True value - can be interpreted as the accepted value.
But a
MEASUREMENT
Measurement is a process of getting the quantity of a specific
property of matter. It is very important in science in general and
chemistry in particular to obtain the quantity of the properties of
matter.
1.1 International System of Measurement
Two systems of measurement:
1.English system
2.Metric system - international system of measurement, also
known as System Internationale or the S.I. (derivative of the
metric system and uses the same basic units)
1.2 Significant Figures and Scientific Notation
Significant figures are numbers that are deemed substantial to
the over-all value of a certain number.
As a general rule, all non-zero digits are significant! (1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
The digit zero can be significant or not significant depending on
their position with respect to non-zero digits and the decimal
point.
Several rules to determine whether zeroes are significant or
not.
1. Zeroes between non-zero digits are significant.
Let us consider the following figure: 123000789
2. Zeroes to the right of non-zero digits but to the left of a
known decimal point are not significant.
3. Zeroes after the decimal point but to the right of significant
figures are always significant.
Consider the following examples:
1. 123000
2. 0.0045
Two examples can be considered:
678.000
0.003210
1.3 Errors, Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy and Precision are two fundamental concepts in
measurement that should go hand in hand. This is to ensure the
validity of the results of scientific experiments that can be used to
create scientific theories and eventually, scientific laws.
Two important ideas that are associated with accuracy and
precision are the true value and experimental value.
true or accepted value is very difficult to obtain especially in
measurements whose target is unknown.
Experimental values on the other hand are those values
obtained in experimental processes.
Accuracy therefore can be defined as the nearness of a
measured value to the true or accepted value.
Precision can be defined as the nearness of the measured
values to each other.
*If the measurements are not accurate or not precise or both,
there are errors committed during the process of measurement.
A precise but inaccurate measurement indicates instrumental
error, because the measured values are near each other and
therefore cannot be attributed to human error. The instrument is
consistent in returning the values but the values are nowhere
near the true value. The true value in this case is the standard of
the unit of the quantity being measured. This may be caused by
improper calibration of the instrument or some other mechanical
errors.
1.4 Units of Measurement
Measurements are useless unless it is accompanied by the
proper units by which the property of the sample of matter being
measured is specifically defined. As mentioned earlier, there are
two systems of measurement currently being used in the world:
the English and the Metric systems.
There are 7 fundamental units of measurement by which all
other units are derived. Table 2.1 shows the 7 fundamental
metric units and the quantity they measure.
Table 2.1 – The seven fundamental metric units
QUANTITY METRIC UNIT
length meter (m)
mass gram (g)
amount of particles in a
mole (mol)
substance
temperature Kelvin (K)
electric current ampere (A)
time second (s)
luminous intensity candela (cd)
 THE ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER Joseph Proust
Law of definite proportion - This law states that all samples of
1.1 The Development of the Atomic Theory of Matter a chemical compound contain all the elements in the same
from Democritus to James Chadwick proportion.

GREEK PHILOSOPHERS
John Dalton

Aristotle Dalton's postulates:

1. All matter is made up of
-At that time, Aristotle developed a tiny, indestructible spheres with
theory that all matter consisted of four mass called atoms. These atoms
elements: fire, earth, air, and water. combine with one another to form
compounds
-These four elements are related based 2. Atoms of the same
on “four principles of matter”, these are element are the same.
the hot, the moist, dry and cold. 3. Atoms cannot be created
nor destroyed. They remain unchanged when they enter into
chemical reaction to form compounds.
4. Atoms combine to form compounds in fix ratio and
Democritus proportion.

-Everything is composed of small -Dalton’s atomic model is a very small (cannot be seen) sphere
indivisible particles. with mass. These spheres cannot be broken down to simpler
particles.
-He gave the name “ATOMOS”
(Greek word for uncut) which Joseph John Thomson
means “indestructible”.
Atoms are small solid objects 1897, an English physicist Joseph
that cannot be divided, created, or destroyed. John Thomson discovered that
atoms were not just simple solid
spheres.
Leucippus -Electrons were the first subatomic
particles to be discovered using
-Greek philosopher, asked his pupil the cathode ray tube, developed
Democritus while they are strolling along by Sir William Crookes.
the beach of Aegean Sea.
-He proposed a new
model of the atom that
contained positive
charged and negatively
Antoine Van Lavoisier charged.
Cathode Ray Experiment
States that the mass of the products in a
chemical reaction will always be equal to
the mass of the reactants.

-Matter can neither be destroyed nor Ernest Rutherford

created; no mass is lost in a chemical -In Gold Foil experiment by New Zealand physicist.
reaction. (Total Mass of Products = Total Ernest Rutherford’s student set up an experiments to test
Mass of Reactants) Thomson’s model and learn more about what atoms contain.
 Niels Bohr
-In 1913, Danish physicist Niels Bohr
believe that electrons in an atom exist
in specific regions at various
distances from the nucleus
-He visualized the electrons as
rotating around the sun. he theorized
that electrons had several possible
orbits ( Energy level).
MOLECULES AND IONS
Atoms also form ions and molecules.
2.1 Ions and Ionic Compounds
2 Types of Compounds / Types of Chemical Bonds
1. IONIC COMPOUNDS – formed from the attraction of charged
atoms (ions)
 IONS – electrically charged atoms (+ , -)
 ATOMS – electrically neutral (- and + same number)

2.3 Oxidation State

James Chadwick Oxidation state is the total number of electrons that an atom
-Neutrons are found in the nucleus. either gains or loses in order to form a chemical bond with other
atom.
-He showed that uncharged particles are emitted when atoms of
beryllium and other elements are bombarded with high velocity
helium particles ( particles). 2.4 Covalent Compounds and Molecules

-A neutron has no charged.  The total number of atoms is written and is called
molecular formula.
1.2 Atoms and Atomic Isotopes  Covalent compounds are formed between two non-
metals where there is no exchange of electrons and
Atoms consist of three primary particles/subatomic particles. hence no formation of ions. Examples are water, H2O
Electrons - - and carbon dioxide, CO2.
Protons - +
Neutrons – 0

 PROTON – is equal to the atomic number.

 NEUTRON – is equal to the difference between
the Atomic mass and Atomic number.
 ELECTRON – is equal to the number of protons in
neutral state.

Definition of Terms:

 Atomic number - number of protons in an atom.

 Atomic mass/weight - the combined number
of protons and neutrons.
 Isotopes – are atoms of the same element have the
same chemical and physical properties.