New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science

ISSN: 0114-0671 (Print) 1175-8783 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnzc20

Soil water measurements on four alluvial soils in

Canterbury 1. Soil water extraction patterns under
spring-sown peas and barley, and pasture

T. H. Webb

To cite this article: T. H. Webb (1989) Soil water measurements on four alluvial soils in Canterbury
1. Soil water extraction patterns under spring-sown peas and barley, and pasture, New Zealand
Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 17:2, 189-199, DOI: 10.1080/01140671.1989.10428030

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/01140671.1989.10428030

Published online: 01 Jun 2012.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 176

View related articles

Citing articles: 4 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tnzc20
New Zealand Journal ojCrop and Horticultural Science, 1989, Vol. 17: 189-199
0114-0671/89/1702-D189 $2.50/0 © Crown copyright 1989
Soil water measurements on four alluvial soils in Canterbury
1. Soil water extraction patterns under spring-sown
peas and barley, and pasture
T.R. WEBB
Division of Land and Soil Sciences
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Private Bag, Christchurch, New Zealand
Abstract Changes in water content of four soil
types from alluvium were monitored under spring-
sown barley during 1978/79, spring-sown peas during
1979/80 and under pasture during September 1981
- August 1984. The soil types varied in texture and
depth to sandy gravels and are representative of a
large area of the Canterbury and North Otago Plains.
Patterns of soil water depletion over time are depicted
graphically for representative soils in each season.
All crops extracted similar amounts of water from
the upper 30 cm, but spring-sown crops extracted
less water below 30 cm. In stone-free soils, pea and
barley crops obtained more than 80% of their total
soil water from above 60 cm depth, and pasture
obtained less than 60% of total soil water from the
same depth. Pasture grown in moderately deep and
shallow soils extracted 70-80% of total soil water
from above 60 cm. Spring-sown crops extracted
water to 90-100 cm depth in stone-free horizons, but
pasture extracted water to at least 120 cm in soils
underlain by sandy gravels, and to 180 cm in deep
stone-free soils. High amounts of soil watcrextracted
by pasture from subsoil horizons were considered to
be related to perching of water in sandy layers.
Keywords available water; soil depth; water
deficit; peas; barley; pasture; Canterbury; water
extraction; soil types; water storage
Received 6 May 1988; accepted 6 March 1989
189
INTRODUCTION
In regions that are subject to seasonal soil water
deficits, like the Canterbury Plains, the capacity of a
soil to store water is of fundamental importance in
assessing the potential productivity of the soil and in
making management decisions such as irrigation
scheduling. Also, available water capacity (AWC)
is a fundamental component of crop growth models.
Hayman & Stocker (1982) showed the importance
of accurate assessment of AWC for improving
irrigation efficiency and effectiveness. Also, previous
studies at Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research (DSIR) at Lincoln have shown theoveriding
effect AWC has on yield of spring- and autumn-
sown cereal crops in Canterbury (Bennett et al.
1980, Webb & Purves 1983, Bennett & Webb 1987).
There is, therefore, a need for soil scientists and
agronomists to determine AWC on a regular basis.
However, even with a knowledge of soil water
storage characteristics, soil water availability is
difficult to define. Root distributions down the profile
and total depths of root penetration vary with crop
type. Consequently different crop types have different
patterns of water extraction with soil depth.
Furthermore, different season and agronomic
treatments can affect root distribution and hence
water extraction. Also surface horizons commonly
dry out beyond -15 bar water tension and, in some
profiles, water moves upwards into the root zone by
capillarity along water-potential gradients. Ritchie
(1981) considered that available water measurements
made in the laboratory were too inaccurate for use in
water balance studies. He recommended taking field
measurements of soil water storage limits until
sufficient knowledge is gained to enable confident
estimates to be made. There is, therefore, a need to
measure limits of available water in the field and to
tcst theoretical,laboratory-based estimates of Awe.
In the South Island, irrigation trials assessing
pasture response to irrigation have been conducted
for several decades (Rickard et al. 1986) but soil
water measurements have only recently been made
to depths greater than 10 or 30 cm. Watt (1977)
 .....
\0
Table 1 Brief soil descriptions for representative profiles. 0

