Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter

LESSON 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM Parts of the CNS

NERVOUS SYSTEM A. BRAIN

- The nervous system receives and • comprised of billions of

Relays information about activities interconnected neurons and
within the body and monitors and glia
responds to Internal and External
Changes.

Functions of the 2 Halves of the Cerebrum

Neurons
- specialized cells that carry messages
throughout the nervous system
- It is the basic functioning unit of the
Nervous System

4 FUNCTIONS:

 Sensory Function - Gathers information

both from the outside world and from
inside the body.
 Transmits the information to the
processing area of the brain and spinal
cord.
 Integrative Function - Processes the
information to determine the best Division of the Brain
response
 Motor Function - Sends information to
muscles, glands, and organs so they can
respond correctly. Muscular contraction
or glandular secretions.

2 MAJOR DIVISIONS
1. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
- Relays messages, processes
information, and compares and 1. Forebrain
analyzes information  Telencephalon (Cerebrum)
- It consist of the brain and the spinal - Conscious thought processes,
cord intellectual functions
- Memory storage and
processing
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- Conscious and Subconscious Functions of the Different Parts of the

regulation of skeletal muscle Brain
contraction.
 Diencephalon
Thalamus – relay and proce-
ssing centers for sensory
information.

Hypothalamus – Centers
controlling emotions, auto-
nomic functions, and horm-
one production.
2. Midbrain

 Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
Lobes of the Brain
- Processing of Visual and
Auditory data.
- Generation of reflexive soma-
tic motor responses.
3. Hindbrain

 Metencephalon
(Cerebellum)
- Coordinates complex somatic
motor patterns
- Adjust output of other
somatic motor centers in the
brain and spinal cord. B. SPINAL CORD
(Pons)
- Relays sensory information to
cerebellum and thalamus
- Subconscious Somatic and
Visceral motor centers.
 Myelencephalon (Medulla
Oblongata)
- Relays sensory information to
thalamus
- Autonomic centers for
regulation of visceral func-
tions such as cardiovascular,
respiratory, etc.
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2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM TYPES OF NEURONS

- connects the central nervous system to 1. Sensory Neuron
the organs and other body parts
 Receptor
Subdivisions  bring messages to CNS
 afferent neuron
a) Sensory Division - carries info to the
brain and spinal cord. 2. Motor Neuron
b) Motor Division - carries info from the
 Carry impulses from the brain and spinal
brain to the bodies effectors (things that
cord to MUSCLES or GLANDS.
do the work)
 Muscles contract
 Somatic nerves relay commands to  Glands secrete
and from skeletal muscle (VOLUNT-  efferent neuron
ARY CONTROL) 3. Interneuron
Parts:
1. Spinal Nerves  spinal cord and  Connects sensory & motor neurons
body  Found entirely within the Central
2. Cranial Nerves  brain stem Nervous System

 Autonomic nerves send signals to

and from smooth muscles
(INVOLUNTARY CONTROL)
Subdivision:
1. Sympathetic  under stress
2. Parasympathetic return to no-
rmal or relaxed mode

PARTS OF A NEURON

 Dendrites
- Receive stimulus and carries impulses
toward the cell body

LESSON 2: NEURONS
NEURON
- Basic functional cell of nervous system
- Messages take the form of electrical
signals, and are known as IMPULSES.
- A Neuron carries impulses in only ONE
direction.
- Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)
 Cell Body
- Contains nucleus & most of cytoplasm
- Performs most of the metabolic activity
of the cell, including the generation of
ATP and synthesis of protein
 Axon
- Fiber which carries impulses away from
the cell body
- Ends in a series of small swellings called
axon terminals
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter

Excitatory: depolarize
postsynaptic cell
Inhibitory: hyperpolarize
postsynaptic cell
 Role of postsynaptic neuron: integrate
and process information

LESSON 3: DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM
MEMORY

 Association is the linkage of information

to structural and chemical changes
 Schwann Cells
- Cells which produce myelin or fat layerr Short Term - few bits lasts a couple of hours
in the Peripheral Nervous System Long Term - permanent and limitless

 Myelin sheath
– Dense lipid layer which insulates the DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
axon
– Makes the axon look gray TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY
- A nondegenerative, noncongenital
 Node of Ranvier damage to the brain from an external
– Gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath mechanical force.
- CAUSES
Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to Falls (28%)
axon Motor vehicle-traffic crashes (20%)
Struck by/against (19%)
Assaults (11%)
CLOSED BRAIN INJURY
1. Concussion
- Most common type of TBI
- Damage to nerves or blood vessels in
the brain often caused by an impact to
the head
TYPES OF CHEMICAL SYNAPSE 2. Cerebral Contusions

