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INTRODUCTION
Machinery management has increased in today’s farming operations because of its direct
relation to the success of management in mixing land, labor, and capital to return a satisfactory
profit.
AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION
- Agricultural mechanization it embraces the use of tools, implement and machines for
agricultural land development, production, harvesting, and post-production processes. It
includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical. (FAO definition,
1979)
- Agricultural mechanization is the art and scientific application of mechanical aids for
increased production and preservation of food and fiber crops with less drudgery and
increased efficiency
- A system of production for food and fiber that embraces tools, implement, and machines
for agricultural land development, production, harvesting and on-farm processes.
- It includes three main power sources: human, animal and mechanical. Natural power
(solar, water, and wind) are included in mechanical power because a mechanical device is
needed to transfer this power into useful work. As a discipline, agricultural
mechanization covers the manufacture, distribution, and utilization of tools, implements,
and machines.
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Models of mechanization
2
- Machine designed to diversify farm products and by products open up various livelihood
opportunities.
- Use of machines will require the putting up of repair shops in the village area.
7. Import substitution
- Local agricultural machinery manufacturing will minimize the importation of agricultural
machinery
8. Export possibilities
- Locally manufactured agricultural machinery can be exported to countries with similar
farming conditions such as the Philippines.
The levels of mechanization were classified into: low, intermediate, high and full
mechanization.
1. Low mechanization means that an operation is done with the use of non-
mechanical power source such as man and animal.
2. Intermediate mechanization refers to operations done with the use of non-
mechanical power source in combination with the use of mechanical power
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source operated by man (i.e. in plowing: 95 percent is plowed using a hand tractor
and five percent is done with an animal-drawn plow).
3. High mechanization is any operation done solely with the use of a mechanical
power source operated by a person (i.e. four-wheel tractor).
These three levels are further subdivided into three sublevels indicating advancement in
technology through process and strength of the power source. A fourth albeit minor level is Full
mechanization wherein the operations are done with the use of mechanical power source with
limited human intervention such as computerized machines or robots. Involves the use of a
mechanical power source with limited power intervention by man such as computerized drying
of crops.
1. Human power
- Oldest source of power in the farm
- Man used his muscles to walk long distances, hunt animals and till the soil.
4
- Man learned to tame animals he hunted for food to work for him by providing pulling
power.
- Man leaned the use of sleds for transporting cargoes; use of rollers underneath the sleds;
and finally the use of wheels.
- While fire is considered the greatest discovery of man; the wheel is considered the
greatest invention of man.
- Today, still considered the major source of power in the farm because of:
o Size of farm
o Topography
o Crops grown
o High cost of equipment
o High cost and non-availability of fuel
o Availability of low cost labor
- Poor source of power.
- Develops only 0.1hp working continuously under favourable conditions (good health,
well fed, and favourable environment)
- Considering that there were 11.76M farmers and 9.67M hectares of agricultural lands,
human power contribution is about 0.122 hp/ha.
- Man is suited to farm operations requiring judgment rather than simple power.
2. Animal Power
- In the Philippines, the Carabao is the beast of burden.
- It can generate 1 hp walking continuously under favourable conditions.
- Its work is confined mostly to pulling operations such as plowing, harrowing, cultivating,
and transport.
- There are about 3.3M carabaos in the Philippines (BAS, Feb 2009) and about 70-75% is
used for draft work.
- The contribution of animal power in the farm is about 0.256hp/ha.
- Compared with mechanical energy sources, the carabao offers the following advantages:
o Low initial cost
o Easy to maintain
o Rarely bogs down in mud
o Can work closer to the levees
o Mobile in most terrain conditions
o If female, is capable of reproduction
o Source of milk, meat, leather and fertilizer
- As a power source, it also has its disadvantages
o Low work output
o 25-50 hours plowing once per hectare
o 77 km walking per hectare
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o Limited working hours to avoid intense heat of the sun
o Prone to disability by disease, poisoning, lost by rustling, and death
o Requires daily attention such as feeding and pasturing.
o Under poor management practices, causes unsanitary conditions.
-about 15% of the weight of the carabao is the optimum draft the animal can sustain.
3. Electric Motors
- Device used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy
- Efficient means of converting energy into mechanical energy compared to gasoline and
diesel engines.
