Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
by
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
August 2017
© Elizabeth Ann Parker, 2017
Abstract
for individuals in all life domains. Negative consequences of procrastination include lost
opportunities in academics, business, and family life. It is reported to affect up to 45% of adults
at some time. The research question for this study was, “What is adults’ experience of
perfectionism, anxiety, and motivation, as they relate to the phenomenon of procrastination and
its consequences. The research method used for this study was grounded theory in the style of
Charmaz. This constructivist method provided a guide for all phases of the research. It was the
scaffolding for the data collection and analysis, which supported the formation of a cohesive
theory related to adults’ experience with procrastination. The outcomes of this study illustrate
that adults who procrastinate are aware of their actions and the negative consequences of
procrastination behaviors. While they experience negative feelings about procrastinating due to
external societal pressures, from an internal standpoint procrastination is a viable work strategy
that, when leveraged skillfully and in conjunction with strategic planning, allows them to finish
This work would have been impossible to achieve without the following people: My
parents, Joseph and Nancy Braucher, my children Sarah Parker and Jack Prendas, my sister
Rebecca Braucher Gall and my friend Anne Heller. They were endlessly patient and
encouraging. I cannot leave this project without recognizing Dr. Marge Tye Zuba without whom
I would never have graduated high school, much less arrived at this point in my career. Finally,
in all things God sustains me. This degree is a step on a longer path dedicated to the service of
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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my dissertation committee, Dr. Gabriela Mihalache, Dr. Diana
Riviera and Dr. Donna DiMatteo for their support during the dissertation process. I would also
like to thank Dr. Steven Schneider for his encouragement and support, especially at the
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgments....................................................................................................4
Definition of Terms................................................................................................12
Research Design.....................................................................................................13
Limitations ......................................................................................................18
Summary ................................................................................................................40
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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................42
Research Design.....................................................................................................44
Sample ............................................................................................................51
Procedures ..............................................................................................................52
Instruments .............................................................................................................58
Summary ................................................................................................................63
Summary ................................................................................................................90
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Summary of the Results .........................................................................................92
Limitations ...........................................................................................................107
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................112
References ........................................................................................................................114
7
List of Tables
8
List of Figures
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Procrastination has been discussed in the literature for many years. References to
procrastination or putting things off until tomorrow, and overall slowness have appeared in
influential writings throughout history. For instance, Steel (2007) references an influential
spiritual text for Hinduism, the Bhagavad Gita, dated at around 500 BC. “Undisciplined, vulgar,
stubborn, wicked, malicious, lazy, depressed, and procrastinating; such an agent is called a
Taamasika agent”, an agent, by the way, who was unable to get into heaven due to these qualities
Bringing the concept home to psychology the American philosopher and psychologist
I know a person who will poke the fire, set chairs straight, pick dust specks from the floor,
arrange his table, snatch up a newspaper, take down any book which catches his eye, trim his
nails, waste the morning anyhow, in short, and all without premeditation -- simply because the
only thing he ought to attend to is the preparation of a noonday lesson in formal logic which
Fast forward from the 1890’s to the 1980’s and psychologists were still talking about
procrastination. By this time the subject had been finely dissected and spread out for inspection,
but the voluminous research still retained the woeful quality of James’ lament; why do we put
important tasks off until the last moment? Upon exploration, it was discovered to be more than
just a deficit of time or organizational skills and it has been shown that the phenomenon of
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procrastination involves a “complex interaction of psychological variables” (Bridges & Roig,
1997, p. 943).
Not only is procrastination a complex behavior, but it is difficult to overcome. Time and
again people are caught flat-footed by procrastination habits, even when they have suffered
pervasive phenomenon, and can produce serious consequences for individuals in all life domains
(Klingsieck, 2013a). These domains include healthcare, family life, academics, and the
workplace (Klingsieck, 2013b). Some groups have been found to be more affected by
procrastination than others. Steel and Ferrari (2013) discuss demographics, and attributes of
people who procrastinate, noting that younger persons, males, and students have a higher rate of
procrastination than other groups. It has also been found that procrastination is a key symptom of
Procrastination takes its toll in individuals’ daily lives and affects those around them at
home, in school, and in their work situations. Negative consequences of procrastination include
lost opportunities in business, and family situations (Glick, Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014; Murray &
Warden, 1992). It is reported to affect up to 45% of adults at some time (Rozental & Carlbring,
2014; Steel, Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). Procrastination has also been shown to negatively
affect grades (Weinstein, 2010), employability (Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari, 2013), and earnings
(Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari, 2013). Procrastination has a great material impact on people, and this
Procrastination can affect people’s physical and psychological health. Some people will
postpone not only well-visits, but appointments when they are sick as well, leading to worsening
conditions (Rozental & Carlbring, 2014). Procrastination has been shown to have psychological
effects, and be related to poor perceived health (Sirois & Tosti, 2012) in addition to impacting
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mental and physical health (Rozental & Carlbring, 2014). Procrastination also creates excess
stress and anxiety which can exacerbate health issues (Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Rozental &
Stress and anxiety are factors in academic and workplace procrastination. Procrastination
in these domains has particularly complex sets of factors involved (Aremu, Williams, & Adesina,
2011; Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari 2013). Not only are diverse personality traits in play, but task
aversiveness, self-protection, and resentment at having to meet deadlines come together to form
a fertile environment for procrastination behaviors (Bridges & Roig, 1997; Johnson & Bloom,
1995; Milgram, Marshevsky, & Sadeh, 1995). Takács (2010) examines some of the external
reasons why people procrastinate in academics and the workplace. These include lack of interest
in tasks stemming from the level of relevance to one’s own situation. Procrastination does not
just affect material outcomes, but it has also been shown to have affective components (Krause
Krause and Freund (2014) discuss certain emotional aspects that are consequences of
procrastination such as guilt and frustration. Procrastinating generates anxiety and triggers
negative emotions for many people (Azure, 2011; Diaz-Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008; Glick,
Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014). In self-report measures participants who identify as procrastinators
report negative emotions such as anxiety, guilt, and sadness around their behaviors (Krause &
Freund, 2014).
Procrastination can have an impact on all aspects of an individual’s life. It may threaten
their physical and psychological well-being. It has been found to cause anxiety and stress, not
just for the individual, but for those who interact with the individual at home, work, or in
academic situations. It can result in the loss of material gains, and limit opportunities for growth
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as well. Overall, procrastination is a pervasive and costly behavior that derails almost half of
Many causes of procrastination have been introduced in the literature, including biological
Gustavson, Miyake, Hewitt, and Friedman (2014) have shown that some people may be
impulsivity (Amato, Pierro, Chirumbolo, & Pica, 2014; Schouwenburg, 1995). Steel (2010)
argues this impulsivity trait was necessary for early hunter gatherers because the need to find
sustenance, and find it quickly, was paramount to survival. Long term planning was not a
priority. It has been proposed that humans’ environment has shifted toward a paradigm in which
long term planning is necessary and desirable, but evolution has not caught up with this shift,
noting that self-defeating behavior is essentially a defense mechanism which assures that one’s
own self-interest is put in jeopardy, marking a limit between rational and irrational behavior. A
decade later Steel (2007) called procrastination the “quintessential self-regulatory failure” (p.
failure” suggesting this definition of the concept has become widely accepted among researchers
(Rozenthal & Carlbring, 2014, p. 1488). The links between procrastination and irrational
thinking have been studied as well. Bridges and Roig (1996) examined the links between
procrastination and irrational thinking, noting that the phenomenon of procrastination has a
myriad of components and positing that irrational fears and fear of failure form the basis of
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procrastination behaviors. They explain that once these behaviors are triggered, work and
organizational behaviors break down (Bridges & Roig, 1996). This finding was supported by
Lay and Silverman (1996) found that fear of failure played only a minor role in
procrastination, and that procrastination was a personality trait. Self-report measures of dilatory
behavior and state anxiety were compiled from 58 university students who participated in the
study. The measures were administered 5 times. Beginning 5 days before an examination period
the measures were administered every other day, and then twice on the day exams began.
Multiple regression analysis showed that trait procrastination was more highly correlated with
dilatory behavior than anxiety. In a later study, however, Haghbin, McCaffrey, and Pychyl
(2012) combined the variables of perceived competence and fear of failure. A research study of
300 university students used four measures to collect data and gauge procrastination tendencies,
fear of failure, and autonomy and competence. When the results were compiled, a significant
positive correlation between fear of failure and procrastination was found when perceived
Personality Factors” (Diaz-Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008; Gupta, Hershey, & Gaur, 2012;
Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Schouwenburg, 1992: Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995; Watson, 2001).
The Big 5 personality factors are Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Openness, and
frequency. Conscientiousness has been defined along terms of impulse control, achievement
Schouwenburg (1992) as will or strength of character. Watson (2001) and Lay, Kovacs, and
Danto (1997) have overlapping lists of attributes for conscientiousness including competence,
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order, dutifulness, self-discipline and striving. Steel (2013) adds that procrastination and
has been found that conscientiousness is inversely related to procrastination (Steel, 2007;
Watson, 2001), that low conscientiousness is the largest component of procrastination (Watson,
2001), and that conscientiousness and perfectionism have a correlational relationship (Achtziger
There is research available on the links between procrastination and perfectionism as well
(Cao, 2012b; Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin,1992). This research explored two distinct
areas of perfectionism. Internal or self-oriented perfectionism was associated with both the fear
of failure and necessity for continual success. External or socially prescribed perfectionism is the
perception that others expect one to be perfect and is strongly associated with fear of failure.
(Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992). Procrastination has also been linked to trait anxiety
and perfectionism and that some are predisposed toward this behavior (Baumeister, 1997; Walsh
terms of ego protection and perfectionism (Robinson, Zabelina, Boyd, Bresin, & Ode, 2014).
Task capability contributes to task aversiveness if one feels unprepared to meet the task. If one
does not feel capable of meeting certain demands (at work or in an assignment) there is an
When procrastination is related to perfectionism and trait anxiety it can lead more readily
(Baumeister, 1997; Cao, 2012b; Haghbin, McCaffrey, & Pychyl, 2012). Self-handicapping
becomes a greater issue when related with trait anxiety and perfectionism (Howell, 2009; Murray
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& Warden, 1992). Lowering standards for performance, or expectations of high quality outcomes
to some people means when criticism is inevitably received it is felt less intensely; the objective
consequences of procrastination (a job that is not well finished) can be separated from the
personal emotions (a job the person felt was well finished, but was criticized) (Milgram &
Naaman, 1996). In these instances, a Catch-22 is created, and the person has now set themselves
up for future failures. When they do not invest themselves fully in a project, and wait until the
last moment to complete it, they feel relief, which creates a situation in which evaluations will
probably be more rushed and not as in-depth. Consequently, more superficial feedback will be
received, which does not threaten the person’s ego (Baumeister, 1997; Walsh & Ugumba-
Agwunobi, 2002). With little feedback to incorporate into new work, the quality of future work
will also be threatened, creating a vicious cycle (Wäschle, Allgaier, Lachner, Fink, & Nückles
2014).
Many causes and consequences of procrastination are well documented, but the process of
procrastinating itself is not (Cao, 2012a). Much of the research on procrastination has been done
through quasi-experimental studies using self-report measures, and there is little literature
documenting the procrastination process from the perspective of people who procrastinate.
People procrastinate for many reasons. Some people are predisposed toward procrastination due
to their personality traits (Diaz-Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008; Gupta, Hershey, & Gaur,
2012), some procrastinate due to a lack of intrinsic motivation or interest in the task at hand
(Glick, Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014) and for some it is a result of irrational thinking (Dryden,
2012). Procrastination can have a strong impact in academic, home and work life domains
(Klingsieck, 2013a). It can result in lower grades, in lower earning power, lost opportunities, and
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In the literature, there is discussion about helping modify procrastination behaviors by
teaching time management and goal setting strategies (Farrington, 2012), or by replacing specific
irrational thoughts with specific rational thoughts about time management to help curb
procrastination (Dryden, 2012). However, these approaches can only work if the person who
procrastinates fits the profile where these strategies would be advantageous. Milgram and
Naaman (1996) have suggested that procrastination is an escape or avoidant behavior, triggered
by anxiety. Studies by both Bridges and Roig (1997) and Wang (2016) have pointed out that for
some who procrastinate, the behavior is not a time-management problem. More study is needed
Many causes and consequences of procrastination are well documented, but the process
of procrastinating itself is not (Cao, 2012b). Much of the research on procrastination has been
done through quasi-experimental studies using self-report measures, and there is little literature
documenting the procrastination process from the perspective of people who procrastinate. The
literature does not reflect whether people who procrastinate can identify the specific points or
moments in the process where they turn away from their intended course of action. This
research study included exploring the triggers that caused the participants to turn away from an
intended course of action. Are people who procrastinate conscious of this moment? When does
the process begin? This study examined the process of procrastination and this nexus moment
for clues as to what triggered procrastination behaviors for the participants, and whether they
were aware of the moment they were triggered. To date no studies have been found that focus on
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Purpose of the Study
While gathering literature for this study it was discovered that much of the literature
negative occurrence (Eckert, Ebert, Lehn, Sieland, & Berking, 2016; Rahimi, Hall, & Pychyl,
2016; Rozental & Carlbring, 2014). The present study focused on discovering the process of
procrastination and its role in the lives of the participants from a neutral perspective. Cao (2012a)
suggested that further qualitative research was needed on “behavioral, motivational and affective
domains” (p. 57). Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafsun (2007) suggested “in-depth qualitative studies
that compare and contrast such specific themes as adaptive and maladaptive aspects of
procrastination. Qualitative studies may help researchers distinguish among multiple reasons for
procrastinating, including which reasons are most important in different circumstances” (p. 13).
The combination of grounded theory methodology and constructivist perspective used in this
study provided a unique opportunity to contribute to the existing literature base by providing data
about the process of procrastination and its purpose, or the need it fulfills for participants. It
offered insight into procrastination from the perspective of the individual participants, which
One of the goals of this study was to provide expanded information on the process of
procrastination and the role it plays in the lives of individuals who procrastinate. This
information will advance the knowledge base by offering a better understanding of the process of
procrastination through participants’ input about their own experiences. Through this new
information the vocabulary surrounding procrastination can perhaps be clarified, as this diffuse
vocabulary is noted in the literature (Klingsieck, 2013a; Krause & Freund, 2014). The present
study is also geared toward building a foundation for continuing research, to continue identifying
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and defining concepts more clearly. The literature on procrastination is not particularly cohesive,
what constitutes procrastination, versus what constitutes strategic delay (Klingsieck, 2013b;
Krause & Freund, 2014). In this dissertation, the process of procrastination from the perspective
of the participants is explored. One goal of the present research was to fill a gap in the literature,
another was to lay foundation for future studies involving the process of procrastination. The
intent was to shed light on the process of procrastination to find better ways to monitor and
strategies (Farrington, 2012), or using commitment devices (Wang, 2016), has been explored in
the literature. Another modification strategy outlined is replacing specific irrational thoughts
about time management with specific rational thoughts, to help curb procrastination (Dryden,
2012). However, these approaches can only work if the person who procrastinates fits the
profiles where these strategies would be advantageous. Studies by both Bridges and Roig (1997),
and Wang (2016) have pointed out that for some who procrastinate, the behavior is not a
essence of a phenomenon with this type of survey. They are often brief, and do not capture the
fullness of the phenomenon because the concept cannot be well developed in such a short span,
therefore the participants are unable to express their ideas completely through them (Hoskin,
2012). In the context of this study, the shortest procrastination survey found was the Irrational
Procrastination Scale (IPS), which has only nine questions (Steel, 2010). The Procrastination
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Assessment Scale for Students (PASS) is somewhat more comprehensive, with 44 questions
divided into 7 sections (Steel, 2010). Whatever the length of the survey, however, participants
sometimes feel pressure to respond in a socially acceptable manner, which can have a significant
The Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and the Procrastination Assessment Scale for
Students (PASS) are frequently used to assess whether a person procrastinates, and to what
degree. They are focused on time management, and what types of tasks the participant
procrastinates on. Using Likert-type scales they give a range from “never” to “always”, and are
focused on the degree of procrastination. Some of the questions are directed toward emotional
facets and reasons for procrastinating, but they are also on a Likert scale and therefore closed-
ended which limits input from the participant. Through qualitative research more input can be
received from the participant, increasing the understanding of the phenomenon (Charmaz, 2014).
For individuals, finding a way to delay reflex emotional responses to stimuli that are
perceived as negative and lead to procrastination could be advantageous. A delay in the reflex
response would offer a space for metacognition, the awareness of the cognitive processes
happening internally (Frewen et al., 2010; Sadeghi, Hajloo, Babayi, & Shahri, 2014). This in turn
would allow individuals a space to choose their most appropriate response to the stimuli and
open a decision-making opportunity rather than just having a reflex response. For those who do
not procrastinate, but are affected by the procrastination tendencies of others, understanding the
phenomenon more completely could help establish strategies for finding common ground
between individuals’ workflow patterns. In turn this would allow them to leverage or modify the
behavior should they choose to do so. This will be useful at a personal, corporate and community
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level as the costs of procrastination have been shown to be high at these levels (Schraw,
Research Question
Definition of Terms
researchers to be the main component of procrastination (Lay, Kovacs, & Danto, 1997;
Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995; Watson, 2001). Researchers often discuss procrastination as the
discrepancy between intention and action, not because of the intentional shunning of tasks (Steel,
Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). Lay, Kovacs, and Danto (1997) discuss the self-discrepancies
involved in the irrational thinking behavior surrounding procrastination, and explore differences
between ideals and wishes, versus duties and obligations. These points highlight differences
between the internal climate of the procrastinator and their external reality. In general
procrastinators report having every intention of finishing set tasks, but in some cases, do not
Over the last several decades, other themes that have emerged in the scientific conversation
procrastination as a reaction to perfectionism and anxiety (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin,
1992; Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Strand, 2009), procrastinating because of low self-efficacy
In addition to the diverse categories, there are distinct definitions of procrastination in the
literature. They overlap in some cases but do not always agree; as some focus on the emotional
will have a negative impact on outcomes (Rozental & Carlbring, 2014; Steel, 2007).
• “The purposive and frequent delay in beginning or completing a task to the point of
• “An irrational tendency to delay tasks that should be completed” (Walsh & Ugumba-
• ‘‘Intentionally deferring or delaying work that must be completed’’ (Farrington, 2012, p. 11)
p. 65).
Research Design
The current proposal is for a qualitative, constructivist grounded theory study in the style
of Charmaz (2014). A grounded theory study was an appropriate approach to the research
question, because it allowed for a broad variety of input from the participants. Grounded theory
is particularly suited to poorly understood situations, or where there is not much information
available. The purpose of the method is to generate a theory and it does so from the ground up,
using inductive data and iterative strategies (Charmaz, 2014). Data is analyzed in a continuous
comparison pattern, analyzing and comparing; while returning to the data again as often as
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A purposive sample of participants was recruited. Ideal participants not only met the
inclusion criteria to participate, but were able to fully articulate their experiences with
procrastination. As the study progressed the initial broad sampling criteria become narrower as
data was analyzed. Charmaz (2014) discussed the need for theoretical sampling to focus in on the
phenomenon being studied and saturate the categories. To interview and collect data, a
researcher should recruit participants who are the best examples of the phenomenon. Data
collection techniques included semi-structured in depth interviews and written material from the
participants. Interviews for grounded theory studies are semi-structured and based on questions
that encourage a participant to share as much information as they can about the phenomenon
being explored (Charmaz, 2014). According to Patton (1999) interview questions should have
the characteristics of being “open ended, neutral, singular and clear” (p. 446). Initial interview
questions are starting points to direct discovery toward the phenomenon being explored, and they
may evolve (Charmaz, 2014). In grounded theory studies Charmaz (2014) discussed the
importance of gathering data that is both "broad and deep…to cover emerging categories" (p.
89).
The design of this study focused on bringing credibility and dependability to the research.
As a qualitative, interview based study, several things needed to be considered. First was the role
of the participant as the “expert” in the phenomenon studied (Charmaz, 2014, p. 70). The data for
this study was collected and framed from the perspective of the participants. Communicating the
participants’ experience with the procrastination process was the goal, and as such the credibility
of the study rested on whether the participants found the results credible (Trochim, 2006).
