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Drilling Engineering

1 . Introduction to drilling engineer

2. Purpose of drilling:

Holes are drilled to produce oil or gas.

3. Well planning:
http://petrowiki.org/Well_planning

4. Rotary drilling its introduction and basic operations.


Rotary drilling:
Drill the hole by rotary drilling the hole is drilled by a sharp rotating bit to which a downward force is
applied. The bit fastened to and rotated by a drilling string composed if high quality drill pipes and drill
collars with specific joints. The cuttings are lifted from the hole by drilling fluid which is continuously
circulated down the hole and upward in the annular space between drill pie and bore hole. At the surface
the returning mud passes through a series of devices which separated cuttings of different sizes. Finally,
the conditioned drilling fluid is sucked from the mud tanks by mud pumps and again introduced in to the
well. The cycle is repeated and this is how a well is drilled.

Basic operations:
1. Power system
2. Hoisting system
3. Rotating system
4. Circulating system
5. Monitoring system
6. Controlling system

(Pg# 278 2nd edi: Non technical guide to petroleum geology and exploration by Norman jh)
5. Drilling rig components
1. Gin pole
2. Engine
3. Mud return line
4. Water table
5. Crown block
6. Derrick
7. Drilling lines
8. Stand
9. Monkey board
10. Substructure
11. Bull lines and sheaves
12. Travelling block
13. Swivel
14. Kelly and Kelly kock Kelly hose
15. Kelly bushing and master bushing
16. Stand pipe
17. Rotary table
18. IBOP valve
19. Saver sub
20. Elevators
21. Bails
22. Hook
23. Slips
24. Draw works
25. V door ramp
26. Sand line
27. Tongs
28. Dead line reel
29. Mud pumps
30. Mud pit
31. Shale shakers
32. Desander
33. Desilter
34. De gasser
35. Decanting Centrifuge
36. Accumulator
37. BOP
38. Diverter
39. Chock manifold
40. Rat hole
41. Drill pipes
42. BHA
43. Cat walk
Types of drilling rigs

1. Onshore / Land rigs


2. Off shore rigs
Offsore rigs are :
i. Submersible rig
ii. Semisubmersible rig
iii. Jackup rig
iv. Fixed platform rigs
v. Drill ship rig

Fixed platform: Anchored directly into the seabed, fixed-platform rigs consist of a tall, steel
structure known as a "jacket" that rises up from the ocean to support a surface deck. The
jacket provides the rig's sturdy base and holds everything else out of the water, while the
drilling modules and crew quarters are located on the surface deck. Fixed platforms offer
stability but no mobility, and today they're primarily used to tap moderately shallow, long-term
oil deposits. They can drill about 1,500 feet below the surface, but they're costly to build, so
they usually require a large oil discovery to justify their construction.

Compliant tower: a type of flat form rigs, Compliant-tower rigs are similar to fixed platforms,
since both are anchored to the seabed and hold most of their equipment above the surface.
But compliant towers are taller and narrower, and unlike fixed platforms, they sway with the
wind and water almost as if they were floating. This is possible because their jackets are
broken into two or more sections, with the lower part serving as the base for the upper jacket
and surface facilities. This lets compliant towers operate at greater depths than platform rigs,
potentially up to 3,000 feet below the surface.

Submersible rigs
A submersible rig rests on sea floor when it is drilling.
A submersible oil rig can be used in shallow water where the depth of water is about 80 feet or
less. These rigs are towed to the location of the oil reserves and submerged in the water until the
rigs lie on the ocean floor. Anchors are sometimes used to secure the position of the submersible
rigs.

Semisubmersible rigs
These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) of sufficient buoyancy to cause the structure
to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright. Semi-submersible platforms can be
moved from place to place and can be ballasted up or down by altering the amount of flooding in
buoyancy tanks. They are generally anchored by combinations of chain, wire rope or polyester
rope, or both, during drilling and/or production operations, though they can also be kept in place
by the use of dynamic positioning. Semi-submersibles can be used in water depths from 60 to
3,000 metres (200 to 10,000 ft)

Drill ship
A drillship is a maritime vessel that has been fitted with drilling apparatus. It is most often used for
exploratory drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water but can also be used for scientific drilling.
Early versions were built on a modified tanker hull, but purpose-built designs are used today. Most
drillships are outfitted with a dynamic positioning system to maintain position over the well. They
can drill in water depths up to 3,700 m (12,100 ft)

Jack up rigs
Jack-up Mobile Drilling Units (or jack-ups), as the name suggests, are rigs that can be jacked up
above the sea using legs that can be lowered, much like jacks. These MODUs (Mobile Offshore
Drilling Units) are typically used in water depths up to 120 metres (390 ft), although some designs
can go to 170 m (560 ft) depth. They are designed to move from place to place, and then anchor
themselves by deploying the legs to the ocean bottom using a rack and pinion gear system on
each leg. For smaller, shallower offshore oil deposits that don't warrant a permanent platform, or
for drilling exploratory wells, oil companies may use what's called a "jack-up rig." The rig's floating
platform is towed into position by barges, then lowers its support legs down to the sea floor,
raising the rig above the water's surface. The platform can then be adjusted to varying heights
along its tall legs, essentially using the same principle employed by a tire jack (hence the name).
Jack-up rigs were traditionally used in shallow water because it wasn't practical to lower their legs
to great depths, but newer models such as the Tarzan-class rigs are now stretching those limits.
They're also considered safer than some other types of moveable rigs, such as drilling barges,
since their surface facilities are elevated from the water and less susceptible to waves and
weather.

4 Cable tool drilling


5 Rotary drilling

“Rotary drilling uses a sharp, rotating drill bit to dig down through the Earth's crust.”

Mechanism:
In rotary drilling method the hole is drilled by a shrpe rotating bit to which a downward force is
applied. The bit is fastened to and rotated by a drilling string composed of high quality drilli pipes and
drill collars with specific joints. The cuttings are lifted from hole by drilling fluid which is continuously
circulated down in hole and upward in the annular space between the drill pipe and the bore hole. This
drilling fluid is introduced in hole by swivel through goose neck and enters hole through bit nozzle at
the surface the returning drilling fluid passes through a series of equipments i.e shale shaker , desilter
de sander de gasser. In last the same drilling mud is picked up by pump suction and is introduced again
to hole through sviwel and cycle repeats.
The following are basic rotary drilling systems/operations.
Power system
Hoisting system
Rotating system
Circulating system
Controlling system
Monitoring system

POWER SYSTEM:
 Prime movers
The prime movers are diesel engines that supply power to the rig and are usually located on the ground in back of
the rig. Diesel fuel is stored in tanks near the engines. Most of the power goes ro the hoisting and circulating
systems. Some also goes to the rotating system, rig lights and other motors. Depending on the size of the tig and the
drilling depth, there are one, two, or four engines. The engines are rated by their horsepower and fuel consumption.
They commonly develop 1000 to 3000 horsepower (hp). Power from the diesel engines is transmitted ro the rig
mechanically by a system of pulleys, belts, shafts, gears, and chains. Some rotary rigs may use electricity directly
from power lines.

HOISTING SYSTEM:
The hoisting system consist of tools that are used to raise and lower and to suspend
equipment in the well.
 Derrick/Mast
 Substructure
 Draw works
 Drilling line
 Fast line
 Deadline
 Dead line anchor
 Crown block
 Travelling block
 Hook
 Storage reel
Derrick / Mast:
The most visible part of the hoisting equipment is the derrick/mast, the tall tower-like structure that extends
vertically from the well hole. Mast is A portable derrick that is capable of being erected as a unit, as distinguished
from a standard derrick that cannot be raised to a working position as a unit instead it is assembeled and erected
on the drilling site with four supporting legs on a square base.(substructure). Whenever the drillstem is suspended
by the traveling block and drill line, the entire load rests on the derrick.

Substructure:
substructures made of a steel framework 10 to 30 ft (3 to 10 m) high are used to raise the derrick floor above the
ground (Plate 16-1). This is to provide space for wellhead equipment below the drill floor.
Draw works
Draw works is The hoisting mechanism on a drilling rig. It is essentially a large winch (Lifting
device consisting of a horizontal cylinder on which a cable or rope winds.) that spools off or takes in the
drilling line and thus raises or lowers the drill stem and bit. It is the control center from where the
driller operates the rig.

Parts of draw works


Drum
drum brakes,
gear (transmission) system
cathead

Drum :
The drill line is reeled (spooled) on a drum in the drawworks. When the drum turns and either reels in the drill line
to raise the traveling block, or lets out the drill line to lower it.

Drum Brake :
Brake system enables the driller to easily control a load of thousands of pounds of drill pipe or casing. i.e and
provide braking capacity to stop and sustain the weights imposed when lowering or raising the drill string.

Gear system :

This gives the driller a wide choice of speeds for hoisting the drill string.

Cathead:

Cathead is a shaft that that is attached to the winch of the draw works and has two major functions.

1. provide the means of actuating the tongs used to couple and uncouple threaded pipe members.
The make-up cathead located on the drillers side, is used to spin up and tighten the drillpipe joints.
The breakout cathead located opposite the driller's position on the draw works used to loosen the drillpipe when
the drillpipe is withdrawn from the borehole.

2. It is also used as a hoisting device for heavy equipment on the drill floor.
Outboard catheads: can be used manually with ropes for various small hoisting jobs around the rig.

DRILLING LINE:
Drilling lines are the steel wires used for hoisting tools. Drilling lines afford a means of handling the loads
suspended from the hookduring all drilling operations. Normally maximum load occurs when running a casing.

FAST LINE :
Length of Drilling line from draw works to the crown block is called as fast line

DEADLINE:
length of Drilling line from crown block to the dead line anchor is called as fast line.
CROWN BLOCK :
Crown block is found on the top of the derrick having assembly of sheaves (A sheave is a wheel or roller with a
groove along its edge for holding a belt, rope, or cable ) through which drilling lines go over.

TRAVELLING BLOCK :
As the name indicates , it is the moveable block . it is An arrangement of pulleys or sheaves through
which drilling cable is reeved, which moves up or down in the derrick or mast. Below the
traveling block is a hook for attaching equipment.
The drilling line from the draw works goes over a wheel in the crown block that is fIxed at the top of the derrick. It
then goes down to the traveling block that is suspended in the derrick. The drilling line goes back and forth through
wheels in the crown and traveling block 4 to 12 times.
As the drilling line is reeled in or out of the draw works (drum), the traveling block rises and falls in the derrick to
raise and lower equipment in the well.

DEADLINE ANCHOR :
The end of the drilling line is fIxed to a deadline anchor located under the drill floor substructure.