- Used as prime movers for stationary and indoor equipment such as those for processing
of farm products and by products.
- Advantages of electric motors:
o Low initial cost
o Available in fractional horsepower sizes (1/4, ½, 3/4 hp) and integral hp sizes (1,
1 ½, 2, 2 ½, and etc)
o Compact
o Long life
o Simple to operate
o Inexpensive to operate (motor: P6.22/kW-hr, Diesel engine: P6.75/kW-hr, and
Gasoline engine: P11.20/kW-hr)
o Quiet operation
o No exhaust fumes
o Potential for automatic control
- Disadvantages of electric motors:
o Not adopted to mobile applications such as engines
o Used only in farms with existing electrical lines
o Affected by power outages
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- Despite of low thermal efficiency, still considered one of the few inventions that have
great influence on human lives
- Engines are used as prime movers for mobile and field equipment such as tractors,
pumps, sprayers, harvesters, and threshers.
- Engines are also used in fishing boats to increase the mobility of fishermen and the scope
of fishing grounds.
- In general, engines are used in applications here electric motors cannot be used.
a. Mechanization must result in more production at lower cost than the traditional
method - to justify the equipment cost, divert displaced labor to more productive
operations.
b. Mechanization must assist labor to overcome peak energy requirements which are
in excess of manpower available.
c. Mechanization must replace time and energy efficiently – should be less than
those required with the use of hand tools.
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- Criteria for the assessment of available technologies may include efficiency, cost per unit
capacity, BCR, affordability, durability, versatility, labor displacement, threats, labor
generation potentials, and harmony with national programs.
2. Mechanization and Crop production
- Generally assumed that it increases cropping intensities and yield levels
- Not all farm machines results in higher cropping intensities and production
3. Mechanization and Labor displacement
Category I – machines that generate labor by increasing cropping intensities and make possible
the full utilization of farm products and by products. (i.e. pumping irrigation water,
extracting fibers and other raw materials, secondary and tertiary processing of products
and by products)
Category II – machines that enable farmers to perform tasks that cannot be done by available
animal and human labor. (i.e. sprayers, engines, solar driers, gasifiers, electric motors and
hand tools)
Category III – machines that directly replace human and animal labor
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- Competition from new and second-hand imported machines
- Poor quality of local steel products
- Higher import to local component proportions of finished products
- High tariff rates on imported components
- Lack of credit facilities
- Critical gaps in manufacturing technologies
- Inadequate industrial extension services
7. Technology transfer
- Industrial extension to improve the manufacturing and management capabilities of local
manufacturers
- Machine testing and evaluation to guarantee quality products and adequacy of after sales
services
- Agricultural extension such as
o Continuing process of technology assessment, needs analysis and packaging of
matured technologies
o Instruction on the selection, operation and maintenance of farm machines
o Provision of support infrastructure and institutional service arrangement for the
promotion of mechanization technologies
In farm practices and crops grown – mechanization overcomes peak energy requirements to
permit a second crop or next crop immediately following the previous crop, hence increasing
cropping intensity
In farm size and layout – present day paddy size is most efficient for animal and man farming
operations but not for mechanized operations; energy available has limited such size, that’s why
large land ownership resulted in tenant system
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In social systems – mechanization is based solely on cash exchange which is true in any industry
that makes use of power.
1. Bayanihan system is limited because time and favors are exchanged; exchange of labor
is now getting rare.
2. Cooperatives have been suggested and tried many times but with little or no success
because members must have self-discipline and equality.
3. Contractor-cash system works in nearly all micro and macro service enterprises, like
milling and threshing, transportation, private schools, hospitals, and construction. Thus,
custom service operations appears to be a viable strategy for promoting mechanization
because it is based on direct client-provider relationship where under normal market
forces, the client has power over the provider and can demand quality and value or the
next provider gets the contract. Here the poor farmer is in control over the essential
services provided.
4. Government-implemented mechanization system have not been successful in the
Philippines and anywhere else in the world. The main reason is that services are not
direct but passéd through policymakers and the bureaucracy and nobody is held
accountable. (Ref. DEverajan, S. and R. Reinikka. Making services work for poor people.
Finance and Development, September 2003. An IMF publication).
