositions in Spanish America (see Pis. 45,
at Tiradentes (PL 172, fig. a) shows its tray- 52, 109); instead of dominating the scene, the
shaped ceiling constructed of wide boards. The figure is framed in and held as one detail
square coffered panels are painted with medal- within the general rhythm and color scheme
lions and the frames gilded. A part of the organ of the whole. The build-up of the catafalque-
loft that was shown earlier (see PL ij6) can like structure behind this altar is especially
be seen in the foreground (upper left). clear, a feature seen earlier in coastal churches.
In the apse and on the archway (fig. b) an-
gels and allegorical figures, small and large, Our last illustrations of Rococo in Brazil
nude and elaborately costumed, are joined in show a famous pilgrim church from the Minas
a polyphony of white and shining gold. Note district. To make clear the many sources which
the floating figure in the upper left on the contributed to the artistic outfitting of such
curve of the cornice, visible also in the pre- an establishment, a slight digression is neces-
ceding photograph. The ornamentation on the sary. In eighteenth-centurv Europe the pil-
soffit is developed— as it frequently is in Bra- grimage church was already an age-old insti-
zil—by the repetition of a volute. Typical Ro- tution. And the impetus at that time to restore
coco arabesques, painted in tempera, cover and enlarge such shrines is easily understand-
the ceiling in an all-over pattern, and a lively able. In 1699 the Turks, who had occupied a
sculptured frame compensates for the rigueur goodly part of Europe and menaced the rest
of the round window. of it for nearly two centuries, were driven

Atlantes, half life-size, and fantastically pow- back to the Balkans, and almost immediately a
erful scrolls support the piers at either side of religious revival began to sweep over the lib-
the main altar (fig. c). Such statues occur also erated countries. Moreover, in Western Europe
in other churches of Minas. The whole pos- the Counter Reformation was continuing its
ture of the figure gives the impression of a campaign against Freemasons, free-thinkers,
man staggering under a crushing weight. It is and the like. To help erect new buildings for
far from classic or Renaissance models; there the faith, gold, silver, diamonds, pearls, and
is much realism in the tired face and in the emeralds poured in from colonies in the New
hand resting on the leg. As an independent World and the Orient.
piece of sculpture, it has merit and would make Pilgrim places, manywhich had been
of
an even stronger appeal were it not almost founded in the Middle Ages, bloomed again,
suffocated under the giant scrolls. Note the refurbished and enlarged if not completely re-
human head in the panel at the left, completely edified. The eighteenth-century pilgrimage
subordinated into the composition. often had the character and fervor of a politi-
The apse of the parish church in Sao Joao cal demonstration, and its destination had to
d'El Rei (fig. d) reveals a scheme of decoration be large enough to accommodate huge crowds.
quite different from the one just shown. In- Such sites still abound, not only in Portugal
terest centers on the large paintings, which are and Spain but also generally throughout Eu-
framed in elaborate Rococo moldings and rope. Some of them have retained their land-
[*s*l
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
scaped parks, their mounting stairways with the center of the Holy Roman Empire, it is
elaborate balustrades, their fountains, flower small wonder that an influx of modes artistic
beds, and terraces with statues; for formal gar- and manners from Central Europe made itself
dens, which, like Isola Bella on Lake Mag- felt there. To a greater degree than is gen-
giore, integrated the ever-changing surface of erally recognized, the Baroque and Rococo
water into a bizarre design with Baroque were fertilized and cross-fertilized by the tal-
eclat, were not confined to the palaces of ent of artists and craftsmen of the lesser publi-
nobles. On the island in Lake Orta, also in cized nations. Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and
northern Italy, an early-eighteenth-century Norway, as well as the eastern countries within
garden provided a setting for a Via Crucis in the orbit of the Holy Roman Empire, de-
which life-size statues of carved wood stand veloped their distinctive and delightful adap-
in pavilions at the Stations of the Cross; sim- tations of thesetwo styles. Any mention of
ilar arrangements survive in Portugal and Bra- Rococo examples from countries connected
zil. Architecturally the pilgrimage church in with Portugal through a royal marriage must
the Valley of La Brianza (Appendix, PL 192, give first place to the Bavarian churches of
fig. c), again in northern Italv, reminds one the Asam brothers, which have a grace of
of the Minas churches in Brazil. line and an atmosphere reminiscent of con-
Cultural ideals traveled easily to and fro temporary work in porcelain. Indeed, some
throughout Europe, carrying with them the of the statuary of the great sculptors Bal-
artistic modes and styles from one land to thasar Permoser and Johan Joachim Kandler
another.The vast extent of the Holv Roman served as models for Europe's first manufac-
Empire had much to do with this. Members tory of hard-paste porcelain, at Meissen in
of the Habsburg family, whose seat was in Saxony. In such art centers as princely courts
Vienna, held sovereign positions throughout and theaters, music salons and ateliers, a Ro-
Europe as emperors, kings, archdukes, and coco was formulated which soon became an
princes. From Flanders to Sicily, from Poland export article.
to Portugal, their influence was flrmlv embed- Portugal has several famous Baroque or Ro-
ded, cemented bv marriage ties as well as by coco pilgrim churches which have strongly
alliances and kept strong generation after gen- influenced those in her colony Brazil. Bom
eration by prolific families. A Bavarian prin- Jesus do Monte, near Braga, Portugal, goes
cess was the second wife of the Portuguese back to the early sixteenth century, but the
king Pedro II, and his successor, John V present establishment was not begun until the
(reigned 1707-1750), was married in 1708 to 1720's; contributions for the new building
Maria Ana, a daughter of the Austrian king. were collected even throughout the Portu-
(The Minas town of Mariana and the Mari- guese colonies. 28 It is approached by a series
ana Islands were named for Austrian-born of well-composed stairways and esplanades,
queens.) When John V's skillful ambassador, with small chapels containing tableaus of the
the Portuguese Marquis of Pombal, was sent Passion carved of wood. The church is large
in 1745 t0 Vienna to mediate between Maria and the entire layout grandiose, benefiting in
Theresa and Pope Benedict XVI, he married its total effect from the cultivated landscape
the Austrian Princess Daun. Thus, as the cen- that surrounds it. Another such sanctuary in
tury passed its halfway mark, not only was the Portugal is at Lamego. In type this church,
Queen Mother and Regent of Portugal an dated in mid-eighteenth century, is closer to
Austrian, but the wife of Portugal's great re- some of those in Brazil, but in its milder syl-
form minister, the antagonist of the Queen van atmosphere of rolling hills again the effect
Mother, also was an Austrian. is different. A third Portuguese example, Bom
With Portugal oriented politically toward Jesus do Matosinhos, is dedicated to the same
[253]
patron as the famous shrine in Brazil. It is simple, and there is little sculptural decora-
located north of Oporto and houses a mirac- tion—as if the climax of the dramatic move-
ulous crucifix, which at the beginning of the ment was deliberately left to the statues and
present century received the homage of some the theatrical setting of the open terrace.
thirty thousand pilgrims yearly. Amazing spirit and power emanate from
The Brazilian pilgrim church of Bom Jesus the heroic figures of the twelve prophets at
do Matosinhos (PL on a hill-
173, fig. a) stands They bring move-
the corners of the barrier.
top near Congonhas do Campo, where it com- ment and dramatic intensity into the general
mands a magnificent view of the subtropical picture. Late works of Aleijadinho, carved
countryside and dominates the small town of native soapstone, they stand in close archi-
below. It was founded (1757) in fulfillment tectonic relationship with one another and
of avow by the Portuguese hermit Feliciano with the building to which thev serve as over-
Mendes, who for the last eight years of his life ture, each oriented to a different direction.
collected alms for its construction. Work be- Highly theatrical, the figures show individu-
gan in 1758 under Antonio Roiz Falcato as ality and an inner greatness, held fast by the
stonemason and Antonio Goncalves Rosa as massiveness of their material— stone. Through
carpenter and joiner, both of Ouro Preto. Be- the rhythm of the various postures, the series
tween 1765 and 1777 the nave was completed builds up to a crescendo as the eve travels
and the two towers were raised. The same along from one to another.
Francisco de Lima who worked on Carmo in Aleijadinho's remarkable talent manifests it-
Ouro Preto contracted to finish the main selfnot only in the grouping but also in the
chapel. varied and emotionally articulate gestures with
The approach to the sanctuary leads up a which he enlivens the more or less conventional
sloping hillside through a religious "garden." iconography of the prophets. Names carved on
Small square pavilions roofed with cloister scrolls or on shields at their feet identify them
vaults are ranged on either side— pilgrimage all. On this plate are pictured Joel, who
chapels, for which Aleijadinho and his assist- preached repentance to his people that their
wooden
ants carved (1 780-1 790) sixty-six large oldmen might dream dreams and their youn?
figures representing scenes of the Passion. The men see visions, Isaiah, full of righteous wrath,
painting of the statues was done bv Francisco and Hosea, the loving and forgiving (figs, b,
Xavier Carneiro, who had previously gilded c, d). An especial histrionic effect is achieved
the high altar of Carmo in Mariana, 227 and by the costumes and headgear of Oriental in-
Manoel da Costa Ataide (see Pis. /70, 171). spiration; note the carved detail in the drapery
There is a rustic air about this church. In folds, the braiding, and even the buttons.
style it is related closely to the other late Ro- It has been remarked that these figures show
coco twin-towered churches in Minas. It has technical deficiencies— the last of them were
the single doorway with a large heraldic me- executed when the sculptor was in his eighties.
dallion flanked bv rectangular windows. A It is possible that had he been commissioned
straight, unbroken cornice extends across the work when he was a voung man, thev
for this
entire front, and the traditional window is would have had more elaboration and ebulli-
placed in the pediment, set off bv a heavy, ence. But here is evidence that the artist who
decorative molding. This pediment, in spite carved graceful portals and pulpits in other
of the abrupt breaks in its outline, gives a .Minas churches turned with the vears from
stronger illusion of an arc than the others the fragile and charming to the virile and in-
illustrated from this district. The towers are tense. These prophets of his are startlinglv
slender and their small narrow windows are somber— sometimes even foreboding— both in
without ornamentation. The ground plan is feature and in pose; they exhibit an immedi-
[254]
ROCOCO IN BRAZIL
acy of experience and an economy of line its fullest flowering. It is highly probable that
which only a mature master could have he saw Rococo objects, such as porcelains and
achieved. We are reminded that during this terra-cotta bozzetti of European sculptors {see
period of his life he was carried concealed Appendix, PL 192, fig. b), as well as engrav-
behind curtains to his workshop, and returned ings and books. But though they give a clue
only after dark to avoid being seen by his fel- as to how the style was communicated to him,
lowmen. These twelve statues, his final work, they do not explain the high standard of his
were carved when he had to have his chisel achievement. In spite of his handicap, he in-
and mallet strapped to the stumps of his de- fused each of his prophets with a strange, Bib-
formed hands. lical grandeur and an eloquent spirituality
With little learning and without ever leav- which grew out of «the soil of this Brazilian
ing the remote hill towns of his native prov- world. A rare human story lives in his master-
ince, Aleijadinho carried Brazilian Rococo to pieces; his gift was genius.
[ ^55 ]
THE WOODCARVER'S LANGUAGE
In Europe, even before the Renaissance, Nevertheless a vast artistic treasury survives
popular taste in interior decoration turned to perpetuate the regional artist's lively and ap-
toward marble and other types of fine stone, pealing talent.
bronze, wrought iron, stucco, and tiles; the less
affluent districts painted wood to imitate these The great economic upswing in the first half
materials. In the New World, however, where of the eighteenth century did away with many
virgin forests provided woods of undreamed wood carvings from the earlier period. For-
strength and beauty in great abundance, wood tunately in the church of La Asuncion in
againcame into its own. For the Indian crafts- Juli, Peru, a large relief of the Assumption
men it was a familiar medium. With the tools (PL i
J4, fig. a) remains from an early era,
of iron and steel furnished by the conquerors though now discarded. Originally it was part
they achieved amazing dexterity and showed a of the main retable of that church; the irreg-
manv-sided ingenuity in translating a two- ular hole at the bottom could have been cut
dimensional design into three-dimensional real- later to make a place for a sagrario. The life-
ity. The colonial woodcarver may have been size depiction of the Virgin, the arrangement
unlettered, but he was highly articulate in the of the angels with their medieval instruments,
florid and expressive language of his craft. the delicate gilding, the fine soft colors— all
Alfred Neumeyer considers such decorative are remarkable. This church building was fin-
detail of special importance in evaluating the ished by 1620, and from its general style the
Indian's contribution to Latin American colo- relief would date from about that time or at
67
nial art. While contemporary Europe was most only a few decades later.
emphasizing grandeur and virtuosity in archi- Mani, a town in Yucatan, Mexico, which
tectural construction, here the decorative was lies southwest of the great Maya religious cen-
predominant— the embellishment of basically ter Chichen was important in both pre-
Itza,
simple buildings to achieve a maximum of Columbian and Conquest history. The Fran-
splendor. ciscan order succeeded in obtaining from the
Fire, earthquakes, and floods have destroyed Spanish crown exclusive rights for the indoc-
many masterpieces of the woodcarver's art in trination of the Indians in Yucatan; thev di-
Latin America. Perhaps fire has been the great- vided the peninsula into districts, with an
est hazard; for buildings were illuminated by administrative center at Merida and four
tapers and candles, often incorporated into branches, one of which was at Mam'. 96 Two
altar designs amid inflammable oil-painted can- friars took up residence there in 1547. All the
vases, cotton cloth, and objects of dry wood. Indian chiefs and their people were baptized
[256]
at the instigation of the Mava ruler, and he impaired by the repainting. It probably dates
himself, Kukum Xiu, adopted the Christian from the early eighteenth century; license
name Francisco. He is reputed to have fur- to build the Clarissa nunnery in Antigua was
nished six thousand Indians to build the Fran- granted in 1698, but not until the following
ciscan establishment at Mani on the ruins of year did six nuns from Mexico arrive to found
a .Mava settlement. It was here that Bishop the institution. On the upper left the treated
Landa destroved over five thousand clay idols, cloth has begun to peel away, revealing that at
some fortv stone statues, nearly two hundred this late date an early technique was still prac-
97
ceremonial vessels, and twenty-seven codices. ticed—a textile was glued over the carved wood
The date of the present Franciscan church, and upon it gilding was applied which was
dedicated to the archangel Michael, is given as later painted over.
1630. Reminiscent of the earlv fortress-like When the two reliefs are compared, the
edifices, it is verv spacious. The altar of St. Tunja piece exhibits more individuality and
Anthony (fig. d), standing on the right side its grouping is more animated; a subdued
of the nave, probablv is more or less contem- rhythm can be sensed in the halos and drapery
porarv with the building. A statue of the pa- of the Guatemala carving.
tron earning the Christ Child occupies the
single large niche. On the retable the four In Europe the Counter Reformation in-
carvatides holding swags of flowers in their spired the refurbishment of old altars and the
hands and standing on bearded human heads installation of new ones along: the side walls
recall the halbardiers on the Casa de Montejo of churches. This movement, carried into the
in Merida. which also was built bv Indians New World, sometimes resulted in gilded pan-
from Mam (see PL 32). The reliefs depict epi- eling throughout the nave and a multiplicity
sodes from the life of the saint. 95 This retable of side altars (see Pis. 34, 44).
has been repainted but fortunately is not com- The side retable at the end of the right aisle
pletelv ruined. A fascinating barbarism per- in the cathedral of Comavagua, Honduras,