STORAGE REEL :
It stores the drilling line. As a new portion of drilling line is periodically introduced in the system
through the anchor to prevent wear on any particular spot along the line after a certain amount of usage.

Making a trip
Making a new connection

ROTATING SYSTEM :

The rotating system is used to drill a hole.

It consists of the following main parts;

 Kelly / Top drive


 Swivel / Power swivel
 Rotary table
 Drill pipe
 BHA

To impart rotary motion to the drill string so that the bit can turn, either a top drive or a Kelly & rotary
table system is used.

KELLY SYSTEM :

On some rigs , A Kelly, a Kelly Drive Bushing, a Master Bushing and a Rotary Table rotate the drill string
and bit .

Below the swivel is located a very strong , heavy square or hexagonal steel pipe called as the Kelly
which is 40 – 54 feet long. Kelly goes through a fitting called as the Kelly bushing/drive bushing and Kelly
bushing fits into master bushing which inturn fits into rotary table. kelly is connected to the topmost
joint of drill pipe to turn the drill stem as the rotary table turns. . The Kelly moves down
through the openings in Kelly bushing and master bushing, as the hole deepens.

Kelly Cock is a valve located in Kelly used to allow drilling mud in to the drilling string.

ROTARY TABLE :

It is a circular table lies on derrick floor that is turned clockwise by prime movers. It is the principle
component of rotation which provides rotation to the Kelly and entire drill stem.

SWIVEL :

in a Kelly system a swivel is used. “A rotary tool that is hung from the hook of traveling block by
means of bail or handle to suspend and permit free rotation of the drill stem on bearings in the
swivel. The swivel doesnot rotate but allows everything below it to rotate. It carries the
entire weight of drill stem. It also provides a connection for the rotary hose (a flexible line
that conducts drilling mud from the pump.) Drilling fluid is introduced into the drillstem through a gooseneck
connection on the swivel, which is connected to the rotary hose.
TOP DRIVE SYSTEM :

Some rigs uses a top drive system to rotate the drill string and bit.

A top drive doesnot uses a Kelly or rotary table components for rotation.

A top drive has a powerfull motor or motors and a drive shaft. The crew attaches the drill string to the
drive shaft. When the motor rotates the drive shaft , the attached drill string and bit also rotate.

The top drive unit includes a travelling block , integrated/power swivel, hose, guide rails/tracks , motor,
gear box, driving shaft, saver sub,IBOP, torque wrench, elevator and elevator links.

When a top drive system is used, the swivel is replaced by power swivel. The power swivel performs the
same functions as the ‘normal swivel’, but it is also associated with a transmission system used to rotate the drill
string. The hose conducts drilling mud into power swivel which then flows through driving shaft and into
drill string. The top drive motor connects to the integrated swivel assembly.the motor turns the drive shaft
through a main gear box or transmission.crew members make a saver sub on the botom of drive shaft
and make drill srting into saver sub. Saver sub cuts on wear and tear to the drive shaft threads. Top
drive has hoisting capacity to 300-750 tons. Crew members attach the top drive unit to guide rails or
tracks which keeps the whole unit from rotating also top drive assembly moves up and down on these
guide rails. A non rotating torque wrench couples or un couples the drill pipes . The elevator links
suspend the elevator,
Benefits of top drive

Reduces drilling time as it provides a triple strand of pipe, rotates drilling string more efficiently, handles
stands of pipes more efficiently, provides more variable rotating power, allows circulation, rotation at any
point in hole, tripping in, tripping out, drilling, as these features help hole problems , provides rapid
response to well kicks as ibop are shut in rapidly.
DRILL PIPE:

Drill pipe is strong but relatively light weight pipe used to rotate the bit and circulate the drilling
fluid. Joints of pipe 30 feet long are coupled together with tool joints.

Drill pipe as well as other tubulars can be specified according to these characteristics: Diameter, Grades
or Strength, Weight of steel, Length. The diameter, weight and strength used depends on the size of the
hole, the depth of the well and the well properties. Drill pipes are 18-45 feet long but commonly used as
30 feet. The most commonly used diameters of drill pipe are 4, 4½, and 5 inches OD.

Box & Pin : The rig crew makes up or connects drill pipe using threaded sections at each end of the
drill pipe. These threaded sections are tool joints. The female tool joint is the box end at the drill pipe;
the male tool joint is the pin end. Tool joints come in several sizes and types.

DRILL STRING :

The drillstring is made up of the drillpipes, drill collars, subs, and all other associated components.

BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY (BHA) :

The lower most portion of the drill string is called the BHA.

Crew members can make up many different BHAs, which one depends on the type of formation,
whether the rig is drilling straight or directional hole and so on.

BHA has the following main components :

 Bit
 Bit sub
 Drill collars
 Stabilizers & Reamers
 Heavy walled drill pipes (HWDP)
 Cross over sub

BIT :

Bit is The cutting or boring element At the bottom of drillstring


The bit consists of the cutting elements (teeth/cutters) and the circulating element (jets,
nozzeles,). The circulating element permits the passage of drilling fluid and uses the
hydraulic force of the fluid stream to improve drilling rates. bits come in sizes ranging from only
2 or 3 inches (or about 50-75mm) in diameter to more than 36 inches (about a meter) in diameter. One
side of the bit is pin, which is coupled to the bit sub. The bit is turned at a rate of 50 to 100 rpm. It is generally
turned slightly fuster at shallow depths and slower at deeper depths. The larger
the bit, the more weight is applied.
TYPES OF BITS

 Roller Cone Bits


 Fixed Cutter Bits.

ROLLER CONE BIT :


Roller cone bits have 2 or more cone-shaped devices with teeth or cutters. As the bit rotates, the
cone and cutters rotate to drill ahead. Long tooth roller cone bits are used for soft formations while small tooth
roller cone bit are used for hard formations.

Two basic kinds of roller cone bits are available: one has steel teeth and the other has tungsten carbide
inserts.

 Steel Tooth Bit

As the name indicates, in a steel tooth bit, the cutting elements are the steel teeth or cutters. Steel tooth
bits are the least expensive bits. When used properly, they can make hole for many hours.
Manufacturers design steel tooth bits to drill soft, medium and hard formations.

 Tungsten Carbide Bit


With tungsten carbide insert bits, the manufacturer presses very hard tungsten carbide buttons or
inserts into holes drilled into the bit’s cones. i.e. in a tungsten carbide bit, tungsten carbide inserts
are used for drilling.
Tungsten carbide is a very hard metal. Tungsten carbide insert bits cost more than steel tooth bits.
However, they usually last longer because tungsten carbide is more resistant to wear than steel.
In general, tungsten carbide insert bits drill medium to extremely hard formations, but can also drill
soft formations.
Soft formation bits usually drill best with a mud of moderate weight and high rotary speeds. Hard
formation bits, on the other hand usually drill best with high weight and moderate rotary speeds.

FIXED HEAD BIT / FIXED CUTTER BIT :


Such bit has no moving parts like the cones of roller cone bit. These bits have teeth in bit head
and are fixed headed bits, which rotate as a unit when the drill string turns.
There are three main types of fixed head bits.

 Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bit (PDC)


 Diamond Bits

 Polycrystalline Diamond Compact Bit (PDC)

PDC cutters are made up of a working component, the diamond table and a supporting component called the
substrate.Diamond is man-made ( synthetic or industrial ) diamond crystals and substrate is tungsten
carbide. Each diamond and tungsten carbide cutter is called a compact. Manufacturers place the
compacts in the head of the bit. As the bit rotates over the rock, the compact shears it.

(Plycrystalline : material having or consisting of crystals of various size, that are variously oriented)
 Diamond Bits
A diamond bit is made of solid steel with no moving parts . Hundreds of industrial diamonds are attached in
geometric patterns on the bottom and sides of the bit. Diamond bits are used for drilling very hard rocks.
Bit selection and evaluation .. ??
BIT SUB :
The word “sub” refers to any short length of pipe, collar, casing, etc., with a definite function.
Bit sub is coupled with the pin side of bit and other side is coupled with drill collar usually.

CROSS OVER SUB :


. it is A short subassembly used to enable two components with different thread types or sizes to be connected.
. A crossover sub has a special box and pin threads.

DRILL COLLARS:
A heavy, thick-walled tube, usually steel, used between the drill pipe and the bit in the drill
stem. It is used to put weight on the bit so that the bit can drill more efficiently. Drill collars
range in diameter from 3-12 inches (or 76.2-304.8) mm; they range in weight from about 650-
11500pounds (or 300-5100kg. This particular 6 inch drill collar weighs about 2700 pounds (1225kg).
Since the crew usually installs several DCs, you can see that a bit requires a lot of weight to drill
properly.

Slick & Spiral DCs


Some DCs are slick. They have a smooth wall; some have spiral groove machined into the wall. The rig
uses slick collars under normal circumstances. The rig uses spiral collars when drilling in formations
where the collars may stick to the wall of the hole.

HEAVY WALLED DRILL PIPES (HWDP) :

These pipes are also used for weight purpose on drilling string.

Normally they are used in between drill pipes and drill collars to minimize stress. They are intermediate in
strength and weight between drill pipes and drill collars.

STABILIZER & REAMER :

Reamers and stabilizers hold the DC off the wall of the hole to prevent wear on the collars, but even
more important, reamers and stabilizers help guide the bit in the direction that should drill.

Reamers have cutters on rollers that actually cut the rock they contact. Stabilizers have blades that touch
the wall of the hole but do not cut it.

Crew members often make up reamers and stabilizers in the drill collar string. Usually they place one or
more at various points on the drill collar string near the bottom.
SPECIAL DRILL STRING TOOLS

DRILLING JAR :

The rig crew installs a drilling jar in the drill string if there is a concern of becoming stuck. Drilling jars are
usually made up on the upper part of the bottom hole assembly with drill collars placed above and below
the jars. When activated, a drilling jar provides a heavy blow to the stuck portion of the drilling string
below the jar. Often the blow delivered by the jar is enough to knock loose the stuck string.

MUD MOTOR:

MWD TOOLS :

Figure

CIRCULATING SYSTEM

The circulating system pumps drilling mud in and out of the hole for
Removing debris and cuttings
Cooling and lubricating the drill bit
Controlling well pressure
Coating the walls of the well with a mud cake.

The following main components are used in circulating system,


 Drilling mud
 Mud tanks
 Mud pumps/hogs
 Mud hose
 Mud return line
 Shale shaker
 De sander
 De silter
 De gaser
 Reserve pit

DRILLING MUD :
when a liquid (water or oil or a combination of water and oil) is treated with a clay substance, and
additives, the result is drilling mud.