Depth Degree of Pores/lOcm2 Root

Horizon (cm) Texture Structure Soil strength packing (>2mm) Mottles content·
Wakanul deep 4
Ap 0-18 silt loam weak nut medium 5 many
Bw 18-32 silt loam weak nut v. high 8 common fine many
Bgl 32-48 silt loam weak block v. high 0 common medimn many
Bg2 48-62 fine sandy loam massive medium 0 many medium few
BCI 62-69 loamy fme sand massive low few fine common
BC2 69-73 fme sandy loam massive low many fine common
BC3 75-80 loamy fme sand massive few fme few
BC4 80-90 fme sandy loam massive manyfme few
Cl 90-170 v. stony sand single grain v. few Z
(1)
Templeton deep 3 ~
Ap 0-19 silt loam mod.nut v. weak many N
Bwl 19-35 silt loam weak nut mod. weak medium 10 few fine many
Bw2 35-63 loamy fme sand massive v. weak medimn 0 common fine common ~
::l
Q.
Bw3 63-70 fme sandy loam massive mod. weak high 0 few fine few ......
Bw4 70-80 loamy fme sand massive v. weak low 0 common medium few 0
c
Bgl 80-95 fine sandy loam massive mod. flJ111 medium 0 common medimn few a
Cgl 95-128 loamy fme sand massive v. weak low 0 common medimn nil a
Cg2 128-158 loamy fme sand massive loose 0 common medium nil 0-,
Cg3 158-184 fme sandy loam massive mod. flJ111 medium 0 nil (J
C 184-200 fme sandy loam massive nil .g
Templeton moderately deep 3 §
Ap 0-22 silt loam weak nut v. weak medium 8 many Q.
Bw 22-36 silt loam weak nut v. flJ111 high 5 few fme many
Bgl 36-60 silt loam massive mod. strong v.high 0 commonfme common
s:g.
Bg2 60-68 sandy loam massive v. flJ111 0 common medium common
BC 68-90 v. stony loamy sand single grain few E.
....
mod. weak
C 98-140 v. stony sand single grain v. weak nil ~
Eyre shaDow 4 en
n
Ap 0-17 silt loam weak nut mod. weak many o·
::l
Bwl 17-40 v. stony silt loam weak nut mod. flJ111 2 common n
.(1)
Bw2 40-60 v. stony loamy sand single grain mod. weak many .....
BC 60-130 v. stony loamy sand single grain v. weak few \0
00
C 130-200 v.stony sand single grain v. weak nil .\0

• roots per 100 cm2 ; many, 25-200; common, 10-25; few, 2-10; v. few, 1-2.
<:
~
.....
-.l
Webb-Soil water extraction patterns
stated that, before his investigation, there had been
no reports of measured soil moisture regimes in New
Zealand. Since then, several research workers in the
North Island have determined the depth and quantities
of water extracted by pasture on a range of soils
(Scotter et al. 1979; McAneny & Judd 1983; Barker
etal.1985; Parfittetal.1985a,1985b). In Canterbury,
Stoker (1982) and Hayman & Stocker (1982)
recorded soil water changes to depths of 90--120 cm
in a range of soils, and Jamieson (1985) recorded
measurements of water extraction to 100 or 160 cm
depths for a range of arable crops. All of these
studies have shown that the effectiveness of pasture
roots in extracting water decreases gradually with
depth. Only Watt (1977) and Jamieson (1985)
recorded the pattern of water extraction over time.
Parfittetal. (1985b) developed a simple model to
estimate AWC from retentivity data and rooting
depth. AWC was estimated from the difference
between watet content at field capacity (or -0.1 bar)
and-15 bar tension for the top 40 em of soil and
from field capacity to -1 bar tension for the
remainder of the rooting depth. This model requires
testing in a wider range of soils.
In this study, soil water measurements were used
to investigate water availability and the pattern of
water extraction with depth by peas, barley and
pasture grown on the same soils in different seasons.
The soils varied widely in texture and depth to
gravels and some profiles had lithological
discontinuities and dense subsoil horizons. The soils
are representative of soils which occupy a large area
of the plains of Canterbury and North Otago.
EXPERIMENTAL
Site
The study was carried out during 1978-1984 within
a single paddock at the DSIR farm, Lincoln (Grid
Ref. NZMS260 M38 669319). In the first three
seasons, the paddock was used for a cropping trial in
which the productivities of peas, green feed, and
barley were related to soil types. This work is reported
elsewhere (Bennett & Webb 1987). In 1981, the
paddock was sown in pasture and in subsequent
years was managed as permanent pasture which was
grazed periodically. Irrigation was applied with a
side-roll sprinkler system in January 1983. Water
infiltration under irrigation was highly variable with
measured infiltration during one application varying
from 40-200 mm.
191
Soils
Descriptions of the four soils identified in the pad~ '1Ck
and sampled for soil physical characterisation al~
presented in Table 1. A full description of these soil
series is given by Cox (1978). In this paper the soil
series are subdivided into three phases on the basis
of depth of fines overlying gravels. Deep soils have
more than 90 cm of fines, moderatel y deep soils have
45-90 cm of fines and shallow soils have 20-45 cm
offines. All soils are formed from Holocene alluvium
derived from grey wacke and argillite. The Wakanui
and Templeton series are classified as intergrades
between recent soils and yellow-grey earths and the
Eyre series is classified as an associated yellow-
brown shallow and stony soil (Cox 1978). All series
are classified as Udic Ustochrepts according to Soil
Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975). Most upper
horizons (35-50 cm) have weakly developed
structure and overlie horizons which are massive or
have single grain structure. Profiles have variable
texture and lithological discontinuities are common
particularly at the contact with underlying sandy
gravels and within sandy subsoils. Karageorgis et al.
(1984) describe similar textural variability within
Templeton soils, about 1 km south of this site.
Absence of macropores and soil structure in many
subsoil horizons, together with lithological
discontinuities and high packing density, indicate
the presence of horizons of slow permeability and
difficult rooting conditions (Griffiths 1985). In
horizons above about 1 m, the presence of mottles
also reflects perching of water arising from slow
permeability. Seasonal water tables may occur below
this depth. At the end of the investigation four
representative soils were sampled for determination
of soil moisture release characteristics using the
methods of Gradwell (1972).
Climate
Climatic data were recorded at a meteorological
station 300 m to the south-east of the study paddock.
The two seasons under spring-sown crops were
characterised by alternating wet and dry periods but
were moderately dry with a potential deficit (based
on climatic data using the Penman formula) of
200-220 mm during the period of measurement
The 1981/82 season under pasture was extremely
dry, receiving only 114 mm of rainfall for October
through March, and had a potential deficit of over
600 mm. The 1982/83 and the 1983/84 seasons were
also very dry with potential deficits of over 500 and
400 mm respectively but these seasons had 3 and 4
months respectively with monthly rainfall in excess
of 50 mm for October through March.
192 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1989, Vol. 17