A strong, transparent study allows for transferability of the research. While the researcher
pursued the data where it led, it was important to keep in mind future study as well. Gathering
rich data, engaging in thoughtful and careful analysis, and providing a transparent window into
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the processes of the study will allow other researchers to use the study to inform their own
research. While transferability of a study is the burden of the researcher who wants to apply the
research to a different context (Trochim, 2006); the burden is on the researcher of the original
study to add a well-organized, well-written, transparent research piece to the knowledge pool.
Grounded theory considers shifting hierarchies and tensions in the environment (Charmaz,
2014). Context is extremely important in grounded theory, and data are considered at many
different levels. Language and choice of words is important, as are pauses, silence and body
language (Charmaz, 2014). The dynamic of the setting is important as well, which includes the
researcher’s place within the setting. Capturing these elements is crucial for designing a
As this type of qualitative study grows from the interviews between researcher and
participant, there are several pitfalls that need to be avoided to achieve confirmability (Trochim,
2006). The researcher recruited the participants, developed and conducted the interviews, and
analyzed the data. This immersion of the researcher in the process meant the researcher’s
perspective was somewhat limited due to close proximity to the study. Personal bias needed to be
addressed throughout the study by taking notes on preconceived ideas and assumptions about the
material. The researcher’s experience had its own part in discoveries and discourse, and instead
of trying to suspend or bracket previous knowledge to set it apart, questions were pursued with
checking of the results by another researcher exposed weaknesses and limitations in the analysis,
and provided a fresh perspective of the material. Member checking, the practice of providing the
transcripts to the participants for their approval, provided another layer of security to boost
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Assumptions and Limitations
Philosophical Assumptions
the factors of individual participants and researchers, as well as social elements and the context
in which the study is taking place (Leedy, 2012). Certain assumptions underlie all research, and
should be clearly defined before beginning (Creswell, 2012). Lincoln and Guba (2013) outline
three fundamental questions which provided the philosophical framework from which the data
was analyzed.
The ontological assumption accepted for this study was relativism. Knowledge is
constructed within groups, and each knower has a different perspective; therefore, there can be
no absolute knowledge (Charmaz, 2014; Lincoln & Guba, 2013). The ontological axis of the
present study embraced the multitude of different realities present in context and sought to build
an informed and dynamic construction (Creswell, 2012). The present study is a qualitative view
perceptions and experiences, and these are reported in Chapter 4. Similarities and differences of
subjectivism (Lincoln & Guba, 2013). In qualitative research the researcher and participants
have a close relationship while collaborating over what is being studied (Charmaz, 2014). In this
study the data from participants worked in concert with analysis from researcher to construct or
create new knowledge. This new knowledge grew from the collective previous knowledge,
context, and material explored; it reflected their unique perspective (Lincoln & Guba, 2013).
The axiological assumption accepted for this study was subjectivity. Research is value
laden (Creswell, 2012); the values of the researcher, participants and other stakeholders have
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their own part in the generation of the outcomes of the study. Instead of trying to suspend or
bracket previous knowledge to set it apart, questions were pursued with curiosity, as seeing them
for the first time, as described by LeVasseur (2003, p. 418). Charmaz (2014) considers the
importance of perspectives of both researcher and participants in the interpretation of data, and
the importance of the examination of tacit and implicit expressions. From a constructivist
viewpoint meaning is created between stakeholders, and the credibility of the study will only be
apparent if the participants agree with the results of the study (Trochim, 2006).
Researcher Assumptions
One of the expectations for the study was that the participants would be able to identify
certain areas of their procrastination process, and recognize the thoughts or scenarios that lead
them to procrastinate. Another expectation was that each participant would have a different
perspective on procrastination and that each would have a different set of factors that caused
fear, anxiety, stress, or low self-efficacy. It may be a planned pause in the work at hand, and
some individuals may wait to finish projects as they feel it sparks their creativity. As such there
were no expectations that participants’ responses would fit into any predetermined categories
except one: that the participants have self-identified as people who procrastinate, whatever their
Procrastinating is used quite often as a blanket term for any waiting or delay behaviors.
The volume of literature categorizing the behavior as bad has also stigmatized some waiting
behaviors that can be beneficial. Laying the groundwork for a project, and then waiting for the
idea to ripen or for additional information to surface to polish the idea can be advantageous.
Mixed responses from the participants were expected, based on their own expectations of
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themselves which may contrast sharply with what others expect of them which could feed into
Limitations
Limitations of this research study include a small sample size, a homogenous sample,
and possible researcher bias. The results are not generalizable to the greater population. Small
sample sizes are common in qualitative inquiry and Capella University guidelines stipulate a
sample size of between 8 and 15 participants for this type of study. Once the interview and
analysis process began, recruiting did not end until saturation of categories was reached. Nine
participants contributed data to this study. The sample for this study was homogeneous as well.
Six of the participants were of retirement age, two were between 30-50 years of age and one
participant was a young adult. The educational level was high and most had completed college
level studies, two participants had doctorate degrees, and two participants were doctoral
candidates.
In grounded theory studies the researcher is an instrument in the collection and analysis
of data. As the researcher is involved at such a fundamental level, bias can be difficult to detect.
In order to overcome the limitation of researcher bias, journaling was practiced throughout the
research process to identify bias and realign the perspective when necessary. Transcripts of the
interviews and iterations of analysis were reviewed by the researcher’s mentor. The limitations
are common to qualitative inquiry, and appropriate steps were taken to reduce their effects on the
This introductory chapter is followed by a literature review outlining the methods used to
gather the pertinent material for the study. The theoretical orientation of the study included a
glimpse into the origin of grounded theory, its history, and an analysis of constructivism in
18
relation to the method. A rationale is given for using grounded theory in this research project as
well. Following this section there is a review of the gathered literature, and the phenomenon of
procrastination will be examined through the lenses of different definitions and theories. After
detailed view of the procedures pertaining to the study forms the basis of the chapter. The
purpose of the study, the research design and how grounded theory was used to pursue the
research question is also found here. The target population and sample, including procedures for
participant recruiting and selection can be reviewed, as well as data collection and analysis. A
list of instruments follows. Finally, ethical considerations observed throughout the present
Chapter 4 consists of the presentation of the data. A brief look at the researcher’s
participants, a description of the sample and profiles of each individual participant. A summary
of the coding process follows. Here the participants speak about the phenomenon of
procrastination in their own words, offering the reader a firsthand account of their experiences.
Initial and focused codes are enumerated in this section and the chapter closes with a compilation
discussion of the results, and conclusions based on those results. Limitations and implications for
practice follow and the chapter concludes with recommendations for further research.
19
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review is built upon peer reviewed articles, some of which were published
as early as 1972. The extended time range is important to the literature review for the purpose of
documenting the evolution of the literature and exploration of the phenomenon. After reviewing
much literature, the phenomenon of procrastination is as perplexing today as it was in the 1970’s.
This chapter of the dissertation is divided into several sections. First, methods of searching are
reviewed. Then the theoretical orientation of the study is outlined. The challenges that come
when working with theory while simultaneously creating a grounded theory research study and
dissertation are then presented. Following this section there is a detailed review of the literature.
The literature review portion of the chapter is divided into subsections, and includes analysis and
The literature surrounding the topic of procrastination is extensive, but also rather vague
and confusing. Researchers pull from many diverse sources when setting up studies. Theories
about procrastination revolve around personality factors and traits, motivation, psychological
inflexibility, and goal setting, among others. There are constellations of literature around
demographics and attributes of people who procrastinate (Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Strand, 2009;
Steel & Ferrari, 2013). Over the last several decades, other themes have emerged in the scientific
(Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995) and procrastination as a reaction to perfectionism or anxiety (Flett,
Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992; Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Strand, 2009). Procrastination
due to low self-efficacy has been researched as well (Wäschle, Allgaier, Lachner, Fink, &
Nückles, 2014). Procrastination is considered to be the discrepancy between intention and action,
not a result of the intentional shunning of tasks (Steel, Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). Lay,
Kovacs, and Danto (1998) explored self-discrepancies involved in the irrational thinking
20
behavior surrounding procrastination, and noted differences between ideals and wishes, which
represent internal climate, versus duties and obligations, which represent a person’s external
reality. In the literature, people who procrastinate report having good intentions toward finishing
set tasks, but in some cases they do not follow through with these intentions (Wang, 2016).
Methods of Searching
An exhaustive list of sources and search terms would be impossible, as articles have been
collected over the course of several years. The bulk of the articles came from, in order of
importance, the Capella library, Questia and Google Scholar. The pattern of seeking literature in
different categories started with a broad search and then narrowed in on particular facets like
perfectionism or anxiety. Once the search was narrowed sufficiently, individual databases were
combed. Sage Publications, EBSCO, Elsevier, and other databases were intensively searched
individually for articles to augment the literature review. While collecting the literature, an
abstract file was created, using keywords and citation information to organize the file. Each
article’s abstract was copied into a spreadsheet, and this spreadsheet could be viewed either in
explore different ideas. This helped gain clarity on the next route to follow in the search.
Theory is an important part of research, and provides a structure with which to compare
emerging information (Adams & Buetow, 2014). Wilk (1999) raises a cautionary note, stating
that theory can sometimes ignore the complexity of systems and should, therefore, be used with
caution; while Reichardt (2009) explains the necessity of looking at the body of quantitative and
21
qualitative studies on one topic as a whole, rather than dividing them strictly into experimental
and nonexperimental categories. This section examines the theoretical orientation of grounded
theory methodology, as well as several theories researched to build a working knowledge of the
phenomenon.
Within the realm of qualitative research, the grounded theory method focuses on building
theory by exploring a structure that can be described, but not explained or defined (Trochim,
2006). Grounded theory is an inductive process that involves building theory from data, rather
than testing an existing theory or hypothesis for confirmation (Charmaz, 2014). With this
methodology, existing theories are not used to build a working hypothesis. One reason for this is
to avoid preconceptions while building the theory. Another is that grounded theory explores
phenomena that are not well defined, thus there may not be an existing theory or hypothesis to
work from.
Grounded theory was founded by Anselm Strauss and Barney Glaser at the University of
California, San Francisco (UCSF) in the 1960’s (Charmaz, 2014). At the time, quantitative
theory was the norm for research studies. It was considered more rigorous than qualitative work.
During a study on death and dying, Glaser and Strauss became disillusioned with this type of
inquiry process (Kenny & Fourie, 2014). They felt quantitative inquiry removed the study from
the true experience of the participants, because the focus was more on rote procedures that were
mainly geared toward verification of theories. To move away from this type of inquiry, grounded
From its inception, grounded theory was very different from the methods being used at
the time. Glaser and Strauss sought the development of a research method that was rigorous but
also allowed for deeper inquiry into poorly understood phenomena. It blended Glaser’s
Grounded theory focused on the generation of theory by exploring the experience of the
participants, and digging in to the phenomenon being studied. Instead of seeking the verification
or extension of a pre-existing theory, grounded theory asks a question and seeks answers in the
form of narrative data from the participants (Kenny & Fourie, 2014).
Glaser and Strauss’s seminal study was on the experience of dying, and with their
burgeoning method they started a movement in qualitative research that was not focused on the
participants to collect rich data. In contrast to using surveys or tests, the data flowed from the
participants; it was not pre-formed by Likert style questions on a survey. This data was then used
to build theory. In this way grounded theory moved away from, not only the rote procedures of
quantitative inquiry, but also from the merely descriptive dimension of qualitative inquiry
Glaser and Strauss created an inquiry protocol based on pragmatism and symbolic
interactionism inquiry (Kenny & Fourie, 2014). The grounded theory method is rigorous, and in
the beginning the founders insisted on a rigid adherence to certain protocols. A study was to be
approached without prejudgment, therefore the ubiquitous literature review found in other types
of studies was not encouraged. As the method evolved, books and papers were published using
the grounded theory methodology, and about the method itself. As more researchers undertook
studies using the method, they adapted it per their needs, imbuing the method with characteristics
that sometimes changed from study to study. Even Anselm Strauss, one of the founders of
grounded theory, moved away from the original protocol and philosophy. This resulted in a split
23
Barney Glaser kept his vision of grounded theory as a pure method; cleaving to his
positivistic philosophical roots and quantitative background. He expressed that those who had
diverged from the original method of grounded theory were engaging more in description of a
phenomenon rather than the generation of theory. On the other hand, Anselm Strauss had moved
away from the initial form of the method and reintroduced it in collaboration with Juliet Corbin.
One of the most drastic changes in this evolution was the reintroduction of the literature review.
Together Strauss and Corbin eschewed the original method’s lack of a literature review stating,
“there is a difference between an open mind and an empty head” (Thornberg, 2012, p. 249). This
Glaser was upset with the changes to grounded theory and strived mightily to keep the
original methodological discipline pure, even insisting that Strauss and Corbin withdraw their
work at one point. When they did not acquiesce, he published a book as an exact counterpoint to
theirs (Kenny & Fourie, 2014). The rift between the founders of grounded theory has been noted
by several different sources (Charmaz, 2014; Kenny & Fourie, 2014; Thornberg, 2012). It has
been pointed out that Anselm Strauss used material developed collaboratively with Glaser
without proper citation. From this grew Barney Glaser’s campaign to reclaim and promote the
Into this philosophical quagmire waded doctoral student Kathy Charmaz (Kenny &
Fourie, 2014). Charmaz was a doctoral student of both Glaser and Strauss at UCSF. She was
influenced positively by both, enjoying classes and workshops that stimulated her own growth as
a grounded theory practitioner (Kenny & Fourie, 2014). She developed a strong professional
relationship with Strauss which lasted through her time in the UCSF program and persisted
throughout her career until his death in 1996. The influences of both Glaser and Strauss helped
24
Charmaz forge another style of grounded theory, one that follows the philosophy of
constructivism. Her method considers the hierarchical structures of society, and views reality as
participants. Individuals respond to a myriad of social pressures and expectations, and each
individual’s input and output affects those around them (Charmaz, 2014).
The rich history of grounded theory research philosophies might be summed up by saying
there has been a progression from the positivist viewpoint, which pursues data and strives to say
this is, to the pragmatist viewpoint, which says, whatever this is, it works, to a constructivist
viewpoint which says, this is what it is where it is. While the philosophical standpoints may
differ, grounded theory remains loyal to the pillars that uphold it. It requires a focus on rigorous
data collection, careful coding and interpretation, and above all, the edification of a theory, rather
explored (Charmaz, 2014; Glazer & Strauss, 1967). Glazer and Strauss (1967) suggested a
literature review may contribute to prejudgment and bias, and recommended little if any
literature review to avoid these conflicts. The tide changed when Corbin and Strauss reinstated
the literature review, and suggested it was possible to avoid bias while still preparing to embark
on a study by reviewing material related to the phenomenon (Thornberg, 2012). Charmaz (2014)
doctoral dissertation. For this study initially accommodating the conflicting viewpoints was not
an easy task. With time, however, the literature review proved to be a distinct advantage.
By extensively researching the literature, it was possible to pursue the study from a good
vantage point. Engaging in an extensive literature review helped compile a great deal of
background information for the study. Rather than crystallizing preconceived notions on the
25
subject, the literature review offered a topographical map of the terrain, which provided the
option to compare previous discoveries with new data and ask more in-depth questions, rather
than covering the same terrain again. The literature review ameliorated worry about
inadvertently reinventing the wheel. Early researcher bias and a narrowly informed perspective
was overcome with the addition of each new layer of information. This allowed for a greater
confidence to scrutinize incoming data through many lenses, rather than just one, and created the
possibility of an entirely new perspective. Charmaz (2014) states the literature can be used
critically for comparison and context, especially when developing codes and categories. By
becoming knowledgeable about the available literature early in the process, it was possible to
relax with the understanding of what was known about the topic, consequently freeing the
Three theories were explored with the topic of procrastination in mind. While reviewing
the literature, several stood out and seemed a good fit for the pursuit of the question, “What is
adults’ experience of procrastinating?” The three theories with the best fit are analyzed in this
chapter. As the research was done using grounded theory methodology, exact fit of a theory was
not required; the goal of a grounded theory study is not to prove or disprove an existing theory,
but generate a new one. Previously developed theories, however, provided diverse contexts from
which to examine incoming data. The different perspectives allowed for creative perusal of the
question in conjunction with the incoming data. In the following section, Festinger’s cognitive
Finally, Steel’s (2007) temporal motivation theory is examined with one of its parent theories,
expectancy theory.
26
Cognitive Dissonance Theory. Cognitive dissonance is defined as, ‘‘the tension that
arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions (Murray, Wood, &
Lillienfeld, 2012, p. 526). Cognitive dissonance theory postulates that when a person is in a state
of negative arousal they will seek an internal stasis or status quo (Festinger, 1962). Dissonance
refers to the cognitive inconsistencies one may have when trying to hold two competing
(Festinger, 1962). Upon having two (or more) cognitions in opposition, a person will enter a
state of negative arousal and seek to reduce this sensation by reducing the inconsistency
(Festinger, 1962). Cognitive dissonance may occur when one has contradictory behaviors
pointed out, or one realizes he or she has acted contrary to their usual attitudes. Per Festinger
(1962) this dissonance is a motivating factor to change or modify some cognitive element to
Festinger (1962) asserted that by ignoring cognitions one can reduce or eliminate the
negative state of arousal. For instance, by pretending one does not know smoking is a health risk
one can continue to smoke peacefully. Adding new cognitions or rationalizing may help reduce
this negative state as well. For instance, saying, “yes, I smoke, but not very much”, “My
grandmother lived to be 100 years old, and she was a smoker” or “I also work out and that helps
counter the effects of smoking” are examples of this type of rationalization. Finally, simply
refusing to accept new information on the subject is a tremendously effective way to avoid
cognitive dissonance. Gawronski (2012) introduced a large body of evidence suggesting people
are more concerned with feeling good than they are with accuracy, and asserted that cognitive
making.
27
An example of this situation would be a person who makes de facto political choices.
Their actions may be based on a variation of “I (or my family) have always voted for this party”
or something similar. Positive new information about an opposing party will likely be rejected
outright, and incoming negative information will help reinforce the low opinion of the opposing
party. Critically examining new information and considering it could open the door to reflection,
possibly resulting in cognitive dissonance. It is thus avoided (Breslavs, 2013). The literature on
cognitive dissonance tends to explore ideals and social issues like health, race, and gender issues.
It is not much of a departure, however, to see how this concept could apply to one’s internal
psychological climate and the myriad of factors surrounding procrastination, including perceived
competence or perfectionism.
When considering aversive tasks leading to procrastination, be they mundane and labor
screening each year, or writing for a wider audience, it is important to note each of these tasks
can be overwhelming. They can knock a person off balance and threaten their sense of cognitive
consistency or consonance. Self-beliefs may include being an intelligent and organized person.
When the checkbook does not balance, one can feel frustrated and unintelligent. Or the case of a
person who works hard at remaining healthy but has a family history of cancer and thus is
recommended extra screenings. This could be a blow to the sense of well-being, and well-visits
might be avoided. As a defensive measure, someone might decide not to follow up on healthcare
saying it is not important, and their exercise regimen offsets their genetic precursors. Another
might decide their checkbook makes them feel frustrated so they might forego careful
maintenance of their finances, revising their ideals to lower their discomfort, saying such care is
not necessary. In both cases the procrastinator may find themselves with short lived peace in
the mindset of procrastination. Baumeister (1997) suggested that procrastination marks a limit
between rational and irrational behavior. One of the definitions of procrastination is “to
voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay”
(Steel, 2007, p. 66), which by any standards would seem to be irrational. Lay, Kovacs, and Danto
(1998) examined the self-discrepancies involved in the irrational thinking behavior around
procrastination, and explored the differences between ideals and wishes versus duties and
obligations.
