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Introduction
Chromosomes are the genetic material found in all cells. They consist of
proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Each cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes,
including one pair of sex chromosomes and 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes.
There are two sex chromosomes, called the X chromosome and the Y chromosome.
Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X chromosome and one
Y chromosome. Autosomes are the non-sex chromosomes that are numbered
chromosome 1 through 22. Each autosomal gene has two copies and one copy (or
allele) is inherited from each parent. Variations of the genes are also known as
alleles.
A person inherits genes from his or her parents. One gene is inherited from
the mother, and the other gene is inherited from the father. Each parent can only
pass one of their genes on to the child. Which gene gets passed down is determined
purely by chance. When both alleles of a gene are the same, a person is said to be
homozygous for that gene. If different alleles of the gene are inherited from each
parent, the person is said to be heterozygous for that gene.
INTEGUMENTARY SYTEM
The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, the subcutaneous
tissue below the skin,and assorted glands.The most obvious function of the
integumentary system is the protection that the skin gives to underlying tissues. The
skin not only keeps most harmful substances out, but also prevents the loss of fluids.
Skin
Damaged skin will try to heal by forming scar tissue, often giving rise to
discoloration and depigmentation of the skin.
The skin is often known as "the largest organ in the human body". This
applies to exterior surface, as it covers the body, appearing to have the largest
surface area of all the organs. Moreover, it applies to weight, as it weighs more than
any single internal organ, accounting for about 15 percent of body weight. For the
average adult human, the skin has a surface area of between 1.5-2.0 square meters,
most of it is between 2-3 mm thick. The average square inch of skin holds 650 sweat
glands, 20 blood vessels, 60,000 melanocytes, and more than a thousand nerve
endings.
The use of natural or synthetic cosmetics to treat the appearance of the face
and condition of the skin (such as pore control and black head cleansing) is common
among many cultures.
Layers
The skin has two major layers which are made of different tissues and have
very different functions.
Skin is composed of the epidermis and the dermis. Below these layers lies
the hypodermis or subcutaneous adipose layer, which is not usually classified as a
layer of skin.
Blood capillaries are found beneath the epidermis, and are linked to an
arteriole and a venule. Arterial shunt vessels may bypass the network in ears, the
nose and fingertips.
The dermis lies below the epidermis and contains a number of structures
including blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, smooth muscle, glands and lymphatic
tissue. It consists of loose connective tissue otherwise called areolar connective
tissue - collagen, elastin and reticular fibers are present. Erector muscles, attached
between the hair papilla and epidermis, can contract, resulting in the hair fiber pulled
upright and consequentially goose bumps. The main cell types are fibroblasts,
adipocytes (fat storage) and macrophages. Sebaceous glands are exocrine glands
which produce, a mixture of lipids and waxy substances: lubrication, water-proofing,
softening and antibactericidal actions are among the many functions of sebum.
Sweat Glands open up via a duct onto the skin by a pore.
The hypodermis is not part of the skin, and lies below the dermis. Its purpose
is to attach the skin to underlying bone and muscle as well as supplying it with blood
vessels and nerves. It consists of loose connective tissue and elastin. The main cell
types are fibroblasts, macrophages and adipocytes (the hypodermis contains 50% of
body fat). Fat serves as padding and insulation for the body.
Functions
Skin gives an anatomical barrier between the internal and external
environment in bodily defense; Langerhans cells in the skin are part of the
immune system
Skin contains a variety of nerve endings that react to heat, cold, touch,
pressure, vibration, and tissue injury; see somatosensory system and touch.
The skin contains a blood supply far greater than its requirements
which allows precise control of energy loss by radiation, convection and
conduction. Dilated blood vessels increase perfusion and heat loss while
constricted vessels greatly reduce cutaneous blood flow and conserve heat.
Erector pili muscles are significant in animals.
Sweat Glands
Eccrine sweat glands are exocrine glands distributed over the entire body
surface but are particularly abundant on the palms of hands, soles of feet, and on
the forehead. These produce sweat that is composed chiefly of water (99%) with
various salts. The primary function is body temperature regulation.
