Register, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011

REGISTER
Language and Language Yeaching Journals
Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011 ISSN 1979-8903
Editor in Chief
Norwanto
Editors
Hanung Triyoko
Ari Setiawan
Setia Rini
Faizal Risdianto
Rr. Dewi Wahyu Mustikasari
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Publisher
English Department of Educational Faculty
State Institute for Islamic Studies (STAIN) Salatiga
Address
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The first issuance

June 2008
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REGISTER
Language and Language Yeaching Journals
Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011 ISSN 1979-8903
Table of Content
Error Analysis on the Use of ―Be‖ in the Students‘ Composition

Rochmat Budi Santosa ........................................................................129
The Structure of Teacher‘s Directives of the English Lecturers of

Muhammadiyah University Semarang
Rr. Dewi Wahyu Mustikasari .............................................................147
Designing Lesson Plan Based on Critical Thinking for Language Classes .

Norwanto ..............................................................................................163
The Social Context of Early Child Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Maslihatul Umami ...............................................................................177
A Conversational Implicature Analysis In Oscar Wilde‘s Short Story

―Happy Prince‖
Faizal Risdianto, S.S,M.Hum ..............................................................195
Cross Cultural Conflicts in Not Without my Daughter

Setyoningsih ..........................................................................................213
Index ......................................................................................................241
Submission Guidelines .........................................................................243

Rochmat Budi Santoso
Error Analysis on the Use of “Be” in the Students’

Composition
Rochmat Budi Santosa

STAIN Surakarta
Jl. Pandawa Pucangan Kartasura, Sukoharjo, Central Java, Indonesia
b_santoz@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study aims to identify, analyze and describe the structure of the use of
some errors in the writing of English sentences in the text and the aspects
surrounding the Student Semester 3 of English Department STAIN
Surakarta. In this study, the researcher describes the error use of 'be' both
as a linking verb or auxiliary verb. This is a qualitative-descriptive
research. Source data used is a document that is the writing assignment
undertaken by the Students taking Writing course. Writing tasks are in
narrative, descriptive, expositive, and argumentative forms. To analyze the
data, researcher uses intra lingual and extra lingual method. This method is
used to connect the linguistic elements in sentences, especially some of the
elements either as a linking verb or auxiliary verb in English sentences in
the text. Based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be
concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students; error
about the absence (omission) of 'be', error about the addition of 'be', the
error on the application of 'be', errors in placements 'be', and a complex
error in the use of 'be'. These errors occur due to inter lingual transfer, intra
lingual transfer and learning context.
Keywords: Error Analysis, Students Writing
Abstrak
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan

menggambarkan pola kesalahan dalam penulisan kalimat bahasa Inggris
dalam teks dan aspek-aspek lainnya pada mahasiswa Semester 3 Jurusan
Bahasa Inggris STAIN Surakarta. Dalam studi ini, peneliti meneliti tentang
kesalahan penggunaan ‗be‘ baik sebagai kata kerja penghubung atau kata
kerja bantu. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kualitatif deskriptif.
REGISTER, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011 129

Error Analysis on the Use of “Be” in the Students’ Composition
Sumber data yang digunakan adalah dokumen berupa tugas menulis yang
dilakukan oleh Siswa yang mengambil mata kuliah Writing. tugas tersebut
berbentuk narasi, deskriptif, ekspositif, dan argumentatif. Untuk
menganalisis data, peneliti menggunakan metode intra lingual dan ekstra
lingual. Metode ini digunakan untuk menghubungkan unsur-unsur
linguistik dalam kalimat, terutama beberapa elemen baik sebagai kata kerja
penghubung atau kata kerja bantu dalam kalimat-kalimat bahasa inggris
pada teks. Berdasarkan analisis kesalahan mengenai penggunaan ‗be‘ dapat
disimpulkan bahwa ada 5 ( lima ) jenis kesalahan yang dilakukan oleh
mahasiswa; kesalahan tentang tidak adanya (penghilangan) ‗be‘, kesalahan
tentang penambahan ‗be‘, kesalahan pada penerapan ‗be‘, kesalahan dalam
penempatan ‗be‘, dan kesalahan yang kompleks dalam penggunaan ‗be‘.
Kesalahan ini terjadi karena adanya transfer interlingual, transfer intra
lingual dan konteks pembelajaran.
Kata Kunci : Analisis Kesalahan , Tulisan Mahasiswa
Introduction
As a means of communication, language consists of form and
meaning. Forms of language can be divided into elements such as words,
phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, and even at a higher level called
discourse or text. In general, language users often use a form of language
to convey information. Therefore, for the meaning of the information
submitted is not false and easily understood, language users need to
understand the aspects of linguistics, particularly grammatical aspect in
formulating phrases, clauses or sentences, and non-linguistic aspects,
especially socio-cultural aspects that surround the language.
Just as in preparing the English sentence, the writer should
understand the broad sense of sentence, which includes a sentence pattern
or elements, sentence structure and functions of sentences. Understanding
these differences thus need to be considered by the writer because
grammatical structures of one language to another language tend to differ.
130 REGISTER, Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011