Lay, Kovacs, and Danto (1998) presented a scale of intended behaviors. At one end of the
scale are duties and obligations and at the other are ideals and wishes. Take as an example the
college student who, despite all evidence to the contrary, believes he can complete all phases of a
false optimism, repeatedly telling himself the project is achievable in an ever-shrinking amount
of time, thus damping the state of negative arousal down to a supportable level. This shows both
irrational, and wishful thinking. With this analysis, cognitive dissonance would seem to be a
good place it is to start a conversation about what might lead someone to procrastinate. Upon
reflection, however, it fails to reach the heart of procrastination behaviors. Procrastination may
begin with a piece of information that causes dissonance, but it goes beyond the accommodation
intentions.
studied in the literature for many years. The American psychologist and philosopher William
James explained how pleasure and pain function as “springs of action” propelling people towards
or away from certain behaviors (James, 1890/2012, loc.7903). James (1890/2012) referred to
29
pain as a “tremendous inhibitor”, and pleasure as a “tremendous reinforcer” (loc. 7906). Later,
Freud posited that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain (psychic or physical) is the
underlying motivation for all behavior, and avoiding pain can become as great a motivator as
considered a normal adaptive behavior which orients people toward survival (Krieglmeyer, De
Houwer, & Deutsch, 2013). It requires people to plan and engage in strategic movement (Elliot,
Eder, & Harmon-Jones, 2013). It has also been proposed that approach and avoidant tendencies
are biologically based, and that some individuals may be more sensitive and oriented towards
achieving positive outcomes while others are more sensitive toward avoiding negative ones
behavior to protect self-concept and the ego from situations perceived as threatening where one
feels vulnerable, as in academics or the workplace (Baumeister, 1997; Helmke & van
key factor (Bridges & Roig, 1997). People who are highly anxious have been found to be more
likely to procrastinate because it is more reinforcing to avoid current anxiety about the task at
hand than receive later (and not necessarily guaranteed) benefits for completing the task. Elliot
and Thrash (2002) explored approach and avoidance motivation as differences in valence, or the
linked to the concepts of appetition, reward and incentive; while avoidance is linked to threat,
In addition to seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, there is also a polarity when discussing
outcomes, even positive ones. A nexus forms here of being motivated to do something, or being
motivated to avoid something. Even the same goal can be approached from opposing points on
30
the scale. Ferris et al. (2011) define approach behaviors as the desire to procure positive
outcomes. Those who are oriented toward approach behaviors are sensitive to the situations in
which positive cognitions are perceived. On the other side of the spectrum, a person who exhibits
avoidance motivation designs behaviors to try to prevent negative outcomes. For example, two
students set an identical goal of earning straight A’s in school. The first student set the goal
because of a love of learning and a desire to do well. This is an example of intrinsic motivation,
and working toward Mastery Goals (Seo, 2009). The action demonstrates an approach
motivation. The second student pursued the same goal as the first. In contrast, however, the
reason behind the goal is extrinsic. “If I do not get straight A’s my parents will be angry with
me” or “I do not want to look bad in front of my classmates.” This last is referred to a
performance goal, putting oneself in competition with others (Seo, 2009). The second student is
Even when goals and the results are the same, there is evidence to support that avoidance
motivation has negative effects on desirable outcomes (Elliot, 2006). If not balanced properly
with appropriate motivation, avoidance motivation can lead to prolonged feelings of guilt (i.e. I
should have done more. I could have done better.) This in turn can lead to depression (Díaz-
Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008; Senécal, Lavoie, & Koestner, 1997). Unchecked, these
emotions can trigger self-consciousness, which is another facet of neuroticism that can add to the
negative affective cycle of procrastination (Díaz-Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008). Together
these can create a vicious circle and lead to the formation of maladaptive behaviors (Breslavs,
expectancy theory, need theory (Steel & König, 2006), and hyperbolic discounting (the tendency
to choose smaller but more immediate rewards over larger long term rewards). It emphasizes
31
time as a motivating factor. TMT asserts that procrastination reflects a pattern of temporal
discounting, wherein the value of rewards available at a delay is discounted relative to the value
of rewards available in the short-term. A person prone to procrastination may suspend efforts for
Derived from expectancy theory, TMT uses a simple formula for illustration,
Utility = E * V/ΓD
Steel (2007) outlines and defines the variables in the above equation thus:
E refers to expectancy, the belief that one can complete the contemplated task.
V refers to value, a balance of the needfulness of the task (for achievement for instance) and
McCrea, Liberman, Trope, and Sherman (2008) point to this distance in time as an
abstracting factor which makes tasks seem less complicated and concrete than they are.
Enjoyable activities that supply immediate gratification are high in both expectancy and value,
and are valued more highly than activities whose benefits will not be shown until sometime
further in the future. When examining the variables, it can be observed that at times cognitive
dissonance may occur between value and utility. Cognitive dissonance is defined as a situation in
which an individual must hold conflicting beliefs (Brehm & Cohen, 1962). This creates stress.
Since this stress creates psychological discomfort, an individual may try to escape the situation
by bringing the conflicting beliefs into balance (Brehm & Cohen, 1962). This could create an
Maintaining passing grades and an active social life may both be important to the student, but
social life is something that provides immediate gratification and is always available, while
grades (and their corresponding rewards or consequences) only come a few times per semester.
Additionally, a student may hold a high grade point average as a worthy goal, while at the same
time believing their work is never good enough, a type of perfectionism associated with
procrastination (Achtziger & Bayer, 2013; Rice, Neimeyer, & Taylor, 2011). This creates an
procrastination (Seo, 2011). While grading-times are still a long way off, the equation (for a
person who procrastinates) will give a higher utility to socializing. Once the grading deadline is
closer, a tipping point is reached and studying will have greater utility (Steel, 2007).
All of the theories explored above explicate and put different facets of procrastination in
perspective. Both the cognitive dissonance and approach-avoidance theories provide a view of
the cognitive and emotional difficulties some people who procrastinate may be facing. TMT is a
useful theory as it operationalizes certain facets of procrastination, however it does not take
enough into account the emotional charge it can create. The theories outlined here do not reach
far enough into the affective aspect of procrastination, nor do they consider the person for whom
Over the last several decades, various themes have emerged in the scientific conversation
Allgaier, Lachner, Fink, & Nückles 2014), as a personality trait (Schouwenburg & Lay, 1995),
and as a reaction to perfectionism and anxiety (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992;
Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Strand, 2009). A lack of conscientiousness is perceived by some
33
researchers to be the main component of procrastination (Lay, Kovacs, & Danto, 1998;
Shouwenburg & Lay, 1995; Watson, 2001). It is an extremely pervasive problem which can have
serious effects in all life domains (Klingsieck, 2013a), and it has been shown to affect about 50%
of students and 20-45% of adults (Rozental & Carlbring, 2014; Steel, Brothen, & Wambach,
2001). Up to 95% of college students have reported habitual procrastination as an issue in their
studies (Steel, Brothen, & Wambach, 2001). It has been found that women procrastinate slightly
less than men, and it presents as a key symptom of ADHD (Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari, 2013).
Procrastination can lead to lost opportunities in academics, business, and family situations
(Glick, Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014; Murray & Warden, 1992), and it creates excess stress and
anxiety for the person who is procrastinating and those around them (Rozental & Carlbring,
2014; Stöber & Joorman, 2001; Wäschle, Allgaier, Lachner, Fink & Nückles, 2014).
There is a small proportion of the recent literature in which procrastination has its
noting that the decision to set projects aside to develop while completing other worthwhile tasks
is beneficial (Chun Chu & Choi, 2005; Steel, 2007). The researchers assert that at times putting
things off is a benefit, because new information may arise which would positively affect the
value in the cost benefit analysis of the work (Steel, 2007). It has been found some people
deliberately wait for deadlines because they work better under pressure (Freeman, Cox-
Fuenzalida, & Stoltenberg, 2011; Ferrari, O'Callaghan, Newbegin, & Freeman, 2005). Arousal
procrastinators will purposely delay their work, hoping the impending deadline will provide an
adrenaline rush to carry them through the termination of the task at hand (Ferrari, O'Callaghan,
Newbegin, & Freeman, 2005). While this would appear to be irrational behavior, some
personality types suffer adverse effects when they do not have enough cognitive stimulation, thus
34
the impending deadline provides them the spark they need to gather their resources and finish a
project. In other literature “arousal procrastination” is not supported (Simpson & Pychyl, 2009;
Steel, 2010).
Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafson (2007) conducted a grounded theory study on academic
procrastination in college students. The study revealed that some students plan procrastination
into their schedule. These students will plan their end of semester projects, pull materials and
write outlines; then deliberately wait for the deadline to approach. In some cases, this strategic
delay has been found to be beneficial (Chun Chu & Choi, 2005). Mostly though, procrastination
is viewed askance, as it has been shown to be a detriment in virtually all life domains
procrastination, the knowledge base has grown accordingly. Many theories and studies overlap
between the diverse domains where procrastination is an issue. Also overlapping are contributing
Definitions
These definitions overlap in some cases, but do not always agree. Some focus on the emotional
discomfort associated with procrastinating, and others focus on the action of procrastination.
943). Procrastination was defined by Steel, Brothen, and Wambach (2001), as the discrepancy
between intention and action, and not a result of the intentional shunning of tasks. Takács (2010)
set forth the definition, “Chronic procrastination is considered the tendency to postpone in a
variety of situations that seem necessary to reach goals.” (p. 51). In general procrastinators
35
report having every intention of finishing set tasks, but in some cases, do not follow through with
their intentions (Wang, 2016). Procrastination has also been defined as, “an irrational tendency to
delay tasks that should be completed” (Lay & Silverman, 1996, p. 62; Walsh & Ugumba-
Agwunobi, 2002, p. 242). Lay, Kovacs, and Danto (1998) also examine the self-discrepancies
involved in the irrational thinking behavior surrounding procrastination, and explore the
differences between ideals and wishes, versus duties and obligations. Finally, Steel (2007)
It can be observed that the definitions of procrastination have evolved over time.
emotional breakdown, noting that self-defeating behavior is essentially a defense mechanism that
assures one’s own self-interest is put in jeopardy which marks a limit between rational and
irrational behavior. A decade later Steel (2007) called procrastination the “quintessential self-
regulatory failure”. Most recently in the literature Rozenthal and Carlbring (2014) referred to
procrastination as “common self-regulatory failure” suggesting that this definition of the concept
Personality Traits
It has been found that some are predisposed toward procrastination, and it has been
linked to trait anxiety and perfectionism (Baumeister, 1997; Walsh & Ugumba-Agwunobi,
“Big 5 Personality Factors” (Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Schouwenburg, 1992; Schouwenburg &
Lay, 1995; Watson, 2001). The Big 5 personality factors are neuroticism, extraversion,
conscientiousness is the trait most referred to, followed by neuroticism. Conscientiousness has
36
been defined along terms of impulse control, achievement orientation, thoroughness, and
reliability amongst others (Steel, 2007). It was described by Schouwenburg (1992) as will or
strength of character. Watson (2001), and Lay, Kovacs, and Danto (1998) have overlapping lists
and striving. Watson (2001) conducted a study of procrastination and how it correlates with
personality traits. Three hundred and forty-nine college students took the Procrastination
Assessment Scale for Students and the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. The results of the
measures were analyzed with a multiple regression analysis and conscientiousness was shown to
have an inverse relationship with procrastination. This result was duplicated in a meta-analysis
by Steel (2007) that also found that conscientiousness is inversely related to procrastination.
researchers to be the main component of procrastination (Lay, Kovacs, & Danto, 1998;
Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, and Koledin (1992) examined the links between procrastination
and perfectionism. Their research explored two distinct areas of perfectionism. Externally or
socially prescribed perfectionism is the perception that others expect one to be perfect. This
perfectionism was associated with fear of failure and the necessity of continual success (Flett,
Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992). The perception of task capability contributes to task
aversiveness if one feels unprepared to meet the task. Task capability relates back to the
Zabelina, Boyd, Bresin, & Ode, 2014). If one does not feel capable of meeting certain demands
37
Ugumba-Agwunobi, 2002; Wäschle, Allgaier, Lachner, Fink, & Nückles 2014). These points
highlight differences between the internal climate of the procrastinator, and their external reality.
Self-handicapping also becomes a greater issue when related with trait anxiety and
perfectionism (Howell, 2009; Murray & Warden, 1992). This self-handicapping takes the form
of using procrastination as an alibi for low quality work; since the project did not have enough
time dedicated to it, it was not as successful as it could have been. This serves the purpose of
shifting the focus of the poor-quality work onto the reduced amount of time spent, and the rushed
job, rather than the procrastinator’s abilities. For the person who procrastinates, an additional
advantage to this type of thinking is that there is less emotional investment in the project, and
criticism can be taken more lightly (Milgram & Naaman, 1996). A Catch-22 is created because
the person has now set themselves up for future failures. They feel relief at not completing tasks
as well as their abilities allow them to, which creates a situation in which evaluations will
probably be more rushed and not as in-depth, resulting in more superficial feedback that does not
threaten the person’s ego (Baumeister, 1997; Walsh & Ugumba-Agwunobi, 2002). Then with
little feedback to incorporate into new work future quality will also be threatened, thus creating a
While procrastination has been shown to be closely linked to personality, in many cases
there are external factors that exacerbate the problem. Milgram, Marshevsky, and Sadeh (1995)
created a research study to explore the correlations between discomfort, task aversiveness, and
task capability. Two hundred and thirty high school students completed a modified PASS scale
to measure task aversiveness in terms of pleasant, unpleasant or neutral tasks. Depending on the
person, tasks deemed “routine” might be neutral, while long repetitive tasks, even with a low
degree of difficulty, might be deemed unpleasant. It was found that task aversiveness and
perceived capability were correlated with delay on tasks (Milgram, Marshevsky, & Sadeh, 1995).
38
When external factors and situational determinants are combined with personality factors like
(Baumeister, 1997; Milgram & Dangour, 1992; Senécal, Lavoie, & Koestner, 1997) When these
are then paired with additional anxiety about evaluation in work or school an extremely
result of combined trait anxiety and perfectionism there is a higher probability of increased stress
involved (Aremu, Williams, & Adesina, 2011; Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari 2013). Not only are
personality factors in play, but task aversiveness, self-protection and resentment at having to
meet deadlines are part of the phenomenon as well (Bridges & Roig, 1997; Johnson & Bloom,
1995; Milgram, Marshevsky, & Sadeh, 1995). There are emerging questions that are not fully
answered. Is one putting off a task due to worry about receiving criticism and therefore engaging
in self-handicapping (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992; Murray & Warden, 1992)? Is
the contemplated task perceived as too boring or too difficult, and therefore aversive (Senécal,
Lavoie, & Koestner, 1997; Steel, 2007)? Or is one predisposed by biology and personality traits
to engage in dilatory behavior (Lay & Silverman, 1996; Milgram & Naaman, 1996)? When
perfectionism is involved does it precede anxiety? Perhaps the person has set unreasonable goals
for themselves, or feels that unreasonable demands have been set? Or perhaps procrastination a
conditioned response set off by an anxious amygdala (Denny et al., 2015; Milgram & Naaman,
1996)?
definitions of procrastination vary (Klingsieck, 2013b; Krause & Freund, 2013). Additionally,
39
the lack of consistent operationalized terms around procrastination has been noted (Klingsieck,
2013b; Krause & Freund, 2014; Seo, 2011). There is no overall agreement to what constitutes
procrastination, versus what constitutes strategic delay (Klingsieck, 2013b; Krause & Freund,
2014). Some articles sustain that all types of waiting can be classified as procrastination, and that
once a task is assigned it should be planned and executed immediately to avoid anxiety and
missed deadlines. Other articles explore procrastination in the context of waiting to let ideas take
shape as a part of the workflow with specific advantages such as discovery of new information,
and the benefits of working under pressure (Ferrari, 1992; Simpson & Pychyl, 2009; Wang,
Summary
(Rozental & Carlbring, 2014). It results in the loss of many opportunities (Owens, Bowman, &
Dill, 2008). People procrastinate for many reasons. Some people are predisposed toward
procrastination due to their personality traits (Diaz-Morales, Cohen, & Ferrari, 2008; Gupta,
Hershey, & Gaur, 2012), others due to a lack of intrinsic motivation or interest in the task at hand
(Glick, Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014). For some, procrastination is a result of irrational thinking
(Dryden, 2012).
Steel and Ferrari (2013) consider the impact of procrastination on well-being and the
implications of delaying health care or planning for economic changes like retirement. Sirois and
Tosti (2012) explore links between procrastination and stress. Procrastination can have a strong
impact in academic, work, and home life domains (Klingsieck, 2013a). It can result in lower
grades, in lower earning power, lost opportunities, and poorer health (Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari,
2013). Procrastination has also been linked with overall lowered academic performance
40
(Klingsieck, 2013b; Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007) and issues in the home and at work
(Klingsieck, 2013a).
The research includes empirical studies on the specific personality types and traits of
those most likely to engage in procrastination such as: psychological inflexibility (Glick,
Millstein, & Orsillo, 2014), impulsivity (Gustavson, Miyake, Hewitt, & Friedman, 2014), and
perfectionism (Howell & Buro, 2011). One of the consequences of procrastination is lowered
self-esteem, which can trigger a negative cycle of behavior (Patrzek, Grunschel, & Fries, 2012;
The diffuse nature of the literature makes it difficult to narrow in on effective strategies
for helping people who procrastinate to change their behaviors and be more efficient, as not all
people who procrastinate do so for the same reasons. There is considerable time spent
examining time management techniques and goal setting strategies to help curb procrastination.
Studies by both Watson (2001), and Wang (2016), have pointed out that for some who
procrastinate the behavior is not a time-management problem, and suggest that more study is
41
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
The present research study explored the process of procrastinating from the perspective
of the participants. There were several goals for this dissertation. One was to shed light on the
process people go through when they decide to procrastinate on a task. The dynamic between the
individual's perspective and the societal perspective was explored and discussion with the
participants revealed whether or when procrastination can be a positive action. The data was
gathered to augment and complement previous research. It is also hoped this research can help
develop a better approach to monitor, modify, or even leverage this perplexing behavior.
Despite the volume of existing literature, concepts are not particularly cohesive from one
study to the next, and definitions of procrastination vary (Klingsieck, 2013b). As discussed in
versus what constitutes strategic delay (Klingsieck, 2013b; Krause & Freund, 2014). There is
literature that defines procrastination as a personality trait (Lyons & Rice, 2014), while other
literature defines procrastination along the lines of time management issues (Gupta, Hershey, &
Gaur, 2012). The combination of amorphous concepts and diverse definitions informed the
direction of the research for this dissertation. The overall sense of the literature was that of a
This chapter revisits the purpose of the study, and provides a more extensive look at the
design, method, and procedures involved. A brief history of grounded theory is presented,
including the genesis of grounded theory along with two variations of the method. Additionally,
the target population and recruiting procedures for the study will be explained. The ethical
42
Purpose of the Study
In Chapter 1 the purpose of the study was outlined. Searching the topic of procrastination,
it was discovered that most of the literature frames procrastination from a negative perspective,
as a problem to be solved (Eckert, Ebert, Lehn, Sieland, & Berking, 2016; Rahimi, Hall, &
Pychyl, 2016; Rozental & Carlbring, 2014). In contrast, the perspective of the present research
was from a more neutral perspective; focused on discovering the process of procrastination and
its role in the lives of the participants. Suggested research from previous studies provided a
framework for the current research. Cao (2012a) recommended further research on the
“behavioral, motivational and affective domains” of those who procrastinate (p. 57). Schraw,
Wadkins, and Olafsun (2007) suggested “in-depth qualitative studies that compare and contrast
such specific themes as adaptive and maladaptive aspects of procrastination. Qualitative studies
may help researchers distinguish among multiple reasons for procrastinating, including which
reasons for the behavior are most important in different circumstances” (p. 13).
Many causes and consequences of procrastination are well documented, but the
behavioral process of procrastination itself is not (Cao, 2012b). Much of the research on
procrastination has been done through studies using self-report measures, and there is scant
literature documenting the procrastination process from the perspective of people who
procrastinate. In the present study, participants shared their own experience about their processes
and perceptions around procrastinating. These processes included preparation rituals, stages of
To effectively approach the topic of procrastination with the participants, and explore all
thinking about thinking, or the information individuals have about their understanding of their
inner space and coping strategies (Rahmani, Talepasand, & Ghanbary-Motlagh, 2014).