Eccrine sweat glands are coiled tubular glands derived leading directly to the
most superficial layer of the epidermis (out layer of skin) but extending into the inner
layer of the skin (dermis layer). They are distributed over almost the entire surface of
the body in humans and many other species, but are lacking in some marine and
fur-bearing species. The sweat glands are controlled by sympathetic cholinergic
nerves which are controlled by a center in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus
senses core temperature directly, and also has input from temperature receptors in
the skin and modifies the sweat output, along with other thermoregulatory
processes.
Human eccrine sweat is composed chiefly of water with various salts and
organic compounds in solution. It contains minute amounts of fatty materials, urea,
and other wastes. The concentration of sodium varies from 35–65 mmol/l and is
lower in people acclimatised to a hot environment. The sweat of other species
generally differ in composition.
Apocrine
In some areas of the body, these sweat glands are modified to produce wholly
different secretions, including the cerumen ("wax") of the outer ear. Other glands,
such as Mammary glands, are greatly enlarged and modified to produce milk.
Sebaceous Glands
The sebaceous glands are glands found in the skin of mammals. They
secrete an oily substance called sebum (Latin, meaning fat or tallow) that is made of
fat (lipids) and the debris of dead fat-producing cells. These glands exist in humans
throughout the skin except in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Sebum
acts to protect and waterproof hair and skin, and keep them from becoming dry,
brittle, and cracked. It can also inhibit the growth of microorganisms on skin.
Sebaceous glands can usually be found in hair-covered areas where they are
connected to hair follicles to deposit sebum on the hairs, and bring it to the skin
surface along the hair shaft. The structure consisting of hair, hair follicle and
sebaceous gland is also known as pilosebaceous unit. Sebaceous glands are also
found in non haired areas of lips, eyelids, penis, labia minora and nipples; here the
sebum reaches the surface through ducts. In the glands, sebum is produced within
specialized cells and is released as these cells burst; sebaceous glands are thus
classified as holocrine glands.
Sebum is odorless, but its bacterial breakdown can produce odors. Sebum is
the cause of some people experiencing "oily" hair if it is not washed for several days.
Earwax is partly sebum, as is mucopurulent discharge, the dry substance
accumulating in the corners of the eye after sleeping.
A hair follicle with associated structures.
Sebaceous glands are involved in skin problems such as acne and keratosis
pilaris. A blocked sebaceous gland can result in a sebaceous cyst. The prescription
drug isotretinoin significantly reduces the amount of sebum produced by the
sebaceous glands, and is used to treat acne. The extreme use (up to 10 times
doctor prescribed amounts) of anabolic steroids by bodybuilders to prevent weight
loss tend to stimulate the sebaceous glands which can cause acne.
The preputial glands of mice and rats are large modified sebaceous glands
that produce pheromones.
Ceruminous glands
The difference in cerumen type has been tracked to a single base change (an
single nucleotide polymorphism) in a gene known as "ATP-binding cassette C11
gene". In addition to affecting cerumen type, this mutation also reduces sweat
production. The researchers conjecture that the reduction in sweat was beneficial to
the ancestors of East Asians and Native Americans who are thought to have lived in
cold climates.
Function
Cleaning of the ear canal occurs as a result of the "conveyor belt" process of
epithelial migration, aided by jaw movement. Cells formed in the center of the
tympanic membrane migrate outwards from the umbo (at a rate equivalent to that of
fingernail growth) to the walls of the ear canal, and accelerate towards the entrance
of the ear canal. The cerumen in the canal is also carried outwards, taking with it any
dirt, dust, and particulate matter that may have gathered in the canal. Jaw
movement assists this process by dislodging debris attached to the walls of the ear
canal, increasing the likelihood of its extrusion.
Lubrication prevents desiccation and itching of the skin within the ear canal
(known as asteatosis). The lubricative properties arise from the high lipid content of
the sebum produced by the sebaceous glands. In wet-type cerumen at least, these
lipids include cholesterol, squalene, and many long-chain fatty acids and alcohols.