Soil water measurements
Before August 1981, soil water was measured
gravimetrically, mainly at weekly intervals, using a
8 cm diam. bucket auger. Samples were taken from
5-15, 15-25,25-35,35-45,55-65,75-85 cm depth
increments from three profJ1es for each of four soils
(Table 2). Sampling was confmed to strata above
very stony horizons as these could not be penetrated
by the auger. From August 1981, soil water was
recorded for each depth increment of 15 cm, using
the gravimetric method for the upper 30 cm and
using a Troxler neutron probe below 30 cm. In
August 1981, neutron probe access tubes were
installed above the gravels in three sites within each
of Templeton moderately deep, Templeton deep,
and Wakanui deep soils. The tubes in the deep soil
were 1.5 m in length while tubes in the Wakanui
deep soils were about 1 m long and tubes in the
Templeton moderately deep soil varied from 0.6 to
0.9 m in length. In October 1982, a further six access
tubes were installed. One long tube (2.0 m in length)
was installed in the Templeton deep soil and the
remaining tubes (1.5 m in length) were installed in
the Wakanui deep and Templeton moderately deep
soils so as to penetrate underlying gravels.
Measurements of soil water under pasture were
taken at intervals ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, with

Table 2 Maximum soil water deficits for each depth increment for each season. (Number of profiles given in
parenthesis).
SamJ2ling del2th {cm}
Soil phase 5-15 15-25 25-35 35-45 55-65 75--85
Barley 1978/79
Templeton deep (3) 25 18 13 13 12 7
Wakanui deep (3) 22 19 21 12 8 6
Templeton mod. deep (3) 23 22 15 12 13
Eyre shallow (3) 29 22 18
Mean, all soils 25 20 17 12 11 6
Peas 1979/80
Templeton deep (3) 21 16 13 12 12 8
Wakanui deep (3) 21 16 13 12 12 8
Templeton mod. deep (3) 21 19 21 15 8
Eyre shallow (3) 22 19 15
Mean, all soils 21 18 17 14
9 8
SamQling deQth {cm}
0-15 15-30 30-45 45-60 60-75 75-90 90-105 105-120 120-150 150-180
Pasture 1981/82
Templeton deep (2) 26 21 22 24 20 18 19 19
Wakanui deep (2) 26 23 22 20 16 18
Templeton mod. deep (2) 28 22 23 25
Mean, all soils 27 22 22 23 18 18
Pasture 1982183
Templeton deep (3) 24 22 22 27 22 22 17 13 11 6
Wakanui deep (2) 24 21 21 20 21 22 16* 5*
Templeton mod. deep (2) 26 21 20 23 10* 8* 6* 6*
Eyre shallow (3) 28 24 18* 9* 9* 6* 6* 6* 5*
Mean, all soils (stonefree) 25 22 21 23 21 22
Pasture 1983/84
Templeton deep (2) 19 17 18 23 19 16 16 10 10 8
Wakanui deep (2) 22 21 15 15 18 16 161 51
Templeton mod. deep (2) 23 21 16 19 15* 5* 5* 4*
Eyre shallow (3) 25 22 13* 6* 4* 4* 5* 4*
Mean, all soils (stonefree) 22 23 16 19 18 16
I Missing values taken from previous season.
* Stony horizons.
Webb-Soil water extraction patterns
A B
Soil moisture (vol.%)
00 10 1~~4 30 ~~09
30 30
Eu 60 60
......
..r::
C.
Q)
090 90
120 120
Fig. 1 Soil water depletion of selected profIles for the main drying period under pasture in
1983. A, Templeton deep 2; B, Eyre shallow 1.
some longer intervals during winter. The calibration
for the neutron probe was obtained from previous
work on Templeton and Wakanui soils. Gravimetric
detenninations for the upper 30 cm were converted
to volumetric values by assuming a bulk density of
l.3 g/cm 3.
Soil water measurements were recorded from
two to three proftles for each of four soils to provide
replication (Table 2). However, variable depths to
gravels, and variable depths and thicknesses of
horizons of contrasting particle size. make averaging
of water content over the same depth increments
inappropriate. Each proftle has therefore been
considered as an individual. and discussion is
confined to changes observed within particular
proftles or comparisons of trends common to all
individuals within particular soil phases.
Water balance calculations
Potential evapotranspiration (E ) for pasture was
P
calculated using the Penman fonnula. Actual
evapotranspiration (E ) was calculated from the sum
of soil water depletio~ (decrease taken as positive)
and rainfall. Rainfall in excess of the current deficit
was credited to drainage. The field capacity of each
soil strata was taken as the maximum water content
193
Soil moisture (vol.%)
1~ H }10 30 Soil water depletion
o 12/1-1112
D 11/2-1113
[ ] 11/3- 14/4
recorded for that strata after there had been at least
four days without rainfall. thus allowing adequate
opportunity for drainage. Most of the highest readings
were recorded on July 28 1983 when there had been
only 36 mm of rainfall in the preceding 18 days and
there had been no rainfall in the preceding 4 days.
For simplicity ofdiscussion. soil water deficits below
field capacity were attributed to plant extraction. It
is recognised. however. that part of the recorded
deficits may arise from evaporation from the soil
surface. slow drainage. and lateral movement of
water. Evidence oflateral movement of water within
the lower horizons of the Templeton soils was noted
occasionally. but this could rarely be taken into
account in calculations because of the difficulty of
distinguishing causes of soil water changes. There is
an empirical relationship between the ratio EjE •
and soil water deficit (Johns & Smith 1975) a.rfd
E IE was used to estimate the degree of water
defidlt stress experienced by the plants.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The 1982/83 season began with soils slightly below
field capacity. All other growth periods began with
soils close to field capacity. The three spring-autumn
194 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1989, Vol. 17

A B C
Soil moisture (vol.%) Soil moisture (vol.%)
o
0,
10 20
, • II""
30
,
o
O. 1J.i
o
•
10
I
20
.h
30
.. I
40
i

:.:.
30 30 30

!:=;
,.;.
60 60 60
......
E
()
.......
.J::. 90 90 90
a.cv
0

120 120 120

150

180

D E
Soil water depletion Soil moisture (vol.%) Soil moisture (vol.%)
o
0,
10 20 30 40 10 20 30
D
i • • Ii . • . i • I i
4/10/83-10/11/83
F:l 10/11/83-2/2/84
~

D 2/2184-213184 E 30 30
. ()
.......
.s:::.
: -15 bar - 0.1 bar a.
~ 60 60 L • ~ "'