43
Metacognition refers to a range of dispositions for thinking about one’s own thoughts and
feelings (Blanc, Boyer, Le Coz, & Auquier, 2014). Teasdale (1999) combined these themes and
examined mindfulness and metacognition as ways to alter one’s relationship with “inner
experience”. The research questions in the present study were points of inquiry designed to help
participants reflect on their inner experience with procrastination and observe their thoughts,
feelings, and reactions when faced with the tasks of everyday life. During the interviews, they
were encouraged to articulate the steps they take during the process of procrastination.
procrastination process, by using metacognition to explore the phenomenon in their own context.
It was not known whether people who procrastinate could identify the specific points or
moments in the process where they turned away from their intended course of action. Interview
questions in this research study included exploring the triggers that caused a turning away from
the intended course of action. Were the participants conscious of this moment; and when did the
process begin? This study examined the process of procrastination with the participants, and
sought to unravel this nexus moment in search of clues. It was hoped that if clues to the different
causes of procrastination were revealed, it would be possible to develop strategies to turn this
juncture into a conscious decision-making opportunity, rather than a reflex reaction to a trigger.
Research Question
Research Design
Researcher and participants work together to illuminate and explain a phenomenon. In this
process, the researcher is not an objective observer, but a participant that stands within the
process (Charmaz, 2014). In research, none of the stakeholders exist in a vacuum, and when one
44
stakeholder speaks of something that is occurring, and provides tangible examples there are
situation somewhat like the circumstances in Sherlock Holmes novel Silver Blaze, where a dog
that did not bark indicated that a horse thief was known to the family; similarly, in grounded
theory there is much unspoken information. Charmaz (2014) gives a concise appraisal of
From a constructionist perspective, theories reflect what their authors bring to their
research as well as what they do with it. Yes, some theories in similar areas, particularly
those without much abstraction, may resemble each other. However, theories that
explicate tacit phenomena and construct abstract categories of them can generate unique
interpretations. The results of theoretical sampling and an interpretive rendering can give
the reader, as well as the researcher, a moment of joy in savoring original ideas. Neither
objectivist nor constructivist researchers may intend that readers view their written
grounded theories as theory, shrouded in all its grand mystique, or acts of theorizing.
Instead they just are doing grounded theory in whatever way they understand it (p.259-
260).
Grounded theory inquiry is multifaceted, and there are many different approaches.
Overall though, it can be defined as “a largely inductive method of developing theory through
close-up contact with the empirical world” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p. 383). A grounded theory
study was the most appropriate approach to the research question, because it allowed for a broad
variety of input from the participants (Charmaz, 2014). In addition to the interviews the
participants had the opportunity to correspond via email with their thoughts during the data
collection phase of the study. Grounded theory is particularly suited to poorly understood
situations, or situations in which there is not much information available. It provided rich
45
information for the insight and development of the present study and hopefully future inquiry as
well.
approach to analyzing and exploring data. The words and phrases coming from the interviews
are the most obvious points of focus, however the choice of words and how they are chosen is
also considered. Pauses, silence, and displays of emotion are considered data as well.
Participants’ relationships with other people or other things provide context and are important
facets to consider during analysis. Additionally, the quiet places between these elements is
important to consider as it has its own effect on the dynamic in the phenomenon. The researcher
is not an aloof or invisible part of the study, and so must be considered as well. Capturing these
The setting of the interviews included Adobe Connect rooms, FaceTime, or Skype,
depending on the technological capabilities of the participants. The flexibility of the grounded
theory method allowed the interviews to proceed at a pace that was comfortable for the
participants, giving them time to expand on thoughts that were important to them. To achieve
confirmability, results were cross checked by another researcher to expose weaknesses and
limitations in the analysis. This also provided a fresh perspective of the material (Trochim,
2006). To ensure confirmability, member checking was carried out with each participant
(Carlson, 2010).
The grounded theory method guided all the procedures including, purposive sampling,
data collection, and data analysis. Purposive sampling is defined as choosing participants who
best represent the phenomenon of interest (Charmaz, 2014). For this research study, the
participants chosen to take part in the research study were adults who identify as people who
procrastinate. They had experienced procrastination and its effects in their own lives, and would
46
be able to “purposefully inform an understanding of the research problem” (Creswell, 2012, p.
125). In grounded theory studies the researcher is an entity through which all information flows.
Inward, in the form of data collection, and outward, in the form of analysis. Throughout the
study a series of journal entries was written to process emotional bias, and reflex reactions to the
data. This process is necessary to maintain transparency and record the influence of the
researcher on the diverse aspects of the study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Maintaining a reflective
practice throughout the study was necessary for processing data and developing theoretical
sensitivity. “Theoretical sensitivity is the ability to understand and define phenomena in abstract
terms and to demonstrate abstract relationships between studied phenomena” (Charmaz, 2014, p.
160). While the reflective practice of journaling sometimes led to memos during the data
analysis process, the journal itself was not considered a data source and is therefore not included
The participants were encouraged to share their thoughts in the interviews, and elaborate
on them in writing if they felt moved to do so after the interview had taken place. Each
subsequent interview influenced the interview questions chosen, and some of the questions were
reworded as necessary for clarity and to elicit deeper responses. While transcribing each
interview, observational data was documented. Tone of voice, length of pauses, laughter,
discomfort, and other emotions, were observations that could contribute to the articulation and
understanding of the shared experience and edification of theory. Each interview was transcribed
shortly after the interview took place, and each transcript was checked against its audio recording
for accuracy. Following this process, the transcripts were sent to the participants for member
checking. This provided each participant with the opportunity to add or clarify information about
their experience. These opportunities of contact with the participants meant the data could be
reviewed for consistency (Patton, 2014). Collecting and transcribing the data was an iterative
47
process, and continued until new categories ceased to emerge, existing categories were saturated,
and emergent concepts were fully developed. In the present study, it was found that
procrastination began as a reflex behavior triggered by discomfort, but over time it became an
adaptive behavior leading to the development of viable work strategies for those interviewed.
One important aspect of a grounded theory study is that it makes sense (Stern, 2009).
This sounds like it would be an obvious aspect of any research inquiry, however it is an excellent
immersed in a study that things stop making sense (Stern, 2009). Moving toward making sense,
and conducting a credible, dependable study were the keys to establishing the protocol for this
research inquiry.
The design of this study focused on providing credibility and dependability to the
research. According to Charmaz (2014) the basis for a solid, credible study begins with the data
and is woven through both data and its subsequent analysis. She called on professional integrity
in researchers when she states, “…seek professional credibility. In short, my advice is to learn
what constitutes excellence rather than adequacy in your field – and beyond, if your project
portends of having larger import…” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 108). Fieldwork that is systematic,
careful, and detail oriented facilitates the production of high quality data (Charmaz, 2014). A
focus on skillful interviewing and unbiased data analysis also helps determine the credibility of
the study (Patton, 2014). In the study at hand, the researcher’s experience had its own part in
discoveries and discourse. The data for this study was collected and framed from the perspective
of the participants. Clearly communicating the participants’ experience with the procrastination
process was the goal, and as such the credibility of the study rested on whether the participants
equation and the data for this study was be collected and framed from their perspective
(Charmaz, 2014). Clearly communicating the participants’ experience with the procrastination
process is the goal, and as such the credibility of the study rested on whether the participants find
the results credible (Trochim, 2006). Participants actively participated in the quest for credibility
by providing approval for their transcripts, and having the space to voice further opinions or
concerns while the research is ongoing. Additionally, member checking required that all
transcripts be approved by their respective participants. The transcripts were sent to the
participants for their approval to assure they agreed with the information they had provided.
Carlson (2010) emphasizes the importance of carefully planned member checking to maintain
participant rapport.
process of the study must be documented clearly, and the study itself must be logical, traceable
and replicable. This is often referred to informally as following the steps of a recipe. Experience
came to bear here. This experience included collecting and sorting data, gathering student
information, and tracking it over long periods of time to spot patterns. The researcher has had
experience interviewing young adults about their concerns in academics and other areas of their
lives, is an experienced interpreter and transcriptionist, accustomed to searching for patterns and
environment (Charmaz, 2014). Context is extremely important in grounded theory, and data are
considered at many different levels. Language and choice of words is important, as are pauses,
silence and body language (Charmaz, 2014). The dynamic of the setting is important as well,
which includes the researcher’s place within the setting. Capturing these elements is crucial for
49
designing a dependable study (Trochim, 2006). These points dovetail with the goals of the
present research study as what was be explored was the process of procrastination from the
participants’ point of view. The researcher guided the interviews and asked questions, but was
A strong, transparent study allows transferability of research. While data will be pursued
where it leads in the study, it is important to keep in mind future research as well. Gathering rich
data, engaging in thoughtful and careful analysis, and providing a transparent window into the
study will allow other researchers to use the study to inform their own work. While the
transferability of a study is the burden of the researcher who wants to apply the research to a
different context (Trochim, 2006); it is still the responsibility of the author of the original study
As this type of qualitative study grows from the interviews between researcher and
participant, there are several pitfalls that need to be avoided to achieve confirmability (Trochim,
2006). The researcher recruited the participants, developed and conducted the interviews, and
analyzed the data. This immersion in the process meant the perspective would be somewhat
limited due to close proximity to the study. Personal bias needed to be addressed throughout the
study by taking notes on preconceived ideas and assumptions about the material. The
researcher’s experience had its own part in discoveries and discourse, and instead of trying to
suspend or bracket previous knowledge to set it apart, questions were pursued with fresh eyes
and great curiosity as described by LeVasseur (2003). Cross checking the results by another
researcher exposed weaknesses and limitations in the analysis, as well as providing a fresh
perspective of the material. Member checking, providing the transcripts to the participants for
their approval, provided another layer of security to boost confirmability (Carlson, 2010).
50
Target Population and Sample
Theoretical sampling is the process of searching for future data based on emerging codes
from previously collected data (Glaser, 1967). A purposive sample of participants was recruited
and participants who were the best examples of the phenomenon to interview were chosen. As
the study evolved the initial broad sampling criteria became narrower as the data was analyzed.
Charmaz (2014) expressed the need for theoretical sampling to focus in on the phenomenon
Population
The population from which the sample was drawn were adults who identified as having
issues with procrastination, irrationally putting off tasks despite the expectation that this would
result in less than optimum outcomes. To be viable candidates, these reduced outcomes had to
Sample
A purposive sample of participants was recruited for this study. The inclusion criteria
b) Their score on the modified PASS scale needed to be a 4 or above, which per the
c) At the time of the study they should have identified as persons having issues with
consequences included earned grades that were lower than desired due to
procrastinating, or being charged fees for paying bills or parking tickets late.
51
The exclusion criteria for participants included:
a) Having ties or pre-established relationships with the researcher that would result in a
b) Exclusion of someone who had experienced extreme issues with procrastination; for
(i.e. bankruptcy, serious illness, dropping out of school, getting fired from a job) and
who might have been caused undue distress when exposed to the diverse aspects of
Procedures
This section outlines the procedures used to carry out the study. Participant selection is
discussed, including methods of recruitment and screening. There is a section on the protection
of participants, discussing the protocol for the handling of sensitive data. Following this there are
Participant Selection
Upon receiving approval from the IRB, and completing indicated milestones, participant
recruitment began. Online recruiting was done through virtual flyers on social media, and
snowball recruiting was done through email. A brief description of the study was provided in the
recruiting media, with a fuller description available on a dedicated companion website. Potential
and exclusion criteria. After this step volunteers completed a modified version of the open-
source PASS scale to ascertain the degree to which they identified as individuals who
procrastinate (Solomon & Rothblum, 1984). Rothblum, Solomon, and Murukami (1986) tested
this measure for construct validity and sensitivity. It was found to be a reasonably sensitive
52
measure and have high construct validity for non-clinical applications. According to instructions
procrastination and is a good benchmark when using the measure. Participants who met the
requirements for the study continued with the steps for informed consent. Ideal participants did
not only meet the inclusion criteria to participate, but could fully articulate their experiences with
procrastination. As the study progressed the initial broad sampling criteria become narrower as
the data was analyzed. Charmaz (2014) explicates the need for theoretical sampling to focus in
on the phenomenon being studied and saturate the categories. Participants were sought who were
Purposeful sampling was the chosen sampling method for this research study. This type
of sampling is consistent with the grounded theory method (Charmaz, 2014). Adults over the age
of 18, who recognized their difficulties with procrastination, and agreed to take part in the
research were chosen for this study. They were chosen for their willingness to share their
experiences living as people who procrastinate on academic, home or workplace tasks. The
participants provided in depth information and insight into their personal understanding of the
phenomenon of procrastination, and reflected upon and clearly articulated their experiences
A combination of a snowballing email protocol and social media was used to recruit for
this research project. An initial wave of emails was sent to people known to the researcher. The
email provided a description of the study and a link to the dedicated website. The initial
recipients were asked to forward the email at their discretion to people they thought might be
interested in participating in the study. At the same time a link to the dedicated website was
provided on personal social media pages including Facebook and LinkedIn. This post invited
of the study’s details, its methodology, and its purpose. Contained in the recruitment materials
was a description of the study in a cover letter above the informed consent form (Fisher, 2012).
The recruitment process included a series of emails. The first was an introduction to direct the
volunteer to pertinent information about the study. The second was a follow up to set a time for
an appointment and include the informed consent letter for their signature. A final confirmation
email included the logistics of the call, including a link to the Adobe or Skype meeting room and
appointments. Participants were provided with a link and instructions on how to enter the online
meeting area via email. A partial list of open-ended research questions was made available to
participants before the interview as well. The interviews took place in an Adobe meeting room,
Capella University requires 8 -15 participants for a grounded theory study, and
recruitment is to continue until saturation is reached. In the present study, recruitment strategies
were successful, and nine articulate and well prepared individuals were interviewed. After the
ninth participant was interviewed, incoming data was fitting in to previously defined categories,
and no new insights were emerging, which indicated saturation of the data (Charmaz, 2014, p.
345).
Protection of Participants
Confidentiality must be strictly maintained (Fisher, 2012). As this study was conducted
online, proper management and storage of digital information was vital. Participant privacy and
confidentiality was maintained through encryption of materials and participants were issued a
pseudonym in all materials used in the study. Any artifacts collected, including audio recordings,
were handled per the appropriate APA and other governing body guidelines as mandated by
54
Capella University. Audio recordings require particular care, and have been handled accordingly
Contacts and communication made through the dedicated website and through snowball
Each interview recording and its backup is kept in a cloud based, password protected data
base. All local copies were deleted immediately from personal devices.
The matching key for pseudonyms is a password protected document that has been stored
The informed consent documents are in a locked file cabinet and do not have matching
Data Collection
Following the recruitment and informed consent process, interviews were scheduled with
to read and sign off on their transcripts as part of the member checking process. The agreed upon
protocol was to cover their experience with procrastination in the first interview with the option
of initiating a second interview if they felt there were topics in need of clarification after reading
their transcript. Data was collected through semi-structured, in depth interviews and some
informal written correspondence from the participants. Interviews for grounded theory studies
are semi-structured and based on questions that encourage a participant to share as much
information as they can about the phenomenon (Charmaz, 2014). According to Patton (2014),
these questions should have the characteristics of being “open ended, neutral, singular and clear”
(p. 446). Interview questions provide starting points to direct discovery toward the phenomenon
55
being explored, and they may evolve over the course of the interviews and the data collection
In grounded theory studies Charmaz (2014) signals the importance of gathering data that
is both "broad and deep" to "cover emerging categories" (p. 89). Patton (2014) makes a
distinction between questions that seem open ended, but are really asking about a level or a
degree of some feeling or emotion, and truly open-ended questions that encourage discourse such
as, “How did you react to the situation? What were your feelings surrounding what happened?”
Releasing questions to the participant served a dual purpose. First, for reasons of transparency
the questions were provided to reduce the anxiety some participants might have felt about the
interview process. Secondly, by reading the questions before the interview, the thought process
could be triggered and spark reflection on the topic, thereby promoting metacognition. The
interviews varied somewhat depending on participant responses. In some cases, all the questions
were asked, in others the participant was sufficiently self-guided and fewer questions were
needed to prompt responses. The questions were designed to keep participant and interviewer on
track, but distinct avenues of the phenomenon were explored when the participant introduced
them during the interview process (Charmaz, 2014). Thus, the research evolved.
Data Analysis
Charmaz (2014) described the process of data analysis as an iterative process where both
researcher and participant take part in the construction of categories. In the present study data
collection and analysis happened simultaneously. Interviews were transcribed into MAXQDA
software soon after they took place, and analysis began immediately. To begin, the transcripts
were read in their entirety and then extraneous material was crossed out. Interview data was
arranged by subject using the chunking technique described by Charmaz (2014). Narrative data
was considered in context, and each chunk of data was coded. One chunk of data might have
56
been assigned multiple codes. The codes were arranged individually, and then along the axes of
time, space, intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation, self and other, amongst others. The data
transcripts were compared throughout the process. As written correspondence was received it
Once the data was collected and transcribed the constant comparison coding process
began as described by Charmaz (2014). New data brought new categories to light and existing
Coding means naming segments of data with a label that simultaneously categorizes,
summarizes, and accounts for each piece of data. With grounded theory coding, you
move beyond concrete statements in the data to ma king analytic sense of stories,
with coding and illuminates studied life. If you concentrate on taking fragments of data
apart and asking what meanings you glean from these fragments, you will move into
Asking analytical questions while coding was a key part of the process. During the data
collection and analysis phase, initial codes did not cease to appear until the last interview was
transcribed, and the focused codes began to appear soon after the third transcription was finished.
Early in the process initial codes began to coalesce into focused codes, and then focused codes
gave rise to theoretical codes. Observational data, comparing incidents, clustering and coding by
incidents prompted the creation of memos, which helped the analysis process greatly.
As analysis progressed, there were codes that did not seem to fit anywhere. They were
not mentioned often, but carried a great deal of weight with the participants. After struggling for
some time with this part of the analysis, the literature on grounded theory was reviewed again.
Charmaz (2014) explained that the odd bits of data and code that do not seem to fit in the overall
57
analysis can be very important. She states, “A code does not have to appear again and again to be
a category” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 145). With this guidance, it was these less prominent but
Instruments
• The researcher
• Adobe Connect
• FaceTime
The researcher was responsible for recruiting the participants, developing and conducting
the interviews, and analyzing the data. This immersion in the process meant that the perspective
was somewhat limited due to proximity to the study. Personal bias needed to be addressed
throughout the study. This was done by taking notes on preconceived ideas and assumptions
about the material, and discussing the material with instructors and peers. Previous professional
experience had its own part in discoveries and discourse, and instead of trying to suspend or
bracket previous knowledge to set it apart, questions were pursued with an “awakened and
The literature was a springboard for the interview questions. Over the course of the
interviews, there were times when the incoming data closely matched the previous literature.
Rather than stopping with a match, additional questions were pursued on the topic to follow the
question as far toward its root as possible. It was in this broader data that departures from the
58
The researcher is a filter through which the data will flow, and care must be taken to
organize and interpret the data without imprinting bias upon it. Charmaz (2014) states, “Like
your coding itself, what the codes say relies on how you define their meanings. You are a part of
your analytic work. You bring your analytic skills and perspectives to bear on the analysis
throughout the research process” (p. 140). The role of the researcher in constructivist grounded
theory is as an instrument, working with the participants to create theory (Charmaz, 2014).The
researcher cannot completely suspend all beliefs and perspectives; it is more reasonable to have
conducted a significant literature review and be well informed on as many aspects of the topic as
possible in order to approach the research from a unique, yet informed perspective.
During the analysis, original expectations for outcomes were challenged by the data. This
created an uncomfortable space, as the original expectation was in alignment with the literature
the course of the interviews and analysis a different perspective was presented. In order to
acknowledge the unexpected perspective, and interpret the data with integrity required parting
ways with bias and long held beliefs. Memoing and journaling occurred simultaneously to keep
bias front and center to assure that the data were being analyzed in the context of the
participants’ perspective, and not in the context of researcher bias. Maintaining a reflective
practice throughout the study was necessary for processing data and developing theoretical
sensitivity. “Theoretical sensitivity is the ability to understand and define phenomena in abstract
terms and to demonstrate abstract relationships between studied phenomena” (Charmaz, 2014, p.
160).
• How would you describe your experience around the process of procrastination?
59
• What does “procrastination” mean to you?