A Paradigm Shift:
Land consolidation
The grouping together of small parcels of land comprising a contiguous area and
reforming the boundaries for the purpose of effecting suitable field shapes and sizes
conducive to efficient operation of agricultural machinery, building access roads, field
irrigation and drainage canals as well as allotting spaces for crop postharvest processing
structures.
The initial steps in planning for land consolidation consist of topographic surveys and
determining the layout of the required infrastructures (requiring an agricultural engineer’s
professional work). Certain mutually agreed arrangements (may require the intervention of a
third party, like an NGO or government, like DAR, DA, and DECS) among the farmers
involved are made in relocating boundaries, removal of existing bounds and leveling along
contours, which may entail land swapping, sales (may involve outside areas to consolidate
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conjugal or family land properties into one area), donations, or equitable sharing of labor and
benefits, especially in rice paddies. Implementation of land consolidation requirements may
be facilitated by forming farmer cooperatives or groups, reselling or leasing the land to an
agribusiness or agro-industrial entrepreneur or corporation, which would demand a large
farm area to effect economies of scale. It can also be facilitated by farm planning and
implementing land consolidation physical infrastructures on a single or family owned area
before titling and distributing the land parcels to the farmer beneficiaries of the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). Land consolidation is expected to be a
torturous endeavor that will need education and information among those directly affected
and is a step towards modernizing agriculture through gradual change from unproductive,
unprofitable or low-income generating marginal farming systems to efficient and profitable
large-scale and modernized farming. The current small landholder-farmers will retire and
their children will be encouraged and assisted to get college education so that none of them
will engage in marginal farming as an economic base. Certain safety nets may be in place to
ensure food and financial security in case of economic downturns and natural and man-made
calamities.
Farmland clustering
The grouping together of farms in an area (initially forming a minimum of 50-ha cluster)
for synchronized farming operations from land preparation to harvesting in cooperation or
contract with agricultural mechanized operations service providers for the purpose of making
field operations efficient and thus, effect low cost, timely, and professional or high quality
services to the benefit also of the farmers forming the cluster.
Within a farm or among neighboring farms, the farmers in the cluster agree to remove or
relocate boundaries or physical barriers (yet retaining the integrity of property lines on paper
or corner markers on land or both) to effect minimum interruptions of field operations, like in
continuous plowing, planting, and harvesting across property lines. Farmland clustering has
shown success, acceptance, and benefits among farmers in corn farmland areas in Isabela and
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Quirino provinces through the efforts of cooperatives and private custom operation service
providers and encouragement by the DA and DAR.
Japan
- Increase in large scale farms
- Crop diversification thru multi-purpose use of paddies
- Increase rice production from 4.02 to 4.5 tons/ha
- Irrigation system has flood regulating function
- 40% overall work reduction in paddy field from 185 hrs/0.1 ha (1950’s) to 39 hrs/0.1 ha
(1993)
- Reduction in human labor from 1050 hrs/ha to 300 hrs/ha
Korea
- 94-99% mechanized in 1998
- 5 years to implement scheme due to objections from landowners/farmers
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8. Construction of production and postharvest facilities
o Before 1960’s, labor hours for lowland rice cultivation using traditional methods ranges
from 380-491 man/animal-hours/hectare
o In rice farming, land preparation and threshing are the most mechanized operations 40
years behind Japan in land consolidation
o BMD Corn World custom hiring services and clustering project in Isabela activities are
probably the nearest scheme to land consolidation
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AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
Brief History
1970’s
- Growth of the local agricultural machinery manufacturing industry
- Green revolution was implemented in 1976 that increased the demand for agricultural
machinery
- Shift from American and European model to Japanese model
- Call for appropriate, alternative, selective, and intermediate mechanization technology
- Imported large machines were compared to “Trojan Horses” sent by developed countries
in disguise as aids to developing countries while small machines which can be locally
manufactured were found to be “beautiful”
- Golden age of farm mechanization
o Coherent program of the government to increase grain production
- PCARRD included agricultural engineering as one of the priority commodity
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- AMMDA was organized (400 manufacturers and dealers)
1980’s – 90’s
- Mechanization slowed down due to political, social, and financial constraints
- Creation of: AMDP, AMIC, BPRE, AMTEC, and PhilRice
- Increase in total available manpower in the farm from 0.198 hp/ha to 0.52 hp/ha was due
to increased human labor. (ARNAM, 1990)
- Comprehensive land reform program of the government was introduced (Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law – 1988) to promote social justice among landless farmers/farm
workers and to move the nation toward sound and rural development and
industrialization.