90 90

120
Fig. 2 Soil water depletion of selected profiles for the main drying period under pasture in 1983/84, and soil water
contenls at "{}.1 and -15 bar tensions. A, Templeton deep 3; B, Templeton deep 2; C. Templeton moderately deep 3;
D, Wakanui deep 4; E, Eyre shallow 3.
Webb-Soil water extraction patterns
seasons under pasture were very dry with rainfall
rarely penetrating below 30 cm.
Depth of extraction of water for different crops
and seasons
Total depth of extraction varied with crop type
(Table 2). The annual crops of peas and barley had
very low extraction at 75-85 cm depth and effective
depth of extraction was estimated to be 90-100 cm.
This finding agrees with other work at Lincoln in
which soil water extraction has been measured under
spring-sown cereals and peas (Jamieson 1985). Under
barley, significant extraction of water below 50 cm
occurred only during very dry periods in October
and December. Examples of soil water extraction
under pasture for two seasons are depicted in Fig. 1
& 2. Soils with underlying gravels had very low
water extraction from sandy gravel horizons (below
45 cm in Eyre shallow phase and below 60 em in
Templeton moderately deep phase) but amounts
extracted in gravel horizons did not decrease greatly
with depth within the depths measured. The depth to
which water may be extracted from gravel horizons
is, therefore, still to be determined. One of the deep
Templeton soils showed low water extraction
between 150 and 180 cm, andfor most cases, 180cm
may be taken as the lowest depth for water
availability. Under very dry conditions, as occurred
in 1982/83, plants general I y ex tracted water from all
depths during any particular period if water was
available at all depths. However, the rate ofextraction
of water decreased with depth so water reserves
were first depleted in upper horizons.
The process of soil water extraction below about
120 cm may be debated. The possibility of normal
root extraction at this depth has been demonstrated
by Evans (1976) for clover and ryegrass, and by
Weir & Barraclough (1986) for winter wheat. In the
present study, however, no roots were observed in
horizons below 100 cm in some soils (Table 1) yet
substantial water was removed from below these
depths. This water may have moved upwards into
the root zone by capillarity driven by water potential
gradients. Root observations recorded in Table 1
were not made with sufficient care to preclude the
possibility of sparse roots occurring below 100 cm.
Ritchie (1981) considered that upward movement of
water has been overestimated in the past and that
insufficient account has been taken of sparse roots at
depth which may be highly active in uptake when
water supply is restricted in upper parts of the
profile. Gregory etal. (1978) and Weir & Barraclough
(1984), studied winter wheat under severe drought
195
conditions, and found that deep roots had much
greater inflows of water per unit length than had
roots higher in the profile.
Patterns of water extraction for different crops
and seasons
The pea and barley crops grew in relatively moist
seasons and had similar amounts of water extracted
from the same depth increments (Table 2).
Comparable amounts of water were extracted in the
upper 30 em by the spring-sown crops as was
extracted by pasture during each of the three dry
seasons. Below 30 em, however, much lower
quantities of water were extracted by the spring-
sown crops. Between 45-90 cm depths, the pea and
barley crops extracted only about half as much water
as did pasture. In drier seasons, barley and, to a lesser
extent, peas may extract more water from horizons
below 45 cm. The three seasons under pasture were
very similar; they began with soils at, or close, to
field capacity and had periods with severe soil water
deficits. Similar amounts of water were extracted
from the same depths in stone-free horizons in each
season (Table 2) although the Eyre shallow phase
tended to have slightly greater amounts of water
extracted in the upper 30 cm.
In late January 1983, Profile 2 of the Templeton
deep phase and Profile 1 of the Eyre shallow phase
were both irrigated to field capacity. The subsequent
period was very dry (only 65mm of rainfall in 12
weeks) therefore the data from these soils (Fig. 1)
provide an ideal comparison of the effects of soil
depth on soil water extraction under high potential
evapotranspiration. Pasture growing on the Eyre
shallow phase extracted almost all of the available
water in the first 3 weeks, and the remainder was
extracted in the second 4 weeks under severe water
deficit stress (EjE =0.5). Pasture growing on the
Templeton deep phke extracted substantial amounts
of water during each of the above periods. It was
subject to only moderate water deficit stress (EjE =
0.75) in the final 5 weeks and in contrast to oilier
Templeton profiles, water below 60 cm depth was
extracted at a rapid rate. Note the regular increase of
depth of extraction with time. Maximum deficits for
the Eyre shallow phase and the Templeton deep
phase were 165 and 285mm respectively.
Patterns of soil water depletion for three
successive periods in 1983/84 are shown in Fig. 2
and are generally representative of patterns of soil
water depletion for the three seasons under pasture.
During the first five weeks, all soils supplied very
similar amounts of water, which came mainly from
196 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1989, Vol. 17