• How would you describe your experience with putting things off that need to be done
• If you have one, describe the process or routine that you use to prepare to do a task that
you tend to procrastinate on. (Example, do you use a handwritten agenda, journal, to do
lists on a regular basis and how do you use them? Do you have cues that it is “time” to do
• Can you describe what is happening with you during the hardest part of getting started?
• Do you find that you have less difficulty once a task is started (get the ball rolling), or are
tasks just hard from beginning to end? Can you describe the experience?
• If it does, can you describe how the thought process around things that you procrastinate
on differs from your thought process to go about doing things that you do not have a
• How would you describe your state of mind or emotions surrounding this process?
• Think about a time that you were trying to go from thinking about something to doing it,
• How do you feel when you finish tasks on time? (For instance handing in a written
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Ethical Considerations
following question, “What ought to be done in a given set of circumstances, all things
considered” (p. 94)? They relate the innate difficulties of taking into account all of the facets in
complex situations that include the following: the facts of the situation itself, the law, the rules of
the institution, bias and personal feelings, among others. Navigating complex situations in
psychology where there is a myriad of cultures, laws and emotionally charged material, can be
difficult and to this end specific ethical codes have been created.
The APA principles provide a framework for the enforceable standards. They are
aspirational in nature and offer a guide for application in ethically questionable circumstances.
Overall guidance for this research study is drawn from Principles A and E of the APA Code of
Conduct (American Psychological Association, 2002). Principle A calls for beneficence and
nonmaleficence, and is the principle reflected in the statement, “do no harm” (American
Psychological Association, 2002). Principle E of the APA code of conduct calls for the respect
for people’s rights and dignity (Fisher, 2012). Together these principles support and guide the
present research project in its entirety from the planning stage through execution.
The studies examined for this paper were quite benign. The phenomenon of
procrastination is well known, and while it is certainly associated with negative effects and
the entire proposed study from preparation and planning to execution and data handling.
Interview questions are designed to probe facets of the process of procrastination, but they are
open, offering participants an opportunity to express their thoughts and experiences without
asking for painful specifics. That being said, it needed to be considered that painful memories
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might surface. If a participant was uncomfortable they were perfectly within their rights to
In compliance with Principle B of the ethics code a list of resources was available on the
dedicated website in case of need. The principle of Fidelity and Responsibility states that
researchers have an obligation to assure the best services possible under the law (Fisher, 2012).
One must be prepared for the eventuality that someone may be touched more deeply by the
research than was planned. Providing and up to date list of services in case of trauma, and
Principle E-Respect for people’s rights and dignity goes hand in hand with Principle B.
Participants had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. They are also the owners of all
the information they provided. Participants were given the transcripts of their interviews for
review and they signed off on them if they were agreement with the information they contained
The confidentiality and privacy of the participants is paramount. This includes protecting
phone numbers, email addresses, identities and transcripts. Identities will be protected by using
only initials or pseudonyms on the transcripts and the key linking identities to the transcripts will
be kept in a separate secure location in the event it is needed for an audit. Digital data will be
kept for 7 years in a remote password protected location. When the time period has expired data
will be erased from disks and written over, and any hard copies of files will be burned to white
ash.
For the most part the research was carried out with adult participants who were either in
college, in the workplace or both. One study did explore the topic of procrastination with school
aged children. While procrastination affects many people, and can have serious effects in
different life domains, it is not a hot button topic nor would it be expected to trigger strong
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emotions. None of the cited studies reported attrition due to psychological effects therefore there
was a high confidence level that the study would not provoke undue anxiety in the participants.
Summary
The purpose of this study was to explore the process of procrastination via a grounded
theory methodology in the style of Charmaz. The goal was to obtain insight into how people who
procrastinate perceive the different facets of their experience including the process, associated
emotions and the wider effects. The study seeks to add to the scientific knowledge base and
psychological literature, and provide a stepping stone for further study. The ethical
underpinnings of the study were set to protect the participants and enhance the credibility and
dependability of the study. In addition, the study was designed to be as transparent as possible,
and engaged the help of the participants through member checking to confirm data and allow for
changes if necessary.
These points are reflected in the following chapter where the participants will be
introduced individually in brief vignettes and they will speak in their own voices about their
unique experiences in the coding tables. The next chapter is a presentation of the data collected
during the study. It is arranged in clusters around concepts related to the phenomenon of
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CHAPTER 4. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA
The purpose of this study was the generation of a theory focusing on adults’ experience
explored from the participants’ personal perspective, included the reasons and motivations
underlying their procrastination behaviors, as well as an exploration of the emotional and social
components. A grounded theory approach was used to plan, organize and execute the study. As
outlined in Chapter 3, the grounded theory approach was developed by Glazer and Strauss and
then adapted by different researchers over time. This study followed the constructivist model of
Charmaz (2014).
The purpose of this chapter is to provide detailed information about the study including
the interest and background of the researcher, basic demographics of the participants along with
brief profiles of each. The procedures will be outlined in detail including sampling procedures,
and the data collection process. Following these, there is a detailed reporting of the results
including initial and focused codes with quotes directly from the participants, and a synthesis of
the findings.
administrator and shareholder in a private high school in Costa Rica. There it could be observed
that no matter what the status of the stakeholder, procrastination was always present. Students,
instructors, local and district administrators and parents all seemed to procrastinate. Exams,
meetings and cultural events routinely started late due to last minute preparations that were put
off even though they could have easily been finished well beforehand. This interest grew as the
researcher attended Capella University first in pursuit of a Master’s Degree in Education and
against procrastination while quite a few procrastinated themselves, and the home page of the
university had a dedicated area replete with tips and strategies to avoid procrastination. Despite
Rosary College, the researcher’s personal experience included some serious bouts with
procrastination. As a graduate student, this phenomenon was resolved, but the question
remained. Why do we do this? It’s no secret that procrastination can result in lower grades,
Throughout the course of the doctoral program primary sources were read on qualitative
inquiry in general, and grounded theory in particular. Research seminars were attended with the
goal to develop a strong proposal and further clarify the research question and manner of pursuit.
Also during the doctoral coursework phase at Capella informal inquiry among students and
fellow learners led the researcher to believe that “procrastination” had become a catch-all word;
handy, negative in connotation, but no longer particularly descriptive. According to the literature
the behavior of delaying tasks has many underlying motivations, and there seemed to be a strong
disconnect in the perception of society and the perception of the individual as to the necessity
and usefulness of this behavior. It also seemed delaying behaviors were deemed procrastination
when a higher member of the social hierarchy was pointing out the behavior, but when that same
member was engaging in the behavior it was sometimes referred to as pacing oneself.
Unique skills for the dissertation journey were developed while working as a guidance
counselor and radio program transcriptionist. As a guidance counselor, rapport building skills
were developed. Other skills honed included conducting interviews while taking notes, and
sifting through large quantities of data to spot patterns. Interview skills included formulating
non-leading, non-judgmental questions while also being able providing examples if the
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interviewee was unsure of what the question meant. An interview style was developed
incorporating closed ended questions as priming questions followed by open ended questions.
The priming questions were helpful in orienting the conversation toward a new subject, and
make transitions from one subject to another happen more smoothly. With a closed ended
question, a student or parent could think about the question in a more finite manner as it related
to their circumstances; the follow-up open ended question could then be pursued. The priming
question had the additional advantage of serving as an anchor or reference point for the topic as
Table 1 below contains the demographic information pertinent to the study. The age
range was from 24-60+ years old. Family and civil status is noted in the table, as well as level of
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Table 1
Demographic Information
insurance industry
fundraiser
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Participant Profiles
Dan. Dan referred to himself as the king of procrastination, and indicated that
procrastination had been an issue for him since he could remember. He indicated that
procrastination was a particular problem with academics, but that it had also permeated other
areas of his life. During the interview, he revealed how procrastination had evolved from being a
John. John is a retired magazine editor who worked for many years in the publishing
recruitment had resulted in Dan contacting John and encouraging him to participate. During the
preparations for the interview John referenced Dan’s referral and said, “Well, if Dan is the king
of procrastination, then I am the emperor because I procrastinate way more than he does.” Both
Dan and John procrastinated quite a bit as college students. John handed in an independent study
paper, a requisite for graduation, on the morning of commencement, nearly missing his own
college graduation. Dan took 9 years to get through his work and thesis to earn his PhD. So it
would appear that both had a certain claim to a royal title in procrastination.
Ruth. Ruth is married and has grown children. For many years, she owned and operated
a successful business related to the medical industry, and she is now retired. The topic of
procrastination resonated with her particularly in terms of doing routine jobs around the house,
especially jobs that require a lot of moving pieces like painting and sewing. Her take on
procrastination was that she felt she got a “lazy butt” around certain tasks, but did not feel herself
to be a lazy person. Over the course of the interview she enumerated many areas of full
At the time of the interview Marnie was semi-retired and working part time for a real
estate company. Her first career was in fundraising for nonprofit organizations. Procrastination is
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a new behavior for her. She said, “I always had to take care of myself, but now that I am retired I
find it easier to put off things I don’t feel like doing.” For this participant, the behavior of
Mel. Mel is a full time doctoral student. At the time of the interview she was working for
a welfare services office. She is married and has a blended family with young children and
teenagers. She started procrastinating later than many of the participants, and has a clear
recollection of the watershed moment she went from having things finished ahead of time to
procrastinating “literally on everything”. She disclosed her habit of putting everything off, be it
the mundane task of moving dinner from freezer to refrigerator to defrost, or compressing large
Kenzie. Kenzie is female, and works as a marketing manager for a retail food chain. She
is also a part time instructor at a university. She holds a Master’s Degree and lives with her
partner and young children. Her initial response during out conversation was, “Procrastination!
hectic career (where she rarely procrastinates) and how home maintenance tasks are lower
priority and can fall off the radar. She made the observation that her partner considered
procrastination to be disrespectful, and she recognized that while also saying that work and
family time was more important than chores in the grand scheme of things.
Janice. Janice works part time as a tutor and academic coach. She is also studying full
time at university. She is single and lives with her parents at home. She recalls procrastinating on
academic tasks as early as primary school, calling much of the work in those early and formative
years, “boring and pointless”. She recognized procrastination as problem that sometimes “trips
her up” at the end of the semester due to miscalculations. On the other hand, like Participants 1,
2 and 5 she organizes her schedule to coincide exactly with deadlines; prepping thoroughly and
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then laying projects aside until crunch time comes. This participant perhaps perceives the most
positive relationship with procrastination, aside from Participant 1. She enjoys the benefits of the
adrenaline rush and “forced organization” created by the deadline, without worrying overmuch
Brad. Brad is a law professor, and holds a PhD. He lives with his wife and has grown
children. His response was also a result of the snowball recruiting method, and he had a singular
reason for wanting to participate. While he and his wife engage in mild procrastination
behaviors when faced with routine tasks like grading papers or maintenance tasks, he was
concerned about the amount of time it seemed to be taking to sort out the large task of
consolidating 2 homes into one, and deciding on where to live when there are strong attractions
on each coast of the country. He had also learned to manage his habit of procrastinating on tasks
by setting specific goals or work quotas to finish before engaging in a more pleasurable activity.
Jane. Jane has grown children and lives with her husband. She works in the legal
compliance department of a financial advising firm. Her interest in participating in the study was
rooted in her desire to gain insight into why she sometimes did not follow through with planned
activities. During the interview, she spoke of being diagnosed with ADD as an adult but said, “it
goes deeper than that. It isn’t that I can’t concentrate or I get distracted. It’s just like if I’m not up
against a deadline I can’t produce anything. It’s frustrating!” This is similar to thoughts
expressed by other participants over the course of the data collection period. She continued, “I
can have everything ready, and then just walk away because it doesn’t feel like the right time to
do it yet.”
The methodology for data analysis was based on the model set by Charmaz (2014). The
process of coding in grounded theory is iterative, analytic. It flows from categorizing and
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organizing material to analysis and back again, creating an interpretive picture of the
phenomenon being pursued. Charmaz (2014) sets the minimum of coding phases at two. Initial
coding, where data is organized and defined, and focused coding, where codes that appear most
frequently or seem most significant are compared against the rest of the data. In her own work,
Charmaz (2014) stresses that she “prefers to keep the codes simple, direct, analytic and
emergent” (p. 19). She indicates that initial and focused coding are sufficient for most research
projects, but does offer guidance for researchers who would like to use other types of coding.
She explicates axial coding, reminiscent of Strauss and Corbin, as tightly packed relationships
around an axis. She also discusses theoretical coding, which is somewhat like axial coding in that
data are arranged around an axis. However, theoretical codes are looser, and prior theories can be
used to facilitate the integration of current data without stifling the current work. In the present
study, three types of coding are presented: Initial coding, focused coding and theoretical coding.
After making a duplicate of the transcript that would remain unaltered, each transcript
was read straight through without making any marks or assigning codes. The next step involved
eliminating any information not related to the topic. This was done by using the strikethrough
option, which left the information obscured but still visible so it was not distracting but still
searchable. Following these preliminary steps, the process of initial coding began. The data was
reviewed word by word and line by line and sorted into meaningful sections (Charmaz, 2014).
The initial effort at coding, perhaps due to a combination of an abundance of inexperience and
enthusiasm, yielded an unwieldy amount of codes. This first effort was scrapped entirely, and
chalked up to a practice run. The second time the data was approached with a strategy that
Charmaz (2014) calls “clustering. The data was considered from several different perspectives,
individual, society or other, physical spaces, emotional spaces, and the dimension of time. With
these perspectives in mind the coding went much more smoothly. Furthermore, instead of trying
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to impose code on the data in a linear fashion, a more circular route was taken allowing the codes
to rise by themselves during the analysis of multiple transcripts. Many of the initial and focused
codes were provided by the participants themselves. Appendix B has a complete listing of the
initial codes, and Table 2 shows the focused codes that provide the basis for the generated
theory. A keyword index was created to capture concepts within the different perspectives. For
instance, in the code “emotional spaces”, phrases that included words like anxiety and relief
MAXQDA allows for data chunks to have multiple codes, and the codes themselves can
be activated and deactivated to view the data from different angles. As more data was coded,
initial and focused codes started to emerge from the data. Some of the patterns seemed to follow
known phenomena related to procrastination, covered previously in the literature review. Memos
were written concurrently with the codes, and a journal was kept about particularly difficult bits
of data in order to assure that personal bias was being addressed and to increase reliability
(Charmaz, 2014). Perhaps due to the unsuccessful initial attempt to analyze the data, focused
codes began to emerge fairly early in the analysis. Charmaz (2014) states, “After you have
established some strong analytic directions through your initial coding, you can begin focused
coding to synthesize, analyze and conceptualize larger segments of data” (p. 138). By the time
the third transcript was analyzed early initial codes had begun to coalesce around individual axes
that started during the clustering process. Later, the focused codes began to emerge as the
relationships between what participants thought they should be doing as dictated by society in
the form of parents, partners, and bosses, and what works well for them as individuals. Dan said,
“societal sanctions against procrastination came to my awareness and my comparing myself with
other people.” He continued, “Procrastination serves a more subtle need or process for me…and
that is that there are times when it just doesn’t feel right to, and that’s the way I put it, does not
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feel right, to be trying to do the project at a particular given time… “Marnie shared, “Well I got
older! I find it easier and easier to put off doing things that I don’t like to do…because I have a
choice.” John said, “I knew that it was in some ways a hopeless venture, and I almost felt guilty
about taking the guy’s money, because he was trying to have a book published and because of
the…he was a first-time novelist and due to the length of the book and his refusal to let me
shorten it much and various other issues related to the manuscript I knew that he was going to
have problems.”
The next section outlines the initial and focused codes with examples of each in the
participants’ own words in Table 1. Focused codes are meant to help make the transition from
the concreteness of the spoken words to the abstractness of the unspoken context to “capture and
crystallize the stories” (Charmaz, 2014, p. 138). To see the results of the initial coding one can
refer to Appendix A at the end of this dissertation. Once the data was collected, initial data
analysis began while simply transcribing the recorded interviews and sorting the data into a
spreadsheet for analysis. Early in the process, however, a fellow learner recommended the
MAXQDA software program to facilitate the transcription and coding of data. After a trial run, it
was decided that the software was an asset because it allowed for transcription and coding of
interviews within the same program which was especially helpful in the later stages as the codes
were coalescing into their focused forms. The software made it possible to transcribe the
interview, code data chunks with either existing or new codes, and add memos, all within the
same program. There was a learning curve with the program, and quite a bit of time was invested
with tutorial videos to learn to use the program effectively. This was an important step in order to
avoid possible misrepresentation of the data during the analysis which might have caused
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As interview questions were formulated, interviews were guided, and data was analyzed
it was necessary to recognize that one cannot stand outside of the research itself. As analysis was
underway, and the coding and memo bank grew, it was necessary to return to the data constantly
to ensure consistency between the data and the coding. Working with the data in this fashion
required insight and intuition, a willingness to renounce certain ideas, and the patience to return
to the data repeatedly for confirmation. A journal was kept throughout the process to document
personal bias and assumptions, and proved to be a useful key, especially toward the end of the
analysis.
The data analysis for this study followed the constructivist model of coding, as outlined
by Charmaz (2014). The first step of the analysis was listening to the interviews and transcribing
them. For the first two interviews this was a linear process. As the analysis progressed, it became
more iterative as data strings and concepts were compared between transcripts. Each transcript
was checked against its audio recording before sending it to the participant for review.
Initial coding began with line by line analysis (Charmaz, 2014). Notes were taken and
initial codes were parsed but not analyzed, and data was chunked into large groups based on
common attributes. In the next step of analysis, focused coding extended from the initial coding,
and was where the phenomena being studied came more into focus (Charmaz, 2014). Once the
focused codes were somewhat established, they were arranged around topics and themes. Topics
began to decipher the relationships between the categories (Charmaz, 2014). provided a structure
or scaffolding for the emerging theory and provided a place to compare or attach emerging
categories. Theoretical coding examined the relationships between all the codes, comparing and
contrasting information from within and among interviews to try and capture the full experience
of the phenomenon as described by the participants (Charmaz, 2014). Interpretive theory was the
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final step in the cycle. “Interpretive theorizing can move beyond individual situations and
Other activities that took place constantly during the research process included taking
field notes during interviews and transcriptions, and memoing. Charmaz (2014) describes
memoing as the written articulation of the process flow while working through the study. It was
important to capture fleeting thoughts about the material, as they represented new ways to
organize or link material and lead to new research questions (Charmaz, 2014).
Appendix A shows the full table of initial codes and the respective number of segments
from the participants. These codes were then analyzed and arranged around focused codes as
Table 2
Results of Focused Coding, Organization of Initial Codes into Focused Codes with
Frequencies
Negative perceptions 52
Lack of autonomy 17
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Emotions triggered by procrastination Anxiety 21
Annoyance 5
Overwhelmed 20
Accomplished 12
Relief 17
Vulnerability 6
Work strategy 12
Alternate activities 13
List making 8
Project preparation 10
and alignment
Strategic delay 13
Internal clock 8
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Self-criticism 21
Perfectionism 11
Expectations of self 21
Expectations of others 24
Academics 30
Physical spaces 20
Focused Codes
The focused codes that arose from this research are grounded in the data that emerged
during the interviews. The data reflected experiences between the participants and their
formed by, and between, its participants. Much like atoms on their paths exchanging energy, so
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do individuals respond to a myriad of social pressures and expectations, and each individual’s
input and output affects those around them (Charmaz, 2014). Each focused code is the result of
the tension between the participants and their environment. Different aspects of procrastination
give rise to different tensions, resulting in different codes. The presentation of the codes follows.
There is a brief explanation of the code, followed by meaning units provided by the participants.
and views perceptions along two different axes. First, in terms of self and other (What others
think or say about procrastination. Self-talk related to what others say. What the participant
perceives as best for them.) Second, on a continuum of positive and negative. (Procrastinating is
The participants spoke of procrastination and its effect in their lives from many
perspectives. At the beginning of the interviews there was an unanimity of the participants’
“uncomfortable”, it “tripped me up”, and “it hadn’t served me well”. It was “my arch nemesis”.