Fucntions of Drilling Mud :


 Cooling
Considerable heat is generated from the frictional contact of the rotating drill
string and drill bit against the wall of the wellbore. This heat, if not dissipated, can cause premature
failures of components of the drill bit and the drill string. Therefore, the presence of a circulating fluid is
essential for heat dissipation
 Suspension of desired solids
There are several factors that have the tendency of preventing the settling of drilled solids
and added solids such as weighting materials, when fluid circulation is stopped.
In weighted drilling-fluid systems, the weighting solids, such as barite, must be suspended
in the drilling fluid at all times. Hence, solids suspension is an important function of these
fluids.
 Carry cuttings to the surface
The drilled solids on bottom, beneath the bit,impedes the cutting of a new rock surface. In
addition to the drilling rate impediment, these cuttings, if not removed immediately, will be
reground, thus making their removal from the mud difficult and expensive. Therefore, a
drilling fluid must provide the proper hydraulics at the bottom to create cross-flow fluid
velocities sufficient to sweep efficiently all generated cuttings thus enhancing high ROP.
 Drill bit cleaning
During drilling, certain formations and, depending on the type of drill bit that is being used,
clogging and balling of the bit may occur. The type of fluid (its lubricity) and the amount of
hydraulic horsepower expanded across the bit may prevent these problems.
 Lubrication
A well-lubricated mud system will also minimize the friction wear on downhole equipment
and casing.
 Transmit hydraulic energy to bit
The highly pressurized mud, jetting out through the nozels of bit , provide a
hydraulic energy to bit , i.e aiding in cutting of formation.

 Corrosion prevention
Corrosion combined with mechanical cyclic loading, is a major cause of drill string
premature failure. It has been shown that the presence of dissolved gases, such as O2, CO2,
H2S, and chlorides, in drilling muds decreases the life expectancy of drill pipe significantly.
The elements and compounds that can cause corrosion of drilling equipment include
oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and salts. Oxygen scavengers
and amine-based inhibitors are generally effective at a reasonable cost. Oxygen corrosion is
further minimized by using effective deaeration surface equipment. Wells that are drilled
into formations that contain toxic and corrosive gases such as H2S and CO2 pose serious
concerns during the drilling operations. Not only do these gases pose health and safety
problems to personnel, but they also present dangers to metal components from hydrogen
embrittlement, blistering, and stress cracking. The mud system can be treated with
scavengers to remove these contaminants. Mud density should be increased whenever
practical to prevent further influx of gases from the formation as it is being drilled.
 Aid in formation evaluation
 The mud must also allow collection of information from cuttings (mud logging). As it shoes
the type of lithology through which drill bit is passing.

 Minimize formation damage


‘’Formation damage is generally a reduction in permeability near the wellbore.’’
The protection of potential pay zones is important for any drilling fluid. The deposition of a filter cake
that allows a drilling operation to continue and protects a productive zone is an important consideration
in mud system design.
The formation damage problem can be severe in low-permeability reservoirs or in reservoirs with high
clay content. A good mud cake helps stabilize the wall of the hole and will reduce mud filtrate loss into
the formation. All the properties and the chemical composition of the mud play a role in formation
damage.
 Control formation pressure
For safe drilling drilling operations, formation fluid is to be prevented from entering the
wellbore,thus preventing kick occurrence, by using a drilling fluid of sufficient density within
the hole that prevent damage and injury. This achieved by hydrostatic pressure of mud maintained
always higher than formation pressure . Pressure overbalance is referred as chip hold down pressure
(CHDP) and ROP decreases as CHDP increases .For abnormal pressure CHDP becomes negative
and kick will happen.
The pressures that may be encountered during drilling are classified as follows:
• Normal pressure if the pressure gradient is approximately 0.433 psi/ft of depth.
• Abnormal pressure if the pressure gradient is greater than 0.433 psi/ft of depth.
• Subnormal pressure if the pressure gradient is less than 0.433 psi/ft of depth.
Therefore—and as a safety consideration—in most drilling operations, a drilling fluid is
selected that will provide a pressure gradient greater than the anticipated formation pressure
gradient. This drilling condition is referred to as overbalance drilling; that is,

Pdf – Pff = ΔP

where Pdf, Pff are the drilling-fluid and formation fluid pressures, respectively, and ΔP is the
differential pressure.
Depending on whether ΔP is greater than zero, equal to zero, or less than zero, drilling is
referred to as overbalanced drilling, balanced drilling, or underbalanced drilling, respectively.
Most drilling operations are overbalanced drilling with the differential pressure ΔP, generally maintained
between 100 and about 500 psi.
 Stabilizes well bore
Wellbore instability is an undesirable condition of a drilled hole interval that does not
maintain its gauge size, shape, and/or structural integrity. Proper mud design can minimize
this problems.

CLASSIFICATION OF DRILLING MUD :


1. Dispersed mud (high solid)
non dispersed mud. (low solid mud )

2. Inhibtive mud
Non inhibtve mud
Drilling mud is classified into three main catagories;
1. Water based muds
2. Oil based muds
3. Pneumatic drilling mud

WATER BASED DRILLING MUDS :

When the continuous liquid phase (external phase) is water, the mud system is called
water based.
WBM is classified as non inhibitive and inhibitve, as follows;

i) Non inhibitive water base muds


‘’ A mud that doesnot slows or stops hydration, swelling and disintegration of shales. ‘’

Noninhibitive water-based drilling muds are the least expensive and are easy to make and
maintain. However, their application ceases when it is expected that high-temperature
formations, dispersive formations, or formations that may contain certain contaminants,
such as H2S, will be encountered. Noninhibitive drilling fluids include.

 Native mud/spud mud


 Clear water mud
 Bentonite treated mud
 Lignosulfonate treated mud

 Spud mud. In some areas, surface hole drilling into a clay/shale-bearing formation
while using clear water results in a viscous native mud (spud mud). Native mud is generally discarded
after conductor pipe is set. Water is pumped down letting it react with formation containing clay or shale ,Water
dissolves clay and return to surface as mud

 Bentonite-treated mud. To provide viscosity for improved cuttings-carrying capacity


in vertical and near-vertical holes, to suspend barite in weighted mud systems, and
to prevent minor hole sloughing problems, bentonite clay is added to clear water,
resulting in what are simply called bentonite-treated mud systems. These muds are
generally utilized in drilling trouble-free shallow wells.
Lignite/lignosulfonate mud. Muds heavily treated with lignosulfonates, a more effective thinner, are called
lignosulfonate mud systems. Suitable for high density, > 14 ppg When lignite, a more effective fluid loss
agent, is utilized along with lignosulfonate, the resulting mud system is referred to as lignite/
lignosulfonate mud. Work under high temperature 250-300 F (121-149 C) Although lignosulfonates are used
to control yield and gel strengths, the treated mud is more resistant to calcium and chloride
contaminations. High tolerance for contamination of drilled solids, salt anhydrite. Low filter loss

ii) Inhibitive water base muds


‘’ A mud that slows or stops hydration, swelling and disintegration of shales. ‘’
A variety of mud types have been labeled as "inhibitive muds."
 Calcium based mud
 Salt based mud
 Potassium based muds
 Polymer drilling muds
 Calcium-based muds. When lime or gypsum is added to bentonite-treated mud, the
sodium clays (bentonite) are converted to calcium-based clays, resulting in what is
called a calcium-based mud. calcium Reduce shale and clay swelling (clay*50% )it has
two types :
Lime mud, on the one hand, is formulated by adding caustic soda, organic thinners,
lime, and a fluid-loss control agent to bentonite-based muds.
Gyp mud, on the other hand, is formulated by adding gypsum (calcium sulfate), and
a fluid-loss control agent, thinners to bentonite treated mud.
Calcium-based mud is utilized in the drilling of thick anhydrite sections and also
where minor sloughing shale and saltwater flows are common.

 Salt-based muds. The salinity of salt muds can range from 10,000 ppm (parts per
million) up to complete saturation of 315,000 ppm salt. The salinity may be due to
inherently saline makeup water, addition of salt at the surface, or salt dissolved from
salt stringers. The conventional salt muds are those whose base is either prehydrated
bentonite or attapulgite clay and are utilized in drilling salt sections, anhydrite,
gypsum, and minor troublesome shale sections. Certain polymers are used to
viscosify saltwater, resulting in special-application salt muds, as used in workover
operations and offshore drilling.
Water is saturated with sodium chloride; 315,000 ppm
Drills salt domes and salt sections, prevent hole washout
Low tolerance to solids
Need high filter loss additives

Potassium-based muds.---- low solid or nondisperssed


Potassium-based muds are the most common types used in the
drilling of water-sensitive shale. Their performance is based on the cationic exchange
of potassium for sodium or calcium ions on smectites and interlayer clays.
Potassium-based muds are superior to calcium muds in terms of their shale-inhibition properties. The
shale stabilization phenomenon is known to take place as follows. Potassium is exchanged for sodium
and calcium when drilling in shale that contains montmorillonite, resulting in a more stable mud system,
less susceptible to hydration.
Suitable for drilling shale because it prevents shale sloughing
􀂾 Used to drill pay zone due to its low solid contents
􀂾 Known as low solid or nondisperssed mud
􀂾 Low tolerance to solids; need efficient desanders and desilters

 Polymer drilling mud. Polymer drilling fluids are those that have been treated with a
certain type of polymer.

OIL BASED DRILLING MUDS :


Drilling muds are called oil-based muds if the continuous liquid phase (external phase) is oil (diesel,
mineral, or synthetic). They are inert to contamination, as by H2S, CO2, salt, anhydrite, and active shales.
There are two types :
i) Full oil base mud
Oil muds contain less than 5% of dispersed water.
ii) Invert emulsion
invert emulsion mud contains dispersed water greater than 5%.
In either case, oil is the continuous phase, and water is the dispersed phase (internal phase). These muds
are highly temperature-stable fluids and can be weighted to any weight after adjusting the oil/water
ratio. The use of oil-based muds requires safeguards for environmental protection and safety. Their main
applications are in high-temperature formations, water-sensitive shales, thick salt sections, areas where
lubricity is critical (as in extended-reach drilling), low-pore-pressure formations, and formations that
contain corrosive elements (H2S, CO2, etc.).
An excellent to drill pay zone; reduce formation damage and
preserve original permeability

PNEUMATIC DRILLING MUDS :

Pneumatic drilling fluids are used in potential loss circulation zones, low-reservoirpressure
zones and in underbalanced drilling operations. The advantages of pneumatic drilling are
improved rate of penetration, longer drill bit life, better control of loss circulation zones, and less
damage to formations. The disadvantages in case of dry air/natural gas are possible downhole fire,
corrosion, hole deviation, and hole erosion. Following is a breakdown of pneumatic drilling fluids.

i) Dry air
ii) Mist
iii) Foam
iv) Gasified mud

i) Dry air. It has been well established that dry-air drilling yields the highest ROP among all
fluids. The two major functions of air drilling fluid are removal of drilled cuttings and cooling of
downhole equipment. The limitations of dry-air drilling are water-oil producing formations,
mechanically unstable wellbore, and in some cases, economics.
ii) Mist. Mist drilling occurs when water is injected into the airstream. Mist is used instead
of dry air when the encountered formation produces small amounts of water. The
limitations of unstable wellbore and sometimes economics still apply, as in dry air. The
functions of mist are the same as those of dry air.
iii) Foam. Foam drilling occurs when water and foaming surfactants are injected into the
airstream, resulting in a viscous foam that is similar to aerosol shaving cream. Its functions
are similar to those of dry air. Its application is where loss circulation zones are anticipated
and cannot be economically sealed.