While studies conducted up until the 1960s found little evidence supporting an
antibacterial role for cerumen, more recent studies have found that cerumen
provides some bactericidal protection against some strains of bacteria. Cerumen has
been found to be effective in reducing the viability of a wide range of bacteria
(sometimes by up to 99%), including Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus
aureus, and many variants of Escherichia coli. The growth of two fungi commonly
present in otomycosis was also significantly inhibited by human cerumen. These
antimicrobial properties are due principally to the presence of saturated fatty acids,
lysozyme and, especially, to the relatively low pH of cerumen (typically around 6.1 in
normal individuals).
(http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/Integumentary_System)
The Nervous System
Conditions both within the body and in the environment are constantly
changing. The nervous system directs the complex processes of the body's internal
environment and also provides a link to the external world. This allows us to respond
to changes both from internal sources as well as form external stimuli.
The nervous system is broken down into two major part: the central nervous
system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous
system, which includes all nerves, which carry impulses to and from the brain and
spinal cord. These include our sense organs, the eyes, the ears, our sense of taste,
smell and touch, as well as our ability to feel pain.
The Central Nervous System consists of the Brain and Spinal Cord. It
contains millions of neuons (nerve cells). If you slice through some fresh brain or
spinal cord you will find some areas appear grey whilst other ares appear rather
white. The white matter consists of axons, it appears white because it contains a lot
of fatty material called myelin. The myelin sheath insulates an axon from its
neighbours. This means that nerve cells can conduct electrical messages without
interfering with one another. The grey matter consists of cell bodies and the
branched dendrites which effectively connect them together. So this area is mainly
cytoplasm of nerve cells which is why it appears white.
The spinal cord is a long bundle of neural tissue continuous with the brain that
occupies the interior canal of the spinal column and functions as the primary
communication link between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord
receives signals from the peripheral senses and relays them to the brain.
Brain Stem
The brain stem is the part of the brain that connects the cerebrum and
diencephalons with the spinal cord.
Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata is located just above the spinal cord. This part of the
brain is responsible for several vital autonomic centers including:
The medulla also controls other reflex actions including vomiting, sneezing,
coughing and swallowing.
Pons
Continuing up the brain stem, one reaches the Pons. The pons lie just above
the medulla and acts as a link between various parts of the brain. The pons connect
the two halves of the cerebellum with the brainstem, as well as the cerebrum with
the spinal cord. The pons, like the medulla oblongata, contain certain reflex actions,
such as some of the respiratory responses.
Midbrain
The midbrain extends from the pons to the diecephalon. The midbrain acts as
a relay center for certain head and eye reflexes in response to visual stimuli. The
midbrain is also a major relay center for auditory information.
Diencephalon
The diencephalons is located between the cerebrum and the mid brain. The
diencephalons houses important structures including the thalamus, the
hypothalamus and the pineal gland.
Thalamus
The thalamus is responsible for "sorting out" sensory impulses and directing
them to a particular area of the brain. Nearly all sensory impulses travel through the
thalamus.
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
The largest and most prominent part of the brain, the cerebrum governs higher
mental processes including intellect, reason, memory and language skills. The
cerebrum can be divided into 3 major functions:
The meninges are made up of three layers of connective tissue that surround
and protect both the brain and spinal cord. The layers include the dura mater, the
arachnoid and the pia matter.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
The cerebrospinal fluid is a clear liquid that circulates in and around the brain
and spinal cord. Its function is to cushion the brain and spinal cord, carry nutrients to
the cells and remove waste products from these tissues.
(http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CNS.html)
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Afferent lymphatic vessels carry unfiltered lymph into the node. Here waste
products, and some of the fluid, are filtered out.
In another section of the node, lymphocytes, which are specialized white blood
cells, kill pathogens that may be present. This causes the swelling commonly swelling
known as swollen glands.
Lymph nodes also trap cancer cells and slow the spread of the cancer until they
are overwhelmed by it.