Callow (in Baker, 1995: 180) states that ―Each language has its
own patterns to convey the interrelationships of persons and events….‖ To
illustrate the differences in grammatical structure, the following is a
comparative examples of English sentences and Indonesian:
Ind : Mahasiswa-mahasiswa STAIN Surakarta rajin dan cerdas.
Eng : The students of STAIN Surakarta are diligent and smart.
From the comparison of the two sentences, it can be stated that

there are differences in grammatical structure between English and
Indonesian languages. In this context, the Indonesian sentence structure
does not recognize linking verb between the subjects with the predicate
that follows it. However, the English sentence requires a linking verb that
is to link the subject with the predicate that follows it. The use of ‗be‘ in
the sentence is a must because without it, the sentence will not be
acceptable according to the grammatical English. In more remote, the use
of ‗be‘, covering is, am, are, was, and were depends on the type of subject.
For example, for the third singular and third plural pronoun, each is
followed by ‗is‘ and ‗are‘, while the subject is first person singular or
plural, each is followed by ‗am‘ and ‗are‘, and the subject is second person
(you) is followed by are.
Therefore, the accuracy of using them in the writing of English
sentences such as this must be considered, especially by students who are
developing writing skills in English as a foreign language. They should
understand the difference between grammatical structure of English and
Indonesian. This is because they assume that grammatical aspects of the
two languages are similar. By writing English sentences according to the
grammatical structure, the meaning of it will be accurate, easily understood
and acceptable.

Based on the background of the problems above, the formulation of

the problem in this research are ‗How are the use of "be" in writing English
sentences mistaken by the students? and what are the aspects surrounding
it?‘
Error Analysis
Error analysis is a procedure used by researchers and educators that
includes sampling, identifying errors in the sample, evaluating the
seriousness of the error. Teachers should understand better about the
mistakes made by students. Ellis said in her book The Study of Second
Language Acquisition that Error Analysis is a procedure used by
researchers and teachers which involves collecting samples of learner,
identifying the errors in the sample, describing these errors, classifying
them according to hypothesized causes, and evaluating their seriousness
(1994: 50 – 57).
The sentence, which is free from error must have two criteria
namely acceptability and appropriateness. Acceptance means the sentence
is spoken or written by students must be understood by native speakers as
the owner of that language. Acceptance here is not referring to the rules of
grammar but in the context of suitability. While appropriateness refers to
the ability of constructing sentence that fits the context. Lyons in James
(1998: 67) says that an acceptable utterance is one that has been, or might
be, produced by a native speaker in some appropriate context and is, or
would be, accepted by other native speakers as belonging to the language
in question. To decide on the acceptability of a piece of language we refer
not to rules, but the contexts, trying to contextualize the utterance in
question.
The importance of error analysis