vades the work, from the scene in the lunette dedicated to the Virgin of the Rosary, pro-
to the small decorative medallions in Plater- vides a rare example of relief technique (PL
esque tradition on the base. A companion piece, l 15->
fig- a )- Here in the lower section are re-
dedicated to the Virgin of Sorrows, was pub- corded the Joyful Mysteries of Mary— episodes
lished bv Elizabeth Wilder Weismann. of her youth and Jesus' childhood; above them
The panel of the Virgin Martvrs (fig. b). are the Sorrowful Mysteries— scenes of the Pas-
one of a pair now in the Museum of Colonial sion. At the top are depicted the Glorious Mys-
Art, Bogota, Colombia, is believed to date from teries: two small carvings in octagonal frames
the seventeenth centurv and to have come show the Pentecost and the Assumption, while
from the nunnery of Santa Clara in Tunja. the large central panel portrays the Corona-
Each of the maidens carries the palm of mar- tion. A beguiling charm is evident in the story
tyrdom. The carving, in rather high relief, telling, the waxy smooth surfaces, and the
shows an estofado excellent in quality and un- mild quality of the pastel coloring. Over the
usual in its variety (see also PL 84). retable proper the composition continues in a
In the other panel on this plate, todav in series of oil paintings, framed bv wide decora-
the Colonial Museum of Antigua, Guatemala, tive scrollwork, likewise exquisite.
a somewhat similar subject is presented— St. The contract for this retable, drawn up in
Clara and her nuns, who quelled the invading Comavagua, July 9, 1-08, was discovered in
Saracens by going out to meet them with the Guatemala by Heinrich Berlin, that indefati-
uplifted pyx. This relief (fig. c) is consider- gable delver into archives. 139 Its sculptor was
ably lower, and the coloristic effect has been Vicente de la Parra, maestro de ensaviblador,
[157]
a resident (not a citizen) of Comayagua. He and better-fortified location. The priest of the
was born Guatemala about 1667 and at the

in church of San Jose in the old city saved his
age of thirteen seems to have been appren- beautiful "golden altar" from the raiders by
ticed to Agustin Nunez, a distinguished mas- taking down the statues, the gilded columns,
ter of the province. Apparently he worked the pediments, and other removable orna-
independently from 1690, for contracts sur- mentation and whitewashing the body of the
vive signed by him from that year on. Besides retable, thus concealing the goldleaf. Accord-
outlining the iconographical subject matter, ing to legend this is the retable which now
the Comayagua document gives the measure- stands in the church of San Jose in Panama
ments required and calls for ten salomonic col- City However, such an early date for
(fig. c).
umns to be disposed in two stories and a ped- this carving is open to question. In spirit it
iment, all to be finished within six months. is eighteenth century and in type strongly
The price agreed upon was 380 pesos. This coastalPeru. It shows a close relationship
date is the last for de la Parra in the Guatemala to themain retable of Magdalena Vieja in
archives; Berlin suggests that he may have Lima (fig. d)— which definitely dates from
ended his years in Honduras. (For the main the first half of the eighteenth century— nota-
retable in this cathedral with statues set in bly in the yawning segments of its broken
niches see PL 6.) pediments, in the rosette (not grape) decora-
A conservative compositional tradition is tion on its columns, and in the scalloping
embodied in the work just discussed; the around the central shell and side niches. Such
retable ends on a line with the altar table and a close stylistic connection is easily under-
the rest is treated as a decorative base. An standable since the regular passage of the fleet
eighteenth-century side altar in the nunnery linked Panama with Lima. Note the finely
church of Santa Catalina (fig. b), in Cuzco, carved doors at the sides and the Byzantoid
displays a considerably freer movement of painting of God the Father.
line. The two sham doors beyond the lilies
—sometimes found beside the altar table in In conventual churches, as noted earlier,
place of lower niches— call to mind the icono- often the choir was placed in a gallery in-
stas of the Greek Orthodox church. Unusually cluded in the clausura. Frequently such choirs
well preserved, this piece has retained its orig- retain a strong ascetic character. From the back
inal sagrario with rounded sliding doors of of the deep choir loft of the Franciscan church
wood, subtly carved; all too frequently, even in Quito, Ecuador, little of the magnificent
in colonial times, a silver construction in a church interior can be seen, except for a sec-
later style was fitted into this section. In the tion of the ceiling and the statues and paintings
upper part of the retable, set off" by a filigree ranged just below it. As early as 1581 this
crest, three reliefs illustrate the phrases of the church was mentioned as one of the finest in
Creed: "He descended into Hell . . . , He the province. 186 The two Peruvian Indians
ascended into Heaven and sitteth on the right Jorge de la Cruz and his son Francisco Mo-
hand of God the Father. . .
." This altar, for- rocho reputedly participated in the decoration
tunately unharmed by the 1950 earthquake, is of the choir about 16 10. The choir stalls (PL
unsurpassed in the delicacy of its carving and 176, fig. a), built of cedar, at present number
the mildness of its opal tones and antique gold. sixty-two. Each panel, polychromed and
A detail of the columns will be shown later in gilded, contains a saint in high relief. There is
this chapter (see PL 189). severity in the poses as well as in the strongly
As has been mentioned, in 1671 the old cap- classicizing columns. Even though this church
ital of Panama was sacked by Henry Morgan, has undergone considerable refurbishment, the
after which the city was removed to a new choir seems to have suffered little change.
[258]
Eighteenth-century Baroque characteristics from the former Augustinian monastery
are evident in the choir stalls of La Merced church of Mexico City are now preserved
in Cuzco, Peru (fig. b). The carving, dated in an aula of the National Preparatory School,
around 17 10, includes thirty-five saints and part of the university. They contain scenes
notable Mercedarians, all lively in gesture. The from the Old and New Testaments, among
striking row of oval medallions above the stalls them the loading of Noah's Ark (fig. b), the
proper mav have been inspired by the two- expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden
tier arrangement in the Cuzco cathedral (see of Paradise (fig. c), and the creation of birds
PL if)). A plethora of rich carving fills the and fishes (fig. e). A total of 253 panels was
limited Over the two entrances are
space. recorded in mid-nineteenth centurv, but a
104
oblong Mary Magdalene and Mary
reliefs of hundred of these have since been lost. An
of Egypt, both as penitents— subjects which immensely articulate technique transmits suc-
are found also over the doorways to the sac- cessfully the Biblical atmosphere, even beyond
risty in San Francisco Bogota. (The opposite the mere telling of the stories. Bust caryatides
side of this choir was shown on PL zjj.) ending in leaves— a Baroque feature favored
throughout Spanish America— and swags of
The choir in a colonial cathedral, unlike fruit are incorporated into the pilasters that
that of a conventual church, often occupied, separate the stalls. Rich carving covers the
as in Spain, an enclosed section in the center arm rests and the misereres, the small consoles
of the nave, opposite the main altar. A throne on the under sides of the hinged seats against
for the bishop or archbishop stood in the cen- which the clerics might rest.
ter, and ornately carved choir stalls lined the The contract for this great work, published
walls. Here at special hours the many mem- by Berlin, proves that it was executed bv Sal-
bers of the cathedral clergy assembled daily. vador de Ocampo, the son of one of the
Dressed in their impressive robes, laces, and great Indian sculptors of the period, Tomas
jewelry and resplendent in the slanting ravs Xuarez. 89 Ocampo received his certificate as
of the sun or the flickering candlelight, they master of joinery in 1698, the year in which he
made a dramatic spectacle as thev chanted finished the high altar in the Augustinian
their service accompanied bv the organ. church at Metztitlan. The choir stalls were
The feeling for pomp and the general high contracted for in 1701 and were to be deliv-
standard of workmanship which distinguish ered by May 1, 1702. The short time span
Mexico City's cathedral are evident also in its implies anumber of assistants, and Ocampo
choir stalls of cedar (PL 777, fig. a). Juan de agreed to employ only the best craftsmen.
Rojas won the contract to carve them, in 1696, According to the document the subject mat-
in competition with a number of famous sculp- ter for the many "histories" was furnished
tors; the execution of the work is said to have by the superior of the order. It mav have been
taken around thirteen years to complete. 128 selected from several different sources, prob-
Holy scenes and fifty-nine saints adorn the ably all engravings, or perhaps from some large
panels. These figures step interestingly out "anthology," like the later Figures des histoires
of their frames and are set in rhythmic suc- de la Sainte Bible by Alexis de la Roche and
cession, one augmenting the effect of another. Jean Lesclapart (published in 1724). In such
They were gilded later, but the backgrounds albums many traditional ideas and designs were
and the rest of the woodwork retain the recut and assembled. However, a strong rela-
natural tone. tionship of spirit can be discerned between
Generally accepted as one of the most not- the creation scene shown here and an engrav-
able and artistic monuments of wood caning by Jan Sadeler after a much earlier paint-
ing in all Mexico, the choir stalls remaining ing by Martin de Yos, though the figures are
[259
by no means identical (see Appendix, PL 192, all the Rococo finesse of the mid-eighteenth-
fig- #)• century arts and crafts then flourishing in that

Cedar was specified for the framework, and city. An exquisite perforated wooden screen
mahogany, already in the possession of' the extends into the arch of each, and colorful
order, for the stalls. Nails, braces, and other decoration enriches the solid barrier of the
metal parts were to be supplied by the sculp- gallery. In Santa Clara (PL 178, fig. a) a cruci-
tor; he also agreed to work inside the monas- fix occupies the center of the subtly carved
tery, to take nothing away, and to reimburse wooden grille. Textiles, starched and painted,
the monastery for any wood which might be are draped at the sides. Along the gallery rail-
spoiled in the carving. An irony of depending are ranged medallions containing carved
ence on documentation appears in the fact figures. In Santa Rosa (fig. d) this space is
that the choir stalls as they stand are made filled with canvas paintings variously framed,
almost entirely of walnut. There is no men- a veritable exhibit of gilded wood caning,
tion of gilding and polychroming and the and the screen has the appearance of a gigantic
carving remains in the natural color of the lace fan. Santa Rosa was dedicated in 1752;
wood. The juxtaposition of two unmatched Santa Clara dates somewhat later.
pieces in the creation scene, however, sug- In the nunnery church known as Las Naza-
gests that a gold or polychrome finish was renas in Lima— also called Santo Cristo de los
intended. Milagros— wooden grilles stand on either side
A few choir stalls surviving from the for- of the sanctuary (fig. c). Several intricate
mer Franciscan establishment of San Bernar- motifs commingle in this carving, some char-
dino at Xochimilco, Mexico, show the va- acteristic of ironwork, others of woodwork;
riety of decorative detail then current (fig. d). one might even discover a suggestion of weav-
Xochimilco, still famous for its "floating gar- ing or tile patterns— Rococo blended with
dens," was a powerful community in pre-Co- Mudejar through the wonderful quality of
lumbian times, and in the sixteenth century the material. A more lacy design fills the arch-
it became an important ecclesiastical and mili- way. This building, consecrated in 1730, was
tary center. Numerous artists and craftsmen rebuilt between 1766 and 1771 under the
from among its Indian population were em- patronage of the viceroy Amat.
ployed throughout the whole region. In con- A side retable in San Francisco in Antigua,
trast to the elegance of the carving from the Guatemala (fig. b), also displavs masterly
metropolis, the Xochimilco example has a ro- wood carving. openwork in the
Here the
bust, somewhat rustic spirit. Eucharistic grapes upper section produces a marked contrast to
entwine its columns, while flowers predomi- the solid lower part where there are niches
nate on those of the cathedral. A feeling for and statues. Each column is divided and deco-
wood as a medium and the enjoyment of the rated in two different patterns. Noteworthv
carver in working with it are equally sensed. are the large rosettes below the statues, a much-
134
Several dates appear on the facade of the repeated motif in this captaincy-general. The
church— 1590, 1682, and 1716; the choir stalls flowery spirals, though differentlv applied, are
may well fall between the last two. similar in their pictorial effect to the carving
in the upper choir of Santa Clara in Queretaro.
As if to compensate for the sobriety of the
massive iron bars which closed off the upper .Manv conventual churches had a small
and lower choirs of a nunnery church from tribuna like a theater loge— or sometimes a
the nave, the surrounding wall surface often pair— placed close to the main altar and over-
was treated lavishly. The choirs of Santa Clara looking the entire nave. The three illustrated
and Santa Rosa in Queretaro, Mexico, reveal here, though rather close in date, are unalike
[260]
THE WOODCARYERS LANGUAGE
in their ornamentation. The first (PL i~p, Work on the fagade of the church of San
fig. a), in the nunnerv church of Santa Cata- Francisco in Puebla. Mexico, continued from
lina in Cuzco. Peru, gives the appearance of 1-4; to 1 -6~. and the choir stalls there (fig. f)
a balconv screened off bv a wide-spaced may date from that period or even later. Thev
wooden grille, painted red and gilded. The show how the decorative language was in-
scrollwork and petaled rosettes make it highlv creasingly simplified as the late Baroque turned
Rococo. Much more massive is the bulging into the Rococo stvle. Here nothing bulges,
tribune in the San Jose chapel of El Tejar much of the surface is left undecorated. and
in Quito (fig. b). Solid panels form the railing, few figural elements appear. Nevertheless,
and the crossbars are verv close, imitating a through the liveliness of its combined motifs,
fine basket weave. It is painted a rich red. and the composition is fully mature and satisfying
each of the three parts is carved with a differ- to the eve. (For similar trav-shaped panels and
ent pattern and gilded. Note the neo-Mudejar plav with wavy lines see Pis. pj.. pj.)
pendants on the bottom of the balconv. An It is significant that when this selection was
impressive wrought-iron grille distinguishes the made from hundreds of photographs to show
tribune of Santa Clara, Queretaro. which is exquisite examples of Rococo in Spanish
placed above the portal leading to the sacristv America, two of the examples turned out to
and the nunnerv (fig. c). The vast corbel and be from Mexico, two from Ecuador, and two
the surrounding magnificence of plastic orna- from Peru.
ment in stucco and wood are worked into a
spectacular composition. In Romanesque and Gothic Europe, the
The three following illustrations displav ceiling was conditioned bv the constructional
wood carving in small patterns and delicatelv limitations of the age. The Renaissance devel-
detailed. A section of the San Agustin sacristv oped a rich coffered ceiling that could hold
in Lima (fig. d) presents figures of such lesser- its own with the ornate furniture, the tapes-
known Augustinian saints as Veronica. An- tries, and the canvas paintings of the lavishlv
tonio Amandula, Brigida (holding the church), decorated rooms of the period. Contemporary
and Antonio del Aquila. These statues are prob- Moorish craftsmen on the Iberian Peninsula
ably some of those contracted for bv Diego were perpetuating the methods bv which thev
de Medina in 1643 (see also PL pj). But the had constructed and ornamented ceilings for
niches with their liamelike tongues and lacv generations. As has already been noted in
ornamentation appear to date from mid-eight- Chapters 5 and 6. Spanish carpenters had to
eenth century. Busts with scrolls for torsos rise pass an examination on the various types of
from vaselike pedestals to separate the niches. ceiling before thev could be admitted as
(Compare with the Mexican version on the masters guild. These styles were
into the
San Agustin choir stalls seen earlier.) brought bv craftsmen to America. The ex-
L nknown even to manv long-time residents amples illustrated on Plates 180 and 181 are
of Quito is the interior of the church of San lettered consecutively for the convenience of
Juan de Dios, which adjoins the hospital. the reader.
Illustrated here is the small double door that A typical Mudejar ceiling survives above the
leads from behind the pulpit into the cloister choir loft of San Francisco in Quito ( fig. a),
(fig- e )- When closed, its wings present in its rafters crossed and recrossed with narrow
relief a drawn curtain with cords and pompons strips of wood in geometric patterns, inlaid,
and, in the center on a slender Rococo stand, and set with gilded cones.
It is worth noting
a flowerarrangement which tastefully fills the that theMudejar method of constructing with
space without crowding. It is an illusionistic small pieces of wood, which originated in
performance of much charm. North Africa or the Near East and continued
[261]
in Spain, all lands poor in forests, should be in an earthquake. This type of construction,
carried over into the New World where tim- made up of coffers shaped like a kneading
ber colossal in size and unparalleled in strength trough or artesa, is the artesonado in the strict
abounded. sense of the word. The bulblike pendants are
The ceiling of La Concepcion in Bogota a conventionalization of the wooden pegs
(fig- b) presents a variation of the Mudejar which were once necessary to hold the struc-
in which the structural members are hidden. ture in place.
It is executed on sheets of silver, enlivened bv In the antesacristy of San Agustin in Lima
the delicate coloring of painted bouquets. Here (fig- 7)» rather shallow coffers are applied on
the conservative Mudejar rule of using onlv a tray-shaped ceiling. Diego de Medina signed
geometric or non-figural patterns is broken, a contract for this work, as well as for the
for angel heads are painted all around the ceiling and statuary in the sacristy, in 1643
border. Tradition has it that this ceiling was and promised completion within a year an d
brought from Spain. It was in the villa of eight months. Specifications required that the
Juan Diaz in Tocaima until a great flood ceilings be of oak, except for the carving in
198
destroyed that building in late sixteenth cen- the coffers, which should be of cedar.
tury, after which it was transferred to its The sacristy of Santa Teresa in Cuzco shows
present location. 169 a variant of the coffered ceiling, rather rustic
In the ceiling over the apse of the nunnery but powerful (fig. I). The worked
joists are
church of Santa Clara in Tunja, Colombia into a checkerboard system and originally were
(fig- h), tne rafters are exposed in their full painted, producing a lively effect. Renaissance
length; a lively design is painted over the disks alternate with Mudejar panels within the
entire construction, giving a Mudejar impres- coffers. The central pendant, purely ornamen-
sion. The long cross beams with their inter- tal, is a perfect example of pseudo Mudejar.
laced pattern, like those in the nave of this This Carmelite foundation, established in 1673,
church (see PL 24), are thoroughly orthodox; was ready for inauguration by 1676.
but the blazing sun applied in the center and As far back as the Gothic period ceilings
the seraphim in their octagonal frames are were decorated with painted designs on stuc-
highly original. coed wood. One of the richest examples of
Another type, a Gothic survival into Renais- this type of work to survive in Latin America
sance times, was the straight horizontal ceiling comes from the ambulatory in a sixteenth-
34
with exposed beams. These as well as the century Dominican monastery at Coyoacan
heavy supporting zapatas, or brackets (Mude- (fig. d),in Mexico. Each of the cloister corners
jar in origin), carried more and more orna- boasts such a ceiling, painted on a checker-
ment as time went on; often the spaces be- board construction with nine fields to a side.
tween the rafters also were inlaid or painted. A great variety of designs was used; signs of
This type, its rich carving brought out bv the the zodiac, Christian symbols, and some em-
application of color, is illustrated in the ceil- blems from martvrology, as well as various
ing detail from the former Palace of the In- types of rosette, can be distinguished, evenly
Lima (fig. c).
quisition in spaced and precisely composed, like the initial
The waiting room of the Dominican mon- letters of an illuminated monastic book.
astery in Lima has a low coffered ceiling A less lively ceiling of the same type covers
(fig. e). It followed a design published in Dominican monastery