 Acetylcholine: neuromuscular junctions, - Is a bruise or bleeding on the brain that

glands, brain and spinal cord can be caused by an impact

 Norepinepherine: affects brain regions 3. Diffuse Axonal Injury

concerned with emotions, dreaming
- Tearing of nerve tissue or blood vessels
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM NEURON when the brain is jostled in the skull, can
TO TARGET result from shaking or whiplash

Synaptic transmission: 4. Coup-contrecoup Injury

 Release of neurotransmitter: graded - Impact not only injures the site of impact,
potential achieved but causes the brain to impact with the
 Effects of neurotransmitter: skull
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OPEN BRAIN INJURY
 Object penetrates brain tissue, such as a
bullet or shattered piece of skull
INFECTIONS
1. Meningitis
(HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE MENINGITIS)
 Caused by Haemophilus influenzae
Type b bacteria
 Usually spreads from somewhere in the
respiratory tract to the bloodstream and
then to the meninges
(MENINGOCOCCAL MENINGITIS)
 Infection caused by the bacterium
Neisseria meningitidis
 Cause infection in a part of the body
then, for unknown reasons, the bacteria
may then spread through the
bloodstream to the nervous system
(PNEUMOCOCCAL MENINGITIS)
 Caused by a bacteria called
streptococcus pneumonia
 Can be carried harmlessly in the back of
the throat by both adults and children
 Blood vessels in the lining of the brain
are damaged
 Meninges become inflamed and pressure
around the brain can cause nerve
damage
2. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease)
It is an infection caused by slow-growing
bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae. It is a
disease that causes severe, disfiguring skin sores
and nerve damage in the arms, legs, and skin
areas around the body.
 Tuberculoid
- have only one or a few patches of flat,
pale-colored skin (paucibacillary leprosy)
- Affected area of skin may feel numb
because of nerve damage underneath
 Lepromatous
- has widespread skin bumps and rashes
(multibacillary leprosy), numbness, and
muscle weakness
- The nose, kidneys, and male
reproductive organs may also be
affected
3. Polio
It is caused by the poliovirus. It spreads from
person to person and can invade an infected
person’s brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis.
Subclinical Infection
 No symptoms, or symptoms lasting 72
hours or less; may go unnoticed.
 Symptoms:
 Slight fever
 headache
 general discomfort or uneasiness
 Sore throat
 red throat
 vomiting
Nonparalytic
 develop symptoms that doesn't lead to
paralysis (abortive polio), which can last
up to 10 days
 causes the same mild, flu-like signs and
symptoms typical of other viral illnesses
Paralytic
 Same symptoms as nonparalytic polio
within a week, but may include:
 Loss of reflexes
 Severe muscle aches or weakness
 loose and floppy limbs (flaccid paralysis)
4. Tetanus
 A disease caused by the toxin of the
bacterium Clostridium tetani that affects
the central nervous system, sometimes
resulting in death.
 Spores of the bacterium produce a
neurotoxin, called tetanospasmin
5. Botulism
 Botulism is caused by Clostridium
bacteria that live in soil and dust. These
bacteria may also contaminate foods,
especially honey.
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 Clostridium bacteria produce a toxin
called botulinum toxin, which blocks the
normal messages between muscles and
nerves and affects muscles everywhere
in the body.
6. Shingles (Herpes Zoster)
 An infection caused by the varicella-
zoster virus, which is the same virus that
causes chickenpox
 Develops when the virus reactivates in
the body.
 Characterized by a red skin rash that can
cause pain and burning
7. Encephalitis
 An acute inflammation (swelling) of the
brain usually resulting from either a
viral infection or due to the body's own
immune system mistakenly attacking
brain tissue
 Different types have different causes
 Japanese encephalitis -
mosquitoes
 Tick-borne encephalitis - ticks
 Rabies - mammal
 Primary or infectious encephalitis -
fungus, virus, or bacterium
 Secondary, or post-infectious - immune
mistakenly attacks the brain.
8. Rabies
 Deadly virus spread to people from the
saliva of infected animals. The rabies
virus is usually transmitted through a
bite
 Preliminary symptoms are mild and
varied, may resemble many other
infections
 When CNS becomes involved person
alternates between agitation and calm
 Muscle spasms of mouth and pharynx
FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS
1. Headache - Can be a sign of stress or
emotional distress, or it can result from a
medical disorder, such as migraine or high
blood pressure, anxiety, or depression
 PRIMARY - caused by overactivity of
or problems with pain-sensitive
structures in your head
a. Tension Headaches
- cause mild to moderate
pain and come and go over
time.
- Usually have no other
symptoms.
b. Migraine Headaches
- Often described as
pounding, throbbing pain
- can last from 4 hours to 3
days and usually happen one
to four times a month
c. Cluster Headaches
- Cyclical patterns or cluster
periods
- Commonly awakens you in
the middle of the night with
intense pain in or around one
eye on one side of your head.
 SECONDARY - caused by overactivity
of or problems with pain-sensitive
structures in your head.
2. Epilepsy
 A condition characterized by recurrent
seizures (two or more) result from an
abnormal and excessive neuronal
discharge
 Sign of cerebral dysfunction