Efferent lymphatic vessels carry the filtered lymph out of the node to continue its
return to the circulatory system.
Lymph originates as plasma, which is the fluid portion of blood. The arterial blood that
flows out of the heart slows as it moves through a capillary bed (see figure above). This
slowing allows some plasma to leave the arterioles and flow into the tissues where it
becomes tissue fluid.
Also known as intercellular fluid, or interstitial fluid, this tissue fluid delivers
nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the cells.
As this fluid leaves the cells, it takes with it cellular waste products and protein
cells.
Approximately 90 percent of this tissue fluid flows into the venules. Here it enters
the venous circulation as plasma and continues in the circulatory system.
The remaining 10 percent of the fluid that is left behind is now known as lymph.
As it travels through the body, lymph passes through lymph nodes where it is
filtered. At the base of the neck, the lymph enters the subclavian veins and once again
becomes plasma in the bloodstream.
Lymphatic Capillaries
n order to leave the tissues, the lymph must enter the lymphatic system through
specialized lymphatic capillaries. Approximately 70 percent of these are superficial
capillaries that are located near, or just under, the skin. The remaining 30 percent,
which are known as deep lymphatic capillaries, surround most of the body’s organs.
Lymphatic capillaries begin as blind-ended tubes that are only a single cell in
thickness. These cells are arranged in a slightly overlapping pattern, much like the
shingles on a roof. Each of these individual cells is fastened to nearby tissues by
an anchoring filament.
As shown in the animation below, pressure from the fluid surrounding the
capillary forces these cells to separate for a moment to allow lymph to enter the
capillary. Then the cells of the wall close together. This does not allow the lymph to
leave the capillary. Instead it is forced to move forward.
Lymphatic Vessels
The lymphatic capillaries gradually join together to form a mesh-like network of tubes
that are located deeper in the body. As they become larger, these structures are known
as lymphatic vessels.
• Deeper within the body the lymphatic vessels become progressively larger and
are located near major veins.
• Like veins, lymphatic vessels, which are known as lymphangions have one-way
valves to prevent any backward flow.
• Each angions is a segment created by the space between two sets of valves.
• Smooth muscles in the walls of the lymphatic vessels cause the angions to
contract sequentially to aid the flow of lymph toward the thoracic region. Because
of their shape, these vessels are previously referred to as a string of pearls.
Lymph Nodes
The lymph node is a tinny bean-shaped gland, located in many different areas
of the body. The main locations are the neck, under the arms, and in the groin. The
body has over 300 filtering selected white blood cells and foreign elements. The
lymph node is a component of the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system moves
lymph node fluid, waste substance, and nutrients through out your body
bloodstream and tissues.
Each lymph node is also an important part of your immune system. Your lymph
node filters fluids, catching viruses, bacteria, and other unknown materials. Then
your unique white blood cells destroy the unwanted materials.
(http://www.lymphnotes.com/article.php/id/151/)
RENAL SYSTEM
The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs
that filter the blood, remove the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are
the organs that perform the functions of the urinary system. The other components are
accessory structures to eliminate the urine from the body.
The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae,
one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than
the left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys protected by the lower
ribs, lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the
parietal peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place
by connective tissue, called renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose
tissue, called perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue
renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the soft tissue
that is inside.
contain straight tubular structures and blood vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids
are adjacent to the cortex and the pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed
toward the center of the kidney. Portions of the renal cortex extend into the spaces
between adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The cortex and medulla make up the
parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the kidney.
The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal
sinus and is continuous with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that collects
the urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis is interrupted by cuplike
projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid
and collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major
calyx. From the major calyces the urine flows into the renal pelvis and from there into
the ureter.
Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma
(cortex and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.The
renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by
a double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole
leads into the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine
passes from the nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces.
The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is
formed from modified cells in the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the
nephron loop.
(http://www.freeed.net/sweethaven/Science/Biology/AnatomyPhysiol/Human01_Lesson
Main)