the reception hall of the
203
Yillalpando's edition of Serlio and was fin- at Cuzco, Peru, which was badly damaged in
ished under the supervision of Salvador de the earthquake of 1950. Here in the square
Ribera between 1582 and 1586. Similar ceilings panels the shield of the order alternates with
in the church and cloister were destroyed angel heads in octagonal medallions, all mod-
[262]
THE WOODCARYERS LANGUAGE
eled in stucco and painted (fig. f). The paint- binding this mat with vegetable fiber goes
ing of the small squares in both examples back to pre-Columbian times. The ceiling
displays an amazingly fine brushwork, even proper consists of whitewashed boards on

though they were intended to be viewed from which gilded decoration is applied. (Compare
quite a distance. PI. 119.)
A detail from the cloister walk of the
Augustinian monastery in Quito (fig. i) shows Plates 182 and 183, showing pulpits, also
a horizontal ceiling in which coffers are sug- are treated as one. After the altar the pulpit
gested bv moldings and the staggered fields was perhaps the most important part of a
are painted with flowers and studded with church. From it the Gospel was preached,
gilded cones. The photograph also gives a and thus the attention of each member of the
glimpse of the gallery arches, fully paneled congregation was focused upon it. The num-
in the same elegant style. Large canvases line ber of truly magnificent pulpits in colonial
the inner walls, framed elaborately above and Latin America is so great that the twelve
below and separated by pilasters carved with examples gathered here from eight lands, as
busts.This cloister was finished about 1657, different as they are in detail, can give only a
and reportedly Miguel de Santiago painted a faint idea of the full glory expressed in such
153
life of St. Augustine for its walls. In the wood carving.
diapered sectors a certain relationship to ceil- The simplest type, harking back to the
ings in Colombia can be noted (see Pi 27). seventeenth century and earlier, shows a
In the ambulators* at La .Merced in Cuzco manv-sided box placed on a columnar support

(fig. k) the arches formed by the heavy beams carved in a harmonious style. One such ex-
and their supporting brackets are emphasized ample stands in the modest church of San
by ornate carving. Here, also, paintings prob- Francisco at Comavagua, Honduras (fig. I).
ably once lined the wall, but the unity of their The wood is gilded and a nonfigural pattern
arrangement has been disturbed bv the vicissi- covers the entire piece; the fringed lambre-
tudes of time. quins indicate the mid-eighteenth century.
Finally, a ceiling detail is presented from Note the palm and pineapple motifs on the
El Topo in the outskirts of Tunja, Colombia pedestal, the base of which is of stone. This
(fig- g)- The simple roof construction is un- pulpit is entered through a door in the wall.
disguised but most decorativelv covered. The Another example is found in the church of
gilded motifs are repeated all over a white San Francisco in Yeraguas, Panama (fig. c).
ground, like cutout stars for Christmas. This The decoration here combines the Rococo and
edifice was erected in 1729 as an Augustinian the neoclassic. in a curious blend of imported
retreat. In 1870 it was taken over bv the nuns iconography carried through bv rustic talent.
of La Conception, and the grille may have The supporting column is carved into what
been put in place at that time in the change- has been interpreted as an Indian woman,
over from men to women residents. wearing the long earrings and loose gown of
While many colonial ceilings may give the the local native costume, her head wreathed
impression of grandeur, often their construc- with the red hibiscus. In the relief medallions
tion is primitive. A
photograph taken during around the box the Evangelists alternate with
the renovation of the church of Santa Barbara the three virtues, Faith, Hope, and Charity.
in Tunja, Colombia (PL 188, fig. e), reveals Painted flowers make the transition from the
the uneven poles, which served as rafters, and balustrade of the stairway to the once-bright
the outer covering of reed matting-such as carvings. After the Conquest the province of
that used on roofs and fences in tropical coun- Yeraguas, Panama, was given by the Spanish
tries. It is very possible that the method of king to Christopher Columbus and his family.
[263]
The region was agriculturally rich, exporting A chalice-shaped pulpit with a stairway
much of its produce to distant parts. In addi- stands in San Diego in Quito (fig. j). While
tion the Grand Admiral, who held the title of in the Checacupe example the protruding gro-
Duke of Yeraguas, received a share from the tesque heads of the separating members re-
production of the district's gold mines. The ceived the main emphasis, in Sucre the emphasis
mountain village of San Francisco Veraguas was shifted to the sirens in the center of the
lies twelve miles north of Santiago, the present- panels. In contrast to both of these, the indi-
day capital of the department. vidual motifs in the Quito example are sub-
Another type of pulpit hangs like an oriel, merged in a wealth of carving. There are few
suspended from the wall. The parish church figures and the principal decoration of the
of Checacupe, Peru, offers an outstanding base is a cluster of spirals and floriated ele-
example of this type (fig. e). It is entered ments. The balustrade, with its elegant newel
from a passage through the wall bv means of post, is unusually well integrated into the
17e
a small landing. Unusually rich and varied, its design. This pulpit is said to date from
carving comprised of elaborate niches and
is about 1738.
numerous columns in various sizes. Its base The stair railing at San Francisco in Popa-
has the lines of a bowl, decorated with ornate yan, Colombia, develops single motifs (fig. d),
grotesques. Stylistically this work is closely a contrast to the polyphony manifest in the
related to the better-known pulpit in the preceding example. A large canephora bearing
church of San Bias in Cuzco, which dates a basket of tropical fruits forms the newel post,
before 1696; several pulpits in and around and on the balustrade, amid intertwining grape-
Cuzco show kinship and all probably come vines, leaf-sprites are worked into a clean-cut
from about the same period. It is worthy of design that has the precision of metalwork.
note that the Indian Juan Tomas Tuyru The pulpit itself is akin to that just shown
Tupac, whose name is often linked with the from Quito (see also PI. 28).
pulpit of San Bias, was born in a small vil- In the pulpit of San Agustin in Popayan
lage in the vicinity of Checacupe and that a (fig. k), again a chalice shape, the figures are
Quechua family of the same name is still living small in relation to the body of the piece.
He is believed to have carved the pulpit

there. The polychrome and gilding are even and un-
and some of the other decoration in the obtrusive. A canvas painting is placed in the
Checacupe church; a number of wood carv- back wall. With its simple graceful base and
ings inCuzco are known to be his work. open crownlike canopy, this little-known piece
Contemporary documents reveal that he was has rarely harmonious proportions. Though it
not only a sculptor and master carpenter but probably dates from the second half of the
also an architect and a specialist in "hydraulic eighteenth century, it harks back to the early
works," which probably included organs. 187 type, which had an appeal for certain sculptors
La Merced in Sucre, Bolivia, also has an throughout the colonial period. (Compare the
oriel pulpit (fig. a), dating from about 17 10, medallion on the landing with that in the same
when this section of the church was deco- position at Checacupe seen on the opposite
221
rated. Its curving base carries the figures of plate.)
bird sirens, favorite symbols of theAugus- The drawn-out ramp to the pulpit in the
tinians in theMiddle Ages but rare in Latin church of Santo Domingo in Las Casas, Mexico
America. Just above them puma heads form (fig. b), carries an unusual pattern— a different
corbels for the grape-wound columns. Amid interpretation of the basic elements of con-
all this exquisite carving the decisive line of struction and decoration realized by a different
the circular rim of the pulpit is especially Indian cultural circle. The pulpit box rests on
noteworthy. a heavy globelike base and the ramp has a
[264]
support at the turn. No figural decoration is articulated as a piece of furniture. The lower
used. As much as one can see of the wood- section is playfully expanded, and ribbon-like
work underneath, it too is elaborately carved volutes exaggerate the bulge. The canopy
and is well integrated into the paneling of in itself presents a complicated piece of work,
the wall. a monumental baldachin. This pulpit dates,
In the pulpit of La Compafiia at Cordoba, with the interior of the church, between 1758
Argentina (fig. i), the ornamentation was kept and 1766.
quiet and organized into strictly demarcated, Later in date and still less typical is the San
small panels; figural elements were avoided. At Agustin pulpit at Salamanca, Mexico (fig. h).
the back, scrolls lead up to and over the shell- Here swags studded with flowers and inlaid
shaped canopy in a burst of virtuoso decora- —dark wood alternating with ivory or bone-
tion, heavily loaded on but not pompous. bedeck the box. Matching inlay decorates the
The interior of this church was finished in canopy. (Compare PL 42.) The curving sur-
1690. Across the Andes, in the Peruvian vice- face of the stair rail carries a continuous story,
rovalty, the same type of pulpit survives in like a screen, a full scene painted in fresh col-
several other Jesuit churches. Arequipa's Com- ors seemingly depicting the ascent of laurel-
pafiia has a somewhat similar one, dated about crowned somewhat neoclassic
souls to a
1675. The pulpit in the chapel of the Jesuit Heaven. The supporting column of heavy
Rosario College (founded in 1653), in Bogota, stone is remarkable for its architectural char-
Colombia, likewise shows plain panels deco- acter. (For other pulpits illustrated in this
rated with compact nonfigural carving. volume see Pis. 11, 24, 26, 108, 164, i6j, and
The name of Jujuy, a village in the Argen- 170.)
tine Andes, is Quechua
a corruption of the
name of a former Indian chief. Undoubtedly The crown of Mary, Queen of Heaven,
the fantasy of Indian carvers was responsible caught the fancy of the colonial artist, and on
for the Jacob's ladder on the pulpit stairway occasion he developed it into an amazing orna-
in its Rosario chapel (fig. f), for the adjoining ment. Sometimes a crown of stone was placed
parish church served a large Indian population. on the outside of a building (the papal tiara
The story here is told with the power of con- and bishop's miter also can be found as decora-
viction and a rare feeling for material and form. tive motifs). In Chiapa de Corzo a public
Jacob lies at the foot of the stair and at the fountain from the sixteenth century was con-
top the Saviour in a mandoral beckons with a structed of brick in the shape of a crown.
welcoming gesture, while angels seem to move At the sanctuary of Atotonilco, near San Mi-
up the steps amid curling clouds. Figures of guel de Allende, Mexico, it lends its form to
the Evangelists are carved on the box and the lantern of a dome. Usually, however, it
again bird sirens adorn the pendent base. The was an element in interior decoration. In the
two great panels on the wall record the "gen- sixteenth-century church at Mani, Yucatan, it
erations" from Adam to Solomon (left) and makes a graceful canopy over the pulpit, ad-
from Abraham to Jesus (right). In the center jacent to a side altar shown earlier in this chap-
is carved a relief of Augustine clasping a flam- ter (see PL i~4).
ing heart, and on the canopy an angel sounds In the St. Joseph retable of the Augustinian
a trumpet. This work dates from the eight- church in Salamanca, Mexico, probably dat-
eenth century. 211 ing from the 1760's, crowns are developed
With coming of the Rococo the attitude
the into massive structures of exquisitely carved
toward decoration changed and with it some- and gilded wood. Used architecturally, they
times even basic shapes. The pulpit box of give dramatic focus to the tableaus placed un-
San Carlos in Lima, Peru (fig. g), is as neatlv der them, in this case the Annunciation to St.
[265]
Joseph (PL 184, fig. a). Note the fine scroll- oration took place at the time of Legarda. (For
work at the sides, reminiscent of drapery, the others crowns on altars see Pis. 97, 111, and
splendid angel canephorae, and the subtle in- 164.)
terlacing pattern of the background. (See also
PL 45:) Many confessionals, too, exemplify the ex-
The crown in the Franciscan church at Tru- quisite woodwork that once decorated colo-
jillo, Peru (fig. b), dates from the late sev- nial churches. In its present-dav form the con-
enteenth century or the early eighteenth and fessional dates no farther back than the second
is quite different in execution. On this mas- half of the sixteenth century. The examples
terly retable, with its polvchromed storv-tell- here discussed are mainly from the eighteenth.
ing reliefs of Mary's life, the crown is not The piece now standing in the Museum of
strictly a part of the composition. Carved in Religious Art, connected with the cathedral
relief and upheld bv two angels at the top of Mexico City, may be of a somewhat earlier
of the structure, it is thrust forward so far date (PL 185, fig. a). It represents a type which
that it overhangs the altar table. Note the swag seemingly was later abandoned; the confes-
of fruit and the leaf-sprite among the scrolls sant knelt in front of the booth and a hinged
(lower right). The Dominican church in Tru- panel concealed the face of the priest. Coffered
jillo also uses a crown in the same wav (see paneling decorates the front section, and a
PI-
91); convulsive all-over pattern the background;
An impressive crown, projecting like a bal- within the arch is carved a papal tiara.
dachin, decorates the altar to the right of the Close to this in style and type is the confes-
sanctuary in Santa Rosa in Queretaro, Mexico sional in the cathedral of Avacucho, Peru
(fig. c). Here, as at Salamanca, it is an integral (fig. c); its design also is strongly frontal.
part of the design. The retable's cornice juts The saint and two angels are carved in the
out to serve as a base for it. Its scrollwork flat manner characteristic of the Andean re-
curves up to a considerable height, and the light gion. Perforated scrolls lighten the whole piece.
falling through the window illuminates the an- Four such confessionals stand in this cathedral;
gel placed upon its crest. Below, the starched all come from La Compania in the same town,
204
and painted curtains are held in place bv two where still others are extant.
angels— as in many paintings— and carved dra- The confessional in the cathedral of Co-
pery falls in folds beside them, framing the mavagua, Honduras, has something of a Chi-
central figure. In spite of a wealth of detail, nese palanquin about it (fig. b). Its sides are
the composition has a floating quality, an amaz- drawn forward and the hoodlike baldachin
ingly light touch. (Compare with the crown consists only of a large graceful leaf. Here the
in the Rosario chapel of Santo Domingo in confessor was approached from the side. The
Oaxaca, PI. 33.) sinuous pattern decorating the side panels is
The last crown shown here tops the main well adapted to their peculiar shape, and the
altar of the Jesuit church in Quito, Ecuador oval grille with its daintily gilded frame is
(fig. d). It is an airv construction, suspended another finely integrated element.