the upper 60 cm depth increment. At the end of the
period, the soil water reserves in the shallow soils
were almost entirely depleted. In the second period,
depletion of soil water storage varied from 0 mm in
the shallowest profile to 110 mm in one of the deep
profiles. Water was generally derived from all depths,
but there were substantial differences in amounts of
water derived from different depths. Limited reserves
of water remained and in the final period, most
profiles supplied a small amount of water from all
depth increments.
Total evapotranspiration values were calculated
for the two seasons when deep soil water
measurements were recorded. In the 1982/83 and
1983/84 seasons, the shallowest Eyre profile provided
respectively only two-thirds and three-quarters as
much water for plant growth as did the Templeton
deep soils.
Proportions of soil water extracted by pasture
from successive quartiles of the rooting depth varied
markedly between soils (Table 3). Deep soils had
very similar proportions of total soil water extracted
from the first three quartiles, while moderately deep
and shallow soils had the more characteristic decline
in water extraction with successive depth intervals.
The latterpattem is similar to the pattern of extraction
measured by other workers (Table 3).
The amounts of water below 75 em extracted by
pasture were much greater than has been reported
elsewhere in Canterbury (Hayman & Stocker 1982)
and in studies in the North Island (Scotter et al. 1979;
McAneney & Judd 1983; Barker et al. 1985; Parfitt
et al. 1985a). Insufficient measurements were taken
to determine whether there was a significant drainage
component contributing to the measured deficits.
However, there is generally reasonable agreement
between measured soil water contents at -0.1 bar
tension and measured field capacities (Fig. 2).
Soil water deficits reached tensions of -15 bar or
greater to depths of 90 em which is significantly
deeper than has been recorded in the studies quoted
above. However, Evans (1976) recorded tensions of
-15 bar to depths greater than 90 cm in a sandy
alluvial soil under pasture at Palmerston North and
Gregory et at (1978) recorded tensions of -20 bar to
depths greater than 80 cm under winter wheat in
Britain. Also, both Watt (1977) and Scotter et
a1.(1979) measured deficits equivalent to -15 bar to
60--70 cm in yellow-grey earths in very dry seasons,
which compares favourably with these results,
particularly when it is remembered that yellow-grey
earths are underlain by dense fragipans with very
poor root distribution below 50-80 cm. The
apparently high tensions at depth may, however,