a. Localized - caused by localized area
of brain dysfunction (the
epileptic focus in cerebral
cortex and do not spread)
and symptoms are related to
area involved
b. Generalized - the abnormal
impulses originate from the
cerebral cortex and spread
3. Neuroglia - A stabbing, burning, and often
severe pain due to an irritated or damaged
nerve.
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STRUCTURAL DISORDERS
Spinal Cord Injury
 Traumatic - may stem from a sudden,
traumatic blow to the spine that
fractures, dislocates, crushes or
compresses one or more of the
vertebrae
 Non-Traumatic - may be caused by
arthritis, cancer, inflammation or
infections, or disk degeneration of the
spine
Disorders:
1. Bell’s Palsy
- causes sudden, temporary weakness in
the facial muscles
- makes half of the face appear to droop
Smile is one-sided, and the eye on that
side resists closing
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
- occurs when the tunnel becomes
narrowed or when tissues surrounding
the flexor tendons swell, putting
pressure on the median nerve
3. Spondylosis
- refers to degenerative changes in the
spine such as bone spurs and
degenerating intervertebral discs
between the vertebrae
4. Brain or Spinal Cord Tumors
- Masses of abnormal cells in the brain or
spinal cord that have grown out of
control
- benign (non-cancerous) tumors and
malignant tumors (cancerous)
5. Peripheral Neuropathy
- a result of damage to the peripheral
nerves, often causes weakness,
numbness and pain, usually in your
hands and feet
6. Guillain-Barré Syndrome
- a result of damage to the peripheral
nerves, often causes weakness,
numbness and pain, usually in your
hands and feet
VASCULAR DISORDERS
1. Stroke - occurs when the blood supply to part
of your brain is interrupted or reduced,
depriving brain tissue of oxygen and nutrients
a) Ischemic stroke
 occur when the arteries to your
brain become narrowed or
blocked, causing severely
reduced blood flow (ischemia)
 Thrombotic stroke
 Embolic stroke
b) Hemorrhagic stroke
 occurs when a blood vessel in
your brain leaks or ruptures
 Intracerebral hemorrhage.
 Subarachnoid hemorrhage
c) Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
 Sometimes known as a
ministroke. It is a temporary
period of symptoms similar to
those you'd have in a stroke
2. Aneurysm
- A bulge or ballooning in a blood vessel in
the brain.
- Can leak or rupture, causing bleeding
into the brain (hemorrhagic stroke).
DEGENERATION
1. Parkinson’s Disease
- Certain nerve cells (neurons) in the brain
gradually break down or die.
- Symptoms are due to a loss of neurons
that produce a chemical messenger in
your brain called dopamine.
2. Multiples Sclerosis
- Immune system malfunction destroys
the fatty substance that coats and
protects nerve fibers in the brain and
spinal cord (myelin).
3. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) or Lou
Gehrig's disease
- Progressive nervous system disease that
affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal
cord, causing loss of muscle control.
4. Huntington Chorea
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- an inherited disease that causes the
progressive breakdown (degeneration)
of nerve cells in the brain
5. Dementia
- Overall term for diseases and conditions
characterized by a decline in memory,
language, problem-solving and other
thinking skills that affect a person's
ability to perform everyday activities.
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS
• ACTION: affects higher brain functions
• PSYCHOLOGICAL DEPENDENCE: user
craves the feeling associated with the
drug
• TOLERANCE: takes more of the
substance to achieve the same affect
• ADDICTION: the need to continue
obtaining and using a substance; no free
choice
• WITHDRAWAL: physical symptoms that
occur upon stopping the drug
LESSON 4: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Second messenger system of the body
- Uses chemical messages (hormones)
that are released into the blood
HORMONES
- Hormones control several major
processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much of hom-
eostasis
 Regulation of metabolism
- Produced by specialized cells
- Secreted by cells into extracellular fluids
- Transferred by blood to the target sites
- Regulate the activity of other cells
THE CHEMISTRY OF HOMONES
 Amino acid-based hormones
a. Proteins
b. Peptides
c. Amines
 Steroids – made from cholesterol
 Prostaglandins – made from highly active
lipids
MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION
 Hormones affect only certain tissues or
organs (target cells or organs)
 Target cells must have specific protein
receptors
 Hormone binding influences the working
of the cells
EFFECTS CAUSED BY HORMONES
 Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
 Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
 Activation or inactivation of enzymes
 Stimulation of mitosis
CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE
 A stimulus or low hormone levels in the
blood triggers the release of more
hormone
 Hormone release stops once an
appropriate level in the blood is reached
 Hormone levels in the blood are
maintained by negative feedback
HORMONAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
 Endocrine glands are activated by other
hormones
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 Changing blood levels of certain ions
stimulate hormone release
NEURAL STIMULI OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 Nerve impulses stimulate hormone
release
 Most are under control of
sympathetic nervous system