- Farmers cooperative were encouraged to engage in production, processing and marketing
of their produce.
1990’s – 2000’s
- Passage of RA 8435 (Agriculture and Fishery Modernization Act in 1997) to modernize
the agriculture and fisheries sectors of the country in order to enhance their profitability
and prepare the said sectors for the challenges of globalization through an adequate,
focused, and rational delivery of necessary support services. Among others, the main
purpose of the Act are:
1. Poverty alleviation and social equity
2. Food security
3. Rational use of resources
4. Global competitiveness
5. Sustainable development
6. People empowerment
7. Protection from competition
- Passage of RA 8559 (The Philippine Agricultural Engineering Act of 1998) an act
regulating the practice of Agricultural Engineering in the Philippines which upgrade the
practice of Agricultural Engineering profession in the country and accelerate agricultural
modernization through adequate and well trained professional engineers.
At present:
- Reorientation of the R&D program started from very hardware-focused technology
development to a more information-driven, demand-responsive and system-based
technology. (Elepaño, 2007)
LEVEL OF MECHANIZATION
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Crop establishment, crop care, and harvesting are all at low level. The introduction of
new equipment for direct seeding, transplanting, and harvesting has not progressed well despite
the efforts of various research institutions in the country.
Palay threshing is in the intermediate level with most of the farmers using mechanical
threshers. It is estimated that more than 80% of rice fields are now threshed by axial-flow
threshers which come in different sizes and forms depending on the locality
A great percentage of farmers do away with the drying of rice as they can directly sell
their harvest while wet and process only those which are for their household consumption.
Sundrying on concrete pavements is prevalent in the farm level.
The level of mechanization of transport systems depends on the road network and road
conditions. Manual and animal means of transport is common when the field is inaccessible to
other means of transportation such as hand-tractor drawn trailers or trucks.
Rice milling is highly mechanized in the country as the old “kiskisan” units have mostly
been replaced by modern rubber rolls and other more efficient systems. Portable custom mills
mounted on land vehicles and hand carried or hand-tractor-mounted micromills are reportedly
available in few remote areas through the promotion work of various institutions.
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Table 1. Present areas of mechanization by operation on rice in the Philippines, 1999.
Source: Bautista, 2003
Operation Equipment locally adopted Level of R&D/equipment adoption
Power tiller + attachments Highly adopted in favourable areas, for
custom hiring in irrigated areas
Land Preparation Four-wheel tractor + For custom hiring service near sugar estates.
rotavator Reconditioned mini-tractors becoming
popular in Luzon for custom land preparation.
Transplanting None (done manually) IRRI manual transplanters introduced are not
widely accepted.
Direct Seeding None (mostly by hand Slow but continuing adoption of drum seeder.
broadcast)
Lever-operated knapsack Highly adopted (imported from China,
sprayer Taiwan, and other countries)
Crop Protection
Manual rotary weeder Adopted in Laguna, Cotabato, and Nueva
Viscaya)
Harvesting None (still done mostly by IRRI reaper introduced but not popular;
sickle) PhilRice reaper released for commercial
manufacture. Imported reaper-windrower
highly adopted in Bataan, nearby provinces.
Stripper gatherer newly introduced in Isabela
and Central Luzon.
Threshing Axial-flow design IRRI thresher design highly adopted in
irrigated areas and rainfed areas with many
models and sizes.
Pedal thresher Widely adopted in Northern Luzon, Bohol,
Other small islands in Visayas
Drying None (mostly sun drying Flat-bed/continuous flow, other imported
on concrete pavements) designs adopted by big rice millers/traders.
PhilRice flatbed dryer slowly being adopted
with some 150 units installed since 1994.
Flash Dryer, in-bin drying systems (high
capacity) introduced by BPRE through DA
programs.
Milling Rubber roll/cono/steel Highly mechanized except in upland remote
hullers area but low quality of output from locally
manufactured mills
Centrifugal pumps Highly adopted in Ilocos, Central Luzon, and
few rainfed areas.