Dan made a statement that captured the overall feeling for the participants as to how being a
person who procrastinates is viewed, “universally negatively, and universally people who accept
a task and do it right away and get it done are invariably viewed quite positively.” John
expressed a similar sentiment, “Well I think that if procrastination… the word itself has a
negative connotation. if you’re a procrastinator everybody, most of society would agree that
When asked about what types of tasks or projects they procrastinated on the answers
varied. In some cases, it was tasks that were perceived to be of low value. Janice said, “Some
things were just so boring and pointless it seemed a waste of time to do them.” Ruth and Kenzie
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expressed dislike for outdoor household maintenance, “It’s just the tasks are never done. And
they don’t matter! Who cares?” Marnie had a similar feeling, but about indoor maintenance,
“Cleaning the house is really tedious. I’d rather go and paint the outside.” The counterpoint to
this was tasks perceived to be of such high value by the participant that they became
overwhelming.
At some point in all the interviews the participants began to share positive aspects or
benefits of procrastination, and how this behavior fulfilled certain needs. These positive aspects
included enhanced workflow and stamina for long projects, and a feeling of well-being or flow.
Dan shared, “Procrastination serves a more subtle need or process for me…and that is that there
are times when it just doesn’t feel right to, and that’s the way I put it, does not feel right, to be
trying to do the project at a particular given time… " he continued, “There came a moment when
it suddenly shifted to “I’ve got to approach this” and I had a strategy, through much of my life in
terms of taking on tasks, particularly academic tasks of really the last minute adrenaline rush
allowed me to really focus and to be able to attack the task with a fair amount of intensity and in
a reasonably short period of time, whatever that was, depending on the size of the task, a few
hours to a few, you know, 2 or 3 days, be able to complete the task and complete it…sometimes
quite well.”
Mel expressed a need to have narrow time limits when she said, “So if I know that I
absolutely have to get it done then I can put stuff back on the back burner but I feel like I have a
problem prioritizing things to be done if I have too much time to prioritize. Then I just put if off
and I say, “Oh, I know I’m going to have time to do this, I know I’m going to have time later to
do this” and I just, I end up not doing anything." Janice, who had the least conflictive
relationship with procrastination stated, “It’s better to wait. This creates pressure, and under
pressure a better product is created and delivered." John shared that he has learned to simply
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accept his tendency to procrastinate, stating, “I can look at something and say, “ok, I know, I
know I’m going to procrastinate on this one” and so I figure out when it has to be due and I just
know I’m going to put it off until the last minute and so I devote, maybe stick it on my calendar
and devote a day, the last day, to doing that and ignore it until then because I know I will
Conflicts triggered by procrastination. This code focuses on the conflicts that arise
around the participants’ procrastination tendencies. Conflicts can arise with family members and
coworkers about optimal times to complete tasks. Levels of autonomy were included in this
code. The level of autonomy for the participant was coded as to whether they were making their
own decision to do something or whether a task was assigned by another person. Changing life
roles also created conflicts as participants moved from academics to careers, or careers to
retirement.
Aside from the internal stress and conflicts procrastination caused, participants
recognized the effects that procrastination had on those around them. When asked whether her
tendency to procrastinate influenced those around her, Mel shared, “I don’t want them (my
children) to do the same things that I do because I do think it causes more anxiety and it doesn’t
just affect the person. It affects everybody else that’s around you, you know?” Janice and Ruth
shared similar sentiments. Kenzie shared the perspective of her partner when she said, “My
partner thinks I do it out of disrespect, but I don’t, I just have different priorities. Some things
can wait; they’re not going anywhere.” John shared a feeling that was present for others as well
when he said, “My mom sometimes went a little bit nuts because she knew that I had a project
due and hadn’t seen about it yet and she was always afraid that I just wasn’t going to finish it
and…she was…both my parents were actually I guess, opposite of me in that if there was
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something that had to be done, there was, “do it now, get it over with, and once it’s done it’s off
your mind and you can really enjoy the fun stuff.”
turn triggers emotions like annoyance while in the process of completing a project, and feelings
of relief and accomplishment when the project is finished. The emotions run along a range from
positive to negative.
The participants shared that the process of procrastination begins with feeling
overwhelmed about a task or a project. It may be a boring task, but frequently it is an involved
project with a lot of possibilities. Dan shared a thought that was closely echoed by Janice, Mel,
and John, “I think that early on in my life particularly around academics that, and this is as early
as grade school and high school, I had a tendency to, when there was an assignment of some size
or complexity like a term paper or something along those lines and it certainly happened in
college and post graduate work as well that the initial experience was feeling overwhelmed.” He
continued, “I have a way of looking at the big picture and looking at all the potential avenues
there are in a given task and I can quickly just swamp myself with the data and the possibilities
Mel and Janice also felt that important projects needed to be started later rather than
earlier to diminish second guessing. Mel said, “because if I did do things as they’re supposed to
or putting a lot of time and effort into it then I think the stuff would be really good. But on the
other hand then I would have too much time on my hands to question what I’ve done and go
back and start all over and change it.” Mel explained the role the deadline plays in order for her
to gear up, “If I tell myself that I’m going to get done with something earlier then it’s really hard
for me to focus and find direction. If I think about it for a little while but then I don’t actually sit
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down and apply any of my thoughts of any ideas that I might have, then it becomes a lot easier if
it’s down to a timeline and I have to have it done. The deadline creates a comfortable space.”
An emotion closely related to this feeling of being overwhelmed was anxiety, and Janice
echoed a feeling most of the participants expressed when answering how she felt when she put
something off, “There is relief at first, but then anxiety. Maybe this time I’m not going to get it in
on time, I may have miscalculated.” Dan gave a glimpse at the tipping point of anxiety shifting
behavior from not doing, to doing when he shared, “The process of just shoving it into a box.
Then as the deadline would approach, the anxiety would start to become greater again, of course
because I was aware of the deadline for whatever it is, whatever the project or the task was, and I
would, it would reach a point where the anxiety about not meeting the deadline would be greater
than the anxiety about doing the task and so then I would do the task.”
Martin, & Simpson, 2016) and procrastination is no exception. Procrastination fulfilled the need
effectively capped anxiety. By waiting until a deadline was impending, the participants had to
proceed with what was available, thus eliminating second guessing and reducing feelings of
vulnerability.
As the process of procrastination began and ended with anxiety the question became,
“why do you continue to procrastinate knowing you will have anxiety as a result?” There were a
couple of distinct reasons given. The first was due to self-handicapping, or providing oneself
with an alibi for less than optimum work. Dan shared, “…so I had a built in alibi for not
producing the work of my own expectations, or the highest expectations.” And Mel expanded on
the thought, “If I wait until the last minute to do something and it doesn’t turn out how it was
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meant to be my excuse is that I procrastinated and waited until the last minute. I have a huge fear
of success and I don’t know why and I’ve been working on it but I know that it has a lot to do
with why I procrastinate.” The second reason was that without exception the participants were
busy people with full lives. Whatever they were putting off had not reached a priority state. John
explained when asked why he continued procrastinating in light of the anxious moments,
“Because you got to do the fun stuff, and all the grinds were busy at their books, and you got as
Others spoke of the reinforcing component as well. Although the participants experienced
anxiety over outcomes, overall they were high performers in their unique environments, and
procrastination as a work strategy was working for them. Brad said, “it is just self-reinforcing in
that sense…sometimes it doesn’t make sense to do it until the last minute.” John said, “You can
only know what was and what is and if you get, essentially, as in high school, rewarded for
procrastinating, put things off until the last minute so you got to do the fun stuff, waited for the
last minute to study for the test and you still got an A or a B on it, so that’s a reward in a way….”
And finally Dan shared, “There are positive elements of procrastination, there are some rewards
task…sometimes if you wait long enough, the need to do the project disappears.” This changing
perception of procrastination followed the evolution of the roles of the participants in their lives
as well.
Procrastination as a work strategy. This code arose from the participants’ revelation of
how procrastination works in their favor. They spoke of the stages of procrastination on a project
and how they would transition from inaction to action. This code includes the role the deadline
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Universally the participants needed a looming deadline to complete the tasks they were
procrastinating on. Ruth gave a lower stakes example, explaining how she saved up her home
maintenance tasks until the end of the season, sharing, “what will happen is I know I’ll only have
10 days and I’ve got to get through this list. And it’s not written down, it’s in my head and I
don’t write the list down, but I know what needs to be done, and then I go crazy trying to get it
all done.” Mel gave a high stakes example when she spoke of her experience with
comprehensive exams thus, “But I knew that if I had started that on Friday, I would have been
second guessing the references and the resources that I was using and the way that I was
answering the questions so I literally gave myself 48 hours to do the 60 pages and it ended up
being 68 pages and the comments that I got were incredible so I couldn’t believe that I was
actually to pull that off in that amount of time.” All the other participants expressed that they had
When it was time to begin, many of the participants needed to complete certain rituals.
Their physical spaces needed to be arranged in a particular way. John shared, “I think, I have to,
basically, if it’s anything that involves paperwork or filing or anything that you can do at a desk I
have to get my home office ready, I have to have everything I’m going to need to accomplish the
task there and I have to sit myself down and if it’s a writing task I have to actually create a new
document on my computer and actually start working on it.” Mel spoke of needing to eliminate
visual distractions, “while I sit there at my kitchen table and I look at all of the stuff that I have
printed off and I look around and the kitchen and my living room and there’s shoes on the floor
or my husband’s socks which he takes off in the living room and never puts in the hamper I think
about all that stuff that needs to get done even though it doesn’t need to get done.” Ruth sums it
up thus, ... “if there’s a task like that I line it up. When I get ready to come up to the lake I line
everything up at the door, and living in a condo that is the hardest thing in the world to do but
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that’s what I do. I have things all the way down to the landing. So I pile everything by the front
door. And when I was going to school I used to pile all of my books on the railing.”
Once work had begun on a project, the participants would stick with the work until it was
finished, guarding the time remaining until the deadline jealously. Kenzie shared, “There is a lot
of annoyance if I am working on something and I get interrupted.” Janice mentioned that she
cleared her agenda before beginning projects because, “Honestly I’ll probably get more short
tempered because I don’t want to be bothered or interrupted while I’m trying to get stuff done.
But I know that I’ve brought it on myself, but I do, I get short tempered with everybody.” John
shared, “Once I get started then I can get totally into it and you can’t drag me away from it.”
Upon finishing with the project, there was a universal sense of relief. John said, “Once I
get into it… I actually kind of enjoy the process of doing it and there’s this huge feeling of relief
when I finish it.” So how do you feel when you’re done with all of that? “Well, I’m glad it’s
over.” In response to this question “How do you feel when you’re done? Kenzie gave a succinct
answer, “Accomplished.” However due to the participants waiting as long as they did to begin
there was still a sense of anxiety waiting for the results to come back, especially in academic
projects. “It’s a relief but it’s also some anxiety to see how it gets graded because I know
whether or not I put forth the actual level of quality of what I could put into it.”, Janice shared.
Expectations. The participants all have high expectations of themselves. Part of the
motivation to procrastinate revolves around perfectionism, self-criticism, and the need to meet or
exceed the expectations of others. When they feel they cannot meet these expectations of self or
others, they engage in dilatory behaviors. The deadline then triggers the transition from inaction
to action as a tipping point from being anxious about not meeting expectations to being anxious
their tendencies towards perfectionism. When asked about the stressors that might cause her to
procrastinate Kenzie shared, “Well I look at what I need to do and what needs to be understood
from all parties in order to execute the plan perfectly. Usually in my case it has to do with people
that are involved and the people have to understand what levers to pull in order to execute the
plan perfectly, and then they have to be reminded but if I try to do it at the last minute it doesn’t
work very well.” John made a similar statement about a complex project, “I think the major
problem was that I was afraid it wasn’t going to be good enough, and so everything had to be
perfect.” He also recognized this tendency in a coworker when he observed, “she was a
perfectionist and she was…she was making her life miserable!” While speaking of perfectionist
tendencies the sense of risk involved, putting oneself on the line was mentioned as well, “We’re
concerned with what other people think and we want to do a good job not only for ourselves but
for the people that surround us and so it’s risky. It’s a risk that we’re taking.” Janice, Brad and
a physical component. As noted in the section on procrastination as a wok strategy, many of the
participants the physical space in their outside environment had to be arranged in a certain
manner to signal that work was underway. This facet had an internal component as well. Many
participants also spoke of an adrenaline rush or “high” that allowed them to work through
Dan was most explicit when he said, “... I’m pushing it (a task) off perhaps oftentimes,
until the last minute or relatively the last minute, but then when I sit down to do it and it “quote”
feels right and flow state is there, then it gets put together in a much more coherent and efficient
fashion.” John shared the physical experience of pressure before he starts as project as, “there’s
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that kind of outside pressure and sometimes it also feels like there’s internal pressure like
somebody is blowing up a balloon inside me and if I don’t get the task done before the balloon
explodes I will explode with it.” Then he went on to share what happens when he begins the
project, “if I’m actually going into what I’ve been putting off and starting to do it, I’m not sure
how to describe it, it’s almost like there’s a very low grade temporary high. I feel like, “Good!
You’re finally doing what you should be doing” and once I get into it, as said even with my taxes
I actually kind of enjoy the process of doing it and there’s this huge feeling of relief when I
finish it!” Janice spoke of a "last minute adrenaline rush” that triggered her creative process and
enhanced her thinking. Brad spoke of the combined reward of relief at task completion and the
reinforcement of personal rewards like walks and special dinners when he had met his goals.
Theoretical Coding
The concreteness of the initial and focused structures came together in the previous
section. In this section on theoretical coding the focus will be on the spaces between the concrete
structures. As mentioned earlier, many of the codes fit into theory put forward in previous
research; here the focus will be on the divergent material. The codes for this last section grew
from memos and journaling over the course of the analysis, but reflect a higher level of analysis
that synthesizes the concrete and tangible words expressed by the participants into theoretical
categories grounded in the data. Charmaz (2014) considers the possibility of sensing and
understanding the presence of a concept or phenomena without being able to “capture and
crystallize” it (p. 138). In order to capture these codes more abstract theoretical codes are created
and these theoretical codes can emerge without the concepts being explicitly mentioned by the
participants; early codes can be the basis of later and more abstract ones, and that theoretical
process or a way of doing things that worked quite well for them, but which put them at
odds with other people in their lives, including parents, professors, bosses, and life
partners. It was at this point the data began to diverge from much of the available
procrastination as positive work strategy. At some point in each interview the tide tended
to turn away from the negative aspects of procrastination the participants perceived, like
anxiety and personal conflict. Janice, the youngest participant, was completely
comfortable with her tendency toward procrastination. She said, “it’s better to wait, you
2. Procrastination and autonomy-The conflict between “self” and “other” came out in
the participants became more autonomous, whether in terms of career or domain, they
personal domains. Most of the participants had successfully pursued careers that enabled
them to have a great deal of autonomy, and they reported much less procrastination in
their career domains; especially those who had their own businesses and did not have an
innate ability to plan a project and get it in exactly on time. They spoke of growing into,
maturing, and perfecting a process that allows them to be highly engaged in their lives
and still organize, produce, and deliver well produced, complex projects in short periods
of time. Some of the participants shared that they used procrastination as an alibi for
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work that was not up to the highest standards. This was previously examined by Milgram
and Naaman (1996). However, all the participants without exception are high performers,
not merely getting by. This did not agree with the literature, and heralded the genesis of
to represent any delay, especially in situations where there is an “other”, some of the
participants perceived they were procrastinating on doing things that carried a heavy
emotional burden; tasks that did not have deadlines and required careful thought and
execution. These heavily laden emotional decisions shared a common trait of the
these situations made the participants feel as if they were procrastinating or not meeting
the expectations of colleagues or loved ones, even if there was no explicit or spoken
pressure from the other. Examples from the participants include moving from a decades
old home and familiar neighborhood, to having a final meeting with a trusted health care
counselor.
Figure 1 below represents the cycle the participants’ emotions can follow when they are
pursuing a project. They have developed a process that works for them as individuals, which
goes against societal norms of getting things done quickly and immediately. From within, they
feel their processes work for them. They feel capable of compliance and success given the
parameters it is most comfortable for them to work within. When faced with opposition from
their partners, co-workers or professors, however, they second guess not only their work but their
skills to get the work done which results in disharmony. This disharmony then feeds into more
procrastination behaviors.
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Summary
For the participants in this study, procrastination was related to anxiety and avoidance
when they first began to procrastinate. Over time it evolved into an effective work strategy for
them. They developed a strong sense of how long projects would take them to complete and
planned their activities accordingly. Once they began the production phase of a project, they
would guard their time jealously to finish on time. While procrastinating had previously been a
kind of excuse or alibi for not performing up to expectations earlier in their lives, the behavior
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had evolved to a point where they could complete complicated projects in reduced time periods
and produce good, and often excellent, results. Chapter 5 contains a discussion and interpretation
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CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the results of the study presented in Chapter 4 in
the wider context of the literature and the field of psychology in general. A brief recapitulation of
the results will be presented, followed by an analysis of the results in the context of the previous
literature. Conclusions will follow, and broader implications based on the outcomes of the study.
An interpretation of the findings, including an examination of the limitations of the study will
then be presented. Following this section are recommendations for further research which have
been developed over the course of the analysis. Final thoughts will be offered, and the study will
come to a close.
While gathering literature for this study it was found that much of it focused on
(Eckert, Ebert, Lehn, Sieland, & Berking, 2016; Rahimi, Hall, & Pychyl, 2016; Rozental &
Carlbring, 2014). Most of the studies were built around self-report measures, which are prone to
bias and distortion (Hoskin, 2012). Qualitative research on the phenomenon of procrastination
was suggested to help discover “behavioral, motivational and affective domains” (Cao, 2012a, p.
57) and suggested “in-depth qualitative studies that compare and contrast such specific themes as
adaptive and maladaptive aspects of procrastination” (Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafsun, 2007, p.
24). Qualitative studies may help researchers distinguish among multiple reasons for
procrastinating, including which reasons are most important in different circumstances. The
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present study focused on discovering the process of procrastination and its role in the lives of the
The grounded theory method in the style of Charmaz was used to inform and execute this
study. Grounded theory uses inductive reasoning and iterative strategies (Charmaz, 2014). While
a Likert-style survey was used for screening volunteers, the data for analysis was collected via
in-depth interviews where the participant was the expert on the question at hand (Charmaz, 2014,
p. 70). The study was designed to delve more deeply into the phenomenon of the procrastination
process as it is experienced by those who procrastinate. The interview questions were formulated
to be neutral. As the interviews progressed, new paths were followed deeper into the
phenomenon, exploring different avenues of the topic through the eyes of the participants.
Participant narrative formed the data, allowing for the subject to be expanded according to what
they wished to express. The combination of grounded theory methodology and constructivist
perspective provided a space in which to compare and contrast the data. In the constructivist
tradition, hierarchical relationships and social constructs were considered as the data was
analyzed. This helped create a unique contribution to the existing literature base by providing
data about the process of procrastination, its purpose, and its effects in the lives of the
participants, offering a fuller picture of the phenomenon. The results will be useful to those who
seek to understand more about why they, or those around them, in any of their life domains,
procrastinate. In turn this will provide insight into how to leverage or modify those behaviors if
they choose to do so. This could be beneficial at personal, academic, corporate, and community
levels as the costs of procrastination in these places is high (Schraw, Wadkins, & Olafson, 2007;
Steel, 2007).
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Discussion of the Results
The research question for the present project was “What is adults’ experience of
procrastination?” The grounded theory method allowed the participants a space to respond to this
question without judgement, and they felt motivated to share their experiences. In the early
minutes of the interviews participants’ experiences lined up with previous studies. However, at a
certain point in most of the interviews, the data began to diverge from the material in the
literature review. The participants shared stories, not of overwhelming occurrences of lost
opportunities, but opportunities gained. They told of how, by putting tasks off, they could enjoy
“the fun stuff” and an impending deadline provided an adrenaline kick that facilitated completing
complex projects in short periods of time. They spoke of impending deadlines as a source of
relief because the deadline effectively corralled the infinite possibilities of a project into a finite
space.