MAJOR PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Pineal Gland
- Found on the third ventricle of the brain
- Secretes melatonin (helps establish the
body’s wake and sleep cycles)
2. Pituitary Gland
- Size of a grape
- Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary (glandular tissue)
 Growth Hormone
 General metabolic hormone
 skeletal muscles and long bones
 Amino acids into protein
 Fat broken down for energy
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth
 Function in males is unknown
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
 Influences growth and activity of
the thyroid
the
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
 Regulates endocrine activity of
the adrenal cortex
 Gonadotropic Hormones – regulates
hormonal activity of the gonads
 Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
(FSH) - Stimulates follicle (ov-
aries) and sperm (testes) deve-
lopment
 Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
- Triggers ovulation
- Ruptured follicle become corpus
luteum
- Stimulates testosterone produ-
ction
Posterior pituitary (nervous tissue)
 Oxytocin
 Stimulates contractions of the
uterus during labor
 Milk ejection
 Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
 Inhibit urine production
 Large amounts cause
vasoconstriction leading to
increased BP (vasopressin)
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“Pituitary - Hypothalamus Relationship”
• Release of hormones is controlled by
releasing and inhibiting hormones
produced by the hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones
that are transported to the posterior
pituitary
• The posterior pituitary is NOT STRICTLY
5. Adrenal Glands
an endocrine gland, but does release
hormones
3. Thyroid Gland
- Found at the base of the throat
- Consists of two lobes and a connecting
isthmus
 Thyroid Hormone
 Major metabolic hormone
 Composed of two active iodine-
containing hormones
a. Thyroxin (T4) – secreted by
thyroid follicles
b. Triiodothyronine (T3) –
conversion of T4 at target
tissues
 Calcitonin
 Decreases blood calcium levels by
deposition of bone
 Antagonistic to parathyroid
hormone
4. Parathyroid Gland
- Tiny masses on the posterior of the
thyroid
6. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
 Parathyroid Hormone (Parathormone)
 Stimulate osteoclasts to remove
calcium from bone
 Stimulate the kidneys and intestine
to absorb more calcium
 Raise calcium levels in the blood
- Sits on top of the kidneys
- Two glands
Adrenal Cortex (outer glandular region in
three layers)
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone)
 Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte
balance
 Target organ: kidney
 Regulate the concentration of
potassium and sodium in the
body
 Glucocorticoids (including cortisone and
cortisol)
 Promote normal cell metabolism
 Help resist long-term stressors
 Released in response to increased
blood levels of ACTH
 Sex hormones: Androgens and
some Estrogen
Adrenal Medulla (inner neural tissue
region)
 Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
 Increase cardiac output
 Raise glucose levels in the blood
 Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
 Increases heart rate and BP
 Triggers release of glucose
 Increases blood flow to skeletal
muscle
 Reduces blood flow to the
gastrointestinal system
 Inhibits voiding of the bladder
and gastrointestinal motility
- The pancreas is a mixed gland
- The islets of the pancreas produce
hormones:
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 Insulin
 Allows glucose to cross plasma
membranes into cells from beta
cells
 Glucagon
 Allows glucose to enter the
blood from alpha cells
7. Thymus
- Located posterior to the sternum
- Largest in infants and children
 Thymosin
 Matures some types of white
blood cells
 Important in developing the
immune system
8. Ovaries
 Estrogens
 Stimulates the development of
secondary female characteristics
 Matures female reproductive organs
 Helps prepare the uterus to receive a
fertilized egg
 Produced by the placenta
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Prepares breasts to produce milk
 Progesterone
 Acts with estrogen to bring about
menstrual cycle
 Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus
9. Testes
 Androgens
 Crucial for male sexual and
reproductive function
 Testosterone (most important
androgen)
 Male secondary characteristics
 Growth and maturation of male
reproductive system
 Required for sperm cell reproduction
LESSON 5: DISORDERS OF THE
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
LESSON 6: MALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
- Male and female reproductive systems
develop from similar embryonic tissue.
- During fetal development they are near
the kidneys and slowly move inferiorly in
the abdominal cavity.
- During the 7th month they descend
through the inguinal canals
PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
1. Scrotum
 Sac of skin and superficial fascia that
hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity
at the root of the penis
 Its external positioning keeps the testes
3C lower than core body temperature
PARTS OF THE SCROTUM
a. Dartos Muscle
- a thin layer of smooth muscle
in the dermis
- contractions of this muscle
causes wrinkling of the skin
b. Tunica Vaginalis
- encloses each testes
- a continuation of the
peritoneum that lines the
abdominopelvic cavity
c. Tunica Albuginea
- A fibrous capsule covers each
testis
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DUCT SYSTEM OF THE MALE R.S