like a chandelier. Upheld bv four angels— Both of the following confessionals come
whose gestures are remarkably alive— it is built from Guanajuato, Mexico (figs, e, f), the first,
up of only those parts needed to convey the from the parochial church there and the sec-
form and seems almost weightless. The whole ond, from La Yalenciana, a suburb of the
group fits beautifully between the segments of town. Basically thev are much alike. In each
the broken pediment. A sumptuous main altar case the door has a low bav shape, irregular
in this church is described shortly after mid- panels break the rigidity of the side pieces,
183
seventeenth century, but considerable redec- and the baldachin projects over the confes-
[266]
sor's chair like a separate member. In their also boasted a magnificently outfitted church.
decoration, however, they differ considerably. Dilapidation set in after the mines were aban-
The conelike scrolls on the canopy of the first doned, and today the settlement is a sorry
are especially graceful. In its angular build-up sight, the church a shadow of its former glory.
and its massivitv the second reminds one of a In a dark and out-of-the-way corner of the
wardrobe detail. (Compare it with the Mexican sacristy stands a wardrobe which reveals the
armoire on the following plate.) splendor that once characterized this interior
From the same region is the confessional in (fig. a). The radiating rays of its paneling
Santa Rosa, Queretaro (fig. d). Here ingen- echo the Mudejar. The ornamentation of its
iously stylized motifs mount at the sides like heavy top is developed as for a building—
fragile columns of flowers and a large gilded indeed it reflects the style of the stonework
shell forms the canopy. A very lively zigzag on the church's facade. Thick gold leaf against
pattern decorates the bay, and light-colored a background of bright blue brings out the
flowers were painted on the inside walls, as design.Note the glazed tiles set into the floor.
in a Rococo interior. (A fine confessional very As in the case of the two confessionals, two
close to this in style can be seen in the Augus- contemporary secretaries were selected from
tinian church at Salamanca, PL 45.) one city— Recife, Brazil— to show the individ-
uality occurring within one period and place.
The colonial production of furniture, tex- The first piece (fig. c) stands in the sacristy
tiles, silverware, and pottery was so vast and of Sao Francisco, the second (fig. d) in that
230
so varied that each of these crafts deserves a of Santo Antonio. Both show an amazing
separate volume. Some publications on the sub- bonhomie in their shape, and in both the
ject have already appeared, and it is to be craftsmanship is of the highest quality. Re-
hoped that the whole field will be covered markably shallow in depth for their bulk, they
before the best examples still extant have gone are constructed like a console to lean against
to pieces or been cast aside. Although onlv a the wall. The faces of fauns are carved on
few furniture pieces can be presented in this their curving legs. Both carry cascades of
book, they belong here, for they add consid- volutes like side garlands. Cube-shaped drawers
erably to the picture of artistic life in the make up the entire front of the first secre-
colonies. tary; the central section could be dropped to
A cabinet of unusual size and workmanship form a writing desk. The wood carving in
is in the Prado collection at Chorillos, near the Franciscan establishment has been declared
Lima, Peru (PL 186, fig. b). Its many drawers as some of the finest in the country. Never-
and cupboards, by offering an opportunity theless the secretary in the sacristy of Santo
for variety in design, kept the large surface Antonio is equally impressive in conception
from appearing at all monotonous. Even the and execution. It offers fewer small compart-
cockscomb ornaments on the top are preserved, ments, and an etching-like design, different on
reminding one, with their lacy floral and heral- every tier, covers its surface. The open space
dic shapes, of the confessional from Aya- above the writing section offsets the some-
cucho on the preceding plate. This cabinet what top-heavy effect.
is probably the earliest of the examples shown Here mention should be made of the trav-
here; the table and chair standing before it eling desks or varguenos, so-called because
might be called Spanish colonial Chippen- they were first manufactured in Vargas near
dale and are of a somewhat later date. Toledo, Spain. 41 This type became popular
La Cata, near Guanajuato, .Mexico, which in Spanish America in the seventeenth cen-
205
is described by Humboldt as having one of tury and was made in several centers there.
the three richest silver mines in the province, To trace not onlv the sources of the designs,
[267]
which were inlaid, but also the influence which roque; the second shows the healthy dainti-
they in turn may have exerted on other wood ness of a rustic Rococo.
carving elsewhere would make an interesting
study. Many visitors are too overwhelmed by the
general impression of colonial church interiors
In colonial times the humble spent much to perceive the immense variety and superla-
time in waiting. And many of the benches tive craftsmanship revealed in the details.
which stood in the anterooms of palace, mon- Nearly all of the examples of wood carving
astery, and parish house received truly artis- shown on the next two plates are taken from
tic decoration. Here are shown examples from buildings that have already been illustrated in
Peru, Mexico, and Honduras, all highly or- this volume. The reader is referred to the
nate (PL 1 8-j). place names in the index for the related pho-
A bench in the Prado mansion at Lima tographs.
(fig. a) may be the earliest in date. Birds The colonial craftsman applied human bod-
amid flowers, such as were woven into tapes- ies and faces in many cases where his European
try in this viceroyalty, adorn the topmost contemporarv would have thought them inap-
panel. The rows of spindles on the back and propriate. Highlv unusual is the side garland
at the bottom of this rare piece of furniture on the main altar of Tegucigalpa's cathedral,
are turned in different patterns. dating from late eighteenth century (PI. 188,
The bench in the Augustinian church at fig. a). An angel— more of a winged siren— hold-
Salamanca, Mexico (fig. b), was designed to ing a bouquet and placed as if on a ship's prow
stand against the right wall near the entrance; emerges out of the rhvthmic scrollwork. One
the protruding section fitted around a pilaster. of the altar columns, more like a lace valentine
Note the asymmetry of the gilded Rococo mo- than woodwork, can be seen in the illustra-
tifs that cross the top and fringe the seat. tion; even candle holders are included in the
Leather upholstery, still visible on the back, vivacious composition.
once covered the seat also. Somewhat more functional is the figure
Of the benches in the Popenoe collection from Quecholac, Mexico (fig. c); it rises out
at Zamorano, Honduras, the one at the left of a twisted column draped with flowers and
(fig. c) came from San Antonio del Oriente. leaves and ends in an elaborate capital that
It is constructed of honey-colored cedar and forms a multiple crown for it. This work,
makes its appeal through a massive undercut beautifullv three-dimensional, probablv dates
pattern. Two birds hold the central medallion from mid-eighteenth centurv. 134 Never having
with its crown and monogram; the flower ele- received the customarv gold leaf and poly-
ments are airily distributed and fill with a chrome, it retains the blond color of the nat-
warm plasticitv the edges as well as the back. ural wood.
The piece has claw legs. The second (fig. d), Angular figures are interwoven in amanner
somewhat longer vet less weighty, is gracious tvpical of Tunja's woodwork on a column in
in a different way. Both the seat and the back that town's cathedral (fig. d). Behind the rela-
were once upholstered, as the nail heads prove. tivelv thin, screenlike facade, an undecorated
Across the top a stvlized floral cresting is upright carries the weight of the structure.
brought out by delicate gilding on a painted (Compare PL 23.)
gray background. This piece came from the The church of the Franciscan Third Order
town of Danli and is dated 1789 on the back. at Cuernavaca, Mexico, as its name implies, be-
The arm rests of both benches, turned in pow- longed to a lav brotherhood, and the regional
erful scrolls, have a living, animal qualitv. The craftsman heaped the fruits of his fantasv upon
first piece is the embodiment of a robust Ba- its decoration. On the main altar (fig. f) alter-
[268]
nating flat and rounded members serve as back- usually was slender and comparatively short,
ground for angel heads and putti. Note the its surface plain or spirally fluted. In the
little nun at the right and above her the carved Renaissance, more ornately decorated, it was
drapery that encloses the central niche. This applied on jewel caskets, clocks, and other ob-
altar, dated 1735, shows the estipite used in a jects of the goldsmith's art. Raphael and Vero-
most original manner. As was discussed in nese used it, enlarged to an impressive size,
Chapter 6, that ornamental shape appeared in especially in scenes of Old Testament pomp.
Mexico in early eighteenth century and be- The twisted columns in their paintings are
longs to the polyphony of the Churrigueresque close to the shape which the Baroque, with
style. As early as the sixteenth century, how- its sense of the monumental, translated into
ever, it was applied in Florentine architecture three dimensions. The most notable example
(see Appendix, PL 190, fig. f). Topped by a is on the bronze baldachin designed by Bernini
bust, it appeared as a decorative initial in a (c. 1 62 7-1 63 3) in St. Peter's. Here, as well as
book printed in Antwerp in 1571, and one of in many other seventeenth-century European
the Sadelers put it into an engraving printed versions, the ornamentation consists of a gar-
by Plantin in 1577. land of acanthus or flowers. 19
A strong folkloristic fantasy created the ram- The salomonic column appeared in Latin
pant lions which serve as candelabra in the America in mid-seventeenth century, first in
parish church at Colohete, Honduras (fig. b). wood but soon also in stone. One of the earli-
Again the carving is flat, but through the dec- est examples on record appears on an engrav-
orative sense of the craftsman a naively ing of the former main altar of the Puebla ca-
203
charming effect was produced. Few such can- thedral. Often in the colonies the shaft was
delabra have survived to recall the former divided (as in the prototypes) and carried at
method of illumination in churches. In Nin- least two kinds of ornament. Vines heavy
diri, Nicaragua, where oxcarts are still the with grapes became as frequent a decoration as
main means of transportation and electricity garlands of flowers.
is unknown, the author saw another set in Seven details of columns from five coun-
use in 1947. tries—Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, and Hon-
duras—are placed side by side for compara-
The salomonic or twisted column has its an- tive study (PL 189). The Eucharistic grapes,
cestry in classical Greece as well as in the changed by the fertile imagination of regional
Near East. The term derives from the sa- artists, sometimes resemble tropical fruit. The
cred column in St. Peter's, Rome, which ac- individual composition of the columns and the
cording to legend came from Solomon's tem- secondary designs surrounding them serve to
ple but really is Roman. Further, a twisted augment the differences.
column of gilded bronze was unearthed on Two types of column can be seen in the
the site of the hippodrome in Constantinople, detail from the main altar at Copacabana
within the complex of Hagia Sophia. Made up (fig. e). The larger still recalls the Plateresque,
of the intertwining bodies of three serpents, while the smaller is salomonic, divided into
it was identified as the base for a golden tripod three sections and tapering toward the top.
(long vanished) dedicated to the "god of Exquisite openwork distinguishes the side gar-
20
Delphi." land on the right. The running atlantean fig-
The adoption of the twisted column in Ven- ure, with one arm uplifted, is a motif encoun-
ice and her domains is logical, for an intensive tered also on some facades, carved in stone.
commerce was carried on between that port The gilding of this altar was finished in 1684.
and the Byzantine capital. In Bvzantine, Ro- The main altar of San Pedro Martir in Juli
manesque, and Gothic art this type of column d) dates from the same period, or per-
(fig-
[269]
haps earlier. Here grapes and highly stylized tionally thick gilding throughout gave rise to
228
leaves alternate, carved in full three dimen- the name Golden Chapel. Another version
sions. The capital is a study in the folkloristic of birds among grapes can be seen in the Tunja
interpretation ofEuropean models, and the bull altar illustrated on the preceding plate.
above symbol of Luke (the other three col-

it, In the detail from a side altar of Santa Cata-
umns bear the winged symbols of the other lina in Cuzco a number of decorative motifs
Evangelists), brings home what liberties the are combined {fig. g). Besides being spirally
regional artist took with Old World tradi- ridged, the long twisted column is hung with
tion—and with what stunning results. This grapes. Note the extension with cherubim
altar is ungilded, very beautiful in the beige above the capital. The smaller column is wound
tone of the natural wood. with flowers. On the panel at the left the re-
Birds are perched among the Eucharistic gional artist made effective use of repetition,
grapes on a side altar in Quito's Compania superimposing the popular vase motif with its
{fig. b). It may be that they were intended spreading bouquet.

to symbolize the human soul; in Coptic and The third altar from Comayagua's cathedral
Byzantine representations the dove and the to be illustrated in this volume {fig. a) stands
peacock placed among grapes have that sig- in the sagrario chapel. It shows salomonic and
nificance. It is interesting to note that this candelabra columns side by side. Here the
side chapel is dedicated to the Polish saint grapes and leaves are very flat. The divisions
Stanislaus, whose statue appears on the retable are interestingly proportioned, and each sec-
as well as on the facade of the church. tion carries different ornamentation.
Birds among grapes are found more fre- A still more pungent folkloristic talent is
quently in Portuguese carving than in Span- revealed in the altar of San Pedro in Zepita
ish. The extremely long-stemmed stylized {fig. f). Its twisted column is ornamented most
leaves that decorate columns in Recife's Capela heavily in the lower third and carries angel
Dourada {fig. c), in Brazil, may have had a heads in its spiraling garland, while the little
bird as prototype. This chapel of the Francis- columns at the right are studded with dainty
can Third Order, opening off the conventual rosettes. Filigree volutes and stylized flowers
church, was finished in the last years of the as side garlands bear witness with their up-
seventeenth century. Its carving is remarkable surging Rococo rhythm to the vigor and
for the absence of all figural motifs. Excep- eloquence of the regional woodcarver.
I
270
POSTSCRIPT
TJLhhe extant remnants of Latin