Table 3 Proportion (%) of soil water extracted for successive quartiles of root
depth compared with previous work. Quartile thicknesses were all 30 cm except
for Iudgeford. Stratford and Tokomaru soils where quartile thicknesses were 25
cm.
Rooting depth quartile
Soil profile 1 2 3 4
This study
1982/83
Templeton deep 27 29 26 18
Wakanuideep 30 27 29 14
Templeton moderately deep 39 36 15 10
Eyre shallow 51 26 12 11
1983/84
Templeton deep 23 26 22 17
Wakanui deep 32 24 27 17
Templeton moderately deep 41 32 19 8
Eyre shallow 56 23 10 11
Previous work
Wakanui deep (Hayman & Stocker 1982) 34 18 32 16
Eyre shallow (Hayman & Stocker 1982) 62 22 13 2
Horotiu deep (McAneney & Judd 1983) 52 28 15 5
Iudgeford deep (Parfitt et al. 1985a) 52 28 15 5
Stratford deep (Parfitt et al. 1985b) 48 28 18 5
Tokomaru deep (Barker et al. 1985) 39 28 20 13
Webb-Soil water extraction patterns
Fig. 3 Available water holding
capacity (AWC) versus stone-free 240 ~ 0 1982/83
soil depth for all soils underpasture. Q 1983/84
200
160
E SE ±19 ±23±0.007
E
~ 120
;:
«
80
40
O~
result from poor correlation between laboratory-
measured soil tensions and field-assessed soil water
contents. Highly variable textures make correlations
tenuous, a few centimetres away from the sampling
position, results could differ substantially. Also, soil
water estimates obtained with the neutron probe
may have underestimated water content in stony and
sandy materials. This possibility is supported by the
extremely low, and sometimes negative, soil water
readings obtained in stony horizons (Fig. 2). Cannell
& Asbell (1974) found that neutron probe
measurements made in soils with sharp textural
breaks can be in error by as much as 8%. The soil
water content error may be greater or less than water
contents measured gravimetrically, depending on
whether the neutron measurement is made on entering
or leaving a sandy layer.
It is important to note that, in this study, soil
water was extracted under severe water deficit
conditions. The water extracted under severe stress
is likely to have been used to maintain plant viability
rather than to support growth (parfitt et al. 1985a,
1985b). The extremely slow rate of extraction at the
dry end of the seasons would support this view.
Also, the presence of flatweeds, particularly after
the drought of 1981/82, may account for extraction
of water at high tensions at depth. Flatweeds were
seen to maintain their turgidity in the drier conditions
for longer than did the pasture plants. There is a need
for further research to relate soil water deficits to
197
@
o
o
AWCz239-191 (0.983 depth)
2'0 4'0 6'0 8'0 1()0 120 140 HlO
Soil depth (em)
pasture growth in these soils to determine the critical
deficit at which pasture growth slows because of
lack of water.
Available water capacity
AWC for each of the soils under barley and peas,
calculated from summation of values in Table 2,
were: Templeton deep and Wakanui deep phases,
110 to 120 mm; and Templeton moderately deep
phase, 100 to 110 mm. The relationship between
stone-free soil depth and AWC for each of the soils
under pasture is presented in Fig. 3. Values for both
years are very similar. The effective rooting depth of
the deep Templeton phase was taken as 150 cm. The
following estimates of AWC under pasture were
derived from Fig. 3: Templeton deep phase (>150
cmoffines),225-240mm;TempletonandWakanui
deep phases (9~ 150cm of stone-free fines), 2~225
mm; Templeton moderately deep phase (45-90 cm
of stone-free fines), 15~200 mm; Eyre shallow
phase (2~5 cm of stone-free fines), 100-150 mm;
and Eyre stony phase «20 cm of stone-free fines),
less than 100 mm.
AWCs based on laboratory-determined values
calculated after Parfitt et al. (l985b) were compared
with water extracted from the same profiles in the
field as measured by the neutron probe in the
1982/83 and 1983/84 seasons. A deep Templeton
profile had comparable water extraction and
laboratory-based AWC but laboratory-based AWCs
198 New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 1989, Vol. 17
for three other profiles (Wakanui deep, Templeton
moderately deep, and Eyre shallow soils) were
60-80% lower than measured water extraction.