Iv) Gasified mud. occurs when air or nitrogen is injected simultaneously with the circulated
mud slurry into the drill string. The application of gasified mud is in weak formations that have fracture
gradients less than the very minimum mud weight gradient that can be prepared from the conventional
makeup of liquid muds. It is also used in underbalanced drilling applications.

MUD PROPERTIES:

i) Density / Mud weight


Weight or mass per unit volume
Depend on solids in the liquid, Increases by adding solid materials
Decreased by adding water or oil or aerating the liquid
Measured by mud balance: a steel cup filled with freshly mud
sample and balanced on a knife edge
Expressed in ppg, Mud weight can also be reported in terms of pounds per cubic foot (lbs/ft3), grams per
cubic centimeter (g/cc), specific gravity (spg), or pressure gradient (psi/ft)

ii) Plastic Viscosity


Control the magnitude of shear stress develops as one layer of fluid slides over another
Measure of friction between layers
Provides a scale of the fluid thickness measured by viscometer
Decreases with increasing temperature; with liquids; the reverse
with gasses
Effective viscosity depends on fluid velocity flow pattern,
difficult to measure, but calculated For Bingham plastic
viscosity measured by marsh funnel

iii) Fluid loss


Fluid loss against porous and permeable rock is called filter loss
A layer of solids deposited on the rock is described as filter cake
Loss occur when mud pressure is higher than formation pressure
Quantity of mud loss depends on volume of filtrate and
thickness and strength of filter cake, and differential pressure
Can be determined by filter press, called API filter press
Consists of a cylinder with 3 in diameter and 2,5 in length with
fine screen at the base
Pressure applied on the sample, 100 05 500 psi and 60 F
HPHT filter press measure at bottom hole pressure and
temperature
The volume collected in cc per 30 min, API filter loss
The thickness of mud cake in 1/32 in express the mud cake
thickness
Betonite, emulsified oil, dispersant, CMC and starch used to
reduce filter loss, starch is used with pH > 11.5
Ideal mud gives small filter loss and thin and tough mud cake
fluid loss in porous media is inversely proportional to the filtrate viscosity. Many of the materials that are
used to increase viscosity also serve to reduce the filtration rate. Among these materials are bentonite,
sodium polyacrylate, CMC and other polymers, and starch.
iv) pH

The pH, or hydrogen ion concentration, is a measure of the relative acidity or alkalinity.
The pH value ranges from 0 to 14, with 0–6 being acid, 7 being neutral, and 8–14 being alkaline.
Except for salt muds, the pH of mud is seldom below 7. Generally, the pH of mud falls between
8 and 11, depending on the mud type. Measured by pH meter or strips.
The pH of mud plays a major role in controlling the solubility of calcium. At high pH
values, calcium solubility is very limited; this makes high-pH mud suitable for use in the
drilling of carbonate formations, which normally are susceptible to erosion and dissolution by freshwater
mud. The pH value is also an important indicator for the control of corrosion. A
minimum value of 9.5 should always be maintained to prevent oxygen corrosion of casing, drill
pipe, and so forth. A high pH tends to disperse (disintegrate) the active clays in the mud.
v) Yield point
A measure of the attractive forces between particles due to positive and negative charges
Measure the forces causes mud to gel in case of motionless
Shows a minimum level of stress must be provided before mud flow
Expressed in lb/100ft2

Vi) Gel strength

Ability of mud to develop gel structure


Defines the ability of mud to held solids and measure thixotropy
Determined using viscometer
The sample stirred at high speed and the allowed to rest for 10
sec or 10 min
The torque readings at 3 rpm is taken as gel strength at specified time
Expressed in lb/100 ft2
Converted to metric by multiplying by 0.478

Clay (solids) & MUD ADDITIVES :

NATURE OF CLAY :
Defines as natural, earthy, fine-grained material that develop
plasticity when wet ,Form from chemical weathering of igneous and metamorphic
rocks, Mainly form from volcanic ash , There are three atomic layers: tetrahedral layer, octahedral layer, and
exchangeable layer,
Hydration of clay
Clays with high CEC exchange large amount of water into the exchangeable layer and adsorb water onto the outer
surface of plates, This effect gives high viscosity and high yield point Adsorption of water causes a very sticking
expansion of clay, Overall hydration transform clay from dry power to plastic slurry. The effectiveness is measured
by yield of clay Yield of clay is defined as the number of barrels of 15 CP mud obtained from 1 ton (2000 lb) of dry
clay Clay yield depends on: purity, nature of atoms in exchangeable layers and salinity of water.

Today, much effort is expended to maintain low-solids muds. It has been proved that lowsolids
muds are more easily controlled and provide faster ROPs in all areas of operations.
Low-solids muds have a near-minimum amount of bentonite, clay, or other low-gravity solids.

Mud additives:
. Chemicals are added to the mud system to react with the active clays, to
achieve certain mud properties, called as the mud additives.

Drilling-mud additives may be grouped into seven categories:


1. Viscosifiers / flocculants / thickers :
• Bentonite
• Attapulgite
• Polymers
2. Viscosity reducers / deflocculant / thinners :
• Phosphates
• Tannates
• Lignites
• Lignosulfonates
• Sodium polyacrylates
3. Weighting materials:
• Barite
• Iron oxide
• Calcium carbonate
• Dissolved salts
• Galena
4. Fluid-loss reducers:
• Bentonite
• Starch
• Polymers
5. Emulsifiers
6. Lost circulation materials:
• Walnut shells
• Fibrous
• Cellophane flakes
• Diesel/bentonite
7. Special additives:
• Flocculants
• Corrosion control chemicals
• Defoamers
• pH control additives

The following sections provide a brief description of some of these additives and their
practical limitations in drilling muds.

Bentonite
Bentonite, a sodium montmorillonite, chemically reactive solid, is primarily used as a viscosifier and
as a fluid-loss reducer in freshwater-based muds. Viscosity is imparted to the freshwater by the hydration
of bentonite particles. In saltwater-based muds, bentonite can be first hydrated in freshwater and then
added to the saltwater, to control viscosity and fluid loss.

Attapulgite
Attapulgite, a hydrous magnesium aluminum silicate, is used as a viscosifier in saltwaterbased
muds. Because of its needlelike particle structure, attapulgite does not offer adequate
fluid-loss control.

Polymers
Plymers are Large molecules made up of many repeated small units called
Monomers, Used for filtration control, viscosity modification, flocculation
and shale stabilization .

Phosphates
phosphates are used as viscosity-reducing agents, all
of which are limited to a temperature environment of 150°F

Tannates
Quebracho and hemlock trees are two extract sources of tannin. Both additives are
effective in the reduction of mud viscosity in a temperature environment not exceeding
250°F.
Lignites
Lignites are humic acids, a degradation product of decayed vegetation. They are used as
thinners, emulsifiers, and fluid-loss reducers and are temperature stable up to 375°F.

Lignosulfonates
Lignosulfonates (calcium, modified sodium, etc.) act as dispersants and are used to
reduce viscosity and gel strength

Barite
Barite, a barium sulfate, occurs as a natural mineral. chemically non reactive solid. It has a specific
gravity range of
4.2–4.6. Mud weights up to 20 lbs/gal can be obtained with barite. It is the most commonly
used weighting material.

Iron oxide
Iron oxide has a specific gravity of 4.9–5.3, and mud weights up to 24 lbs/gal may be
obtained. It is known to have a detrimental effect on fluid loss and is quite erosive. It is less
expensive and more abundant than barite.

Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate is a limestone that has a specific gravity of 2.7. It is primarily used to
obtain mud weights up to 11 lbs/gal in oil-based muds and workover fluids.

Dissolved salts
Sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and calcium chloride/calcium bromide are some of
the salts used to weight up drilling and workover fluids. Sodium chloride is used to drill salt
sections, and mud weights up to 10 lbs/gal can be obtained. Calcium chloride is used mainly
for workover fluids, and mud weights up to 12 lbs/gal can be obtained. Calcium chloride/
calcium bromide is used for workover fluids with mud weights ranging between 12 lbs/gal and
15 lbs/gal.

MUD CONTAMINANTS :
A contaminant is any material intrusion into a mud system that causes undesirable
changes in the preselected properties. Solids of all kinds—and specifically those of micron
and submicron size—are the most prevalent contaminant. They affect all mud properties and
slow the drilling rate. Effective solids removal equipment is the primary means of removing undesirable
solids. Most other contaminants are chemical in nature and require chemical
treatment for their removal.

Salt and saltwater


Enters mud during drilling salt domes, rock salt beds, evaporates or any bed containing salt water. Increase
viscosity, yield strength and gel strength, a rapid
decrease in pH of bentonite mud due to flocculation Salt solution cause hole enlargement, so salt saturated mud is
Recommended Contamination of the mud by salt or saltwater is indicated by an increase in the chloride
concentration, ,
Sudden increases indicates salt water flow

High solids
This condition is indicated by high funnel viscosity, high PV, high methylene blue test
(MBT), reduced response to chemical treatment, and high volume of solids on mud retort.

Anhydrite (gypsum)
This form of contamination is indicated by high viscosity, high flat gels, and increased
fluid loss. An analysis of the filtrate will show increased concentrations of both calcium and
sulfates. Note that in most cases, tests for sulfates are not run at the rig site, and special
chemicals will be required. When drilling small thin anhydrite stringers, the mud may be
treated with soda ash or, in some cases, phosphates or sodium carbonate. If massive anhydrite
is encountered, the mud can either be converted to a gyp mud or to a high pH (where calcium
solubility is limited).

SOLID CONTROLL:
As Mud carries drilled cuttings to surface due to which mud loose much of its desired properties.If drilled solids
are not removed then it cause potential problems. Some of the major proven advantages of low-drilled-solids
content in muds are lower viscosity, improved mud cakes, longer bit and pump life, and higher drilling
rates. The best way to control solids in drilling muds is through the use of effective solids removal
equipment, including shale shakers, hydrocyclones (desanders, desilters), and centrifuges.