2. Testicle (Testes)
- Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts
 An oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 to reach the outside of the body. After they
cm in diameter leave the testes, the sperm passes through
 The tunica albuginea gives rise to septa the epididymis, ductus deferens,
(partitions) that divide the testis into ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
lobules (about 250)
 Each lobule contains 3 or 4 highly coiled
seminiferous tubules
 These converge to become rete testis
which transport sperm to the
epididymis
 Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig) – pro-
duce male sex hormones, are located
between the seminiferous tubules
within a lobule. PARTS OF THE DUCT SYSTEM
3. Epididymis 5. Ductus Deferens (Vas Deferens)
 A long tube (about 6 meters) located  A fibromuscular tube that is continuous
along the superior and posterior with the epididymis
margins of the testes
 Complete sperm maturation process 6. Ejaculatory Duct
and become fertile as they move  passes through the prostate gland and
through the epididymis. empties into the urethra
 Mature sperm are stored in the lower
portion, or tail, of the epididymis 7. Urethra

 Extends from the urinary bladder to the

external urethral orifice at the tip of the
penis.
 A passageway for sperm and fluids from
the reproductive system and urine from
the urinary system

4. Spermatic Cord
ACCESSORY GLANDS OF THE MALE R.S
 Contains the structures running from the
8. Seminal Vesicle
testicles to the pelvic cavity
 Contents:  Lie on the posterior wall of the bladder
a. Vas Deferens and secrete 60% of the volume of semen
b. Nerves  Seminal Fluids:
c. Blood Vessels a. Fructose: provides energy for the
sperm.
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b. Fibrinogen: helps turn semen into
a bolus that can be readily
propelled into the vagina.
c. Prostaglandins: decrease cervical
mucus viscosity and stimulate
reverse peristalsis of the uterus.
9. Prostate Gland
 Doughnut-shaped gland that encircles
part of the urethra inferior to the
bladder
 Plays a role in the activation of sperm
 Enters the prostatic urethra during
ejaculation
 Prostatic Secretions:
a. Citrate: is a food source (TCA
cycle)
b. Proteolytic enzymes: acts to
"decoagulate" the semen that
was coagulated by seminal
vesicle secretions, which helps
the sperm begin their journey
once inside the vagina
10. Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Glands)
 Pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
 Produce alkaline mucus prior to
ejaculation that neutralizes traces of
acidic urine in the urethra
11. Penis
 Is a cylindrical pendant organ located
anterior to the scrotum and functions to
transfer sperm to the vagina
 Consists of three columns of erectile
tissue that are wrapped in connective
tissue and covered with skin.
 The two dorsal columns are the corpora
cavernosa. The single, midline ventral
column surrounds the urethra and is
called the corpus spongiosum.
 3 parts:
a. root
b. body (shaft)
c. glans penis
DISORDERS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Cryptorchidism
- Literally “hidden testicle.” A condition of
lack of descent of one or both testes into
the scrotum. If not corrected, usually by
surgery, before puberty, can lead to
sterility and increased risk of testicular
cancer.
Erectile dysfunction (ED)
- Sexual dysfunction characterized by the
regular and repeated inability of a
sexually mature male to obtain or
maintain an erection. It is a common
disorder that affects about 40 percent of
males, at least occasionally
Epididymitis
- Inflammation of the epididymis.
Discomfort or pain and swelling in the
scrotum are typical symptoms of
epididymitis, which is a relatively
common condition, especially in young
men.
Prostate cancer
- The most common type of cancer in men,
and the second leading cause of cancer
death in men.
Testicular cancer
- It is the most common cancer in males
between the ages of 20 and 39 years. A
lump or swelling in one testis, fluid in the
scrotum, and testicular pain or
tenderness are possible signs and
symptoms of testicular cancer.
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter

LESSON 7: FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE  Fertilization of the egg occurs here

SYSTEM
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- To perpetuate the species through
sexual or germ cell fertilization and
reproduction
 Tube widens to form the ampulla
 The isthmus is the portion that
connects to uterus
 Fimbria are the finger-like
projections around the opening that
trap the egg as it leaves the ovary
PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE  End of tube is called the
SYSTEM infundibulum
 Opening is called the ostium
1. Uterus

 A hollow, muscular, pear-shaped organ

about the size of a woman’s clenched fist 3. Ovaries
 Can be divided into the body (corpus),
 Attached to each side of the uterus by a
and the bottom cervix
ligament
 Fundus: rounded top portion, above the
 Oval-shaped, about the size of a large
fallopian tubes
olive
 Provides a place for the protection and
 Filled with egg-containing sacs called
nourishment of the fetus during
follicles
pregnancy
 Each egg is called an ovum
 It contracts during labor to expel the
fetus
 3 layers:
a. Perimetrium
b. Myometrium
c. Endometrium
Functions:
- The endometrium sheds the lining of the
uterus every 21 to 40 days by
menstruation
4. Vagina
- It provides a place for the protection and
nourishment of the fetus during  Extend from the cervix to the outside of
pregnancy the body
- It contracts during labor to expel the  3 ½ inch long muscular tube that
fetus expands in length and width during
sexual arousal
 Female organ for copulation
2. Fallopian Tube  A passageway for menstruation or the
 4-6 inches long birth of a fetus
 Egg is moved along inside the tube by
muscular contractions and the waving 5. Vulva - 5 organs making up the external
action of cilia genitalia of the female
 Takes an egg about 3-4 days to travel the
length of the tube
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter
Mons Pubis
- Triangular-shaped pad of fatty
tissue over the pubis bone,
covered with pubic hair
Labia Majora
- 2 large folds of adipose tissue on
the side of the vaginal opening
Labia Minora
- 2 smaller folds of adipose tissue
on the inside of the labia majora
Vestibule
- Area between labia with openings
for the vagina, urethra, and 2
excretory ducts for Bartholin’s
glands (provide lubricant)
Clitoris
- Sensitive fold of tissue partially
covered by hood
 Perineum
- The area located between the
vaginal opening and the anus
 Episiotomy
- A surgical incision done to avoid
uncontrolled tearing of the
perineum
6. Breast
 Are the mammary glands
 Each has 15-20 glandular lobes separated
by connective tissue
DISORDERS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
Menstrual Abnormalities
 Amenorrhea – absence of
menstruation
 Dysmenorrhea – pain associated
with menstruation
 Abnormal uterine bleeding –
excessive amount or duration of
menstrual bleeding
Endometriosis
 Growth of endometrial tissue
outside of the uterus
 Tissue responds to hormonal
changes by proliferating then
breaking down and bleeding
Cancer
 Breast Cancer – 2nd leading cause of
cancer death in the US
 Ovarian Cancer – most common
cause of gynecological death
excluding breast cancer
 Cervical Cancer – starts as cervical
dysplasia (change in shape, growth, and
no. of cells)
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
 Chlamydia – bacteria;
asymptomatic, leads to sterility from
scar tissue formation
 Gonorrhea – bacteria; discharge
common, blindness if newborn is
infected during delivery
 Syphilis – bacteria; painless sores
(chancre), 2nd stage: all organs
involved, 3rd stage: organ
degeneration is apparent
(neurosyphilis)
 Genital Herpes – virus; incurable,
painful blisters
 AIDS & Hepatitis B – viruses
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter

Yeast Infection 26
27
28 1
2
3
25 4

 Candida albicans is yeastlike fungus 24

Menstruation
5

23 6
that grows on mucous membranes 22 7

 Causes vulvovaginal candidiasis or 21 8

vaginitis 20 9

19 10
most fertile
- inflammation of the vagina 18 11
17 12
- severe itching and pain 16
15 14
13