Irrigation
Axial-flow pumps Less adoption in rice farms; more adoption by
fish pond operators.
Transport Power tiller + trailer Highly adopted in irrigated/rainfed areas.
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The study conducted by Gavino, et al. (2006) gave the same level of rice mechanization of
various farm operations in Regions I, II, and III.
Mechanical power is used in 95% of all land preparation activities
Crop establishment is 100% manual – 0.3% makes use of the drum seeder.
Crop care is 100% manual – use of manual sprayer in pest control
Irrigation is largely by gravity system (85.5%),
Harvesting operation is 92.55% manual
Threshing operation is 93.9% by mechanical thresher
Transport is 35% manual, 40.55% animal power and 23.35% machines (carts, jeeps, and
trucks)
Drying is 96.7% by solar energy
Milling is 100% by machine
Overall mechanization of corn is low and concentrated in land preparation, shelling and transport
operation.
Plowing and harrowing are done with mechanical source of power but furrowing is mostly done
with animal-drawn furrowers. Farmers prefer animal-drawn furrowers because they can make
straighter and better aligned furrows than with 2-wheel or 4-wheel tractors.
Seeding operation is done using bare hands and/or hand tools to seed the furrow.
Crop care which includes weeding, fertilizer and chemical are mostly done manually. Animal-
drawn plows are utilized in weeding and hilling-up operation.
Harvesting operation is done with the aid of hand tools such as sickle.
Shelling operation is accomplished using corn shellers and threshers/shellers with small engines.
Some farmers also use hand-operated corn shellers.
Sundrying is still the most widely used for drying corn.
Transport and operation for corn varieties with farm locations and traditional practices of
farmers. Animal-drawn transport systems are used if the farm is inaccessible but motorcycles,
jeepneys and trucks are used to transport corn if road network and conditions would allow.
VEGETABLES
Overall mechanization level of vegetable farming is low. Except for land preparation, irrigation
and transport, all other major operations are manually done by farmers with the use of hand tools
and animal-drawn implements.
In certain limited areas, washing, sorting and packing operations are somewhat mechanized but
in the overall, the use of machines is very minimal.
COCONUT
Mechanization in the production of coconut is nil. Traditional tools and systems for farm
operations have not changed for years.
No advancement in the post production operations particularly in the farm level.
“Tapahan” system is still the most prevalent copra making procedure while “lambanog”
production has almost disappeared in the Southern Luzon areas.
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It is observed that there is a decline instead growth of village-level processing systems along
with the decline of the coconut industry itself. Whole coconut fruits are now directly sold to
middlemen for transport to large processing centers instead of being processed in the farm.
Recently decorticating machines for coir were developed for coconut (geotextiles) production.
Machinery systems for production of oil (including VCO) are available only for the large scale
processors.
ABACA
The Philippines monopolizes the abaca products in the world market.
Abaca extraction is 80% manual, with only 1 % of the fiber being recovered.
Portable decorticating machines for extraction could increase up to 3%.
A fiber twining machine has yet to be used for farm level or industry level application.
The superior tensile and folding strength and high porosity of abaca makes it especially suitable
for currency paper, furniture, home décor, textiles, cosmetics, cigarette papers, surgical masks,
even sausage casings, tea bags, coffee filters and others.
FRUITS
Low level of mechanization in the production of fruits.
Although there are imported and locally manufactured processing equipment, they are generally
found in large scale plants.
Machines for small scale and/or village level processing of fruits like canning, bottling,
preservation, repacking, and many others have yet to be developed or adopted.
Machines for the diversification of products and by-products are not currently in use. For
example, while pineapple is grown extensively in the country mainly for its fruits, its leaves are
discarded as farm wastes. No machine or system is in use with which to extract the fibers as raw
materials for textile and papers.
ROOTCROPS
The level of mechanization for the production of rootcrops is generally low like vegetable
production.
Machines for processing are available but they have very limited application because farmers
choose to sell their products in raw forms after harvest particularly in the rural areas.
SUGARCANE
Highly mechanized systems are available particularly for the land preparation stage of sugarcane
along with two fruit crops, banana, and pineapple, where imported equipment and machines are
widely used by large commercial growers.
LIVESTOCK
For livestock and poultry, manual labor with or without the aid of tools or specialized equipment
is still used extensively throughout the whole range of production operations.