Analyzing the errors made by students provides many benefits in

teaching and learning. For this reason, understanding errors is a very
valuable feedback to evaluate, plan teaching materials, and implement
teaching strategies. By knowing the similarity type of error will be greatly
useful in determining the sequence of teaching and the emphasis in the
classroom. Alatis (1977: 138) states that ‗familiarity in the types of errors
that students actually make is as a valuable guide for determining the
sequence and emphasis of instruction in the English foreign language
(EFL) classroom.‘
Dulay, Burt and Krashen in Fauziati (2002: 75) said that ‗Error
Analysis has several major purposes. The first is providing data from
which inferences about the nature of the language learning process can be
made. And, it is to indicate teachers and curriculum developers which part
of the target language students have most difficulty producing correctly
and which error types detract most from a learner’s ability to
communicate effectively.‘
Error analysis also provides insights about the process of foreign
language acquisition, which further contributes to the practice of classroom
teaching. In other words, the theoretical error analysis goal is to understand
the process of learning a foreign language as well as strategies for making
teaching a foreign language better and more efficient.
The difference between error and mistake

The difference between errors and mistakes are often confusing
because these two seem similar. However, both are two terms that can be
clearly distinguished. Error will always be made by foreign language
learners. This is the first step in order to master the language and each
learner will experience and pass through this stage for success of learning.

James (1998:83) says that an error can not be corrected by himself until
there is an explanation (input) have been given clearly. In other words, the
error requires further learning before the learner can correct his own
mistakes. ―errors cannot be self-corrected until further relevant (to that
error) input (implicit or explicit) has been provided and converted into
intake by the learner. In other words, errors require further relevant
learning to take place before they can be self-corrected.”
Mistake is also an error but rather caused by fatigue, excitement,
forgetting, fatigue, attention distruction, and so forth. Mistake can be
corrected by the learner. According to Corder in Freeman (1992: 59) ‗a
mistake is a random performance slip, therefore, caused by a fatigue, an
excitement, etc and it can be self-corrected. A mistake is caused by
performance factors, such as limitation, or forgetfulness, tiredness or some
situation of stress or when our attention is divided.’
Writing skills
Writing is one of the four language skills. As a means of
communication, writing is a process to convey information, or ideas on the
reader. However, conveying information or ideas is not an easy activity.
The writer must be able to convey with easily understood language for the
information or ideas that are intended to the reader. Therefore, for his work
can be understood easily by readers, writer must master linguistic aspects,
particularly the aspect of grammatical and non-linguistic aspects.
From the aspect of linguistics, the author should understand all
aspects surrounding the information or ideas that he realizes in the form of
text, such as grammatical aspect and the use of punctuation. Grammatical
errors and the use of punctuation can cause the writing difficult to
understand or even not at all meaningful.

Harmer (2004: 111) states that the linguistic aspects of the work of
writing errors can include spelling error, mistake in word order, grammar
mistake, wrong verb tense, concord mistake, unclear meaning, punctuation
mistake, something unnecessary, and too formal or informal. Of the non-
linguistic aspects, the author should consider the readers. The reader can be
seen from the elements such as age, educational level, profession, gender,
and even family backgrounds. Regardless of such elements, the result of
writing that he made would be less beneficial or even not at all be useful to
readers.
Types of Sentences
According to the form or structure, the sentence can be divided into
single sentences (simple sentence) and compound sentence (complex
sentence). Frank (1972: 223) argues that the sentence is divided into four
types, as in his statement:
Simple sentences are such sentences have only one full predication
in the form of and independent clause, 2) compound sentences are
such sentences have two or more full predications in the form of
independent clauses, 3) complex sentences are such sentences also
have two or more full predications. One of these is an independent
clause (or, main clause) that is similar to the form of the simple
sentence, and one or more of these are dependent clauses (or,
subordinate clauses), 4) compound-complex sentences are contain
two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
While Frank divides sentence into four different types, the second
sentence (compound sentence), third (complex sentence), and fourth
(compound-complex sentence) can be classified into one sentence, that
sentence compound (complex sentence).
Waldhorn and Zeigar (in Mas'ud, 1998: 18) distinguish sentences
into simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, and

compound-complex sentence. Simple sentence is the sentence that contains

only one main verb (one main clause or sentence stem), which reflects the
existence of one idea.
SimakBaca secara fonetikComplex sentence is the sentence that
contains one main clause and one or more independent clause (subordinate
clause, that is - the clause which rely on main clause), which between them
related by using the relative pronoun, such as who, whom, the which, that,
and whose. Compound-complex sentence is a perfect compound sentence
containing one or more main clause and one or more dependent clause.
Research methodology
Related to the goal achieved, namely to identify and analyze, and
describe the precise use of ‗be‘ in the English sentences, this type of
research is qualitative-descriptive. In this study, researcher will describe
the accuracy and error use of ‗be‘ as linking verb and as an auxiliary verb.
Data sources and data