- yellow discharge with odor

 More likely after antibiotic therapy for
some other disease
LESSON 8: THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE
TERMINOLOGIES:
 Endometrium - Lining of the uterus
 Oocyte - Developing egg cell
 Ovum - Mature egg
 Menopause - Last menstruation
FACTS:
 It is carefully regulated by several
hormones: Luteinizing Hormone (LH),
Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH), and
the female sex hormones Estrogen and
Progesterone
 Divided into three phases:
a. Follicular (before the egg is
released)
b. Ovulatory (egg is released)
c. Luteal (after release of the egg)
PHASES OF THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

- 20 weeks gestation, ~ 5 million eggs 1. Follicular Phase

(oocytes)
 The key aspect of this phase is the
- At birth, ½ to 1 million
development of follicles in the ovaries.
- Ovarian reserve, housed by primordial
 At the start of the follicular phase, the
follicles.
lining of the uterus is thick with fluids and
- 30 to 40 follicles develop before
nutrients intended to nourish an embryo
ovulation but usually only one egg is
(fertilized egg).
released.
 If no embryo is present, estrogen and
- 400 eggs are ovulated in a woman’s
progesterone levels are low. This causes
reproductive life
the uterus lining to shed.
- Age of 30, ~ 12% of eggs they had at
birth
Menstruation - This phase begins on the first
day of bleeding (can last for 3-7 days)

Menstrual Cycle  The pituitary gland increases its’

production of FSH. This hormone
 Begins when a girl reaches the age of
stimulates the growth of several follicles
puberty
(each contains an egg) to develop in the
 The reproductive cycle that produces ovaries.
eggs for fertilization
 During this cycle the uterus
(endometrium) prepares itself for
implantation of a fertilized egg, if this
does not occur the uterus lining is shed
from the body; this is known
as menstruation or a "period".
 The levels of FSH hormone decreases and
 Lasts between 28-35 days
the follicles begin to secrete estrogen.
 Day 1 of the cycle begins on is the first
 The follicle that develops first
day of bleeding and the cycle ends just
(the dominant follicle) secretes the most
before the next menstrual period.
amount of estrogen.
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter

 The follicular phase roughly lasts about  LH and FSH levels fall back to low and
13 or 14 days. The phase ends when the steady levels.
level of luteinizing hormone (LH) surges  Estrogen levels fall a little after the
dramatically LH/FSH surge, but rise due to continued
secretion of estrogen and progesterone
by the corpus luteum.
2. Ovulatory Phase  If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus
luteum shrinks and begins to degenerate
 Begins with the luteinizing hormone
after 14 days (the corpus luteum is
surge (LH surge). The level of FSH
designed to die after 14 days).
increases to a lesser extent.
 If the egg is fertilized the cells, around the
 LH stimulates enzymes in the dominant
developing embryo begin to produce a
follicle and along with the increased
hormone called human chorionic
pressure causes the follicle to rupture
gonadotropin (hCG).
and release the egg (ovulation).
 This hormone rescues the corpus luteum
 The egg travels into the fallopian tube,
and allows it to continue secreting
ready for fertilization. The egg can
progesterone and estrogen, until the
survive for 12 to 24 hours after
growing fetus can produce its’ own
ovulation.
hormones.
 The LH surge can be used as a
 Pregnancy tests are based on detecting an
measurement to determine when a
increase in the human chorionic
woman is fertile. Around 12 to 24 hours
gonadotropin level.
after the egg is released, the LH surge
can be detected by measuring the level
of this hormone in urine. LESSON 9: SPERMATOGENESIS
 The ovulatory phase usually lasts 16 to
32 hours and ends when the egg is
released.

3. Luteal Phase

 This phase begins after ovulation.