Machines are rarely used in animal production except for pumping water and feed milling. Only
large scale farms are using high mechanization technology in their operations.
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MACHINE PERFORMANCE:
𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑓𝑓
1. 𝐶 = 10
Where: C, field capacity in ha/h
S, speed in kph
W, width of cut in meter
Eff, efficiency in decimal
1
2. 𝑇 = 𝐶
𝑊𝐷
𝐴 =
𝑇𝐷
Where: A, area in ha
W, width of cut in meter
D, distance travelled in km
4. Horsepower requirement:
𝐷𝑎 𝑥 𝑆 𝐷𝑎 𝑥 𝑆
𝐻𝑝 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝑜𝑟
274 375
𝐻𝑝 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝐻𝑝 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
0.8
1. Tillage equipment
2. Harvesting equipment
- Low area per hour capacity
- High mass per hour capacity with identical machine
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐶 =
ℎ
20
Where: mass, in kg or quintals or tons
T = t1 + t2 + t3 + t4 +t5
𝑡1 𝑡1
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑋 100% =
𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + 𝑡3 + 𝑡4 + 𝑡5 𝑇
MATERIAL CAPACITY, M
- The reduction in the value of a material after being handled by a machine compared to
the value it would have with no material loss.
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𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑓𝑓 𝑌
𝑀=
10
Where: M, material capacity in mass/h
Y, yield per hectare, tons/ha
In terms of:
1. Rate of machine
2. Quality of which the operation are accomplished
1. Trademark
2. Source of repairs
3. Design
4. Ease of operation
5. Ease of maintenance
6. Safety
7. Other factors
a. Power requirement
b. Cost of operation
c. Initial cost, years of service expected
d. Machine is economical in relation to the size of farm and work to be performed.
- The economic objective in the selection of power and machines is to secure maximum
profit
- Optimum capacity is the capacity which gives the greatest profit over a period of years of
operation
- There are numerous problems of farmer in the acquisition and use of machines and is
usually complicated with the time available for performing field operations which is
affected by weather conditions
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b. amount of rainfall
c. temperature
d. sunshine
e. relative humidity
f. topography
g. soil type
h. soil structure
i. drainage
2. machine size factors – rate of work, as influenced by
a. amount of power
b. size of machine
c. draft requirement of soil
d. crop condition at harvest
e. smoothness of fields
3. intervening activities – time available for actual field operation as affected by
a. time travel to field
b. repair and maintenance time for machine
c. time required for livestock and other chores
d. time required for emergencies such as broken fences
e. possibility of securing extra labor for night operations
4. price factors – profit margins are affected by
a. ratio of labor and machine cost
b. price differential for quality
c. price rises due to short crops resulting from bad weather conditions
The lowest cost for power and machine will be secured with the smallest capacity that will get
the job done on time.
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PAES:
Rerences:
UPLB-BAR
PCCARD, Agricultural Mechanization in the Philippines
Agricultural Mechanization Development Program (AMDP), 1997
Bainer, R. et. al. 1972. Principles of Farm Machinery. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New
York.
Barger, E.L. et. al. 1963. Tractors and Their Power Units. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York.
Esmay, M. and C. Hall. 1973. Agricultural Mechanization in Developing Countries.
Shin-Norinsha Co., Ltd. Japan.
Japan International Cooperation Agency. 1998. Farm Mechanization Planning
(Mechanization Management). Vols. 1-3. Tsukuba International Center.
Ibaraki-ken, Japan.
Hunt, Donnell. 1973. Farm Power & Machinery Management. Laboratory Manual
and Workbook. 7th Ed. Iowa State University Press. Ames, Iowa.
Resurreccion, A.N. 2006. AENG 62 Agricultural Machinery Lecture Notes. UPLB-
CEAT Library
Amongo, R.M.C. AENG162 Agricultural Mechanization Lecture Notes. UPLB-
AMD.
Yadao, G.S. 1992. AE 56 Farm Machinery and Management Lecture Notes. CMU-
COE-AE Dept.
AMTEC. Philippine Agricutltural Engineering Standards 2nd Edition (PAES 2nd ed.)
AMTEC. Catalogue of AMTEC-tested. Agricultural Machines for Prime Movers and
Hand Tractors. 2004.
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