In this study, source of data used is document. Sources of data are a
writing assignment undertaken by the Student Semester 3 STAIN
Surakarta. Writing assignment here is that students are asked to make a
good essay in the form of narration, description, exposition, and
argumentation within 90 minutes without opening the notebook or
dictionary. The data in this study is English sentences that contain ‗be‘ (is,
am, are, was, were, be, being, or been) in their writing.
In this research, data collection techniques used by the researcher
refers to technical note. The researcher reads and then records all the
sentences that contain ‗be‘ written by the students of Semester 3 STAIN
Surakarta. The results, researchers find out the accuracy and errors in the

use of ‗be‘ in English sentences. In addition, to simplify the analysis, each

sentence is numbered in sequence and coded and retrieved 3 last digits of
the Students Index number.
Data analysis method

According to Mahsun (2005: 112), there are methods of language
analysis in the study of languages, namely intra lingual method and the
extra lingual method. Intra lingual method is a method of analysis by
comparing the connecting elements that are lingual, both contained in one
language or in several different languages. Extra lingual method is used to
analyze the elements that are extra lingual, namely linking the language
problem with things that are beyond language.
To analyze the data in this study, the research uses intra lingual and
extra lingual methods. These methods are used to connect the linguistic
elements in sentences, especially some of the elements either as a linking
verb or auxiliary verb in English sentences in the text, and language
problem with things that are beyond language.
Discussion and finding

Having collected the data, the researcher compiles the following
points;
1. Broadly speaking, students are able to express ideas and thought into
writing in English. It was proven that the average student are able to
write as much as one sheet of full page, even some of them more than
one page.
2. Most of their writing are narrative that they share the experience
they've ever experienced. Stories are arranged vary from campus life
problems to vacation stories, family, as well as funny and thrilling
events.

3. Almost of all the existing writings, we always find sentence/sentences

which contain a 'be' both as a linking verb or auxiliary. While the
tenses are used mostly in the form of past tense because they talked
about what had happened.
Based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be

concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by students; error
about the absence (omission) of 'be', error about the addition of 'be', the
error on the application of 'be', errors in placement of 'be', and a complex
error in the use of 'be'. These errors occur due to intra lingual transfer, extra
lingual transfer and learning context.
Error in omission of 'be'

Here are the findings of errors in the removal/omission of 'be'.
Omission here means that the student intentionally or unintentionally has
made a sentence that does not put ‗be‘ that should exist in the sentence.
Datum 045: We very happy in there so much
The sentence pattern is Subject + Adjective Phrase. Here, we can
see that the writer tries to express that we are very happy. The sentence is
not equipped with 'be', where between Subject and predicate in English
must be accompanied by conjunctions (linking verb). In other words, the
fault lies in the absence of ‗were‘ because the sentence tells about the
experience of the past.
Table 1
Omission of ‗be‘
No Data Erroneous sentence
Code
1 042 Around the yard there is a pool that can use to wash our
hand or wash our face.
2 045 In there we very happy so much
The first day we went to museum Bali, we guide by Mr.

Dewa.
3 057 First we made nastar because nastar more easier than cake
4 061 I‘m the first person who ready to explain my material
5 073 Because it so far and the route not flat
6 080 I still fasting
When I sick, I had experience which I like
I absent in my class
7 043 It usefull for the student when they want to continue their
study at university.
8 076 I spoke to the police while crying because I still very
afraid.
9 081 You can go there by following students who crossing here
10 094 I really tired, because I had to walk along the way of my
boarding house
11 008 Now I still happy in here.
12 091 So I confused when I would parking my motorcycle.
13 092 I proud with my mother.
14 107 I far away from my parents.
I proud with them.
15 109 My parents hungry with me
I driver motorcycle and must ready to face examination.
16 111 I very happy.
I very hungry.
17 113 She very beautiful.
She very hungry.
Error in the addition of 'be'