Higher measured AWCs may be accounted for from
two observations. Firstly, recent measurements
indicate that -0.05 bar is probably a closer estimate
of 'field capacity' than is -0.1 bar for horizons with
sharp textural contrasts. Secondly, under severe
drought conditions, pasture appears to extract water
below 40 cm depths to tensions well beyond -1 bar
as suggested by Parfitt et aI. (1985b). The close
agreement found between field- and laboratory-
based assessments of AWC for the Templeton deep
soil is largely fortuitous. Laboratory estimates of
AWC over-estimated AWC below 90cm but for the
upper 90 cm of profile laboratory estimates were
only 85% of measured values.
Stone-free horizons above 90 cm depth with
textures varying from silt loam to loamy fine sand all
had AWCs of 20-25%. Stony horizons with loamy
textures above 90 cm and stone-free horizons below
90 cm depth had AWCs of 10-15%. Stony sandy
horizons below 60 cm had AWCs of 5-7%.
Absolute values of AWC are very high and need
to be considered in relation to amounts of water
extracted under moderate to high deficit conditions.
Results from the 1982/83 and 1983/84 seasons
indicate that 30% of recorded available water was
extracted under moderate to severe water deficit
stresses (EjE < 0.85).
Furtherm6re, high A WCs in deep soils will only
have relevance when soils have been fully recharged.
In seasons following dry winters, deep soils will not
be restored to field capacity, so that their recharged
water profiles will not reach their potential AWC.
This occurred in 1984 when deep soils retained large
deficits into spring. In mid August 1984 soil water
measurements indicated that deficits were 115-130
mminTempletondeepphase,40-50mminWakanui
deep and Templeton moderately deep phases and
20-40 mm in Eyre shallow phase.
Drainage
There were marked differences in drainage related
to soil depth classes. During 8 weeks of wetting in
May-J uly 1983, the shallow soils were calculated to
have allowed 80-100 mm of water to drain away
while the moderately deep soils had a few millimetres
of drainage and the deep soils had no drainage. In the
following 12 weeks, Templeton deep phase had
10-20 mm of drainage while the other soils had
40-75 mm of drainage. Total drainage figures during
1983 were: deep soils, 8-58 mm; moderately deep
soils, 77 mm; and shallow soils, 149-174 mm.
CONCLUSIONS
The values obtained for AWC were considerably
higher than estimations based on laboratory
measurements and confirm the need for field-based
assessments of AWC. Subsoils containing horizons
with sharp textural contrasts had relatively high
A WCs and strata at the same depth had similar
AWCs even though texture varied from loamy fine
sand to silt loam. A formula was derived to estimate
AWC, under pasture, from stone-free soil depth,
irrespective of textural composition. A WC in
underlying sandy gravels, which contained about
50% gravels, could be taken as 5% by volume, at
least to a depth of 120 cm from the soil surface.
These assessments of AWC can be used in crop
growth models and for irrigation design parameters.
However, there is a need for further work to determine
deficits at which plant growth slows and at which
plant growth effectively stops.
Effective rooting depth of stone-free soils was
90-100 cm for spring-sown peas and barley and was
150 cm for ryegrass/white clover pasture. The
effective rooting depth for pasture within soils
underlain by sandy gravels at depths varying from
40 to 90 cm, extended to at least 120 cm from the soil
surface. Lithological discontinuities did not inhibit
water extraction below the discontinuities. There is
a need for further work to determine the mechanism
of soil water extraction from deep horizons which
have only a sparse occurrence of roots.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are due to Miss Cathy Bennett and Mr
Andrew Purves for help in many aspects of this study.
Thanks are also due to the several technical trainees, wage
workers and colleagues who helped to record soil moisture;
to Mr Gerrard Lilley for sampling and analysing the soils
for soil moisture release characterisation; to Ms Sabrina