SHALE SHAKER :
Shale shakers are a series of vibrating sieves or screens, located on mud tank and is
designed to separate the coarser well cuttingsfrom drilling mud.
It can be either single or double deck, one of small holes and other of large holes. The
vibrating screens are at 10 degree tilted from horizontal : causing the larger cuttings falling
into reserve pit.
DESANDER:
A centrifugal device for removing sand from drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps.
It may be operated mechanically or by a fast -moving stream of fluid inside a special cone-
shaped vessel, in which case it is sometimes
called a hydrocyclone.

DESILTER :
A centrifugal device, similar to a desander, used to remove very fine particles, or silt, from
drilling fluid. This keeps the amount of solids in the fluid to the lowest possible level.

Centrifuges.
Centrifuges operate at high efficiency by processing small volumes. Most units process 60
80 gpm. Models with the capacity to handle up to 150 gpm may be available in some areas.
Normally, centrifuges operate last in line, behind other solids control devices. Unlike screens,
cyclones, and mud cleaners, which all operate continuously on the full mud circulating volume,
centrifuges operate intermittently on a small fraction of the circulating volume, usually 5–10%.

DRILLING FLUID SELECTION :


The main criterion used for the design of a drilling fluid program is generally minimum
overall well cost. Further considerations that must be taken into account when selecting drilling fluids to
drill a well are :

 Well type
 Problem formations
 Type of drilling rig used
 Production formation
 Casing program
 Water availability
 Corrosion
 Environmental effect

A discussion of each of these considerations follows.

Well type. Drilling may be classified as development or wildcat drilling: In areas where
drilling has been conducted previously and the geological conditions are known, additional
wells to be drilled are referred to as development wells. Otherwise, it is a wildcat well,
commonly referred to as an exploratory well. In the latter, the drilling fluid must be chosen so
that all geological information can be obtained easily and safely. Also, the drilling fluid must
be of such composition to allow quick changes to yield a fluid system suited for whatever
unexpected problems are encountered.

Problem formations. If either the formation that is being drilled or the fluid that is
being used to drill it is affected, directly or indirectly, by the other, then the formation is classified as a
problem formation. Examples are

• Shale formations—water sensitive (heaving and swelling) or pressured (caving and sloughing)
• Anhydrite formations (lime or gypsum)
• Salt formation
• High-temperature formation
• Abnormal pressure formation
• Inherently fractured formation (loss circulation zones)

Drilling rig. The two major components in a rotary drilling rig that figure in drilling
fluid selection are the drilling-fluid control system (solids control and chemical treatment)
and the circulating hydraulic horsepower available in the circulating system. The success of
a mud program in achieving optimum drilling is predicated on the proper selection of the rig
and its layout.

Producing formation. In formations that are intended to be zones for oil/gas


production, the fluid filtrate (the liquid phase of the drilling fluid) must have minimum or
no adverse effects on the producing formations. For example, in sand formations that may
contain hydratable clays, a freshwater filtrate intrusion will result in swelling of the clay
particles, thus impairing the reservoir production rates.

Casing program.

Makeup water and availability. The source and the chemical composition of the
makeup water are two of the primary considerations in the selection of the mud programs.
The amount of chlorides, calcium, and magnesium must be determined so that a mud system
compatible with the makeup water chemical composition can be selected. The source and
the availability of the makeup water must be considered so that mud treatment cost can
be minimized. For instance, if, on the one hand, freshwater is abundant on location, then mud dilution
may be the most economical treatment. If, on the other hand, water is being transported by trucks, then
solids control equipment can be more economically utilized. As a further example, in offshore drilling, it is
more economical to utilize seawater; therefore, the mud program must be selected accordingly.

Corrosion. Corrosion, combined with mechanical cyclic loading, is a major cause of drill
string premature failure. It has been shown that the presence of dissolved gases, such as O2,
CO2, H2S, and chlorides, in drilling muds decreases the life expectancy of drill pipe significantly.

Environmental impact. Although drilling fluids and drilled cuttings are properly
treated for any hazardous materials prior to their disposal, environmental impact is still an
important consideration in the selection and safe implementation of such fluids. For example,
in offshore drilling, mineral oil–based or synthetic oil–based mud systems are universally
selected over the conventional diesel oil–based system.

MUD CALCULATION
(COPY FROM file: MUD ENGINEERING)

MUD TANK :
Drilling mud is prepared in steel mud tanks by mixing liquid with additives,clays and is temporirly stored in mud
tanks.

MUD PUMP / MUD HOG:

A large reciprocating pump used to circulate the mud (drilling fluid) at the desired pressure
and volume on a drilling rig.

CLASSIFICATION OF MUD PUMPS

According to the acting type

According to the completion times of the suction and drainage acting in one cycle of the piston's reciprocating
motion, Mud Pumps can be divided into
 single-acting pump
 double-acting pump
the term double acting denotes that each side of the piston does work and vice versa for single acting.
According to the number of piston

Triplex Mud Pumps (three piston)


Duplex Mud Pumps (two piston)
The term duplex denotes the number of pistons . i.e 2

figure

MUD PUMP RATINGS AND CAPACITIES :


Mud pumps are usually rated by hydraulic horsepower as defined by

FORMULA
Displacement of duplex mud pump is computed by the following formula.

FORMULA
MUD HOSE :
Drilling mud flows from pump through a long rubber tube called the mud hose into the
swivel. The bent portion, (neck type ) of the tube joining the swivel is called goose neck.

The drilling mud then flows down the hollow drill string, jets out through the bit nozels.

MUD RETURN LINE


The drilling mud picks the rock cuttings off the bottom of the well and flows up in the
annular space ‘annulus’ and at the top the mud flows to surface through the mud-return
line.

SHALE SHAKER :
Shale shakers are a series of vibrating sieves or screens, located on mud tank and is
designed to separate the coarser well cuttingsfrom drilling mud.
It can be either single or double deck, one of small holes and other of large holes. The
vibrating screens are at 10 degree tilted from horizontal : causing the larger cuttings falling
into reserve pit.

DESANDER:
A centrifugal device for removing sand from drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps.
It may be operated mechanically or by a fast -moving stream of fluid inside a special cone-
shaped vessel, in which case it is sometimes
called a hydrocyclone.

DESILTER :
A centrifugal device, similar to a desander, used to remove very fine particles, or silt, from
drilling fluid. This keeps the amount of solids in the fluid to the lowest possible level.

DEGASER :
The equipment used to remove unwanted gas from a liquid, especially from drilling fluid.

RESERVE PIT :
Adjacent to the mud tanks is a large earthen pit called the reserve pit which holds the
discarded mud and mud cuttings by shale shakers. It may be lined with plastic to prevent
soil contamination.

CONTROLLING SYSTEM : ( WELL CONTROL )

The primary function of the well control system is to prevent any further flow of formation
fluid into the wellbore when a kick is taken.
Kick :
‘’ During drilling operations, an intrusion of formation fluids (water, oil, gas, or a combination
of the three) into the wellbore is termed a kick, and the fluid is called kick fluid.’’

When a kick is taken, there is the potential for blowout occurrence.


Controlling system is the process of maintaining of sufficient hydrostatic head of fluid in the wellbore (HMUD) to
balance the pressure exerted by the fluids in the formation being drilled (PF). If for any reason the effective head
in the wellbore should fall below formation pressure, an influx of formation fluid (kick) into the wellbore would
occur then immediately Blowout Preventers (BOPs) are operated as quickly as possible to prevent or reduce the
loss of mud from the well in order to maintain hydrostatic pressure of mud in hole.

The purpose of Well Control is to rectify the situation by either:


1. Allowing the invading fluid to vent harmlessly at the surface, or
2. Closing the well in. i.e. providing a surface pressure to restore the balance between pressures inside and
outside the wellbore.
• Shutting in the well at the surface
• Removal of kick fluid from the wellbore
• Replacement of original mud with heavier mud
• Stripping/snubbing the drill pipe into or out of the hole

Well control prevents any further influx of formation fluid and allows any one of a variety of ‘Kick Removal’
methods to be applied thus restoring a sufficient hydrostatic head of fluid in the wellbore.

Drilling fluid provides the first line of defense against blowouts.


A hole full of mud that weighs the right amount or proper density will not blowout but sometimes the unexpected
occurs.
The second line of defense against blowout is blowout preventer (BOP).
When closed, they form a pressure-tight seal at the top of the well and prevent the escape of fluids.

PRESSURES
Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height of a column of fluid.
𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒= 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕
Note:It is always the vertical height of the column which matters not the shape
Since the pressure is measured in psi and depth is measured in feet, it is convenient to convert mud weights from
pounds per gallon ppg to a pressure gradient psi/ft. The conversion factor is 0.052.

𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑝𝑠𝑖/𝑓𝑡)= 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑝𝑔 ∗ 0.052

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 0.052∗𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑝𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑕 (𝑓𝑡)

Note: True vertical depth will always be considered is calculations not the measured depth.

Formation Pressure
Formation pressure or pore fluid pressure is said to be normal when it is caused solely by the hydrostatic head of
the subsurface water contained in the formations and there is pore to pore pressure communication with the
atmosphere.

Note: Normally formation pressure gradient value is between 0.433 psi/ft and 0.465 psi/ft.

Abnormal Pressure
Every pressure which does not conform to the definition given for normal pressure is abnormal.
The principal causes of abnormal pressures are:
Under-compaction in shales
Tectonic Causes
Surcharged Shallow Formations
Faulting
Diapirism
Reservoir Structure

Formation Fracture Pressure


Formation fracture pressure, or formation breakdown pressure is the pressure required to rupture a formation, so
that whole mud can flow into it.
The formation breakdown pressure is usually determined for formations just below a casing shoe by means of a
leak-off test. This test of the formation strength, also known as a formation integrity test or FIT, is effected after
the casing has been run and cemented in place. This allows formations to be tested after the minimum of
disturbance and damage due to drilling, and allows a clear indication of strength to be determined for one
isolated zone.

Circulation Pressure
The circulating pressure provided by the rig pump represents the total pressure required to move mud from the
pump through the surface lines, the drillstring, and the jet nozzles and up the annulus to the surface.

FIGURE

A small amount of this pressure loss, or friction loss, is used in moving the mud up the annulus. Since the annular
space is quite large, the mud moves relatively slowly, thus using very little energy.
Annular pressure or friction loss acts as a ‘back pressure’ on formations exposed to the annulus. This causes a
slight increase in the total pressure exerted upon them, whenever the pumps are circulating mud. In effect, the
bottom hole pressure exerted when circulating, is increased over the static bottom hole pressure. This increase is
equal to the annular pressure loss.