Analysis of erroneous sentences in the form of the addition of 'be' is
as follows.
Datum 008: But, anything was happen.
In this sentence, the student tries to express that something has
happened. This incident has been going on so that the pattern of 'past
tense', as shown by the use of 'be' form was. However, the use of 'be' is to
connect between the subject and predicate when the predicate is not an
active verb. In the above sentence structure ‗happen‘ is an active verb, and
thus connective word 'be' is unnecessary. The sentence is incorrect because

it adds unnecessary ‗was‘. As in 'past tense', ‗happen‘ is replaced by a

second form ‗happened‘.
Table 2
Error in addition of ‗be‘
No Data Erroneous Sentence
Code
1 008 But, anything was happen.
2 054 I am very love my campus
3 055 Ragunan zoo is another place that I was visited
4 056 All of the member OSIS were had to attend that event
5 063 The end of July was come
6 068 They can be to celebrate of Iedul Fitri with happiness
7 072 So, I worked while I was studied.
They have been give me an unforgettable experience.
8 083 The concert was started
9 036 When I was clean it, all my friends laughed loudly.
10 049 It was happened when I was in Senior High School.
11 062 The woman got a hurt in her legs and her baby was fell.
12 066 That was happened one year ago in September 2007.
I did it because want not to be come late to campus.
13 082 Then I was fell down in the road.
14 090 Finally, I decided to go there and proof what my friend was
said
15 094 I knew that something was happened
16 118 I am still remember it until now.
17 059 They are usually helped me, if I get a problem in the work.
Our body is listen the alarm sound
18 088 My grand father was pass away five years ago.
19 097 I would like to tell you about my experiences when I was
study about music.
20 102 That was happen when I was studying in Senior High
School.
21 104 When holiday was arive, I had so many planning.
My holiday was come.
22 106 He was suggest me to lisen music.
23 112 They were very loves me.
24 115 I was became private teacher for her.
it is can make my skill well.
25 121 I was very like because my uncle was very humble to me.

Error in application of 'be'

Application error 'be' here means that the sentences have been
prepared by the students 'be' inappropriately.
Datum 008: I moved to a class D Because I am not join mid
semester test.
In this sentence there is 'am' specifically used by the first person

singular in the pattern of 'present tense'. At first glance there is no problem
in this sentence. However, when carefully considered, the use of auxiliary
‗am‘ as inappropriate. The sentence tells about events that already took
place (I moved to class D). So clause (Because I am not join mid semester
test.) should not use ‗am‘ but ‗did‘ as auxiliary.
Table 3
Error in application of ‗be‘
Code
1 008 I moved to class D because I am not join mid semester
test.
I am not come to mid semester test
2 063 The agenda be held for 3 days
3 068 So I‘m confuse when I would choose clothes
4 073 I were not finded

5 084 I‘m confuse to made a good condition
I scream ―stop it‖ and the new comers be silent
The day was fast and I am fasting
6 When I was in Junior High School at SMP 19 Surakarta, I
ever be a librarian
But now, the head of the librarian was not keep the library
again.
7 082 But It didn‘t matter because The situation didn‘t serious
8 108 Last 2 week there is a new friend
9 052 My school had study tour to Bali island, I am very happy
10 087 My friends in here is very kind with me.
11 110 But some of them is still serious in studying.
12 116 It are about skill English.
13 120 After that we forgotten about the schedule train, we are

running until station.

14 124 I hope I can to be a good student.
Errors in the placement of 'be'

The use of 'be' in English structure must consider the subject and
the form of time (tenses), it should also be noticed the correct placement.
In this research we find some form of 'be' where the placement is not
appropriate. The following is the error in the placement of the phrase 'be'.
Datum 042: Near the mosque there is a high tower That We Can
see how our world is beautiful.
This is a significant positive sentence pattern 'Near the mosque

there is a high tower where we can see how beautiful this world'. There are
two 'be' in this sentence, 'be' the first refers to the 'there', while 'be' the
second one refers to our world. The use of 'be' is correct. The error lies in
the 'be' the second. The placement of ‗be‘ in front of a designated object is
incorrect because this is not a question but a statement. This could be
corrected to be ‗Near the mosque there is a high tower That We Can see
how beautiful our world is‘. So 'is' is placed after the noun ‘our world‘.
Table 4
Error on the placement of ‗be‘
Code
1 042 Near the mosque there is a high tower that we can see
how is beautiful our world.
2 046 Andrea makes me confuse about how is God working
and what is God willing
3 103 You can imagine how is hard to keep a baby.
Complex errors in the Use of 'be'