lonial art are still numerous enough
American co-
to form a
entire coats of
touched up bv those
new cheap
who
paint, nor paintings
lack a feeling of
representative corpus of the creative achieve- their basic style; no authorities should have
ment of that age. But the forces of destruc- the power to order nude angels of the colo-
tion, which set in early in the nineteenth cen- nial era painted over with garments. Also, it is
turw are increasinglv active. The animositv doubtful whether neon lights around an altar
toward Spain and her traditions then went or a bare electric bulb dangling in front of
so far as to drag the bones of Cortes from a main statue adds to the devotional atmos-
their resting place in an attempt to scatter phere. And to condone the wrecking of an old
them. The anticlerical feeling that rose and church or palace by promising to deposit its
waned at intervals also has contributed to the best sections in some museum is indeed a weak
destruction. Todav an important factor is the apologv for destruction; such a transfer can-
urge to modernize and renovate, coupled with not be carried out without the loss of much
a limited understanding of the value of this art. of the original spirit.
Povertv, too, plavs its role. This author has In the prologue to the Guide to Bogota by
seen a large and exceptionallv fine colonial rug the distinguished diplomat Guillermo Hernan-
in a church in the Titicaca region folded into dez de Alba, a former professor of the Jesuit
a small square to keep the feet of the priest college there, colonial monuments are referred
warm as he stood before the altar; when at- to as among the greatest assets of Latin Amer-
tention was called to the fact that this extraor- ican culture, a never-failing attraction for the
dinary piece should be preserved, the priest re- tourist and scholar. In the same book the pro-
plied that he had no monev to buv himself a posal is made to create chairs in the seminaries
hassock. for teaching the historv of religious art in
But chiefly it is ignorance that is destroving America; thus the oncoming priests could gain
the legacv from the colonial past. The forma- an appreciation of the treasures entrusted to
tion of committees in various capitals for the their hands and assist in educating the gen-
preservation of colonial monuments is in vain eral public.
so long as only a few miles awav the local In the archives of the various countries other
populace continues to follow a false ambition constructivework is awaiting unselfish hands.
to be "modern." The people do not seem to Whether the volumes and fascicles that remain
reali/.e that they can be modern and still pre- lie in moldy corners of convents or on cob-
serve their splendid heritage. It is possible to webby municipal shelves, they need to be
strengthen an aging building with cement and studied thoroughly, especiallv while the mon-
iron girders without making it complctelv uments to which thev relate can still be ad-
over. Old statues need nor be 'refreshed" with mired. Considerable specialized knowledge is
[271]
necessary to decipher their contents. To date, are utterly different from those encountered
zealous private persons can be thanked for elsewhere. It is a matter of primary importance
most of the research that has been done. to record in word and picture and to preserve.
The failure of neighboring countries or even Involved speculation as to artists and dates has
towns to exchange material and information its place in this research, to be sure. But it has
of mutual interest is regrettable. Too often a to go much farther than the mere repetition of
local savant has no knowledge of— and seem- the names of officials and curates, except as
ingly no interest in— what exists beyond his such information offers dates. Few are inter-
own mountain range, and the books which ested in what captain commanded the garrison
treat the regional art are not available a few in Florence or what bishop presided in Venice
hundred miles away from the towns where when Donatello and Titian created their mas-
they were published. Thus it is impossible to terpieces.
construct a sweeping panorama of Latin Amer- Time for salvage is fast running out. Since
ican colonial art, and without it the various book was laid down, the vol-
the plan for this
artistic manifestations do not fall into proper cano of Paricutin in Mexico has obliterated
focus. villages, and floods in Guatemala, seismic catas-
With conditions in the Old World as they trophes in El Salvador and Ecuador, civil strife
are, Latin America offers to the younger gen- in Colombia, and an earthquake in Cuzco have
eration of investigators a fertile and rewarding all taken a trasric toll. But if the interest and
field. But just as in pre-Columbian archaeology, appreciation of a greater public are awakened
research had to work out, from the methods soon, the legacy remaining from a unique
of the classical field, a modified discipline, so epoch can still be preserved for the enjoy-
in the colonial art of Latin America it must ment of posterity' and a new and refreshing
evolve new techniques and methods, for the chapter added to the history of art.
conditions under which this art was produced
[27=]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
T .he mere acknowledgment of the existence of arts from the colonial period of Latin
America came belatedly. Not until the very end of the nineteenth century— if not the begin-
ning of the twentieth— did there appear in a magazine article or a slim travel book an aesthetic
appraisal of colonial art in one area or another. It is interesting to note that the pre-Conquest art
of Middle America was appreciatively treated in the first half of the nineteenth century. A
native of the United States,John Lloyd Stephens (1805-1852), wrote the first books to
describe with sound judgment and a clear eye the pre-Columbian wonders of the Maya area;
and similarly another citizen of the same country was responsible for one of the earliest com-
prehensive works on colonial art in Latin America. Spanish Colonial Art in Mexico by Syl-
vester Baxter (1850-1927), published in 1901, was so rich in descriptive information and
1934 Manuel Toussaint found it worthy of translation and brought
illustrative material that in
it out in A4exico> with amendments resulting from more recent research. Neither Stephens nor
Baxter was what today would be called a "professional." The first was a lawyer and a railroad
builder, and the second a foreign news correspondent and publicist.
This Bibliography includes the books consulted during the years that my work was in
preparation. Further titles, which may be just as good, can be found in comprehensive bibli-
ographies published both in this country and abroad by various institutions which devote
themselves to the subject. Among these, Guide to the
an especial place must be given to A
Art of Latin America, edited by Robert C. Smith and Elizabeth Wilder (Washington, 1948),
a work that contains a vast amount of information as well as clear-cut and attractive intro-
ductions to each country's literature. The Handbook of Latin American Studies (Cambridge,
Mass.), an annual volume amazing
in its scope started so ably under the guidance of Lewis
Hanke, takes over with the year when that bibliography ends— 1942.
Very great help was obtained from the data and the excellent essays on geography, his-
tory, and art in the three volumes of the New World Guides to the Latin American Re-
publics, edited by Earl Parker Hanson (New York, 1945). Vazquez' Compendium furnished
much of the atmosphere and description of early seventeenth-century colonial life. For gen-
eral reference, use was made of the Encyclopedia Britannica, the Catholic Encyclopedia, En-
ciclopedia Italiana, and the Spanish Enciclopedia universal ilustrada.
The numbers indicate source references as well as works where fuller information on a par-
ticular subject car> be found. Books with an extensive bibliographv are marked here with an
asterisk (*), and the dagger (t) denotes those with rich illustrative material.
[273]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
7
Floerke, Harms, Studien zur niederlandischen
EUROPE GENERAL
Kunst und Kultur Geschichte. Munich, 1905
Alvin, Louis, Catalogue raisonne de Voeuvre de Fokker, T. H., "The First Baroque Church in
Wierix. Brussels, 1866 Rome," Art Bulletin, Sept., 1933
Catalogue raisonne des portraits graves Ganz, Paul, Hans Holbein d. J. Stuttgart and
par les trois freres Wierix. Brussels, 1867 Berlin, 1919
Atkinson, Robert, and Hope Bagenal, Theory Gorissen, Friedrich, Gent, de Fiere. Bruges,
and Elements of Architecture. New York, 1941
1929 Grimschitz, Bruno, Wiener Barockpalaste.
Baum, Julius, Martin Schongauer. Vienna, 1948f Vienna, 1944f
Bemden, J. J. P. van den, De Familie Galle. Gurlitt, Cornelius, Geschichte des Barockstiles,
Antwerp, 1863 3 vols. Berlin, 1887-89
Berliner, Rudolf, "The Origins of the Creche," Hamlin, Talbot, Architecture through the
Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Oct., Nov., Dec, Ages. New York, 1944
1946 Hausenstein, Wilhelm, Vom Geist des Barock.
Bode, Wilhelm von, Die Kunst der Fruhrenais- Munich, 1921
sance in Italien. Berlin, 1926f Hauttmann, Max, Die Kunst des fruhen Mittel-
The Book of Saints. New York, 1950 alters. Berlin, 1929
Brieger, Peter, "The Baroque Equation, Illu- Hind, Arthur M., History of Engraving and
sion and Reality," Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Etching. London, 1923 (Dover reprint, 1963)
March, 1945 Holbein, Hans, Die Todesbilder und das
Griggs, Alartin Shaw, Baroque Architecture. Todesalphabet. Berlin, 1922f
New York, 1914 s
Holt, Elizabeth Gilmore, ed., Literary Sources
2
Brown, Lloyd A., The Story of Maps. Boston, of Art History. Princeton, 1947
9
1950 Jameson, Mrs. Anna Brownell (Murphy), Leg-
Brugge die Schoone. Bruges, 1942 ends of the Madonna. London, 1857
Cheney, Sheldon, A World History of Art. Kehrer, Hugo, Alt- Antwerp en. Munich, 1917
New York, 1937 Kimball, Fiske, The Creation of the Rococo.
Chledowski, Casimir von, Neapolitanische Kul- Philadelphia, 1943
turbilder XIV. -XV II. Jahrhundert. Berlin, Knipping, B., De Iconografie van de Contra-
1918 Reformatie in de Nederlanden. Hilversum,
Croce, Benedetto, Der Begrijf des Barock. 1939f
Berlin, 1925 Kreisel, Heinrich, Wurzburg. Berlin, 1930f
3
Storia della Eta Barocca in Italia. Bari, Kristeller, Paul, Die Apokalypse. Berlin, 1916
1929 Kupferstich und Holzschnitt in vier Jahr-
Decker, Heinrich, Barock-Plastik in den Alpen- hunderten. Munich, 192 If
10
l and em. Vienna, 1943 Kiinstle, Karl, Ikonographie der Christlichen
4
Delaumay, M. 1'Abbe, Les Evangiles de di- Kunst, 2 vols. Freiburg, 1926-28
manche et fetes de Pannee. Paris, 1864f Lang, Ludwig, Was ist Barock? Zurich, 1924
11
Delen, A. J. J., Christophe Flantin. Brussels, Legrand, F. C, Brussels. Correspondence
1944 Liefmann, M., Kunst und Heilige. Jena, 1912
12
5
Histoire de la gravure dans les anciens Male, Emile, VArt religieux apres de Concile
Pays-Bas et les provinces beiges. Paris and de Trent. Paris, 1932
13
Brussels, 1924 Maroger, Jacques, The Secret Formulas and
Denuce, J., The Antwerp Art Galleries. Ant- Techniques of the Masters. New York, 1948
• werp, 1932 Mayor, A. Hyatt, The Bibiena Family. New
6
Kunstuitvoer in de IT Eeuiv te Ant- York, 1945f
14
werpen de Firma Forchoudt. Antwerp, Mccall, John E., "Early Jesuit Art in the Far
1931 East," Artibus Asia, 1947-48
D'Ors, Eugenio, Lo barroco. jMadrid, n.d. McComb, Arthur, The Baroque Painters of
Eich, Ernst, Vom Werdegang des Madonnen- Italy.Cambridge, Mass., 1934f
bildes. Zurich, 1947 Michel, Andre, ed., Histoire de Part, 18 vols.
Fletcher, Sir Banister F., A History of Archi- Paris, 1905-29f
tecture on the Comparative Method. New Michel, Wilhelm, Das Teuflische und Groteske
York, 1943f in der Kunst. Munich, 1911
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Milliken, William M., "Two Sculptures of St. Sturgis, Russell, A Dictionary of Architecture
Margaret by Antonello Gagini," Gazette des and Building, 3 vols. New York, 1902
Beaux- Arts, April, 1943 20
Swift, Emerson Howland, Hagia Sophia. New
Morgan Library, The Animal Kingdom. New York, 1940
York, 1940 Thieme, U., and F. Becker, Allgemeines Lexi-
Munoz, Antonio, Iconografia della Madonna. con der bildenden Kunstler. Leipzig, 1907-50
Florence, 1905 Thompson, D. V., The Materials of Medieval
Miiseler, Wilhelm, Geist und Antlitz des Ba- Painting. London, 1936 (Dover reprint, 1956)
rock. Berlin, 1943 Tietze-Conrat, E., "Giovanni Bologna's Bronzes
Novak, Arne, Baroque Prague. Prague, as Painter's Cribs," Gazette des Beaux-Arts,
1947f Jan., 1947