 It lasts about 14 days and ends just
before a menstrual period, unless of HORMONES
course fertilization occurs.
 The egg travels along the fallopian tube - Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
by wave like motions caused by the stimulates spermatogenesis
finger-like projections in the walls of the - Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH)
fallopian tube. (aka LH) stimulates the production of
 The remainder of the ruptured follicle in testosterone
the ovary closes after releasing the egg - Testosterone stimulates the development of
and forms a structure called a corpus male secondary sex characteristics &
luteum. spermatogenesis
 The corpus luteum secretes large
quantities of progesterone and estrogen
and prepares the uterus for fertilization.
 Progesterone also causes increase in
body temperature during the luteal
phase and remain elevated until a
menstrual period begins.
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter
PROCESS
- Sperm are produced within the
seminiferous tubules
- Interspersed within the tubules are
large cells which are the sustentacular
cells (Sertoli's cells), which support and
nourish the other cells.
- Early in embryonic development,
primordial germ cells enter the testes
and differentiate into spermatogonia
- Spermatogonia are diploid cells, each
with 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) located
around the periphery of the sem-
iniferous tubules.
- At puberty, hormones stimulate these
cells to begin dividing by mitosis. Some
remain at the periphery as sperma-
togonia.
- Others become primary sperma-
tocytes. Because they are produced by
mitosis, primary spermatocytes are
diploid and have 46 chromosomes
- Each primary spermatocytes goes
through the first meiotic division,
meiosis I, to produce two secondary
spermatocytes, each with 23
chromosomes (haploid)
- During meiosis I, one chromosome,
goes to each secondary spermatocyte.
In the second meiotic division, meiosis
II, each secondary spermatocyte divides
to produce two spermatids.
- The final step in the development the
spermatids formed from
spermatogenesis become mature
spermatozoa, or sperm.
- The sperm are released into the lumen
of the seminiferous tubule and leave the
testes. They then enter the epididymis.
- The entire process, beginning with a
primary spermatocyte, takes about 74
days. After ejaculation, the sperm can
live for about 48 hours in the female
reproductive tract.
LESSON 10: PREGNANCY
TERMINOLOGIES
 Obstetrician - doctor who specializes in
care of a pregnant women and the
developing fetus
 Gynecologist - doctor who specializes in
care of the female reproductive system
 Urine tests - about 2 weeks after
ovulation.
 Blood tests - about 6 to 8 days after you
ovulate
Blood tests can pick up hCG earlier in a
pregnancy than urine tests can
Pregnancy lasts an average of 266 days
(38 weeks); approximately
9 months – divided into
3 trimesters.
Signs of Pregnancy
 Missed menstrual period
 Excessive tenderness in her breasts
 Fatigue
 Change in appetite
 Morning Sickness
FERTILIZATION
 Ovum can be fertilized for first 24
hours during its 3-7 day journey
through the Fallopian tube to the
uterus.
 Most sperm live only 3 days inside the
woman’s reproductive tract; some for
5 days.
Science Reviewer 3rd Quarter
 The egg pulls one sperm to its surface,
the “zona pellucida” where sperm then
secretes an enzyme allowing it to
penetrate and enter.
 Within 24-30 hours, nuclei of sperm
and egg fuse to form the one-celled
“zygote
 Cell division begins
a. Morula stage (small collection
of cells)
b. Blastocyst stage (over 100 cells;
fluid center
CONCEPTION AND IMPLANTATION
 Blastocyst arrives in the uterus which is
receptive to implantation for only 4-5
days.
 Corpus luteum will not deteriorate
 8-11 days after ovulation the blastocyst
attaches itself to the endometrium;
then the conceptus is referred to as an
embryo.
 Embryo’s outer layer = trophoblast,
grows rapidly, forming 4 protective
layers (membranes) around the
embryo.
 Trophoblast membranes –
a. One produces blood cells
b. A 2nd develops into the
umbilical cord
c. A 3rd, the amnion; protective
fluid-filled sac
d. A 4th, the chorion, develops into
the placenta, which will serve as
an interface with the mother
 The chorion secretes the hormone
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
 HCG takes the place of LH and
maintains the corpus luteum
 The human chorionic gonadotropin
steps in to increase the production of
estrogen and progesterone. It also
suppresses your immune system to
support your growing baby.
 After about 3-4 months of pregnancy,
corpus luteum degenerates
 Placenta now produces its estrogen
and progesterone and maintains
endometrium
 Stimulated first by hCG and later by the
placenta, estrogen helps the uterus
grow, regulates the production of
other key hormones, and triggers the
development of baby’s organs
 Among its many other purposes,
progesterone encourages breast tissue
growth and later helps soften
ligaments and cartilage to prepare you
for labor.
 First trimester (Months 1-3) (Initial
development and rapid growth):
o At the end of the first month,
the embryo has a heartbeat, a
two-lobed brain, and a spinal
cord.
o By the end of the second
month, the embryo is
recognizable as a human and is
called a fetus
 Second trimester (Months 4-6) (Fetus
Continues to form):
o By the end of the fourth month,
fingernails, toenails, eyebrows,
and eyelashes have developed.
Teeth begin to form, lips
appear, and head hair may
begin to grow.
o Movement of the fetus can be
felt by the mother. The fetus
can bend its arms and make a
fist. During the fifth month, the
heartbeat can be detected by a
stethoscope.
 Third trimester (Months 7-9) (Growth):
o By the seventh month = lanugo
appears on the baby
o By the eighth months fetus
growth slows down and moves
into a head-down position.
o By the ninth month the fetus is
full term. Skin is smooth and
waxy looking. Languo drops off.