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑠𝑖) =𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑕𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑝𝑠𝑖) + 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)

This could also be expressed in terms of pressure gradient, or of equivalent mud weight units. The advantage of
the above equation is that no precise depth need be stated.
Converting the pressures to equivalent mud weights we get the following formula:

𝐸𝐶𝐷 𝑝𝑝𝑔 =𝑀𝑢𝑑 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑔 + (𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠/𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑡∗0.052) (𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑔)

In general, ECD will be a slight increase of about two or three tenths of a pound per gallon over static mud weight.
The effect is increased in deep, slim holes, with high viscosity mud and high pump rates.
The loss of the Annular Pressure Loss when circulation stops means that a well close to balance or under-balance,
will go further under-balance and flow more readily. It is for this reason that a flow check may reveal a situation
which has been hidden by drilling conditions.

Bottomhole Pressure
The term ‘bottom hole pressure’, as used here, means the sum total of all pressures being exerted on a well by
our operations.
Bottom hole pressure is the sum of the hydrostatic pressures exerted by the fluids in the well, plus any circulating
friction loss (e.g. Annular Pressure Loss), plus any surface applied back pressures, where appropriate.

Well Control Equipments figure with each heading


The following are the basic components of the well control system:
o BOP stack
 Annular preventer
 Ram preventers

o Spools
o Internal preventers
o Kill/choke lines and connections
o Accumulators
o Diverter system
o Choke manifold
o Monitoring equipment

Blowout Preventer : BOP


A blowout preventer is a large, mechanical device, usually installed in stacks, used to seal, control and monitor oil
and gas wells. , when activated they form a pressure-tight seal at the top of the well and prevent the escape of
fluids.

PARTS

Ram preventers
There are three types of ram preventers:
• Pipe ram or casing ram
• Blind ram
• Shear ram
Pipe or casing ram preventers are mechanical devices that close the annular space around the
drill pipe or casing, respectively, when they are hydraulically activated. Pipe or casing rams have
semicircular openings that match the outer diameter of the drill pipe or the casing. Rams that are
designed to close in the annulus when no pipe is present are called blind rams. These rams, if activated
accidentally while the drill string is in the hole, will not shut in the annulus. Rams that are designed to
shear off drill pipe while string is in hole are referred to as shear rams. These kinds of rams are activated
only if all other preventers fail to shut in the well.

Annular preventers
Annular preventers are well control devices that employ a ring of reinforced
synthetic rubber as a packing unit, surrounding the wellbore to cause the shut-off. In the full open
position, the inner diameter of the packing unit is equal to the diameter of the preventer bore. These
preventers will close and shut in the well regardless of the shape or the diameter of the conduit that
might be in the hole.
Drilling spools
Drilling spools are drill-through–type fittings that are placed in the BOP stack
assembly to provide a space between two consecutive pipe rams, for temporary storage of
tool joints during stripping operations, and to allow attachment of the kill and choke lines.

Diverter system
A diverter system is designed to divert the kick fluid to flow through large-diameter vent
lines and away from the rig floor. A diverter system is usually not designed to withstand high
pressures. Rotating diverter control heads, as shown in figure 6–7, are mounted at the top of
the BOP. The diverter is installed on top of the wellhead to enable flow from shallow formations to be diverted
away from the work area in case of a shallow gas kick.

Choke/kill lines (flow lines)


During well control operations, it is important that circulation can be carried out through
some external conduits other than the normal circulating system used during drilling. These
external flow lines are referred to as choke/kill lines and are shown in figures 6–8 and 6–9,
respectively.

Choke manifold
A choke manifold is an arrangement of chokes, valves, and lines (fig. 6–8) that allows the
controlled release of fluids from the wellbore. It is designed such that the flow can be diverted
through any one of the available chokes. The operation of a choke manifold is either manual
or automatic or both.

Pit-level systems
Numerous pit-level indicator systems are available to monitor mud pit levels. Many of
these include audible alarms and/or chart recorders that provide a permanent record of the
pit level.
Flow-line monitors
Flow-line monitors measure the flow rate at the flow line. Most flow-line monitors have an
audible alarm that warns of an increase or a decrease in the flow rate. An increase in flow rate is an
indication that a kick is occurring. A flow-line monitor may detect the increased flow rate owing to a kick
before the pit level has increased enough to be detectable.

Internal preventer
An inside BOP valve should be available to install on the drill string above the drill bit, to prevent
backflow through the drill string if a kick is taken while tripping. However, inside BOP
valves have certain disadvantages, including the following:
• They prohibit wireline work
• They may become plugged if lost circulation material is injected
• They hinder the measurement of drill pipe pressure during a kick
• The string must be filled from the surface while running in

Accumulators
Accumulators are pressurelike vessels that allows the storage of high pressure in the
hydraulic system required in order to open or close the annular or ram-type preventers. The
major components of an accumulator unit are the fluid reservoir, high-pressure hydraulic
pumps, the accumulator bottle, the piping, manifolds, valves, and pressure regulators.
Manifold
An arrangement of piping or valves designed to control, distribute and often monitor fluid flow.
Types of Manifold
Different Manifolds are configured for different functions, In each case, the functional requirements of the
operation have been addressed in the configuration of the manifold and the degree of control and
instrumentation required.
Choke Mnifold
Standpipe Manifold
Kill Manifold
Pump Manifold
Squeeze Manifold
Flowline Manifold

Choke Manifold
The choke manifold is an arrangement of valves, fittings, lines and chokes which provide several flow routes to
control the flow of mud, gas and oil from t h e annulus during a kick. A set of high-pressure valves and associated
piping that usually includes at least two adjustable chokes, arranged such that one adjustable choke may be
isolated and taken out of service for repair and refurbishment while well flow is directed through the other one.
Choke Manifold may be referred as, a manifold assembly incorporating chokes, valves and pressure sensors used
to provide control of flow back or treatment fluids. Figure shows a typical choke manifold for 5000 psi working
pressure Service-Surface Installation.

Standpipe Manifold
The standpipe manifold is a series of lines, gauges and valves used for routing mud from the pumps to the
standpipe.
The Standpipe Manifold is made of plastic valves and pipes under typical structure of standpipe manifold in
drilling field. It controls the path of drilling fluid flow. It allows the flow to be directed to different places. Normally
while drilling, the standpipe manifold is set up to direct the flow down the drillstring. Also on the standpipe
manifold are positioned pressure gauges that allow the driller to monitor the pump output pressure. This is very
important to make sure that drilling continues efficiently and safely.

Kill Manifold
In case of increase in well head pressure, the kill manifold can provide a mean of pumping heavy drilling fluid into
the well to balance bottom hole pressure so that well kick and blowout can be prevented. In this case, by using
blow down lines connected to the kill manifold, the increasing well head pressure also can be released directly for
bottom hole pressure release, or water and extinguishing agent can be injected into the well by means of the kill
manifold. The check valves on the kill manifold only allow injection of kill fluid or other fluids into the well bore
through themselves, but do not allow any backflow so as to perform the kill operation or other operations.
The kill manifold consists of check valves, gate vales, pressure gauges and pipelines. The one end of the kill
manifold is connected to the drilling spool and the other end is connected to the pump. Kill manifolds are
designed and manufactured in accordance with API 6A&API 16C standards. They are specifically made for injecting
heavy mud, water and extinguishant during drilling.
Pump Manifold
The arrangement of lines and valves used to direct and control fluid on a pumping unit. Pump Manifold is usually
referred as
Low-pressure Manifold
High-pressure Manifold

The manifold on the pump suction is generally known as the inlet or low-pressure manifold. The corresponding
manifold located on the pump discharge is commonly known as the high-pressure or discharge manifold. In most
cases, reference to the pump manifold relates to the high-pressure manifold.

Squeeze Manifold
A manifold connected within the surface treating lines that is configured to enable control and routing of fluids
during a squeeze operation. Most squeeze manifolds have treating line connections with the tubing string,
annulus, pit line and pump unit. Isolation valves enable the appropriate flow path to be selected, and pressure
sensors included in tubing and annulus lines monitor the key treatment pressures. In some squeeze treatments,
such as squeeze cementing, it may be desirable to reverse-circulate excess cement from the tubing string. The
squeeze manifold enables a change in fluid routing to be quickly and easily achieved from one station.

BOP stack arrangement


The arrangement of the various components of the BOP stack must be such that the
following well control operations can be conducted:
• Shut in the well with or without drill string in the hole
• Circulate kick fluid out of hole and replace mud with kill mud
• Have the capability of hanging drill string if its shearing is mandated
There are many common arrangements that are generally recommended. Some typical
arrangements are shown in figures 6–10 and 6–11.

Well Control and Blowout Prevention: Important Elements in Kick Control


Although kicks may be taken at any time other than while drilling, it is extremely important
that the bit be stripped or snubbed back to the bottom if possible. Most attempts to control a
kick while the bit is far above the bottom are bound to fail. Therefore, if it is assumed that the
bit is on the bottom, the necessities of well control consist of the following actions, which will
be defined mathematically in the next section:
• Record shut-in drillpipe and casing pressures
• Calculate the encountered formation fluid pressure
• Calculate the required kill mud weight
• Calculate the required circulating drill pipe pressure or pump pressure schedule
during well control
• Determine the induced wellbore pressure profile during well control—specifically,
the pressures at the last casing shoe and at the surface choke
• Establish operating pressure limitations of the blowout equipment
• Determine or assume the type of kick or composition (gas, liquid, or gas and
liquid)
• Determine the required bottom-hole pressure that is to be maintained during well
control operations

Commonly Used Well Control Methods


Although there are several ways to circulate a kick fluid out of a well, the two most commonly used in the
drilling industry are the driller’s method and the wait-and-weight method. Both use the concept of
maintaining a constant bottom-hole pressure during the entire well control operation. In addition, the
friction pressure losses in the annulus are assumed to be negligible. However, in offshore drilling while
using mobile rigs, friction pressure losses in the choke line are significant and cannot be ignored.

Driller’s method
The driller’s method consists of two separate circulations. In the first circulation, the kick fluid is circulated
out of the well while using the original mud. In the second circulation, after the well is free from kick fluid,
the light mud is totally displaced by the heavier kill mud.

figure
Wait-and-weight method
The wait-and-weight method, which is also referred to as the once-circulation method,
consists of circulating the kick fluid out while the original mud is being displaced simultaneously
with the kill mud.
Figure

Volumetric method

Concurrent method

Dynamic killing
Low choke pressure

Partition

Bull heading

MONITORRING SYSTEM

1. Depths
2. Rop
3. Hook load
4. Rotary speed
5. Mud flow rate
6. Pump pressure
7. Mud density
8. Mud temperature
9. Oil and gas contents in mud
10. Pit level
11. Rotary torque and drag
12.