The results of the study indicate there is more to the phenomenon of procrastination than
The synthesis of the data and literature together painted a picture of an evolving, adaptive
behavior. For participants in the study, procrastination behavior caused discomfort due to
conflicts, both internal and external, relating to the expectations of others. Common threads that
were woven through the narratives were “I don’t like procrastinating, it’s uncomfortable”. They
revealed disappointment in themselves and were self-critical based on what they were hearing
from external sources; however, on an individual level, procrastination was effective for them as
a work strategy and they had successfully evolved their strategy despite external pressures. In
spite of the discomfort, most participants had honed a workflow process involving deliberate,
planned delays while still thinking about those delays in terms of procrastination. The
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termination of important projects would be scheduled at the last minute, and they would clear
One reason the study may have offered the results it did are the characteristics of the
participants. They self-identified as people who procrastinate, and put things off, sometimes
indefinitely. Yet with few exceptions, they all responded to the recruitment materials, made
people who procrastinate did not line up with their actions as participants in this research study.
As discussed previously, the definitions of procrastination have evolved over time and
how costly procrastination is in terms of time and money. Much effort is invested in improving
efficiency and rectifying time management issues. The participants in this study have absorbed
and are impacted by the negative viewpoint society has of their tendency to procrastinate. Most
expressed a desire to have a different approach to their work, because procrastinating causes
disharmony and discomfort in their lives. Despite their efforts to change to a more socially
acceptable system of work however, the approach that they use, which involves putting the tasks
off until they are nearly due, is what works for them. This sets up an iterative conflict between
The results of the study would suggest that procrastination is a difference in perception
procrastination is viewed askance, even when the finished product is acceptable. Procrastination
causes a level of emotional discomfort that affects stakeholders, and a lack of understanding
seems to exist on all sides. From the participants’ point of view, there was a strong sense of
wanting to please external parties and comply with expectations. They would painstakingly lay
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the foundations to prepare a project; but without a solid deadline, they felt unable to engage in
The literature review provided a foundation against which to test emerging codes. As the
initial and focused codes were created it was found that much of the data collected fell into
categories covered in previous research. As seen in Chapters 1 and 2, there are diverse
definitions of procrastination in the literature. Definitions overlap, but do not always agree on the
particulars. From the emotional perspective, Bridges and Roig (1997) defined procrastination as
indefinitely postponing a task or an activity” (p. 943). From a behavioral or action perspective,
procrastination was defined by Steel, Brothen and Wambach (2001), as the discrepancy between
intention and action, and not a result of the intentional shunning of tasks. Takács (2010) set forth
In general, people who procrastinate report having every intention of finishing set tasks,
but in some cases, do not follow through with their intentions (Wang, 2016). For the most part,
the participants in the present study did follow through with their intentions, although they did
cut things very close to set deadlines. Mel shared, “I really procrastinate literally on everything
in life. I mean, I always have and I don’t know why. I always manage to get stuff done, but it’s
always last minute. So I think if I have too much time on my hands to think about it, I keep
changing my mind about stuff, so I just have to wait until the very last minute and go with my
gut.”
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Finally, Steel (2007) defined procrastination as a “voluntarily delay in an intended course
of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay” (p. 66). Dan supported this definition
when he said, “I had sort of a ready-made excuse if it didn’t meet standards. I could say, “well,
you know I did it at the last minute.” Mel shared a similar thought when she said, “If I wait until
the last minute to do something and it doesn’t turn out how it was meant to be my excuse is that I
procrastinated and waited until the last minute. I have a huge fear of success and I don’t know
why and I’ve been working on it but I know that it has a lot to do with why I procrastinate.”
Data resulting from the interviews was compared with the literature. Cognitive
dissonance theory refers to the cognitive inconsistencies one may have when trying to hold two
defined as, ‘‘the tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent
cognitions (Murray, Wood, & Lillienfeld, 2012, p. 526). Per Festinger (1962) this dissonance is a
motivating factor to change or modify some cognitive element to regain consonance and the
individual seeks status quo. Consonance occurs when cognitions are consistent or congruent
(Festinger, 1962). Upon having two (or more) cognitions in opposition, a person will enter a state
of negative arousal and seek to reduce this sensation by reducing the inconsistency (Festinger,
1962).
The literature on cognitive dissonance tends to explore ideals and social issues like
health, race, and gender issues but for this dissertation it was used as a scaffolding to examine
these tasks can be overwhelming. They can knock a person off balance and threaten their sense
unintelligent. One might decide their checkbook makes them feel frustrated so they might forego
careful maintenance of their finances, revising their ideals to lower their discomfort, saying such
The revision of internal attitudes to reach congruence, even at the expense of being worse
off, seemed to approach the mindset of procrastination. Baumeister (1997) suggested that
procrastination marks a limit between rational and irrational behavior. One of the definitions of
worse off for the delay” (Steel, 2007), which by any standards would seem to be irrational. Lay,
Kovacs, and Danto (1998) presented a scale of intended behaviors. At one end of the scale were
duties and obligations and at the other are ideals and wishes. Procrastination may begin with a
piece of information that causes dissonance, but it goes beyond the accommodation and revision
The data collected at the beginning of many of the interviews supported the theory of
cognitive dissonance. The participants shared their desire to not only to be considered as
intelligent and capable people by others, but considered themselves capable and intelligent as
well. When they were faced with a project or situation perceived as overwhelming they would
put it off, which would temporarily quiet the dissonance and provide consonance. There was a
sense of relief and well-being in the beginning stages of procrastination because the stimulus
causing the negative arousal had been postponed. Examples from the participants include this
from John, “and so you want it to be perfect. You want it to be as good as it can possibly be
because if you take writing seriously the writing is a reflection of you and who you are, and if
you think you’re a smart person then you want this paper to reek of intelligence, and that makes
it hard to get started.” A thought from Dan followed the cognitive dissonance pattern as well,
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"and my comparing myself with other people, you know, probably that’s why especially in the
adolescent years when that’s really something that you do a lot of… That you see what other
people are doing and you say, “oh gosh, I wish I could do that. Oh, they’re so good at…whatever
it is that they’re good at, you know? So I think that the awareness came then, at that time and that
In Chapter 2 the American psychologist and philosopher William James was referenced
on how he explained how pleasure and pain function as “springs of action” propelling people
towards or away from certain behaviors (James, 1890/2012, loc.7903). James (1890/2014)
7906). Later, Freud said that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain (psychic or physical)
is the underlying motivation for all behavior, and avoiding pain can become as great a motivator
a normal adaptive behavior which people need for survival (Krieglmeyer, De Houwer, &
Deutsch, 2013). It requires planning behaviors and strategic movement (Elliot, Eder, & Harmon-
Jones, 2013). It has been proposed that approach and avoidant tendencies are biologically based,
and that some individuals may be more sensitive and oriented towards achieving positive
outcomes while others are more sensitive toward avoiding negative ones (Elliot & Thrash, 2002;
Mel said, “I can effectively put stuff off, but I’m still accomplishing other things so I think I can
use that as my excuse for why I have to procrastinate and wait until the last minute.” Marnie was
straightforward when she said, “Rather than vacuuming and dusting and cleaning the house, I’ll
start a project like painting the house to avoid doing things I don’t like to do.” Dan shared, “I
think that anxiety about my ability to produce quality work then also got in the way so I would
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shove it aside, I would shove the anxiety aside and sort of get myself immersed in other things.
Diversions and just putting it off, just not thinking about it, you know?”
avoidance. It has been described as a behavior to protect self-concept and the ego from situations
(Baumeister, 1997; Helmke & van Aken,1995; Skaalvik, 1997). When examining academic
procrastination problem avoidance is a key factor (Bridges & Roig, 1997); People who are
highly anxious have been found to be more likely to procrastinate because it is more reinforcing
to avoid current anxiety about the task at hand than receive later (and not necessarily guaranteed)
benefits for completing the task. Elliot and Thrash (2002) explored approach and avoidance
situation. Approach motivation is also linked to the concepts of appetition, reward and incentive;
while avoidance is linked to threat, aversion or punishment (Elliot, Eder, & Harmon-Jones,
2013). Dan reported, “The process of just shoving it into a box. Then as the deadline would
approach, the anxiety would start to become greater again, of course because I was aware of the
deadline for whatever it is, whatever the project or the task was, and I would, it would reach a
point where the anxiety about not meeting the deadline would be greater than the anxiety about
In addition to seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, there is also a polarity when discussing
outcomes, even positive ones. A nexus forms here of being motivated to do something, or being
motivated to avoid something. Even the same goal can be approached from opposing points on
the scale. Ferris et al. (2011) define approach behaviors as the desire to procure positive
outcomes. Those who are oriented toward approach behaviors are sensitive to the situations in
which positive cognitions are perceived. On the other side of the spectrum a person who exhibits
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avoidance motivation designs behaviors to try to prevent negative outcomes. Even when goals
and the results are the same, there is evidence to support that avoidance motivation has negative
effects on desirable outcomes (Elliot, 2006). If not balanced properly with appropriate
motivation, avoidance motivation can lead to prolonged feelings of guilt (i.e. I should have done
of procrastination, but did not reach the adaptive facet procrastination represented for the
participants. At the beginning of the interviews there was a sense that the data being collected fit
very well into what was already known about the phenomenon. Once the interviews got further
underway however, there was a subtle shift in perspective. Over time, while the participants were
still experiencing discomfort, it was not because of an irrational delay, but the response to what
they, or others around them, thought they should be doing. The growing sense of autonomy
arbitrary (Johnson & Bloom, 1995; Milgram, Marshevsky, & Sadeh, 1995).
expectancy theory, need theory (Steel & König, 2006), and hyperbolic discounting (the tendency
to choose smaller but more immediate rewards over larger rewards over the long term). Time is
considered as a motivating factor. Temporal discounting, wherein the value of rewards available
at a delay are discounted relative to the value of rewards available in the short-term, is
considered the main facet in the pattern of procrastination. Someone prone to procrastination
may delay efforts for completion of a long-term goal with large consequences to partake in an
activity that offers immediately available, but smaller, rewards. John shared, “Because you got to
do the fun stuff, and all the grinds were busy at their books, and you got as good a grade as they
did so… why not do it my way?” Dan explained how the process would move from delay into
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action thus, “The process of just shoving it into a box. Then as the deadline would approach, the
anxiety would start to become greater again, of course because I was aware of the deadline for
whatever it is, whatever the project or the task was, and I would, it would reach a point where the
anxiety about not meeting the deadline would be greater than the anxiety about doing the task.”
In recent literature procrastination has its proponents. There are research studies
discussing procrastination as an advantageous behavior, noting that the decision to set projects
aside to develop while completing other worthwhile tasks is beneficial (Chun Chu & Choi, 2005;
Steel, 2007). The researchers explicate that sometimes putting things off is beneficial, because
new information may come to light which could positively affect outcomes; therefore, in certain
situations, procrastination might be an advantage in the cost benefit analysis of the work. Some
people deliberately wait for deadlines because they work better under pressure, purposely
delaying their work in hopes a looming deadline will provide an adrenaline rush to boost
performance (Ferrari, O'Callaghan, Newbegin, & Freeman, 2005). John gave an example of this
when he said, “Once I get started then I can get totally into it and you can’t drag me away from
it.” Mel also expressed that she guarded the final period before her projects jealously, saying,
Dan talked about the state of mind that accompanies working on a short deadline thus, “... I’m
pushing it off perhaps oftentimes, until the last minute or relatively the last minute, but then
when I sit down to do it and it “quote” feels right and flow state is there, then it gets put together
and Koledin (1992) studied the correlation between procrastination and perfectionism. Self-
oriented perfectionism was associated with fear of failure and the necessity of continual success
(Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992). The perception of task capability can contribute to
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an elevated level of perceived task aversiveness if one feels unprepared to meet the task and
Boyd, Bresin, & Ode, 2014). If one does not feel capable of meeting certain demands (at work or
Agwunobi, 2002; Wäschle, Allgaier, Lachner, Fink, & Nückles 2014). Sometimes self-
handicapping in this manner can take the form of using procrastination as an alibi for low quality
work. This serves the purpose of shifting the focus of poor-quality work onto the time spent
completing the project versus the person’s abilities. For those who procrastinate, an additional
advantage to this type of thinking is less emotional involvement in the project, which buffers
criticism (Milgram & Naaman, 1996). It has been demonstrated that when procrastination is
related to perfectionism and trait anxiety it can lead to increased stress (Walsh & Ugumba-
becomes a greater issue when related with trait anxiety and perfectionism (Howell, 2009; Murray
When situational determinants are combined with personality factors the probability of
procrastination increases (Baumeister, 1997; Milgram & Dangour, 1992; Senécal, Lavoie, &
Koestner, 1997) Adding additional anxiety about evaluation in a situation where the person
perceives themselves as vulnerable and an extremely complicated situation is created (Walsh &
Ugumba-Agwanobi, 2002). Two of the participants shared that they had begun to procrastinate
much later in life than the rest of the participants. Mel started to procrastinate as she was
finishing high school, after she overheard a comment she perceived as hurtful between two
people who were important influences on her. This comment punctuated her procrastination
tendencies into a before and after. Before the incident, she had always turned things in on time or
even before deadlines. She was disliked by her classmates for this quality. Then at an assembly
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when her qualities as an excellent student were enumerated before her name was give, her
mother turned to Mel’s boyfriend and said, “whoever this is, she does not have a life” based on
the quantity of activities she was involved in. Due to this, she started second guessing herself and
began to prefer to put things off in order to meet her mother’s lower expectations.
Marnie was the other participant who started procrastinating later in life. She spent much
of her career working in high-pressure non-profit environments. This career meant she was
working against her natural introversion, and once the pressure was off to perform the duties, she
felt she was able to put off doing tasks that she perceived as smaller or lower priority. She stated,
“I have always had to look after myself, and so once I didn’t work in that area anymore it was
Another aspect that aligned with an article from the literature review involved busyness
and engagement. Schraw, Wadkins, and Olafsun (2007) found that perceived procrastination can
active at work and in their communities. They rarely felt they were doing what would be
considered to be “nothing”. They were always busy and impending deadlines served to prioritize
their schedules. Using procrastination deliberately helped relieve their anxiety, provided a cap
for infinite possibilities, and stimulated creativity. Mel stated, “I think that I take so much on in
my life, and being so busy, and I can’t concentrate on everything so I wind up having to
involved (Aremu, Williams, & Adesina, 2011; Nguyen, Steel, & Ferrari, 2013). Not only are
personality factors in play, but task aversiveness, self-protection and resentment at having to
meet deadlines are part of the phenomenon as well. (Bridges & Roig, 1997; Johnson & Bloom,
1995; Milgram, Marshevsky, & Sadeh, 1995). Ingrained habits and behaviors that occur as
104
responses to arousal can be reversed with training (Lee & Orsillo, 2014). It would be interesting
to see if this would apply to procrastination behaviors. Some of the questions approached in the
literature emerged over the course of the study, but they were not fully answered. They include
the following:
• Is one putting off a task due to worry about receiving criticism and therefore engaging in
self-handicapping (Flett, Blankstein, Hewitt, & Koledin, 1992; Murray & Warden,
1992)?
• Is the contemplated task perceived as too boring or too difficult, and therefore aversive
• When perfectionism is involved does it precede anxiety? Perhaps the person has set
unreasonable goals for themselves, or feels that unreasonable demands have been set?
• Milgram and Naaman (1995) presented the argument that if procrastination is the
consequence of escape or avoidant conditioning then anxiety is the discriminative cue (p.
679) while Duvarci and Pare (2014) approached the subject from a neuropsychological
participants interviewed shared experiences that meshed very well with the existing literature.
However, the data collected for the present study suggests there is a greater scope to the
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phenomenon of procrastination than one might have suspected. For the participants,
procrastination is a double-edged sword. On the societal, or side of the other, their feelings about
being a person who procrastinates, and the conflict that procrastinating generates in their
surroundings causes them to feel badly about their delayed actions on tasks and projects. Their
inner compass, however, helps them plan, prepare and align their work in a manner that, while
appearing inefficient to outsiders, for them is very effective. They are possessed of an innate
clock, refined over time, that helps them gauge how long different phases of a project will take.
Then they take each phase in its own time. The final phase of a project, often a production phase,
will be planned as close to the deadline as possible to take advantage of the adrenaline kick that
enables them to work long hours without tiring or getting distracted. While they did report
misses with this system, for the most part as they perfected their system they could complete
outcomes, they were candid about their inner turmoil about waiting to complete projects until the
last minute to have an alibi for work that did not meet expectations. However, this tendency also
evolved, and they could reconcile their anxiety about the project and its outcome with their
desire to do well on projects along with their need to work on the projects close to the deadline.
The participants’ adaptation of the behavior over time reflected independent thinking and
a desire for autonomy on their part to pursue projects in a manner that suited them most
advantageously. The participants self-identified as procrastinators. They pointed out that their
partners and family members identified them as procrastinators as well. Most of the participants
had started procrastinating at an early age, and they suffered the typical consequences of
procrastination, including missed opportunities and lower grades than desired. During this time,
they fit the definition of being worse off for the delay. As they developed in academics, they
106
started adapting this behavior, using it, and developing an internal clock. Furthermore, they had
developed a way to leverage this tendency, and it calmed their anxiety and sparked their
creativity.
By adulthood, even though they were still calling themselves procrastinators, they no
longer fit the definition. While they expressed a tendency to finish their work right at the
deadline, they made it more often than they missed it. Beyond that, by their accounts, they made
good grades and their work was well received. They were no longer worse off for the delay. So
the behavior of procrastination had been adapted to fill the need of calming anxiety, while being
finely calibrated enough to not miss deadlines. This would seem to move the behavior out of the
realm of irrational behavior. However, as is often the case with labels, they stick even when they
are no longer indicative of reality. The label of procrastinator stuck for them and the people
around them.
The results of this study show procrastination as a behavior that has evolved from a reflex
reaction for the participants to protect themselves when they are in situations that make them feel
vulnerable, to an adaptive behavior purposely developed to tackle tasks in a way that considers
the individuals’ traits and needs. Procrastinating helps them overcome feelings of vulnerability
Limitations
The sheer volume of data was hard to conquer. A transcription service would have been a
good investment for two reasons. The first was time. I am a fairly experienced transcriptionist,
but by the third transcription there were so many codes it was very distracting and confusing
trying to concentrate solely on the transcription without coding or taking notes. The
transcriptions took far too long due to these distractions and the process was fatiguing. Having
107
someone else transcribe would have saved a month of days, even though transcribing a one hour
A research study always has certain limitations. This study used the grounded theory
method, and therefore purposeful sampling was used to obtain the best participants and a small
sample was gathered. The sample was unevenly distributed between males (n=3) and females
(n=6). Although counterintuitive, another limitation would be the high level of awareness the
participants had in terms of their procrastination tendencies. The simple acts of answering an
email, setting and keeping an appointment and returning member checking email speaks to a
certain level of responsibility and awareness which, in a Catch-22 like fashion, narrows the
applicability of the results. This created a situation in which the results of the research relate
exclusively to the participants involved in the study; the results are not generalizable beyond the
participants (Patton, 2014). Additionally, these results are based upon the researcher’s
interpretation of the data. According to Lincoln and Guba (2013), the researcher must distinguish
between their own experience and the experience of the participants, to analyze data effectively.
They also recognize that the researcher can never be truly removed from the work, and that in
research objectivity is elusive, thus a certain amount of bias will remain. This bias can enter
unnoticed throughout the research process, including during recruiting, interviews and analysis.
While the interviews were designed to encourage the participants to share their
experiences freely, they may have withheld details of their experience for various reasons.
Charmaz (2014) highlights the interaction between the researcher and the participant, and how
this interaction will influence the flow of information throughout the interview. Participants may
be reticent to share certain aspects of their experience, and as the interviews were relatively brief
with an unfamiliar researcher it might have affected the flow of data. Stern (2007) explains that
108
inexperienced researchers can become overwhelmed and confused which can result in data that
lack clarity and focus. In the present study, inexperience in this type of research including data
collection and data analysis with software may have influenced the analysis and findings as well.
Another facet beyond the scope of the study was individual personality types. For the purposes
of this study it was impossible to ascertain the personality type of each participant beyond an
possible in the present study, to match personality types with types of procrastination.