Ojetti, N., L. Dami, and N. Tarchiani, La 21
Van der Elst, Joseph, The
Last Flowering of
Pittura Italiana del Seicento e del Settecento the Middle Ages. New
York, 1944
alia Mostra di Palazzo Pitti. Milan and Van Marie, Raimond, Italian Schools of Paint-
Rome, 1924| ing, 19 vols. The Hague, 1923-38f
Osborn, Max, Die Kunst des Rokoko. Berlin, Van Puyvelde, Leo, Les Primitifs flamands.
1929f Brussels, 1947
"Penney, C. L., Spanish Publications at Ant- Voss, Hermann, Die Malerei des Barock in
werp. In press. Catalogue of books printed in Rom. Berlin, 1924
the House of Martin Nucio Weisbach, Werner, Barock als Kunst der
Peusner, Nikolaus, An Outline of European Gegenrefortnation. Munich, 1921
Architecture. New York, 1948 Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frank-
and Otto Grautoff, Barockmalerei in den reich, Deutschland und Spanien. Berlin,
romanischen Landern. Wildpark and Pots- 1924f
dam, 1928f Wijngaert, Frank van den, "Balthasar Moretus
16
Pope, Arthur Upham, Iranian and Armenian II, III en IV," De Gulden Passer, Antwerp,
Contributions to the Beginnings of Gothic nos. 1, 2, 1948
Architecture. New York, 1946 22
Willumsen, J.-F., La Jeunesse du peintre El
Popp, Hermann, Die Architektur der Barock Greco. Paris, 1927
und Rokokozeit in Deutschland und der Wolfflin, Heinrich, Kunstgeschichtliche
Schiveiz. Stuttgart, 1913 Grundbegriffe. Munich, 1918
Praz, Mario, Studies in Seventeenth Century 23
Renaissance und Barock. Munich, 1907
Imagery, 2 vols. London, 1939, 1947 Yamada, Chisaburo, Die Chinamode des Sp'dt-
Raisz, Erwin, General Cartography. New York, barock. Berlin, 1935
1948
Riegl, Alois, Die Entstehung der Barockkunst SPAIX AND PORTUGAL
in Rom. Vienna, 1923 Angulo, Diego, "Martin Schongauer y algunas
Stilfragen. Grundlagen zu einer Ge- miniaturas castellanas," Arte espanol, no. 5,
schichte der Ornamentik. Berlin, 1932 1925
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Bevan, Bernard, History of Spanish Architec-
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Camon Aznar, Jose, La arquitectura plateresca,
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Dieulafov, Marcel, La Statuaire polychrome en
Scherer, Valentin, Diirer. Berlin, n.d. Espagne. Paris, 1908
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la historia
Design. New York, 1950f lucia, 10 vols. Seville, 1927-46
"Schubring, Paul, Die Kunst der Hochrenais- Domi'nguez, Bordona Jesus, Manuscritos con
sance in Italien. Berlin, 1926 pinturas, 2 vols. Madrid, 1933
Semrau, Max, Die Kunst der Barockzeit und Dos Santos, Reynaldo, A arquitectura em Por-
des Rokoko. Esslingen, 1913
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tiago y el grabado compostelano. Santiago visional. Madrid, 1944
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Hernandez Diaz, Jose, La ruta de Colon. Ma- Peers, E. Allison, Studies in the Spanish Mys-
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154
Docu?7ientos y testimonios relativos al Santa Fe de Bogota. Bogota, 1932
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"Observaciones sobre la arquitectura co- Caldas, Francisco J. de, Viajes. Bogota, 1936
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"Plateresque and Renaissance Monu- Compte, Francisco Maria, Varones ilustres de
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Correspondence (Ciudad Trujillo) Garcia, Juan Crisostomo, "Guia de las princi-
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Popenoe, Dorothy H., Santiago de los Caba- pales iglesias bogotahas," Boletin de historia
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[288]
INDEX
(Plate numbers are in italic)
A.S., signature on Mystic Vintage, Antigua (cont.) Baena y Antipara, Diego, 187
57 San Francisco, 133, 16; side altar, Balbas, Isidoro Vicente de, 90
Acapulco, 7, 10, 75, 116 260, 118 Balbas, Jeronimo de, 20, 89, 90
Acatepec, San Francisco, facade Santa Cruz. 125, 68 Balsa, used for carving, 111
and baptistrv doorway, 83, Town Hall, 126, 69 Balten, Pieter, 148
36,31 University, 124, 61 Barahoma, Juan de, 94
Acolman, stone cross, 55-56, 19 Antonelli, Juan Bautista, 124 Barahoma, Sancho de, 94
Acora, San Pedro, sacristy door- Antwerp, 201, 202 Baroque style, 14-16, 20, 23; in
way, 183-84, 121 Araniuez, 68
17, Mexico, 104
Acosta Inca, Dionisio Sebastian, Archive of the Indies, 22, 25, 40, Barreda. Ignacio Maria, Portrait
185 41 of a Lady, 223, 150
Acufia, Juan de, 11 Arciniega, Claudio de, 28, 38 Barrientos, Simon de, 167
Agiiero, Juan Miguel de, 28, 31 Arequipa, 8, 166-67, 180 Baxter, Sylvester, 120
Alban, Francisco, 209-10 Casa de Moral, 168, 106 Beccera, Gaspar, 119
Alcibar, Jose de, portrait of a nun, La Compafiia, 166-67, 105, 111, Becerra, Francisco, 31, 33, 38, 162
223, 150 178, 191; sacristy dome, 167, Bedon, Pedro, 61
Aleijadinho. See Lisboa, Antonio 105; side portal,' 167-68, 106 Belalcazar, Sebastian de, 65, 69, 71
Francisco Santa Catalina, view and cloister Belem, 241
Alfaro, Luis Felipe Neri, 87 entrance, 169, 101 Santo Alexandre, 241, 161
Alfinger, Ambrose, 72-73 Santo Domingo, side portal, 168, Sao Francisco Xavier, pulpit, 245,
Almolonga, former Franciscan 106 161
church, 123, 66 Virgin of Mercy, 209-10, 136 Seminary church, 246, 168
Ahnokadillado, defined, 128. See Arevalo, Antonio de, 60 Beltran. Alonso, 31
also Pilasters, horizontally Arias de la Cerda, Diego, 33 Benches. 268h59, 181
grooved Armature figures, 53, 106-7, 117-18 Berlin, Heinrich, 95, 227, 257, 258,
Alta Gracia, 193; church 193-94, Asillo, 177; church 177-78, 115 259
128 Asto, Simon de, 178 Bernini baldachin, St. Peter's,
Alvarado, Pedro de, 39, 118, 122 Atahuallpa, 34 Rome, 14, 160, 269
Alvares Cabral, Pedro, 239 Atlixco, 82, 103 Blanqui, Andres, 41, 193
Amat y Junyent Planella Aymerich Former Mercedarian church, 83, "Blind" balustrades, Antigua, 124,
y Santa Pau, viceroy, 153, 155 36 61; Leon, 125, 61; Riobamba,
Amecameca, Christ Entombed, 53 Rosario chapel 82-83, 36 41, 9; San Antonio del Oriente,
Ampies, Juan de, 73 Atrium, 78, 102 132, 14; Tegucigalpa, 45, 11,
Andahuaylillas, village church, Atzacoalco, stone cross, 55-56, 19 128, 11
174-75; main portal, main re- Augustine, 221, 148 Bodegones, defined, 215
table, and apse ceiling, 112; Augustinian order, 3, 76 Bogota, 8, 59, 65, 112
mural, nave and baptistry Avila, Pedro de, 40 La Candelaria, ceiling, 67, 21;
doorway, 113; organ and choir Avila, Toribio, 150 Pieta, 147, 88
loft, 229-30, 153 Ayacucho, 165 La Compania, Ecstasy of St.
Andean mestizo style. See Mestizo Cathedral, confessional, 266, 185 Ignatius, 111, 56
style Chapel, portal, 165, 104 San Diego, camarin, 67-68, 21
Angahua, Santiago, 101, 50 John the Evangelist statue, 112, San Francisco, facade, interior,
Annis, Verle L., 123, 127 51 main retable, and sacristy altar,
Antigua, 39-40, 82, 129, 233-34 Santa Clara, main altar, 165-66, 65-67, 26; Jerome statue, 113,
Cathedral, 39-40, 8 104 58
El Calvario, 127, 10; Pieta, 147, Santa Teresa, main retable and San Ignacio, 65, 25, 195
88 choir loft, 166, 104 San Juan de Dios, 67, 21
El Carmen, 125, 68 Ayala, -215 Santo Domingo, 67, 21, 227
Hospital gateway, 127, 69 Avmara Indians, 49, 173, 178, 179, Bolivar, Simon, 67
House of the Lions, 126, 69 185, 206, 208, 209 Bonampak, Chiapas, Maya wall
La Merced, 123, 66; former mon- Ayotusco, San Francisco, 101, 50 paintings in, 30
astery entrance, 123, 127, 69 Aztecs, 79, 121 Borcht, Pieter van der, 201
St. Clara relief, 257, 114 Azulejos, 38, 84 Borda, Francisco, 89
[289]
INDEX
Borda, Jose de la, 89-90 Caspicara (Manuel Chili), 52, 54, Church types, barnlike, 24, 130,
Borda, Manuel, 90 108, 142-43, 145, 146; angel, 163, 176; "fortress," 24, 76-77;
Borgraf, Diego de, 57 145, 86; Assumption figure, hall, 31; in Brazil, 240, 245,
Bourbons (of Spain), 5, 16, 121, 143, 83; Assumption group, 246, 247; pilgrim, 185-86, 252-
149, 223 143, 82; Christ Child, 49, 12; 54
Brazil, 1, 43, 114, 126, 239-55 La Dolorosa, 146, 81; Pieta, Churriguera, Jose, 88-89
Breughel, -, 207 147, 88; St. Francis figures, Churrigueresque style, 89-90; in
Bruges, Maison de l'Ancien Griffe, 146, 86; St. John Nepomuk, Mexico, 29, 89, 90, 91
44, 190 146, 86; Santa Rosa, 145, 85; Ciudad Trujillo (Santo Domingo),
Buen Retiro factory, 17, 149 signature of, 49, 12 26, 203; cathedral, 26-27, 2
Buenaventura, Manuel Maria, 71 Castilla, Jose de, 153 Coatepec, catafalque sketch, 121,
Buenos Aires, 10, 188, 189, 194-95; Catano, Quirio, 129 65
La Compania, 195, 129 Cathedrals, 24-46, 1-11 Coatlinchan, church, 84, 31
Buitraso, Gonzalo, 61 Ceilings, 61-63, 23, 24; 66, 26; 61, Coban, church, 128
Buschiazzo, Mario J., 187 21; 94, 44; 132, 15; 175, 112; Codex Monteleone, 203, 130, 211
Byrd, William, 226 181-82, 119; 244, 165; 249, 110; Coechea, Martin Eliza, 86
Byzantine influence, 12, 199-200, 252, 112; 261-63, 180, 181, 188 Cofradias, 20, 120-21; defined, 10
221 Cellini,Benvenuto, 14, 17 Collaert, Jan, 201
Byzantoid manner, 135, 200, 210 Cennini, Cennino, 197 Collao, Fernando, 157
Central European influence, 156, Colohete, church, detail, 128, 70;
242 interior, 131, 13
Ceramic ware, used for exterior Colon, Diego, 26
Caballero, Juan, 90 decoration, 128, 132, 163, 185. Coluccini, Juan Bautista, 65
Cabezon, Antonio de, 226 See also Delftware Comayagua, 35, 82, 130-34, 257, 263
Cabrera, Juan de, 68 Charango, defined, 179 Compostela, 118, 168
Cadiz, 9, 69, 128 Charles I, 13 (see also Charles V); Confessionals, 95, 45; 266-67, 185
Caete, parish church, altar, 249-50, Charles II, tumulo designed Congonhas do Campo, 103; Bom
270 for, 121, 65; Charles III, inter- Jesus do Matosinhos and
Cajamarca, 34, 37 national relationships of, 149; prophets, 254-55, 275
Cathedral, facade, main retable, Charles V, 4, 13, 14, 72, 142, Conique, Jose, 98
and portal detail, 35, 5, 164, 148, 89, 116 Copacabana, 185
191 Chavez, Diego de, 76, 77 Cloister, 186, 124
El Belen, facade and cupola, 164, Chavez, Juan de, St. Sebastian Pilgrimage church, view and
103, 191 statue, 108, 53 altars, 185-86, 123; 269, 189
Former Women's Hospital, Checacupe, 173-74; church view, Copan, 129
doorway, 164, 103 main altar, and altar-rail de- Cordoba, 193, 194, 232
San Antonio, 164-65, 103 tail, 174, 111; Annunciation, Cathedral, 41—42, 9
Cali, 70, 163 218, 144; organ, 229-30, 153; La Compania, 194, 195; facade
Augustinian chapel (Santa Li- organ wings, 230, 153; pulpit, and pendentive, 194, 129; pul-
brada), 70-71, 29 264, 182; Santiago Matamoros, pit, 265, 183
San Francisco, 71, 29 213, 139 Santa Catalina, facade and patio,
Callao, 7, 9 Chests, 152, 92; 154, 94. See also 193, 128, 194
Camarin, defined, 61; Bogota, 68, Furniture Corn pith, used for statuary, 53,
21; Ocotlan, 81, 35; Popayan, Chiantla, La Candelaria, 134, 77 58
70, 29, 137, 139, 19; Tunja, 61, Chibcha Indians, 27, 61, 65 Coro, 73; House of the Iron Win-
23 Chichicastenango, 19 dows, 73, 30
Camino Real. See Royal Highway Chichimec Indians, 76 Corpus Christi procession, in
Camotan, church, 127, 10 Chiconcuac, atrium gateway, 102, Cuzco, 120-21, 65, 212, 222; in
Canal, Manuel Tomas de la, 92-93, 51, 103 Popayan, 140
115-16, 61 Chihuata, dome, 169, 101 Correa, Juan, Youthful Donor, 224,
Canary Islands, 2, 11, 53, 72, 168 Chile, 8, 9, 194 151
Cantini, Pedro, 67 Chili (or Chil), Manuel, 49, 142; Cortes, Hernan, 26, 37, 118, 271
Cantuna, Francisco, 162 signature of, 49, 12. Better Costa Ataide, Manoel da, 254, 270
Capodimonte, 109 known as Caspicara, q.v. Counter Reformation, 15
Caracas, 73 Chinese influence, 68, 69, 116-17, Covoacan, ceiling, 262, 180
Caraccioli, Carmine Nicolas, 233 237-38. See also Oriental influ- Creoles, 2, 6
Cardoso, Antonio Estevan, 231 ence Cronberger, Juan, 202
Carlos, Padre, 145 Chiquimula, church, 128-29, 11 Crowns over altars, Checacupe,
Carneiro, Francisco Xavier, 254 Chiquinquira, 64, 222 174, 111; Oaxaca, 80, 33;
Carrillo y Albornoz, Fernando, 155 Chirhnia, defined, 227 Queretaro and Quito, 266,
Carrion, Bartolome, 27, 33 Choir stalls, Cuzco, 230, 231, 155, 184; Salamanca, 95, 45, 265-66,
Cartagena, 8-9, 60, 228 259, 116; Lima, 32, 3; Mexico, 184; Salvador, 243, 164; Tru-
Colonial houses, 60, 22 259-60, 111; Puebla, 234, 158, jillo, 157, 91, 266, 184
La Tenaza, 59-60, 22 261, 119; Quito, 258, 116; Cruz, Jorge de la, 158, 258
Palace of the Inquisition, 60, 22, Xochimilco, 260, 277 Cruz, Jose de la, 161
155 Christ, in colonial art, 45-58, 12-21 Cruz, Sebastian de la, 189
Cartago, 70, 71; Guadalupe, 71, 29 Christ of the Earthquakes, 55, 18 Cuautitlan, 214; La Merced paint-
Casas, Ignacio Mariano de las, 233 Chucuito, 178, 179, 188 ing, 210, 136
[290]
INDEX
Cubujuqui. See Heredia Diez Navarro, Luis, 124 Gonzales Merguelte, Jose, 41, 42
Cuellar, Manuel, 147 Dominican order, 3, 60 Gorivar, Nicolas Javier de, 198
Cuenca, 22, 111, 163 Double-headed eagle. See Habsburg Gosseal, Pedro, 142
Cathedral, organ, 231-32, 155 Drake, Francis, 27 Granada, 135
Colonial doorwav, 163-64, 102 Duran, Diego, 90 La Merced, 134, 16
El Carmen, 127; 'fagade, 163, 102 Diirer, 56, 138, 149, 203, 211, 219 San Francisco, 135, 18
Las Monjas-, fagade and side Gregory, 221, 148
portal, 163, 102 Guadalajara, 98
Ecala, Manuel L. de, 99
Cuernavaca Palace of the Audiencia, 98-99,
Echave Ibia, Baltasar de, 206; Im-
Cathedral, St. Christopher statue, 48
maculate Conception, 206, 133
107-8, 52 St. Christopher statue, 85, 38
Echave Orio, Baltasar de, 206, 218
Third Order, 86, 87, 39; main Santa Monica, 85, 97-98, 41
El Greco (Domenicos Theotoco-
188
altar, 268-69,
poulos), 197
Guadalupe, El Pocito, 99, 49
12,
Cuitzeo, former Augustinian mon- Encarnacion, technique,
Guanajuato, 90-92; La Valenciana,
50, 110;
astery and church, 77, 32 91-93, 41-43; confessional, 266-
106
Cunha e Meneses, Luiz da, 248 Encamador, defined, 106 67, 185
Cure, Claude, 139 Encerados, defined, 28 Guatemala, Captaincy-General of,
Cuzco, 21, 31, 32, 46, 120, 178,
Encomenderos, 6, 7 122
208; circle of painting, 205, 209, Enriquez del Castillo, Nicolas, 98 Guatemala City, 39
213,217 Ensambladores, defined, 25 Jerome statue, 114, 58
Arch of Santa Clara, 173, 110 Escorial, 32, 34 La Merced, organ, 233-34, 151
Cathedral, fagade and side altar, Espadana, defined, 44 St. Sebastian statue, 108, 53
33-34, 4; organs, 230-31, 154, Esquipulas, pilgrim church, 129, 12
Santo Domingo, 135, 18
155 Estipite, defined, 84
Guerrero v Torres, Francisco de,
El Triunfo (or Sagrario), 34, 4
Estofado, samples of, 93, 110, 143- 88, 99,' 100
Jesus y Maria, 34, 4 Guilds, 10, 83, 106, 227
44, 84; technique, 50, 106
La Compafiia, 152, 172, 173, 176, Gutierrez Sencio, Miguel, 33
177, fagade, main altar,
195; Guzman, Juan Antonio de, 67
and pendentive, 172,
tribune,
Federman, Nicholas, 65
Fernandez, Joannes, Portrait of a Habsburg dynasty,
109; Jerome statue, 114, 59 5, 13, 16, 99,
La Merced, 120; ambulatory ceil- Lady, 223, 151 121, 253; double-headed eagle,
ing, 263, 181; choir stalls, 259,
Figueroa, Gaspar de, 198
80, 99, 121, 133, 163
Fleets, Spanish, 8-10, 59
176; monastery cloister and Harls, Anton, 193
portal, 172-73, 110; organ, 231,
Flemish influence, 20, 56, 114, 157, Havana, 9, 124; cathedral (San
155 200-3, 213; organ builders, Cristobal), 43-^4, 10, 195
La Recoleta, crucifix, 52, 15 226-27; prints, 56-57. See also Helm, MacKinley, 81
Las Nazarenas, 171, 108 Low Countries Heraldic symbols, as architectural
San Antonio Abad, fagade, in- Forchoudt family, 202 decoration, 165
terior, pulpit, and ciborium,
Franciscan order, 3, 61-62 Heredia, 130; church, 130, 12
171-72, 108 Francisco, Antonio, 248 Hernandez de Alba, Guillermo,
San Sebastian,
Fruytiers, Louis, 213
173, 110, 176; 227, 271
Christ statue, 51, 13 Fugger familv, 72 Hernandez de Cordoba, Francisco,
Santa Ana, Corpus Christi Pro- Furniture, 267-69, 186, 181. See also
135
cession, 120-21, 65 Chests and Confessionals Hernandez de la Camara, Lorenzo,
Santa Catalina, side altar, 258, 66
175, 270, 189; tribune, 261, 119 Gage, Thomas, 9, 235 Herrera, Juan de, 32, 34
Santiago, Christ
statue-painting, Galle, Philip, 201 Herrera, Pedro de la Cruz, 71
of the Earthquakes, 55, 18 Galvez, Vicente, 46 Heur, Cornells J. d\ 201, 213
Santo Domingo, Christ statue, 51, Gandolfi, Leonard, 159 Holbein, Hans, the Younger, 210,
14; monastery ceiling, 262-63, Gante, Pedro de, 102, 142, 202, 227 229
180 Garcia, Antonio, 69 Holguin, Melchor Perez de, 208,
Garcia, Jose Uriel, 121 217, 220; Rest on the Flight,
Daciano, Jacopo, 101 Garcia, Simon, 37, 38 208, 134
Dadey, Jose, 233 Garcia de Ascucha, Ignacio, 66 "Holland in Brazil," 241
De Soto, Hernando, 135 Garcia Pelaez, Francisco Paula, 235 Holy Roman Empire, cultural ex-
Death, as a human skeleton. See Garcia Sarmiento de Sotomavor, change 253
in, 13,
Skeleton 115, 61 Huamanga, 165; stone, 156
Death masks of Christ, 54 Garci-Aguirre, Pedro, 135 Huaras, chapel, 192-93, 128
Delft Museum, 68 Gavilan, Baltasar, Death with a Huaro, church choir loft, 176, 114
Delftware, used as interior decora- Bow and Arrow, 119, 64 Huata, church portal, 169-70, 707
tion, 68 Gerson, Juan, Four Horsemen of Huejotzingo, posa, 78, 32
Deubler, Leonard, 159 the Apocalypse, 211, 131 Huexotla, 84; church fagade, 84,
Diaz (del Castillo), Bernal, 19, 39, Gil de Liendo, Rodrigo, 26 31
79, 227 (ionics, Joao Bautisra, 248 Humboldt, Alexander von, 4, 73,
Diaz de la Madrid y Unda, Jose Gomez, Jose Manuel. 219 90, 91, 267
Eliodoro Mariano, 159 Gomez, Juan Baltasar, 95
Diego, Juan, 79, 99 Gomez tie Mom. Juan, 28 Ibarra, Jose de, 212
Diepenbeek, Abraham van, 201 Gongalvcs Rosa, Antonio, 254 Igarassu, church, 246, 168
hpi]
INDEX
Have, Santa Barbara, 178, 115; Vir- La Soledad, 146, 81 Liniers y Bremond, Santiago, 193
gin of Guadalupe, statue-paint- La Valenciana, 90-91; church, 91- Lisboa, Antonio Francisco (Aleija-
ing, 205, 131 93, 41-43, 233; Immaculate dinho), 248-49, 254-55; Proph-
Imaginero, defined, 106 Conception, 148, 89 ets, 254-55, 113; pulpits, 249,
Inca Indians, 31, 32-33, 141, 166, Laboria, Pedro de, Ecstasy of St. 110
171, 222. See also Quechua Ignatius group, 111-12, 56 Lisboa, Manoel Francisco, 248
Indian, education of, 4, 5, 77, 142, Lampa, 177; church, 177, 115 Llorente, sculptor, 153
193; influence on art, 19-23, Lange, Francisco Curt, 232 Lombardi brothers, 12
61, 78-79, 83-84, 101, 164,
77, Laoag, church, 73-74, 30 Lopez, Eugenio, 67
165, 167, 177-78, 191, 199; in- Larco Herrera, Victor, 156 Lopez, Julian, 227
terest in music, 227, 232, 233; Las Casas. See San Cristobal las Lopez Quijano, Nicolas, 86
labor, 6, 21, 22, 33, 91, 188, 257; Casas Lopez y Gregorio, Jacinto, 115
population, 6, 7, 21; treatment Las Casas, Bartolome de, 5, 80, 123, Loreto chapel (Santa Casa), 92-93,
of, 6, 22, 78, 188 132, 133, 135 115-16
Indies, Council of the, 4, 42, 203 Las Rayas, 90-91; San Juan, 91, 41 Low Countries, 13, 14, 15, 22, 68,
Inquisition, 5, 17, 60, 124, 210; Legarda, Bernardo, 115, 141, 142— 138, 200, 226. See also Flemish
Palace, 60, 22 43, 159, 162; signature, 140, 80; influence
Italian influence, 20, 22, 109, 159 Tota Pulchra, Vision
143, 83; Loyola y Haro, Juan de, 5
of the Fifth Seal, 140, 80 Lugo, Lorenzo, 61
Jacome, Ferreira, 242 Lefva, parish church, 64-65, 25 Luisinch, Jesuit friar, 65
Jerome, 113-14, 58, 59, 190; 221, 148 Lejamanf, 135 Lutgarda de Espina, Maria (called
Jesuit architectural style undefin- Lemer, Felipe, 194 La Marichuela), 68
able, 43, 65, 160, 195 Lemos family, 3, 178, 185
Jesuit order, 15, 43 Leon, 40, 132 McAndrew, John, 81
Jesus Larrea, Fernando de, 71 Cathedral, 40, 8, 130 Macao, 11, 116
Jimenez de Quesada, Gonzalo, 27, El Calvario, 135, 18 Macovi, San Javier, crucifix, 56, 19
65 La Merced, 70, 125, 61 Maestro cantero, defined, 25
Jimenez de Sigiienza, Francisco, La Recoleccion, 133-34, 16 Maestro mayor, defined, 31