Error made by students regarding the use of 'be' does not cover only
in terms of addition, omission, or placement, but also errors in the complex

error.
Datum 063: The event started after Dzuhur, beginning with a built
camp in every place the which was provide by the presenter
In the long sentences there is 'was' as a 'be' in past form. Complex

error occurs that 'was' is not as an auxiliary or linking verb, and it makes
the sentence incorrect. When it is passive form of the verb, ‗provide‘
should be in past participle of 'provided'
Table 5
Complex errors in the use of 'be'
Code
1 063 The event started after dhuhur, beginning with built camp
in every place which was provide by the presenter
2 112 We weren‘t spoken about study.

3 118 Many exercise that I must be done.
From the above data analysis, there are three main factors causing
the errors in the use of 'be' by the students in the sentence which they set.
The three main factors are inter lingual transfer, intra lingual transfer, and
context of learning.
Errors caused by inter lingual transfer factor can be seen from the
interference of mother tongue into a foreign language learned. To know
this error, researcher has to translate the grammar studied in the target
language and compare them so that the intended meaning can be known by
students.
Negative transfer between the elements in the foreign language can
lead to intra lingual error. In other words, the students have not mastered
English grammar well. There are four types of errors; overgeneralization,
ignoring rules of grammar, incomplete grammar application, and false
concepts.

Context of learning factor refers to the fact that the learners commit
errors in their context of learning as the result of misdealing clarification
from the teacher, faulty presentation of structure or word in a text book or
even because of pattern that was memorized in drill, not in contextualized.
Conclusion
In general, the text made by students in the form of the English
language is already good. Although this study is only limited on the
analysis of errors in writing, the complete thought as outlined in the text is
clearly understood. The result of error in general is not so conspicuous
both in quantity and quality. Meanwhile, based on error analysis on the use
of 'be' it can be concluded that there are 5 (five) types of errors made by
students that is, error about the absence (disappearance) of 'be', a error
about the addition of 'be', the error on the application of 'be', errors the
placement of 'be', and a complex error in the use of 'be'.
Such errors occur due to several factors; inter lingual transfer
factor, intra lingual transfer factor and factor of learning context. Errors
due to inter lingual transfer factor is still affected by the intervention of
mother tongue in the structure of English. While intra lingual transfer
factor caused by negative transfer in the elements of English. This transfer
includes the four things. They are overgeneralization, ignoring rules of
grammar, the application of improper grammar, and false concepts.
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The Structure of Teacher’s Directives of the English

Lecturers of Muhammadiyah University Semarang

State Islamic Studies Institute (STAIN) Salatiga
Jl. Tentara Pelajar No.2 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
dewi.w.mustikasari@gmail.com
Abstract
Teacher‘s directive is an interesting item to discuss since it can be

elaborated into command, order, request, and advice. Furthermore, it can
be developed that teacher‘s directive has several structures. The structure
of teacher‘s directives can be classified into three kinds: imperative,
interrogative, and declarative. I would like to discuss about the various
forms by which directives are realized in the classroom in this study. The
subjects of the study were 10 English lecturers of Muhammadiyah
University Semarang. The instrument of the study is DCT questionnaires,
which is consisted of 10 certain situations. The result shows that most of
the subjects of study prefer to produce declarative with 74 utterances
(50%). Second, they choose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). Next,
they construct interrogative with 23 utterances (16%). Declaratives provide
powerful directives than the other types. Declaratives gain an explicit
expression. Teachers like to use declaratives, since declaratives are
understandable. It will minimize the misinterpretation from the students.
Keywords: illocutionary act, directives, teacher’s directives, the structure

of teacher’s directives
Abstrak
Instruksi pengajar adalah item yang menarik untuk dibahas karena hal
tersebut dapat diuraikan ke dalam bentuk perintah, pemesanan, permintaan,
dan saran. Selain itu, intstruksi pengajar memiliki beberapa struktur .
Struktur instruksi pengajar dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi tiga jenis:
imperatif , interogatif , dan deklaratif . Dalam penelitian ini, peneliti
membahas tentang berbagai bentuk instruksi yang dipahami dalam kelas.
Subyek penelitian adalah 10 dosen bahasa Inggris dari Universitas

