Context-free Languages

In formal language theory, a language is defined as a set of strings of symbols that may be
constrained by specific rules. Similarly, the written English language is made up of groups of
letters (words) separated by spaces. A valid (accepted) sentence in the language must follow
particular rules, the grammar.

A context-free language is a language generated by a context-free grammar. They are more

general (and include) regular languages. The same context-free language might be generated by
multiple context-free grammars.

Left and Right Recursive Grammars:

In a context-free grammar G, if there is a production in the form X → Xa where X is a non-

terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is called a left recursive production. The grammar
having a left recursive production is called a left recursive grammar.

And if in a context-free grammar G, if there is a production is in the form X → aX where X is a

non-terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is called a right recursive production. The grammar
having a right recursive production is called a right recursive grammar.

The set of all context-free languages is identical to the set of languages that are accepted by
pushdown automata (PDA).

Context-free languages are closed under −

Union

Concatenation

Kleene Star operation

Union

Let L1 and L2 be two context free languages. Then L1 ∪ L2 is also context free.
Example

Let L1 = { anbn , n > 0}. Corresponding grammar G1 will have P: S1 → aAb|ab

Let L2 = { cmdm , m ≥ 0}. Corresponding grammar G2 will have P: S2 → cBb| ε

Union of L1 and L2, L = L1 ∪ L2 = { anbn } ∪ { cmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional production S → S1 | S2

Concatenation

If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then L1L2 is also context free.

Example

Union of the languages L1 and L2, L = L1L2 = { anbncmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional production S → S1 S2

Kleene Star

If L is a context free language, then L* is also context free.

Example

Let L = { anbn , n ≥ 0}. Corresponding grammar G will have P: S → aAb| ε

Kleene Star L1 = { anbn }*

The corresponding grammar G1 will have additional productions S1 → SS1 | ε

Context-free languages are not closed under −

Intersection − If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then L1 ∩ L2 is not necessarily context
free.

Intersection with Regular Language − If L1 is a regular language and L2 is a context free

language, then L1 ∩ L2 is a context free language.

Complement − If L1 is a context free language, then L1’ may not be context free.

A Context-free grammar is a 4-tuple

A context-free grammar is G = (V,Σ,R,S), where

V = an alphabet containing all grammar symbols

Σ = a subset of V, called the terminal symbols

R ⊆ (V-Σ)×V* is the set of substitution rules, or productions

S ∈ V-Σ is the start symbol

The set V—Σ = the set of non-terminal symbols.

It is standard to write "A ⇾ α" when (A,α) ∈ R.

Notational Conventions

It is common in practice to express a grammar simply in terms of its productions as follows:

The full symbol set V consists of only symbols which appear in the grammar.
All uppercase letters are non-terminals and everything else is a terminal symbol.

The start symbol is the non-terminal on the left hand side of the first production rule listed.

Rules with common left hand sides are combined with right-hand sides separated by "|"

Derivation

A derivation is a sequence of steps which begins with the start symbol, uses the rules to do
replacements, and ends with a terminal string (from which no further steps can be taken).

Leftmost and Rightmost Derivations

Two particularly important derivations are these:

leftmost: always replace the leftmost non-terminal

rightmost: always replace the rightmost non-terminal

Example

Let any set of production rules in a CFG be

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

over an alphabet {a}.

The leftmost derivation for the string "a+a*a" may be −

X → X+X → a+X → a + X*X → a+a*X → a+a*a

The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below −

The rightmost derivation for the above string "a+a*a" may be −

X → X*X → X*a → X+X*a → X+a*a → a+a*a

The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below −