The purpose of this study was to produce theory about the process of procrastination,
from the perspective of the participants. Over the course of the data collection phase they offered
material that was rich in detail, not only providing description of their experiences with
procrastination but offering insight as to how it permeated different domains in their lives. As
this was the intent of the study, the limitations of the design did not outweigh the strengths and a
One of the goals of this study was to provide expanded information on the process of
procrastination and the role it plays in the lives of individuals who procrastinate. This
information will advance the knowledge base by gaining a better understanding of the process of
procrastination through participants’ input about their own experiences. Through this new
the term is lacking in the literature (Klingsieck, 2013a, Krause & Freund, 2014). This study is
also geared toward continuing research to continue identifying and defining concepts more
clearly.
teaching time management and goal setting strategies (Farrington, 2012), or using commitment
109
devices (Wang, 2016), is explored. Another strategy outlined is replacing specific irrational
thoughts about time management with specific rational thoughts, to help curb procrastination
(Dryden, 2012). These approaches can only be effective if the person who procrastinates fits the
profiles where these strategies would be advantageous. Studies by both Bridges and Roig (1997)
and Wang (2016) have pointed out that for some who procrastinate, the behavior is not a time-
management problem. Milgram and Naaman (1996) have suggested procrastination is an escape
or avoidant behavior, triggered by anxiety. For the most part “procrastination” is applied as a
blanket term, so individuals who do not fit the profile for interventions will not respond
positively. Information from this study could help professionals in psychology and other
disciplines to understand the multifaceted nature of procrastination and team with stakeholders to
research based on self-report surveys. As discussed previously the surveys are often very brief,
and do not capture the fullness of the phenomenon. A concept like procrastination is difficult to
develop in a short survey, and participants are not able to express their ideas completely through
them (Hoskin, 2012). The Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), has only nine questions (Steel,
2010) while the Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students (PASS) is somewhat more
comprehensive, with 44 questions divided into 7 sections (Steel, 2010). Longer surveys that
might capture more of the phenomenon still suffer from the pressure participants sometimes feel
to respond in a socially acceptable manner, which can have a significant effect on results (Fan et
al., 2006). Adding qualitative research to the data pool could help clarify the definitions
procrastination, and recognize that they sometimes decide not to do what they need to do. Many
110
of the participants in the study shared their experiences of being prepared to sit down with a
project, and then not following through. Sometimes the decision is made so quickly that it seems
to be a reflex. For individuals, finding a way to delay reflex emotional responses to stimuli that
are perceived as negative, and lead to procrastination could be advantageous. It would offer a
space for metacognition, the awareness of the cognitive processes involved in assessing
situations, at this nexus, creating a greater sense of awareness of what is happening internally
(Frewen et al., 2010; Sadeghi, Hajloo, Babayi, & Shahri, 2014). Learning to choose the most
appropriate response to the stimuli could open a decision-making opportunity, rather than just
trigger a reflex response. For stakeholders who are affected by people who procrastinate,
understanding the phenomenon more completely could help to establish strategies for finding
common ground between individuals’ workflow strategies to diminish tension and allow them to
leverage or modify the behavior if they choose to do so. This will be useful at a personal,
corporate and community level where the costs of procrastination have been shown to be high
The results of this study provided new information on adults’ process of procrastination.
It was found that the participants had developed a system through which they were comfortable
and able to cope with projects they perceived as overwhelming. To pursue the question further
from a qualitative perspective one could ask how the tendency to procrastinate could be
leveraged; ask people how their tendency to procrastinate could be used advantageously in their
environment. To pursue the topic further from a quantitative standpoint one might add a section
to the PASS scale to explore whether people are applying the term procrastination too liberally
and try to make a distinction between true procrastination, or being worse off for the delay, and
strategic delay.
111
Milgram and Naaman (1995) presented the argument that if procrastination is the
consequence of escape or avoidant conditioning then anxiety is the discriminative cue (p. 679)
while Duvarci and Pare (2014) approached the subject from a neuropsychological standpoint,
looking at the function of the amygdala in fear and anxiety. Ingrained habits and behaviors that
occur as responses to arousal can be reversed with training. It would be interesting to see if this
Conclusion
The goal of this study was to explore the phenomenon of procrastination from the
perspective of those who procrastinate. The participants provided information on many facets of
their procrastination process, including their feelings surrounding the topic. They presented a
plethora of information which formed the basis of the study. Using the grounded theory method
to approach the research question allowed for a great deal of flexibility in pursuing different
avenues and allowed the researcher to develop a theory about procrastination as an evolved and
adaptive behavior. This study began with a strong foundation in the literature, incorporating the
study emerging information was compared against the data, and considered emotional aspects,
physical spaces, and relationship hierarchies and dynamics. The findings of the present study are
significant. The data lines up with previous literature, but shows a significant departure in terms
advantageous from the point of view of the participants, even though they suffer emotional
consequences due to the social dynamics involved. It would be advantageous to seek to be more
precise when using the term “procrastinate” and recognize that it is a viable work flow process
for some. This could assist managers, teachers, and parents to allow individuals to work in a
fashion that is advantageous to them while guiding them toward positive outcomes. It is hoped
112
the present study will prove to be a valuable addition to the current literature, as well as
113
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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK
Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01) holds learners accountable for the
integrity of work they submit, which includes but is not limited to discussion postings,
assignments, comprehensive exams, and the dissertation or capstone project.
Established in the Policy are the expectations for original work, rationale for the policy,
definition of terms that pertain to academic honesty and original work, and disciplinary
consequences of academic dishonesty. Also stated in the Policy is the expectation that learners
will follow APA rules for citing another person’s ideas or works.
The following standards for original work and definition of plagiarism are discussed in the
Policy:
Learners are expected to be the sole authors of their work and to acknowledge the
authorship of others’ work through proper citation and reference. Use of another person’s
ideas, including another learner’s, without proper reference or citation constitutes
plagiarism and academic dishonesty and is prohibited conduct. (p. 1)
Capella University’s Research Misconduct Policy (3.03.06) holds learners accountable for
research integrity. What constitutes research misconduct is discussed in the Policy:
Research misconduct includes but is not limited to falsification, fabrication, plagiarism,
misappropriation, or other practices that seriously deviate from those that are commonly
accepted within the academic community for proposing, conducting, or reviewing
research, or in reporting research results. (p. 1)
Learners failing to abide by these policies are subject to consequences, including but not limited
to dismissal or revocation of the degree.
125
Statement of Original Work and Signature
I have read, understood, and abided by Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01)
and Research Misconduct Policy (3.03.06), including Policy Statements, Rationale, and
Definitions.
I attest that this dissertation or capstone project is my own work. Where I have used the ideas or
words of others, I have paraphrased, summarized, or used direct quotes following the guidelines
set forth in the APA Publication Manual.
Learner name
and date Elizabeth Ann Parker, May 14, 2017
126
APPENDIX A. SCREENING SURVEY
Screening Survey
A modified combination of the Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS) and the Procrastination
Scale Range-Very seldom or not true of me, Seldom true of me, Sometimes true of me, Often
4. There are aspects of my life that I put off, though I know I shouldn’t.
7. At the end of the day, I know I could have spent the time better.
The following are general questions about your work or academic studies.
1. Writing term papers or creating projects for work. To what degree is procrastination on this
2. Studying for exams or preparing for meetings. To what degree is procrastination on this task
3. Keeping up with weekly reading, or paying bills. To what degree is procrastination on this
127
4. Administrative tasks, filling out forms, registering for workshops, driver’s license, insurance
cards etc. To what degree is procrastination on this task a problem for you?
Reasons for procrastination. Think of the last time the following situation occurred. It’s near the
end of the semester. The term paper you were assigned at the beginning of the semester is due
very soon. You have not begun work on this paper. There are reasons why you have been
AND/OR
You were assigned a project at work a month ago. It needs to be presented very soon. You have
not begun work on this project. There are reasons why you have been procrastinating on this
task.
Check as many of the following that apply as reasons for procrastinating on the task.
• You were concerned your professor or boss would not like your work.
• You waited until a classmate or co-worker did his or hers, so they could give you advice.
• You had a hard time knowing what to include or not to include in your project.
• There was some information you needed to ask the professor or your boss, but you felt
• You were worried you would get a bad grade or be criticized for your work.
• You looked forward to the excitement of doing this task at the last minute.
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• You had difficulty narrowing down the topic or volume of information.
• You were concerned that if you did well, you would be resented by your peers.
• You knew that your peers were not prepared yet either.
• You were concerned that if you did well on the project, people would have higher
• You waited to see if there was more information forthcoming about the project.
• You set very high standards for yourself and you worried that you wouldn’t be able to meet
those standards.
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APPENDIX B. INITIAL CODING TABLE
“Because you got to do the fun stuff, and all the grinds were
busy at their books, and you
got as good a grade as they did so… why not do it my way?”
Negative perceptions of “No, no it was not external, well an external source only in the
procrastination (17) sense that the societal sanctions against procrastination came to
my awareness and my comparing myself with other people,
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Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“Negative, it ticks me off that I don’t get up and just do it and
get it over with. I mean these aren’t big jobs, you know? I’ve
got the brush. Why aren’t I just doing it?”
Conflicts with others due “My mom sometimes went a little bit nuts because she knew
to procrastination (10) that I had a project due and hadn’t seen about it yet and she
was always afraid that I just wasn’t going to finish it and…she
was…both my parents were actually I guess, opposite of me in
that if there was something that had to be done, there was, “do
it now, get it over with, and once it’s done it’s off your mind
and you can really enjoy the fun stuff.”
“Yeah, I procrastinate on things and it makes my mom crazy.”
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Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
Conflicts due to lack of “I got into publishing and publishing is all about deadlines and
autonomy (17) I was, I could still procrastinate but I didn’t miss deadlines and
I actually finally worked my way up to becoming a managing
editor in magazines, and a managing editor’s job is to make the
trains run on time, to make sure that everything happens and
happens on time. And I was pretty good at doing that.”
“Yes, and I was also the manager of the practice I was at, so I
was in charge of setting the deadlines.”
“Well I got older! I find it easier and easier to put off doing
things that i don’t like to do…
because I have a choice.”
Internal conflict due to “I think sometimes probably when I have to write a letter to
changing life roles (9) someone that I don’t use the computer for but I need to write a
letter then I’ll procrastinate on doing that. I think I put off
making phone calls, but I ‘m not sure if that’s procrastination
as much as it is I don’t like to make phone calls. I was on the
phone my whole life; I think I just don’t like it anymore. I’m
not sure if that fits into procrastination or if it’s just “I don’t
want to do it anymore”
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Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“I made the phone calls to a lot of people and now I’m like it’s
time to stop, if they want to talk to me, let them call.”
“I need to do that so that I feel like I’ve done the right thing,
and I haven’t.”
Feeling overwhelmed (20) “I think that early on in my life particularly around academics
that, and this is as early as grade school and high school, I had
a tendency to, when there was an assignment of some size or
complexity like a term paper or something along those lines
and it certainly happened in college and post graduate work as
well that the initial experience was feeling overwhelmed.”
133
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“If I tell myself that I’m going to get done with something
earlier then it’s really hard for me to focus and find direction. If
I think about it for a little while but then I don’t actually sit
down and apply any of my thoughts of any ideas that I might
have then it becomes a lot easier if it’s down to a timeline and I
have to have it done. The deadline creates a comfortable
space.”
“You know I really ventured way out on this one and I had no
idea what I was doing and it was difficult! There was certainly
a lack of comfort level.”
“You can only know what was and what is and if you get,
essentially, as in high school, rewarded for procrastinating, put
things off until the last minute so you got to do the fun stuff,
waited for the last minute to study for the test and you still got
an A or a B on it, so that’s a reward in a way….”
“Once I get started then I can get totally into it and you can’t
drag me away from it.”
134
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
Relief (17) “Relief at first, pushing something off, then anxiety and
pressure.”
So how do you feel when you’re done with all of that? “Well,
I’m glad it’s over.”
Avoidance (30) “I would know I did it at the last minute so you know it just
wasn’t up to my best effort so, that’s the reason I got the B+
rather than the A-. So I had a built in alibi for not producing the
work of my own expectations, or the highest expectations. “
135
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“I taught a lot of classes and made a lot of money doing it and
when I got to the
point where I started being able to get out of my comfort zone
and teach [CLOSER TO] where I live and branch out… I
didn’t”
Tipping point (25) “There came a moment when it suddenly shifted to “I’ve got to
approach this” and I had a strategy, through much of my life in
terms of taking on tasks, particularly academic tasks of really
the last minute adrenaline rush allowed me to really focus and
to be able to attack the task with a fair amount of intensity and
in a reasonably short period of time, whatever that was,
depending on the size of the task, a few hours to a few, you
know, 2 or 3 days, be able to complete the task and complete
it…sometimes quite well.”
“So I think that the awareness came then, at that time and that
when I fairly severely did judge myself for procrastination. But
it was the way I worked and I got to be fairly efficient at it and
it did work for me so I got into the habit, in high school and
then in college to operate in that way.”
“So if I know that I absolutely have to get it done then I can put
stuff back on the back burner but I feel like I have a problem
prioritizing things to be done if I have too much time to
prioritize. Then I just put if off and I say, “Oh, I know I’m
going to have time to do this, I know I’m going to have time
later to do this” and I just, I end up not doing anything.”
136
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
Activities pursued while “So I can effectively put stuff off, but I’m still accomplishing
procrastinating (13) other things so I think I can use
that as my excuse for why I have to procrastinate and wait until
the last minute.”
Making lists (8) “Large tasks are broken down into smaller pieces and time is
scheduled. This is done within the smallest possible time
period.”
“Last night actually before I went to bed for all of the stuff I
have to get done today and it was literally a full page of stuff
but it’s stuff that I could have done beforehand but I just waited
because I knew that I was going to have yesterday and today
off work so I would be able to get more of the stuff done
without being interrupted and putting it off even more because
I know it has to be done before we leave. And I do that with
pretty much everything.”
137
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
Organization of projects “So it’s literally like having your ducks in a row, you’ve gone
(10) from thinking about doing something to doing it and you
literally line up all of the moving pieces to do it? Yeah... if
there’s a task like that I line it up. When I get ready to come up
to the lake I line everything up at the door, and living in a
condo that is the hardest thing in the world to do but that’s
what I do. I have things all the way down to the landing. So I
pile everything by the front door. And when I was going to
school I used to pile all of my books on the railing.”
Planned procrastination “So I think in that instance, and certainly in these smaller tasks
(13) now it is percolating and I
am feeling that happening…I’m feeling something pregnant,
it’s there, it’s starting to form into something concrete and then
I think when it hits a particular critical mass of quote
“concreteness” of firming up then the action can begin, and I’m
ready to pay it and the energy is there and the motivation is
there for it so, because I’ve had the feeling, I’m like, ok
something is happening with this, something… it’s coming, it’s
coming forth.”
138
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“Having had so much experience with procrastination I’m
rarely surprised. Sometimes I’m surprised at the degree of
procrastination, how long I put something off but, for
the most part no. I know I can look at something and say, “ok, I
know, I know I’m going to procrastinate on this one” and so I
figure out when it has to be due and I just know I’m going to
put it off until the last minute and so I devote, maybe stick it on
my calendar and
devote a day, the last day, to doing that and ignore it until then
because I know I will anyway. So it saves me some mental
energy.”
Deadlines (9) “So the deadline, having a deadline is important? It is, yeah,
and it works best if someone else has set the deadline, too. If I
impose deadlines on myself I figure that I set them so I can
break them.”
139
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“Obviously in the magazine business there’s external pressures
that come from the nature of deadlines, and from, if you’re a
managing editor there’s an editor in chief who’s your boss, and
sometimes they tend to get worried if things aren’t happening
on what they consider to be a reasonable schedule and that adds
a little pressure.”
Internal clock (8) “The clock is a gift, and a combination of the gift and
experience”
“You know it’s like there’s a clock. I’ve noticed that my son,
for instance, and I both have a
clock in our heads. We can look at a project and there’s some
sort of an innate thing that says,
“it’s going to take this long”
“ok, so you have, it’s almost like you have an internal clock
that says “ok it’s time” …
my brain is ready and I’m just ready to go at it, hammer and
tongs until it’s finished.”
“and I’m pushing it off perhaps oftentimes, until the last minute
or relatively the last minute,
but then when I sit down to do it and it “quote” feels right and
flow state is there, then it gets put together in a much more
coherent and efficient fashion”
140
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
Types of tasks that trigger “There is almost nothing that I find disagreeable to do that I
procrastination (21) can’t find a reason not to do until tomorrow, or the next
day…or next week or sometime. And sometimes it’s things
that aren’t disagreeable, but I just don’t get around to them.
Sooner or later most of the things I procrastinate on do get
done at some point and sometimes they even get done on time
or by a deadline but if things get done on time it’s always at the
last minute.”
Overwhelmingly boring “Boring tasks are done more immediately than challenging
(5) ones just to get them out of the way. Still procrastinate on them
though.”
“It’s just the tasks are never done. And they don’t matter! Who
cares?”
141
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“I have a way of looking at the big picture and looking at all
the potential avenues there are in a given task and I can quickly
just swamp myself with the data and the possibilities for what it
is I have at hand. ”
“I know it’s time for us to give up this house, but we’ve been
here for 47 years. Our grown children are pulling us in one
direction, and we have a house in the other direction.”
“So, she deserves to have a really good hug goodbye and thank
you and I need to do that so that I feel like I’ve done the right
thing, and I haven’t. I’m not sure if it’s because I don’t want to
end our relationship or it’s been two years now, or more, and I
just haven’t done it, and I think about it a LOT. And I just
never do it, and when I say I owe her my life. I mean it. I owe
her my life. That’s like real.”
142
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“Well, I kind of mumble at myself, “you know you really
should be doing this or that” but I’m also at an age where I
want to do the things I want to do…”
“And I think, oh, I’m lazy, but I’m not a lazy person, at least I
don’t think I am.”
143
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“she was a perfectionist and she was…she was making her life
miserable.”
“So I had a built in alibi for not producing the work of my own
expectations, or the highest expectations.”
Expectations of others (24) “Because I don’t want others to have high expectations of me
and then I can’t meet those expectations so if I set the bar a
little lower for myself then I don’t have to worry about
somebody saying “well I know you can do a lot better.”
“That you see what other people are doing and you say, “oh
gosh, I wish I could do that. Oh, they’re so good at…”
whatever it is that they’re good at, you know? So I think that
the awareness came then, at that time and that when I fairly
severely did judge myself for procrastination.”
“So I think that the reason that I don’t put all of my effort in,
and I wait until the last minute is so that I can kind of meet my
mom’s expectations that I do fail…I mean, it’s not always
conscious, a conscious thought but I think that really has a lot
to do with it… my mom has a lot lower expectations.”
“I don’t know if it’s from that need to always please your
parents, but to know that I’m exceeding past what their
expectations were you would think that they would be
supportive of that, but they’re not.”
Home and personal life “I won’t sacrifice my grade or my work performance. The only
(12) thing I ever see myself sacrificing is my personal life.”
144
Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“I mean, it’s like sitting down to balance my checkbook, I
should do it, and I know I should do it, but on an emotional
level I don’t want to do it because it’s boring and tedious, and
it might be a lot of work as well because sometimes it doesn’t
balance and I’m compulsive enough to want it to balance down
to the penny.”
Work (9) “I got into publishing and publishing is all about deadlines and
I was, I could still procrastinate but I didn’t miss deadlines.”
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Initial Codes ( Frequency) Descriptive Examples from Interview Data
“If I’m actually going into what I’ve been putting off and
starting to do it, I’m not sure how to describe it, it’s almost like
there’s a very low grade temporary high. I feel like, “Good!
You’re finally doing what you should be doing” and once I get
into it, as said even with my taxes I actually kind of enjoy the
process of doing it and there’s this huge feeling of relief when I
finish it!”
Physical spaces (20) “Before we lived in a smaller house and I used to go down to
our basement and go in the corner of our basement where no
one ever came because everybody thought it was dark and dank
and dreary and whatever, and I had a desk down there and that
is where I did all of my homework. So now while I sit there at
my kitchen table and I look at all of the stuff that I have printed
off and I look around and the kitchen and my living room and
there’s shoes on the floor or my husband’s socks which he
takes off in the living room and never puts in the hamper I
think about all that stuff that needs to get done even though it
doesn’t need to get done.”
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