The Structure of Teacher’s Directives of the English Lecturers of …
Muhammadiyah Semarang. Instrumen penelitian ini adalah kuesioner

DCT, yang terdiri dari 10 situasi tertentu . Hasil penelitian menunjukkan
bahwa sebagian besar subjek penelitian lebih cenderung untuk menuturkan
instruksi deklaratif dengan 74 tuturan (50 %). Kedua, mereka memilih
instruksi imperatif dengan 50 tuturan (34 %). Selanjutnya, mereka
memilih instruksi interogatif dengan 23 tuturan (16 %). Ujaran deklaratif
memberikan instruksi yang kuat daripada jenis lainnya karena adanya
ekspresi eksplisit. Pendidik cenderung menggunakan tuturan deklaratif,
karena sifatnya yang mudah dimengerti sehingga meminimalkan salah
tafsir pada mahasiswa.
Kata Kunci : Tindak Ilokusi, Instruksi, Petunjuk Pengajar, Struktur

Instruksi Guru
Introduction
Teacher is the center of attraction in the classroom, since he plays
an important role in the classroom. Based on Brown (2001: 166-168) there
are several kinds of the roles of teacher, namely teacher as controller,
teacher as director, teacher as manager, teacher as facilitator, and teacher
as resource. Furthermore, no matter what is the teacher role in the
classroom, teacher always acts as the central focus of the students‘
attention. Giving model to the students, it is teacher‘s duty to provide
knowledge, good behavior and attitude. It is in line with the opinion of
Holmes (1993: 97) that
―The teacher-pupil relationship is asymmetrical one; the teacher is
the older and more knowledgeable than the pupils. The teacher is
expected to be in control, to preserve an appropriate social distance
from pupils, and to instruct and inform the children: to teach them
the body of facts and skills the society values.‖
Building communication with the students, it could be interesting

and tricky at the same time. This situation could happen because the
students might have different interpretations when teacher produces
utterances. Using the spoken meaning, the speaker and the listener can

negotiate the meaning, so the understanding of communication is

negotiable; depend on the context in which the communication takes place
(context dependence) and the shared knowledge of two parties (Eggins,
1994:56—57). As it is negotiable, the oral communication usually uses the
un-grammatical form. Teacher communicates with the students not only
produces utterances containing grammatical structures and words, but also
produces the action. Actions performed by utterances are called speech acts
(Yule, 1996:47). There are three kinds of acts: locutionary act,
illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.
The three acts perform difference functions. According to Yule
(1996:48) locutionary act is a basic act of utterance, or producing a
meaningful linguistics expression. The locutionary act is an act of saying
something that has a meaning. The second is illocutionary act. It refers to
the performing act which not only has a semantic meaning, but also a force
of utterance. The last is perlocutionary act. It is an utterance which has an
effect to the listener. Meanwhile, Leech (1993:316) claims that the
locutionary act as an act (to say something), locutionary act as an act which
committed by producing an utterance (like promise, predict, etc), the
perlocutionary act as an act produced by an effect of locutionary and
illocutionary act.
Searle mentioned on Rani that there are five acts for describing the
illocutionary acts: declarations, representatives, expressives, directives, and
commissives. Directives are kinds of speech acts that used by the speakers
to get or ask someone else to do something. They express what the speaker
wants. They can be a command, an order, a request, an advice (Rani,
2004:162). Consider the following examples of directives:
- Don‘t go anywhere!
- Open the door!