185, 187 St. Sebastian relief, 108, 53 Magdalena, Jeronimo de la, 77
Jinotepe, church, 130, 72, 133 Leon, Juan de, 234 Mairena family, 131
Joao Pessoa, Sao Francisco, fagade Lerma, 100; San Miguel, 100, 49 Majorca, 11, 13
and interior details, 244-45, Levanto, Dionisio, 79 Malaga, victory of, 205
166, 161 Lican, Virgin of the Rosary, 205, Mamacita, 207, 134
Jocoro, church, 134, 77 131 Mamara, church, view, choir loft,
Juarez, Jose, 216 Lima, 7-8, 20, 31, 46, 151, 163 and main retable, 175-76, 114
Juarez, Luis, Annunciation, 218, Cathedral, fagade and choir stalls, Mampara, defined, 92, 162
144 31-32,3 Mander, Carel van, 214
Jujuy, 192; Rosario chapel, pulpit, Dominican monastery, assemblv Manger figures, 108-11, 149
265, 182 hall, 153-54, 94 Mani, 256-57; Franciscan church,
Juli, 179, 185, 187 Ivory plaque, 116, 62 St. Anthony altar, 257, 114
La Asuncion, tower, side altar, Jesusy Maria, main retable and Manila, 74, 152'
and arch, 179-80, 111 side altar, 153, 93 Manuel, Jose, 165
San Juan, 181, 195; view, main La Concepcion, main altar, 153, Maps, 202
retable, and nave wall, 181-82, 93; Martinez Montanes altar, Marco Dorta, Enrique, 191
119; Christ Child statue, 49, 12; contract, 144, crucifix, 52, 15, Marfil, Presa de los Santos, 103, 51
sacristy doorway, 183-84, 121 and St. John the Baptist head, Mariana, 253; Carmo, 250, 111, 254;
San Pedro (Martir), view, side 115, 60; St. Joseph statue, 112, Sao Francisco, 250, 111
retable, baptistry doorway, 113, 51 Marin Bullon y Figueroa, Isidro,
180-81, 118; Jerome statue, 113- La Merced, monastery sacristy, 40
14, 58; main altar, 269-70, 189; 155, 94 Maroto, Diego, 32
pendentives, 181, 119; 210, 131 Las Nazarenas, grillework, 260, Marroquin, Francisco, 124
Zavala mansion, 180, 111 118 Marti, Mariano, 73
Juliaca, 176, 178; church, 177, 114 Magdalena Vieja, 155-56, 96; Martinez de Arrona, Juan, 31-32
main retable, 258, 115 Martinez Montanes, Juan, 20, 36,
Kandler, Johan Joachim, 253 Quinta de Presa, view and recep- 115, 144; crucifix, 52, 15
Kondori, Jose, 191 tion hall, 155, 95 Man- as the New Eve, 138-39, 191
Kraus, Juan, 195 San Agustin, monastery, Death Masava, church, 129, 11
with a Bow and Arrow, 119, Mask's, 118-19
La Cata, 90, 267 64; sacristy and lavabo, 154, 94 Mava Indians, 30, 39, 122, 129, 130,
La Paz, 186-87, 189 San Carlos, pulpit, 265, 183; trib- 197, 256
San Francisco, 187, 124; St. Ber- une, 153, 93 Maza, Francisco de la, 97
nardino (?) statue, 113, 51; vo- San Francisco, 42, 115; fagade, Medina, Diego de, 154, 261, 262
tive plaque, 117, 62 cloister, and sacristy, 152, 92; Medina, Jose, 86
Santo Domingo, 187, 124; organ Garcia Sarmiento de Soto- Meissonier, Juste Aurele, 16
wings, 220, 146; 230, 153 mayor statue, 115, 61 Melendez, Lucas, 152
Villaverde palace, 190, 126 Torre Tagle Palace (Ministry of Mena, Pedro de, 146
La Perricholi (Micaela Villegas), Foreign Affairs), 154-55, 95 Menacha, Miguel, 34
155 Lima, Francisco de, 248, 254 Mendieta, Jeronimo de, 84, 101
[292 ]
INDEX
Mendoza, Pedro de, 72 Morelia (cant.) Orue, Antonio de, 165
Mercator, Gerard, 202 Las Rosas, music school, 86, 235; Osorio, Luis, 82
Mercedarian order, 3, 123, 209 twin side portals, 86, 38 Otalora, Pedro de, 96
Merida, 30, 87, 256 Moretus Baltasar, I, 200, 210; III, Ouro Preto, 232, 247-48, 169
Casa de Montejo, 30, 78-79, 32, 200 Carmo, 248, 169
257 Moretus, Joannes, 200 Former penitentiary, 248, 169
Cathedral, 30-31,2,87 Morocho, Francisco, 158, 258 Rosario, 248, 169
San Cristobal, 87, 39 Motolinia (Toribio de Benavente), Sao Francisco, facade, ceiling,
Mermaids, 80, 83, 127, 167h58, 177, 133 and pulpit, 249, 110
179, 181, 183, 191,203, 206,231, Moya, Luis de, 26
234, 242; significance of, 167— Mudejar, defined, 13; ceilings, 62, Pacheco, Francisco, 52, 106, 138,
68, 191 63, 66, 94, 128, 131, 175, 261-62; 197, 206, 214
Mesa y Lugo, Juan de, 168 doorways, 87-88, 91; influence, Painting, 197-224; technique, 198,
Mestizo, 6, 10, 20, 21; defined, 2; 63, 103, 248 221, 224
influence, 19, 21, 37, 52, 53, 167, Mufioz, Vicente, 41 Paita, 2, 9
183-84, 199; style, 22, 167-69, Murillo, 29, 49, 114, 138, 216 Palladio, 202
189, 190, 191 Mutis, Jose Celestino, 57 Palma, Jacopo, the elder, 114; the
Med, Francisco Juan, 77 Mystic Vintage, 56-57, 20 younger, 212
Metztitlan, 259 Panajachel, church, 126, 69
Mexico, painting in, 210, 211, 213, Panama Citv (Panama la Nueva),
Nacianceno Quiroz, Gregorio, 45
219, 221 2, 42
Naples, 13
Mexico City, 21, 121, 151, 202, 227 Cathedral, 42^3, 44, 10
Navarro, Juan, 228
Cathedral, 11, 20, 28-30, 2, 38, San Jose, retable, 258, 115
Negroes, 6, 7, 10, 44, 59, 120, 123,
218; choir stalls, 259, 111; Panchimalco, church, 134, 77
149, 156, 165, 193; in Brazil, 7,
organs, 236-37, 159; St. Chris- Papaloda, atrium gateway, 102-3,
232, 247, 248, 251
topher, 107-8, 52 51
Neo-Mudejar style, 91, 124-25; de-
Early main church, 28, 2 Paredes v Almendaris, Andres, 115,
fined, 71
Former Mercedarian cloister, 85, 61
Neumeyer, Alfred, 256
38 Parra, Vicente de la, 257-58
Former San Agustin, choir
New Granada, Vicerovalty of, 1, 3,
Pa tinier, Joachim de, 215
stalls,
59, 65, 122, 151
259-60, 277 Patino Ixtolinque, Pedro, 29
New Spain (Nueva Espana), Vice-
Palace of Count of Santiago, 88, Patzcuaro, 99, 101, 117
rovaltv of, 1, 3, 35, 75, 122, 233,
40, 99 Calvary chapel, Calvary group,
234
Sagrario, 20, 29-30, 2, 89 57-58, 21
Nexquipava, San Cristobal, cruci-
San Juan de Dios, 86, 87, 39 El Humilladero, 101, 50
fix, 53, 16
School of St. Peter and Paul, Former Hospital of Santa Mara,
Nieto, Juan, 193
doorway, 102, 50 doorway, 87, 40
Noguera, Pedro de, 32
Michelangelo, 14 San Francisco, crucifix, 53, 16
Nucio, Martin, 200
Miguel, Francisco, 82 San Juan de Dios statue, 117,
Miguel de Veramendi, Juan, 33 62
Milagros (ex votos), 50, 117, 204 Oaxaca, 81, 96 Pereira Arouca, Jose, 248, 250
Minais Gerais district, 232, 240, Cathedral, 37, 7 Pereyns, Simon, 20, 28
246 ff. La Concepcion, 96, 46 Perez, Antonio, 201-2
Mining, 8; regions, in Bolivia, La Soledad, 96, 46, 123, 146 Perez de Alesio, Mateo, 20, 154,
188 ff.; in Brazil, 246 ff.; in Rosario chapel, main altar and 203
Ecuador, 163; in Honduras, cupola, 79-80, 33 Perez de Bocanegra, Juan, 175, 230
131-32; in Mexico, 45, 90 ff.; in Obrajes, defined, 6 Perez de Castaneda, Alonso, 28
Peru, 176 ff. Obregon (Count of Valenciana), Perez de Petres, friar, 67
Mita system, 6 91 Perez Materano, Juan, 228
Mixtec Indians, 96 Ocampo, Francisco de, 61 Perez Palomino, Matias, 165
Molinos, church, 192, 128 Ocampo, Salvador de, 259 Permoser. Balthasar, 253
Mollinedo, Manuel de, 171, 173 Ocafia, Diego de, 204 Peru, Viceroyalty of, 1, 3, 151
Mongui, 64, 65 Ocon, Alonso, 33 Perusquia, Mariano, 118
Holy Family, 222, 149 Ocodan, Sanctuary facade and Philip II, 14, 22, 59, 69, 200, 201;
San Francisco, 64, 25 camarin ceiling, 81-82, 35 III, 60; IV, 37, 130, 213; V, 11,
Montejo, Francisco de, the elder, Open chapel, 77-78, 185 119, 121
30, 78-79; the younger, 78-79 Organ wings, 220, 146; 230, 153; Philippine Islands, 10, 75, 1 16; archi-
Montenegro, Mariano, 118 231 tecture of, in need of further
Montufar, Alonso de, 22 Organs, 225-238 study, 74; Laoag church, 73-
Monnifar, Antonio, 212 Oriental influence, 75, 116-17, 148. 74, 30
Moors, 13 See also Chinese influence Pkylacterium, 120
Morales, Jose, 164 Orley, Richard van, 201 Pilasters, horizontally grooved,
Morelia, 99 Ormuza y Matute, Mariano, 71 Almolonga, 123, 66; Antigua,
Cathedral, 38, 7 Oropesa, hermitage portal, 176, 124, 61, 125, 68, 127, 10; Ayo-
Christ head, 53, 11 114 tusco, 101, 50; Camotan, Co-
Cross, 56, 19 Ortel, Abraham (called Ortelius), ban, and Colohete, 128, 10;
Las Monjas Catarinas, Christ En- 202 Tegucigalpa, 45, 11, 127, 10
tombed, 53, 58, 21 Ortiz de Castro, Jose Damian, 28 Pinto de Abreu, Francisco, 248
[293]
INDEX
Pisac, 20, 228; organ, 228-29, 152 Puebla, 121, 167; ceramic ware, 8, Quito, San Francisco (cont.)
Pisco, former Jesuit church, 156, 96 38, 81, 82, 83; see also Poblano sumption group, 143, 82; ceil-
Pizarro, Francisco, 26, 31, 32, 55, Casa del Alfefiique, 82, 35 ing, 261, 180; choir stalls, 258,
152, 173 Cathedral, 37-38, 7, 57; choir 116; Santa Rosa statue, 145, 85;
Plantin, Christophe, 200-2, 213, 269 and- organ, 234, 158
stalls Villacis statue, 115, 61; Vision
Plateresque, defined, 14 Dean's house, 79, 32 of the Fifth Seal, 140, 80
Playing cards, 203 House of Him Who Killed the San Sebastian, St. Sebastian
Plaza, Marcos, 161 Animal, 101, 50 statue, 108, 53
Poblano art style, 22, 81-83, 167 San Antonio chapel, 82, 36 Santa Clara, doorway, 161, 100
Polo Caballero, Martin, 64 San Francisco, choir stalls, 261,
Pomata, 182, 187 119
Raphael, 14
San Miguel, choir-loft pier, 183- San Miguelito, Mystic Vintage,
Recife,241^2
84, 121 57,20
Carmo, 242, 163
Santiago, exterior, interior, and Santa Rosa nunnery, organ, 235,
Rosario, 242, 163
main altar, 182-83, 120; sacristy 158
Santo Antonio, 242-43, 163; sec-
door, 183-84, 121; transept Pueyrredon, Juan Martin de, 195
retary, 267, 186
portal, 179, 116 Pulpits, 46, 11; 61, 23; 62, 24; 66,
Sao Francisco, secretary, 267,
Virgin of Pomata, 208-9, 135 26; 70, 28; 98; 99; 171, 108; 175,
186
Pombal, Marquis of, 251, 253 113; 243, 164; 245, 161; 249,
Sao Pedro dos Clerigos, 242, 162;
Popayan, 8, 69, 142, 163 110; 263-65, 182, 183
sanctuary, 244, 165
El Carmen, Assumption figure, Puno, 187
Recio, Bernard, 222, 231
143, 83 Cathedral, 178-79, 116, 191
Reducciones, 100, 192-93
La Encarnacion, camarin, 70, 29 Mortuary chapel, 179, 116
Reni, Guido, 214
San Agustin, pulpit, 264, 183
Rhea (Fernando de Jesus Larrea),
San Francisco, 69-70, 28, 137;
71
pulpit, 264, 28, 182; Vision of Quechua, 165, 166, 173, 175, 192,
Rher, Juan (Johann), 31, 153, 156
the Fifth Seal and camarin, 208, 228
Ribera, Pedro, 89
137^0, 19, 80 Queretaro, 233; estofado, 144
Ribera, Salvador, 262
Santo Domingo, 69, 28 Colonial mansions, 88-89, 40; 99,
Ricardo, Antonio, 202-3
Porras, Diego de, 40 48
Ricke (Rijcke) de Marselaer, Jo-
Portals within an arched recess, 86; Former Jesuit monastery cloister,
doco, 142, 159, 227
Antigua, 39, 8, 133, 16; Coma- 88, 40
Rio de Janeiro, Sao Bento, 243, 164
vagua, 36, 6; Cuernavaca, 86, Santa Clara, grillework, 260, 118;
Rio de la Plata, Vicerovalty of, 1,
39; Cuzco, 172, 109; Huata, tribune, 261, 119
3, 151, 195
169, 101; Juliaca, 177, 114; La Santa Rosa, 95, 233; confessional
Riobamba, 40-41; cathedral, 41, 9
Paz, 187, 124; Lampa, 177, 115; 95, 267, 185; grillework, 260,
Robledo, Jorge, 71
Merida, 30, 2, 87, 39; Mexico, 118; Last Supper group, 119—
Rococo style, 16-17, 91
86, 39; Ocotlan, Patz- 81, 35; organ, 233, 151
20, 64;
Rodriguez, Antonio, 161, 162, 216
cuaro, 87, 40; Pomata, 182, 120; Quimbaya Indians, 71 Rodriguez, Lorenzo, 20, 29
Potosi, 190, 121; Queretaro, 87, Quinche, Sanctuary, 205
Rodriguez, Nicolas, 42
40; San Miguel de Allende, 87, Quiroga, — 183 ,
Rodriguez Juarez (Xuarez), Juan,
39; Sinsacate, 192, 128; Zepita, Quiroga, Vasco de, 53
216-17; Flight into Egypt, 216,
184, 122 Quispe Ttito, Diego, 198-99, 208,
142
Portobelo, 1, 8, 9 212
Roelas, Juan de las, 207
Portraits, 215, 140; 223-24, 150, 151 Quito, 8, 21, 203, 227, 23; as art
Roiz Falcato, Antonio, 254
Portugal, 1, 253 center, 141-43, 148, 158, 162-
Rojas, Diego de, 61
Fosa, 78, 32, 86, 185 63; Kingdom of, 141, 158, 227;
Rojas, Juan de, 259
Posada, Jose G., 57 painting, 205-6, 213, 217; sculp-
Roldan, Pedro, 106
Post, Frans J., 246 ture, 137-50
Roxas, Pedro (Joseph) de, 95-96
Potosi, 8, 9, 44, 188-89, 199-92, Cantuna chapel, 159, 162; main
Roval Highway, 3, 41
121; circle of painting, 205-6, altar, 162, 101
Rubens, Peter Paul, 110, 148, 201,
221 El Tejar, 161; cloister, 161, 100; 207
Cathedral, 44, 10 Jerome statue, 113, 58
Herrera mansion, doorway, 190, Franciscan monastery, Assump-
126 tion figure, 143, 83; crucifix, Sahara, Carmo, 250, 111
House of the Corregidor, 189-90, 54, 16;Tota Pulchra, 143, 83 Sadeler, Effidius, 212
126 La Companfa, 159-60, 195; Sadeler, Jan, 211-12, 259
La Compania, 189, 125 fagade, nave, and side chapel, Sadeler, Justus, 114
La Merced, 189, 125 159-60, 99; mampara, 162, 101; Sadeler, Marcus, 212
Otavi Palace, 190, 126 side altar, 270, 189 Sadeler, Raphael, 212, 216
San Lorenzo, 190-91, 121 La Merced, 161; cloister, 161, Sahagun, "9
Santa Teresa, fagade and nun- 700,-organ, 232, 156 Sahuaraura, Manuel de, 173
nery doorway, 189, 125 Rosario chapel, 162, 101 St. Christopher, 85, 38; 107-8, 52;
Primoli, Juan Bautista, 41. 193 San Dietro, fagade, 161, 100; pul- 219-20, 146
Printing, 202-3 pit, 264, 183; St. Joachim St. Francis of Assisi, 113, 51; 146,
Prints, influence of, 56-57, 114, statue, 112, 56 86; 244, 165
157, 200-3, 211-12. See also San Francisco, 158, 160; fagade St. Ignatius, 15, 65, 111-12, 56; 201,
Flemish influence and interior, 158-59, 98; As- 221, 148
[294]
— 1
INDEX
St. John the Baptist, 210-11, 131; Santa Rosa, 145, 85, 235 Tinoco, Juan, 221
heads, 114-15, 60 Santiago, 34, 101, 50; 117-18, 63; Tiradentes, parish church, interior,
St. Michael, 93, 116, 62; 117-18, 167-68, 106; 213-14, 139, 191 251-52, 112; organ and loft,
63; 214, 140 Santiago, Miguel de, 198, 203, 263 232, 156, 237, 252
138
St. Sebastian, 108, S3, 191; 212, Santiago, Order of, 11, 115, 167, 213 Tiradentes (Joaquim Jose de Silva
Salamanca, 93, 96 Santo Domingo, 26-27, 203, / Xavier), 251
Old parish church, 98, 41 Sao Joao d'El Rei Titicaca region, 178 ff.
San Agustln, 94-96, 44, 45; pul- Parish church, apse, 252, 112 Tlacochahuava, organ, 233, 151
pit, 265, 183 Sao Francisco, 250-51, 111 Tlatelolco, 79, 142, 219, 227
Salas,Antonio, 51 Sardeneta y Legaspi, Vicente St. Christopher, 219-20, 146
Salomonic column, 160 Manuel de, 90 Santiago, pendentives, 79, 33, 80
Salvador, 43, 239, 240 Scarlatti, Domenico, 226 Tlaxcala, 77, 122
Carmo sacristy, 245, 161 Schongauer, Martin, 211, 218 Tobilla, Andres de la, 80
Cathedral, 43, 44, 10, 195; side Sepp, Anton, 232 Toledo, Francisco de, 126, 158,
altar, 243, 164 Serlio, Sebastiano, 99-100, 202, 262 173
Conceicao, 245-46, 168 Silva, Antonio, 57 Tolsa, Manuel, 20, 28
Franciscan cloister, 241, 161 Silvestre, Bias Martin, 61 Toluca, Christ statue, 51, 14; mask,
Franciscan Third Order, 240-41, Sinsacate, inn, 192, 128 119, 64
161, 242 Sirens, 202; bird, 76, 264, 265; Toro, Pedro del, 76
Pilar, 244, 166 winged, 46, 268. See also Mer- Torrigiani, Pietro, 114
Saldanha palace, 242, 162 maids Tota Pulchra, 143, 83
Sao Francisco, 241, 161; interior Skeleton, as Death, 119, 64; 121, Toussaint, Manuel, 28, 85
and main altar, 243-44, 164, 65; 176, 114; 179, 116 Trent, Council of, 4, 15, 215, 219
165 Smith, Robert C, 246 Tres potencias, defined, 50, 114
Salzillo, Francisco, 49 Sodalidades, 10, 20, 120 Tresguerras, Francisco Eduardo
Samaniego y Jaramillo, Manuel, Solis y Folch de Cardona, viceroy, de, 91, 95
198, 214-15, 217, 218 68 Tribunes, 153, 93; 154, 94; 112,
San Antonio Aguas Calientes, Soria, Martin S., 212 109; 261, 119
church, 126, 69 Squier, E. G., 132, 174, 176 Trinity, 210, 131, 211
San Antonio del Oriente, village, Statue -Painting, defined, 55 Triumphal arch (arco toro), de-
church, and main altar, 13 1 Subtiava, church, 74, 132-33, 15 fined, 62
32, 14 Sucre, 187-88 Trujillo, 9, 157, 165
San Cristobal de las Casas, 80 Cathedral, 41, 42, 9 Cathedral, 32, 3, 156
Colonial residence, doorway, 80, Former University of San Fran- El Belen, 156, 96
34 cisco Javier, Cloister, 188, 124 Ganozo Chopitea mansion, 157-
Santo Domingo, facade and in- La Compania, 188, 124 58, 91
terior, 80-81, 34; pulpit, 264, La Merced, pulpit, 264, 182 San Francisco, transept retable,
182 Surco, church, 156, 96 156-57, 91
San Isidro, Puevrredon villa, 195, Suster, Adrian, 28 Santa Clara, pendentives, 157, 91
129 Santo Domingo, side retable, 157,
San Juan de Lagos, 53, 109 91
San Martin Texmelucan, church Tagle y Brancho, Jose de, 154 Tunja, 27, 60-64, 68
organ, 234-35, 158 Tagua nut, used for sculpture, 107, Atarazana, 27, 1
San Miguel de Allende (San 150 Cathedral, 27, /, 268, 188
Miguel el Grande), 22, 87, 115 Tapia, Francisco de, 165 Rosario Chapel, 61, 23, 63
La Salud, 87, 39 Tasco, Santa Prisca, 89-90, 41, 92; San Francisco, interior and pul-
Loreto chapel (Santa
Casa), Christ statues, 50, 13; 54, 11; or- pit, 62, 24
115-16
side altar, 92-93, 43, gan, 90, 111,160 Santa Barbara, interior, 63, 24;
Oratorio de San Felipe Xeri, 116, Tecamachalco, Franciscan church, ceiling, 63, 263, 188
228; organ, 235, 158 Four Horsemen of the Apoc- Santa Clara, interior, 62-63, 24;
San Miguel Totocuitlapilco, Christ alypse, 211, 131 ceiling, 63, 262, 181; Virgin
statue, 51, 14 Tegucigalpa, 45, 131, 219 Martyrs Panel, 257, 114
San Pablo Ostotepec, Chalmita Cathedral, facade, main altar, Santo Domingo, arco toro and
shrine, 84-85, 31 and pulpit, 45-46, 11, 120, 128; side altar, 60-62, 23
San Pedro de Alcantara, 112, 51; 268, 188; side portal, 127, 10; Turmero, parish church, 73, 30
145, 86 side altar, 132, 14 Tuyru Tupac, Juan Tomas, 264
Sanauja, Manuel, 44 Los Dolores, 128, 11, 132
Sanchez, Jose Antonio, 237 Tehuilotepec, parish church, Christ Ulloa, Juan, 32
Sanchez de Montemavor, Diego, statue, 52, 14 LT niversitv of Mexico, 4, 102; of
67 Tepotzotlan, 216; San Francisco Potosi, 190; of St. Charles
Sandoval, Jose de, 61 Javier retable, 93, 43 Borromeo, Antigua, 124; of
Sansovino, 12 Tequitqui, defined, 55, 97 San Francisco Javier, Sucre,
Santa Cruz el Choi, church, 124— Texas, 1 187; of San Marcos, Lima, 4,
25, 61 Texcoco, 84, 101; Franciscan Third 153
Santa Fe (Argentina), Jerome Order, 102, 50 Urna, defined, 140; 149, 91
st.irue, 114, 59 Texmelucan. See San Martin Tex- Urruela, Julio, 147
Santa Marin Fncluurrcirui, Antonio melucan Uruapan, Sun Francisco chapel, in-
de. 82 Herra Firme, 59 terior, 131, 75
[ 295 1
INDEX
Valle, organ, 229, 152 Villacis, Francisco de, 115, 61 Xochimilco, 260
Van Dyck, 108, 214 Villavicencio, Manuel, 211 Crucifix, 52, 15
Van Meere, Nuyts, 200 Virgin of the Immaculate Concep- San Bernardino, choir stalls, 260,
Vargas, Cristobal de, 32 tion, iconography, 137-38; 777
Vargas, Juan de, 63 statues,' 147—48, 89; painting, Xuarez, Tomas, 259
Vasconcellos, Constantino, 152 206, 133
Vasquez (Ceballos), Gregorio, 64, Viscaino, Juan, 185
Yanahuara, church, 168, 106
67, 198; Annunciation to Vision of the Cross, 212, 138
Yupanqui, Capac, 186
Joseph and Joseph's Death, 66, Vision of the Fifth Seal, 137-41,
Yupanqui, Tito, 185
26 19, 80, 81, 142
Yuririapundaro, former Augustin-
Vazquez de Espinosa, Antonio, Vision of the Sixth Seal, 141, 81
ian monastery and church, 76-
154, 156, 165, 177, 182, 188 Vitruvius, 202
77, 31, 84
Vega, Salvador de, 29 Vos, Martin de, 20, 201, 210, 211,
Velazquez, 52, 214, 223 212, 214, 216, 259
Venezuela, 72-73 Zacatecas, 97
Venice, 12, 16 Weismann, Elizabeth Wilder, 56, Cathedral, 38-39, 7, 97
Vente, M. A., 229, 230 257 Guadalupe, 97, 41
Veraguas, San Francisco, pulpit, Welser family, 72-73 Santo Domingo, organ, 229, 152
263-64, 182 Wethey, Harold E., 35, 46, 52, Zacualpan-Amilpas, chapel, 100, 49
Verbruggen, Hendrick, 139 121, 152, 165, 167, 182, 187 Zapopan, 96; Sanctuary, 96-97, 46
Vertiz y Salcedo, Juan Jose de, Wierix (Wierx or Wiericx), An- Zapotec Indians, 96
194 ton, 201 Zepita, San Pedro, view, interior,
Vesalius, Andreas, 119 Wierix, Hieronymus, 56-57, 201 and lateral portal, 184-85, 122,
Viceroy, powers of, 1-3, 5 Wierix, Jan, 201 191; altar, 270, 189
Vielma, Juan Ignacio, 99 Wierix brothers, 203 Zipoli, Domenico, 232-33
Vilchez y Cabrera, Juan, 40 Woman of the Apocalypse, 138, Zurbaran, Francisco de, 20, 29, 113,
Villabrille, Juan Alonso, 115 223 214
[2 9 6]
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PAL KELEMEN