Malcolm for drafting of figures, and to Dr C. W. Ross for
helpful comments on the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Barker, D. J.; Chu, A. P. C.; Korte, C. 1. 1985. Depletion
of soil water from a Tokomaru silt loam by a
perenial ryegrass sward. New Zealandjour1W.l of
agricultural research 28: 525-530.
Bennett, C. M.; Webb, T. H. 1987. Influence of soil type
and irrigation on yield of spring-sown barley and
peas and autumn-sown greenfeed in Canterbury.
New Zealand journal ofexperimental agriculture
15: 123-133.
Bennett, C. M.; Webb, T. H.; Wallace, A. R. 1980.
Influence of soil type and irrigation on barley
yield. New Zealand journal of experimental
agiculture8: 111-115.
Webb-Soil water extraction patterns
Cannell, G. H.; Asbell, C. W. 1974. The effects of soil-
profile variations and related factors on neutron-
moderation measurements. Soil science 117:
124-127
Cox, J. E. 1978. Soils and agriculture of part Paparua
County, Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand
Soil Bureau bulletin 34: 128p.
Evans,P.S.1976.Rootdistributionandwater-withdrawal
patterns of some crop and pasture species. Pp
186-190 in: Proceedings of soil and plant water
symposium. May 25-27, PaImerston North.
Department ofScientific and Industrial Research
Information Series No 126.
Gradwell, M. W. 1972. Methods for physical analysis of
soils. New Zealand Soil Bureau scientific report
IOC.
Gregory, P. H.; McGowan, M.; Biscoe, Y. P. 1978. Water
relations in winter wheat. 2. Soil water relations.
Agricultural science 91: 103-116.
Griffiths, E. 1985. Interpretation of soil morphology for
assessing moisture movement and storage. New
Zealand Soil Bureau scientific report 74. 2Op.
Hayman, J.M.; Stocker, R.Y. 1982. Soil water extraction
patterns under pasture and lucerne on two soil
types in Mid-Canterbury. Proceedings of the
Agronomy Society of New Zealand 12: 61-63.
Jamieson, P. D. 1985. Soil moisture extraction patterns
from irrigated and dryland arable crops in
Canterbury. Proceedings ofthe Agronomy Society
of New Zealand 15: 1-6.
Johns, G.G.; Smith, R.C. G.1975. Accuracy of soil water
budgets based on a range of relationships for the
influence of soil water availability on actual water
use. Australian journal of agricultural research
26: 871-883.
Karageorgis, D.; Tonkin, P. 1.; Adams, 1. A. 1984. Medium
and short range variability in textural layering in
an Ochrept developed on an alluvial floodplain.
Australianjournal of soil research 22: 471-474.
199
McAneney, K. J.; Judd, M. D.; 1983. Pasture production
and water use measurernents in the centralWaikato.
New Zealandjournal ofagricultural research 26:
7-13.
Parfitt, R. L.; Joe, E. N.; Cook, F. J. 1985a. Water use and
pasture growth on JUdgeford silt loam. New
Zealand journal of agricultural research 28:
387-392.
Parfitt, R. L.; Roberts, A. H. C.; Thomson N. A. Cook, F.
J.1985b. Water use and pasture growth on Stratford
silt loam. New Zealand journal of agricultural
research 28: 393-401.
Rickard, D. S.; McBride, S. D.; Fitzgerald, P. D. 1986. The
effect of soil moisture deficits on pasture yield.
New Zealand journal of agricultural science 20:
7-12.
Ritchie, 1. T. 1981. Soil water availability. Plant and Soil
58: 327-338.
Scotter, D. R.; Clothier, B. E.; Corker, R. B. 1979. Soil
water in a Fragiaqualf. Australian journal of soil
research 17: 443-453.
Soil Survey Staff 1975. Soil Taxonomy, a basic system for
making and interpreting soil surveys. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service Handbook No. 436. 754 p.
Stoker, R. 1982. Soil wetting and moisture extraction
trials on a Lismore stony silt loam. Technical
report of the Winchmore Irrigation Research
Station No.16. 13p.
Watt,1. P. C. 1977. Field observations of the moisture
regime of a yellow-grey earth (Otokia silt loam) in
eastern Otago. Journal of hydrology 16: 53-72.
Webb, T.H.; Purves, A.M. 1983. Influence of soil type on
yield of autumn-sown wheat and oats in Canterbury
in a dry year. New Zealandjournalofexperimental
agriculture 11: 289-294.
Weir, A. H.; Barraclough, P. B. 1986. The effect of
drought on the root growth of winter wheat on its
water uptake from a deep loam. Soil use and
management 2: 91-96.