DRLLING PROBLEMS

During drilling operations, some type of a drilling problem will almost certainly occur,
even in very carefully planned wells. The reason is that geological conditions for two wells that are near
each other may differ (nonhomogeneous formation); therefore, different problems
can be encountered.
The key to success in achieving well objectives is to design drilling programs based on
anticipation of potential hole problems, rather than on containment and caution. Drilling
problems, when encountered, can be very costly, the most prevalent of which are

kicks & Blow outs


Stuck pipe
Lost circulation
Hole deviation
Pipe failures
Borehole instability
Formation damage
Hydrogen sulfide–bearing formations and shallow gas
Equipment- and personnel-related problems

An understanding of these problems, their causes, their anticipation and planning for
solutions is essential to control overall well cost control and succed in reaching the intended target zone.

1: KICK AND BLOW OUT :


An intrusion of formation fluids (water, oil, gas, or a combination of the three) into the wellbore is
termed a kick, and the fluid is called kick fluid.

When a kick is taken, there is the potential for blowout occurrence. If the well can be successfully shut in
with equipment (blowout preventers [BOPs]) that will prevent any further flow of formation
fluid into the wellbore, then the situation is referred to as a controlled kick; otherwise,

‘’It is an uncontrolled kick and therefore referred to as a blowout,( Uncontrolled flow of formation fluids
(gas, oil or water) from the wellbore ) which is potentially dangerous.

If the formation fractures while the well is shut in and kick fluid goes into the fractured zone, then the
blowout is called an underground blowout. If surface equipment fails to control the migration of kick fluid
to the surface, then this is referred to as a surface blowout.

Blowouts can occur during drilling, tripping, casing, or workover operations. They are regarded as
accidents, and their occurrence can endanger human lives, the monetary investment, and the
environment. Therefore, their prevention is undoubtedly the most important task in any drilling venture.
Kick Causes
In general, a kick will occur when the pressure of formation fluid, Pff, becomes greater
than the wellbore pressure induced by the drilling fluid, Pdf. In other words, a kick will occur when the
differential pressure, P (the pressure difference between drilling-fluid pressure and formation fluid
pressure), becomes negative.
Mathematically, the differential pressure is expressed as

P = Pdf – Pff

Therefore, depending on the algebraic value of P, one of three conditions may obtain:
• P > 0, overbalanced condition—no kick
• P = 0, balanced condition—no kick
• P < 0, underbalanced condition—kick

It is under the third condition (i.e., P < 0) that formation fluids will flow into the wellbore.

The following conditions can cause KICK [the differential pressure to become negative(i.e., P < 0)]

 Encountering an unexpected high-pressure zone


 Lost circulation
 Improper tripping-out practices
 Inadequate drilling-mud weight

i) ENCOUNTERING A HIGH-PRESSURE ZONE :


During drilling, unexpected high-pressure zones are encountered where the pore pressure
becomes higher than the mud weight in use, causing a kick.

Formation pore pressure may be categorized as follows:


• Normal pressure (gradient = 0.433–0.465 psi/ft)
• Subnormal pressure (gradient < 0.433 psi/ft)
• Abnormal pressure (gradient > 0.433 psi/ft)

There is no exact method of determining formation pore pressures; therefore, their


estimation is often subjected to uncertainties. Most estimations of formation pressure are
based on seismic data, drilling data, and/or log data. There is inherent error in any data that are
measured, interpreted, and/or calculated; hence, the exact value of these pressures is uncertain and may
lead to improper mud weight selection.

Abnormal formation pressures are known to be due to the following phenomena:


• Rapid sediment deposition
• Around salt domes and below salt beds
• Bottom aquifer below a gas column
• Biogenic gas generation
• Gas migration to higher zones through faults or improper cement job
• Tectonic activities in the area

ii) Lost circulation


Lost circulation is defined here as total loss of drilling mud into a formation, causing
a decrease in the mud hydrostatic head, as shown in figure 1–2. Potential zones for lost
circulation are characterized as

• Highly permeable
• Cavernous
• Inherently fractured
• Fractured due to improper drilling, casing, or tripping practices.

iii) Improper tripping-out practices

iv) Inadequate drilling-mud weight


Inadequate mud weight may mean that the mud pressure gradient is lower than the formation
fluid pressure gradient; as a result, a kick will occur. Also, it may mean having a pressure
gradient greater than the formation fracture gradient; consequently, the formation will break,
leading to loss of circulation and, hence, kick occurrence. Therefore, it is important to know the
formation pore and fracture pressures prior to selecting a mud weight.

KICK DETECTION :

Early detection of kicks is extremely important in well control operations and in the
prevention of possible uncontrolled blowouts. The following are common indications that a
kick may have been taken:

• A sudden increase in mud return to surface


• Sudden increase in drilling rate (drilling break)
• Sudden decrease in circulating drill pipe pressure
• Hole refilling is less than normal during tripping out

Other signs of possible kick occurrence include oil/gas traces in mud returning to the surface or a
moderate change in mud density and rheological properties.

Sudden increase of mud returning to surface


When kick fluid enters into a wellbore, there will be a sudden increase of mud returning to
the surface. This increase may be detected by monitoring with a flowmeter, which measures
mud flow rate at the return line, or by using a pit volume totalizer, which measures the increase
in mud level in the return tank.

Sudden increase in drilling rate


A sudden increase in drilling rate is commonly referred to in the field as a drilling break
(fig. 6–3). It has been well proved that as the differential pressure decreases, the drilling rate
increases. Therefore, when a drilling break suddenly occurs, a formation has been penetrated
that either has a pore pressure gradient higher then before or is a softer formation than has
been encountered previously. If the well is shut in and there is an indication of shut-in drill pipe
pressure and casing pressure, then a kick has been taken place. Otherwise, a softer formation
has been penetrated, and drilling can be continued without mud weight adjustment.

Sudden decrease in circulating standpipe pressure

A sudden decrease in circulating standpipe pressure can be due to either the occurrence
of a kick or parted drill pipe. When a kick is taken, the differential pressure aids surface mud
pumps in lifting drilling fluids in the annulus; as a result, standpipe pressure will drop. Also,
if a break develops in the drill string, the portion of the circulating system below the break,
including the drill bit, will no longer contribute to pressures required from surface pumps;
therefore, a drop in standpipe pressure will again be observed. As in the previous case of a
drilling break, the well must be shut in to determine whether a kick has been taken or whether
a break in the drill string has occurred.
Less than normal hole refilling during tripping out
When tripping out, the mud volume that the hole should be taking must be approximately
equal to the volume of pipe being pulled out of the hole. Otherwise, some formation fluid is
invading the wellbore.

KICK PREVENTION IS DONE BY WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT THE BOP,

BY SEVERAL METHODS.

2: PIPE STICKING / STUCK PIPE :

In drilling operations, a pipe is considered stuck if it cannot be freed (pulled out of the
hole) without damage to the pipe and without exceeding the maximum allowed hook load of
the drilling rig.
In simple words we can say that
‘’When part of the drill pipe or drill collars are stuck in the hole ‘’
Indication: If pipe cannot be rotated or pulled and circulation is good, then pipe is probably wall stuck

There are two types of pipe sticking problems:


• Differential pressure pipe sticking
• Mechanical pipe sticking

Differential pressure pipe sticking

Differential pressure pipe sticking occurs when a portion of the drill string becomes
embedded into a mud cake (an impermeable film of fine solids) that forms on the wall of a
permeable formation during the drilling process. If the mud pressure, Pm, that acts on the
outside wall of the pipe is greater than the formation fluid pressure, Pff, as is generally the
case except in underbalanced drilling, then the pipe is said to be differentially stuck,

in simple words we can say that Wall sticking is caused because : pipe is held by suction force resultant from
overbalance hydrostatic pressure forcing filtrate into a permeable zone which leaves a thick mud cake on the wall
of the hole , and A pressure differential is present around the circumference of drill collars or pipe, ( overbalance
drilling ).

The differential pressure acting on the portion of the drill pipe that is embedded into the
mud cake can be expressed as follows: P = Pm – Pff.
The pull force, Fpull, that is required in order to free the stuck pipe is a function of the differential
pressure, P; the coefficient of friction, ; and the total contact area, Ac, between the pipe and mud cake
surfaces:

Fpull = AcP

The following are main reasons of differentia pipe sticking :


• Unnecessary high differential pressure
• Thick mud cake (high continuous fluid loss to formation)
• Low-lubricity mud cake (high coefficient of friction)
• Excessive embedded pipe length in mud cake (time delay in freeing operations)

Differential pressure pipe sticking can be prevented—or its occurrence can at least be
mitigated—if some or all of the following precautions are taken:
• Maintain the lowest continuous fluid loss while adhering to the project economic
objectives (e.g., controlling the mud cake thickness)
• Maintain the lowest amount of drilled solids in the mud system or, if economical,
remove all drilled solids
• Use lowest differential pressure, with allowance for swab and surge pressures
during tripping operations
• Select a mud system that will yield smooth mud cake (low coefficient of friction)
• Maintain drill string rotation at all times, if possible

Mechanical pipe sticking

A drill pipe can be stuck mechanically when Cuttings and sloughing formations pack off the annular space around
the drill string (especially during a pump shutdown period) .

The causes of mechanical pipe sticking include:


• High accumulation of drilled cuttings in the annulus
• Borehole instabilities—such as hole caving, sloughing, or collapse and plastic
shale or salt sections squeezing (narrowing)
• Key seating
Drilled cuttings. Excessive drilled-cuttings accumulation in the annular space owing
to inadequate hole cleaning can cause mechanical pipe sticking—particularly in directional
well drilling, in which a stationary cuttings bed may form on the low side of the borehole.

Borehole instability.
Will be discussed in detailed latter. Inshallah

Key seating.
‘’a phenomenon happens at the dogleg where a new hole is created by drill string until the drill pipe is stuck to the
wall.’’
Actually When drill pipe/collar passes through a dogleg, it tries to straighten and thus, creating a lateral force
which causes the drill pipe/collar joint to dig into the formation at the dogleg bow. The lateral force that tends
to push the pipe against the wall that causes mechanical erosion and thus creates a key seat.

A key-seat can only be formed if the formation is really soft and the hanging weight below the dogleg is big
enough to create a substantial lateral force.

IDENTIFICATION: This problem can be identified when the drill string can be moved downwards but not upwards

Dog leg : A particularly crooked place in a wellbore , the term more commonly refers to a section of the hole that
changes direction faster than anticipated or desired.

Lost circulation
Lost circulation is defined here as total loss of drilling mud into a formation, causing
a decrease in the mud hydrostatic head

The loss can be partial or total, as shown in figure In partial lost circulation, mud continues to flow to
surface with some loss to the formation. Total loss circulation, however, is when all the mud flows into a
formation with no return to surface. In total loss circulation, if drilling is allowed to continue, it is referred
to as blind drilling.