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., NEW YORK

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-29056

Manufactured in the United States of America

stvles of a sophisticated, self-centered, dank continent.

Indian. It has its own beguiling charm and unsuspected power.

Norfolk, Connecticut PAL KELEMEN

able were written by seventeenth-century missionaries.

achievements of seventeenth- and eisrhteenth-centurv Latin America which demand attention

have been grouped together in the Index.

America, a review of my impressions of Baroque and Rococo in Europe would be extremely

Belgium confirmed my inferences concerning Flemish prints.

engravers. In Lisbon, surrounded by masterpieces of Portuguese Gothic and Baroque, Revnaldo

C, Jongh Osborne. In Honduras: Tiburcio Carias Andino, former President of the

In Colombia: Antonio Rocha, Gregorio and Guillermo Hernandez de Alba, Teresa

Norfolk, Connecticut PAL KELEMEN

1 The Colonial Scene i

2 The Artistic Climate 1

8 Earthquake Baroque 122

9 Sculptors of Quito 137

11 Viceregal Peru II: From Cuzco to the Atlantic 171

14 Rococo in Brazil 239

THE COLONIAL SCENE

of the Iberian Peninsula. today Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uru-

of feudal landholders. until recently Indians who were unable to pay

images of saints, popes, or other revered fig- and sodalities.

was such an occasion.

time in Spain, where he was trained for a mili- booths.

THE ARTISTIC CLIMATE

tion—four thousand in 1550— among them not of individuality everywhere.

standing achievements. The Maya's calendar

can colonial art a disproportionate emphasis through documentation.

and decline of the

tilian, in 1782. The white of the carved stone contrasts pleas-

arms of Castile and Leon. earthquakes. Little headway seems to have

Pizarro is said to have ground stone

Juan Ulloa described the coastal road, which

probably dates from mid-eighteenth century.

on the fagade. To this author's

that cover the roof, domes, and towers bring

de Porras is named as its chief architect, and and on its

called in from Guatemala bv the bishop as a

consultant. Its solemn dedication 143

i860. a fertile sun-baked valley of Ecuador, sur-

Nature. church. Seemingly little effort was made to

close to the wall. padana— as the term is applied in this volume-

CHRIST IN THE NEW WORLD

inward-turned, broken, bloody, and

that time was the vortex of many influences in agony.

America. notably Tintoretto, indicated the halo merely

wooden figures by an enamel-like finish called If possible the atmosphere of impending

Closer to the interpretation favored in The crucifix from Xochimilco, Mexico

using four nails. kept subordinate as a detail and provides no

may be one. the center of the main plaza. In spite of the

and always they are consciously identified by

a cross in a forest near Morelia. According to A representation of this subject is encoun-

joicing. in the estate chapel at Conapaya, not far from

more or less recent since from time to time qualities.

ton drawers and loose shirt with the dignity people.

T hough the Kingdom of New Granada of

soon spread over its bounds. Bv earlv seven-

air of the important colonial stronghold it once replaced by an impersonal, factory-made

which the womenfolk could sit for hours and remained.