Potential zones for lost circulation are characterized as


• Highly permeable
• Cavernous
• Inherently fractured
• Fractured due to improper drilling, casing, or tripping practices.

REMEDIAL MEASURES: The common lost circulation materials that are mixed with the mud to seal loss
zones may be grouped as fibrous, flaked, granular, and/or a combination of the three.
Hole Deviation
Definition
Hole deviation is the unintentional departure of the drill
bit from drilling along a preselected borehole trajectory.
Whether drilling a straight or a curved hole section, the
tendency of the bit to walk away from the desired path can
lead to a higher drilling cost and legal problems with regard
to the lease boundary. (See fig. 10–6.)
Causes
It is not exactly known what causes a drill bit to deviate
from its intended path. It is, however, generally agreed that
one or a combination of several of the following factors may
be responsible for hole deviation:
• Improper hole cleaning
• Drill string characteristics and dynamic behavior
• Applied WOB
• Hole incclination angle from vertical
• Drill bit type and basic mechanical and hydraulic design
• Hydraulics at the bit
• Heterogeneous nature of formation and dip angle

The contribution of the rock-bit interaction to bit deviating forces is governed by the
following factors:
• Rock properties (cohesive strength, bedding or dip angle, and internal friction
angle)
• Drill bit design features (tooth angle, bit size, bit type, bit offset [in the case of
roller cone bits], teeth location and number, bit profile, and bit hydraulic features)
• Drilling parameters (tooth penetration into the rock and its cutting mechanism)
The mechanics of the rock-bit interaction is a very complex subject and is the least understood
problem contributing to hole deviation. Fortunately, the advent of downhole measuring-whiledrilling
(MWD) tools that allow the monitoring of the advance of the drill bit along the desired
path has made our lack of understanding with regard to the mechanics of hole deviation more
acceptable.
Drill Pipe Failures
Drill pipe failures can be categorized as follows:
• Twist-off—due to excessive torque
• Parting—due to excessive tension
• Burst or collapse—due to excessive internal pressure or external pressure,
respectively
• Fatigue—due to mechanical cyclic loads, with or without corrosion

Fatigue
Fatigue is a dynamic phenomenon that may be defined as the initiation and propagation of
micro-cracks into macro-cracks as a result of repeated applications of stresses. It is a process of localized
progressive structural fractures in material under the action of dynamic stresses.
Corrosion can be mitigated by corrosive scavengers and by controlling the mud pH in the presence of
H2S. Proper handling and inspection of the drill string on a routine basis are the best measures for the
prevention of failures

Borehole Instability
Borehole instability is an undesirable condition of an open hole interval that does not
maintain its gauge size and shape and/or its structural integrity.

Principles of borehole instability


Before drilling, the rock strength at some depth is in equilibrium with the in situ rock
stresses (effective overburden stress and effective horizontal confining stresses). While a
hole is being drilled, however, the balance between the rock strength and the in situ stresses
is disturbed. In addition, foreign fluids are introduced, and an interaction process begins
between the formation and borehole fluids. The result is the potential for a hole instability
problem to arise.

TYPES
There are four different types of borehole instabilities, including
• Hole closure or narrowing
• Hole enlargement or washouts
• Fracturing
• Collapse

The problems associated with each type are addressed in the following sections.
Hole closure. Hole closure is a time-dependent process of borehole narrowing, sometimes referred to
as creep, under the overburden pressure. It generally occurs in plastic flowing shale and salt sections.
The associated problems are
• Increase in torque and drag
• Increase in potential for pipe sticking
• Increase in difficulty of casings landing

Hole enlargement. Hole enlargements are commonly termed washouts; that is, the hole becomes
undesirably larger than intended. Hole enlargements are generally caused by hydraulic erosion and
mechanical abrasion owing to the drill string and in inherently sloughing shale.
A salt or shale can squeeze into the well bore because it is being compressed by the overburden forces. Squeezing
occurs because the mud weight is not sufficient to prevent the formation squeezing into the well bore , Once
broken, the hole will become enlarge.

The associated problems are


• Increase in difficulty of cementing
• Increase in potential for hole deviation
• Increase in hydraulics requirements for
effective hole cleaning
• Increase in potential for problems during
logging operations

Prevention Action
 Identify salt dome
 Monitor mud chlorides and mud resistivity
 Maintain sufficient mud weight
 Select an appropriate mud system that will not aggravate the mobile formation
 Plan frequent reaming/wiper trips particularly for this section of the hole
 Slow trip speed before BHA enters the suspected area
 Minimize the open hole exposure time of these formations
Fracturing. Fracturing occurs when the wellbore drilling-fluid pressure exceeds the formation fracture
pressure.
The associated problems are
• Lost circulation
• Possible kick occurrence
Collapse. Borehole collapse occurs when the drilling-fluid pressure is too low to maintain the structural
integrity of the drilled hole.
The associated problems are
• Pipe sticking
• Possible loss of well

Shale problem/borehole instability:


a condition where the shale section containing bentonite or other hydratable clays which continually absorb
water from the mud, expands, swell & slough into the hole

Shale is a sedimentary rock form by deposition and compaction of sediments ,contain clayminerals, quartz,
feldspar.

Over 75% of drilled formations worldwide are shale formations. The drilling cost attributed to shale
instability problems has been reported to be in excess of half a billion U.S. dollars per year. The
characteristic that makes shales most troublesome to drillers is its water sensitivity, due in part to its clay content
and the ionic composition of the clay.
When you drill a hole into the subsurface, the shales are the most unstable formations in the wellbore. They tend
to heave into the well causing the bit to get stuck along with the drill pipe. The reason for this is that since shales
tend to be fairly impermeable, they do not develop a filter cake on the surface of the formation like a porous
sandstone or a porous limestone or dolomite. The filter cake helps stabilize the formation and prevents it from
sloughing.

Sloughing shale, also called "heaving shale", is soft shale, which when penetrated by the borehole of a oil or gas
well, expands, runs, falls, swells, or squeezes into a borehole. The expansion of sloughing shale causes it to falls
from the side of the borehole into the bottom of the borehole as large ball-like clumps that are difficult to remove
by the circulating drilling mud. Sloughing shale can also result in the caving and bridging of the borehole.
Sloughing shale typically contains significant amounts of "sensitive clays", i.e. montmorillonite, that absorb water
from the drilling mud and expand. They also can be overpressured, which typically contributes significantly to
their swelling within a borehole.

The causes of shale instability are twofold:


• Mechanical (stress change vs. shale strength environment)
• Chemical (shale/fluid interaction: capillary pressure, osmotic pressure, pressure
diffusion, and borehole fluid invasion into shale)
Mechanical instability. As stated previously, mechanical rock instability can occur because
the in situ stress state of equilibrium has been disturbed after drilling. The density of the
mud in use may not bring the altered stresses to the original state; consequently, shale may
become mechanically unstable.
Chemical instability. Chemical-induced shale instability due to the drilling-fluid/shale
interaction alters shale strength. In conventional drilling, a positive differential
pressure (difference between the borehole fluid pressure and the pore fluid pressure) is
always maintained. As a result, borehole fluid is forced to flow into the formation (fluid-loss
phenomenon) and may cause a chemical interaction that can lead to shale instabilities. To
mitigate this problem, an increase of mud viscosity is generally used.

Prevention of Sloughing Shale


 Use suitable mud system to inhibit hydration (high Ca & K content, OBM, oil-emulsion, ...) to decrease the
tendency of mud to hydrate water sensitive clays
 Increase circulation rate for more rapid removal of particles
 Increase mud density for greater wall support (Phyd > Pf)
 Decrease water loss of mud
 Avoid fast trips or swabbing of the hole
 Keep flow properties & annular velocity at such a level as to insure good hole cleaning

Borehole instability prevention


• Proper selection and maintenance of mud weight
• Proper hydraulics to control the ECD
• Proper hole trajectory selection
• Compatible borehole fluid with the formation being drilled
• Minimum time spent in open hole
• Use of offset well data (utilization of the learning curve)
• Monitoring of trend changes (torque, circulating pressure, drag, fill in during tripping, etc.)
• Collaboration and sharing of information

Producing-Formation Damage
‘’ Reduction in permeability near well bore region (skin), due to invasion of foreign fluid into the reservoir
formation. ‘’

Damage mechanisms
The vast amount of literature identifies formation damage as a combination of several
mechanisms:
• Solids plugging. Plugging of the reservoir rock pore spaces can be caused by either
fine solids in the mud filtrate or dislodged solids within the rock matrix, as shown
in figure 10–9. To minimize this form of damage is to minimize the amount of fine
solids in the mud system and its fluid loss.
• Clay particle swelling or dispersion. This is a problem inherent in sandstone that
contains water-sensitive clays. When a freshwater filtrate invades the reservoir
rock, it causes the clay to swell and thus reduces or totally blocks the throat areas.
• Saturation change. Production is predicated on the amount of saturation within
the reservoir rock. When a mud system filtrate enters the reservoir, this causes
some change in water saturation and, therefore, potential reduction in production.
High fluid loss causes increased water saturation, resulting in decreased rock
relative permeability.
• Wettability reversal. Reservoir rocks are water wet in nature. It has been demonstrated
that while drilling with oil-based mud systems, excess surfactants in the
mud filtrate that enter the rock can cause wettability reversal. On the basis of field
experience and laboratory tests, as much as 90% production loss can be caused by
this mechanism. Therefore, to guard against this problem, the amount of excess
surfactants used in oil-based mud systems should be kept to a minimum.

Hydrogen Sulfide–Bearing Zones and Shallow Gas
Hydrogen sulfide–bearing formation drilling poses one of the most difficult and
dangerous problems to humans and equipment. If the presence of hydrogen sulfide is known
or anticipated, there are very specific requirements to abide by, in accordance with IADC
rules and regulations.
Shallow gas may be encountered at any time in any region of the world. The only way to
combat this problem if it is encountered is to never shut in the well but rather divert the gas
flow through a diverter system, which will hopefully be in place. Shallow gas of high pressure can be
encountered at depths as low as a few hundred feet, where the formation fracture gradient is very low.
The danger is that if the well is shut in, formation fracturing is more likely to occur, resulting in
underground blow, the most severe blowout problem.

Personnel
Under the assumption that all conditions are equal during drilling/completion operations,
personnel are the key to the success or failure of those operations. Overall well cost owing to any
drilling/completion problem can become extremely high. Therefore, providing continuing
education and training to personnel who are involved, directly or indirectly, is essential for successful and
economic drilling/completion practices.

QURESHI JANAN 

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