- Could you lend me some of money?
Michael Halliday (1978:33) is cited by Hudson (1980: 49)

mentions that there are three dimensional on which an act of
communication: field, mode, tenor. Field is why and about what the
purpose and subject matter of the communication. Mode is how the means
used in the communication: speech or writing. Tenor is to whom the
relations between participants; how the speaker defines how he sees the
person with whom he is communicating.
Dealing with the above definition, teacher as the person who
controls the class produces directives quite often. Holmes (1993: 97)
clarifies that ―to regard a great many of teacher‘s utterances as directive in
function.‖ The function of teacher‘s utterances are directive, because of
teacher‘s utterances consist of command, order, request, and advice. The
teacher sometimes does not realize that he makes utterances that the
purpose is to get students to do something. Holmes (1993: 98-107) claims
that the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into three kinds:
imperative, interrogative, and declarative. Meanwhile, Wardhaugh (2006:
284) he clarified that ―We can try to classify them by grammatical
structure along a number of dimensions, e.g. their clausal type and
complexity: active- passive, statement- question- request- exclamatory,
various combinations of these and so on.‖
Talking about teacher‘s directives, Holmes (1993: 98-107) suggests
that it needs to consider the social factors to discuss it. The social factors
are the participant, the setting, the topic, and the function of
communication. It can be elaborated more details. First, the participant
deals with two factors such as who are speaking and who are they speaking
to. Second, the setting or social context of the interaction: where are they

speaking? Third, the topic concerns with what is being talked about.
Finally yet importantly, the function of communication suggests why they
are speaking (Holmes, 2001: 10).
There was a research discussing about the structure of teacher‘s
directives. It was Janet Holmes‘s research with the title The Structure of
Teachers‘ Directives (1993). The data were collected from the elementary
school classroom in New Zealand and Britain. She focused her study on
directives, which is restricted in the analysis of utterances intended to elicit
a non-verbal response, to get the students to do but not say something. The
aim was to describe the various forms by which directives are realized in
the classroom. The finding was the directives were divided into three
categories: imperative, interrogative, and declarative.
In this study, I would like to discuss about the various forms by
which directives are realized in the classroom. Teacher produces directives
such as command, order, request, and advice. The purpose of the act is to
get the students to do certain activities.
Research methodology
Subject, instruments, and procedures of data collection
The subjects of the study were 10 English lecturers of
Muhammadiyah University Semarang. I conducted this study in the year of
2010. There were five female and five male lecturers who have various
ages and social background. I did not involve as the subject of study during
the collection of data.
The instrument of the study is DCT questionnaires. It consisted of
10 certain situations, it followed by blank spaces on which the subjects
asked to give responses for teacher‘s directives. The English lecturers have
to imagine that the speakers in the real life interactions, for example:

Situation 1
You are preparing to enter the class to teach your students.

There are some of the students are seating out side of the
class. You want your students to enter the class.
What would you say to get your students enter the class?
....................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
Based on the situations described, the subjects were asked to
produce directives in the blank spaces provided. The situations were
provided by several directives acts such as command, order, request, and
advice. As a result, there were 147 utterances. ( I enclosed it in the
appendix).
For the procedures, during the data collection, I gave the subject of
study the DCT questionnaires. They had to answer the questionnaires in
English, since they teach English. It took more than one week to get the
data. They answered the questionnaires on the paper sheets.
Data Analysis
I analyzed the data using the opinion of Holmes (1993: 98-107).
She claims that the structure of teacher‘s directives can be classified into
three kinds: imperative, interrogative, and declarative. It can be elaborated
more details on table 1.
Table 1
Structure of teacher‘s directives
IMPERATIVES Base form of verb Speak up.
Put your hands down.
You + imperative You just see the picture.
You go no with your work.
Present participle form of Looking at me.
verb Sitting up straight please.
Verb-ellipsis Hands up.
Everybody on the mat.
Imperative + modifier Children looking this way

please.
Turn around please Jo.
Let + first person pronoun Let‘s finish there.
Let‘s try.
INTERROGATIVES Modals Would you open the window?
David will you read this page
for me?
Non-modal Interrogative People at the back are you
directives listening?
Who can I see sitting quietly?
DECLARATIVES Embedded agent I want you to draw a picture.

I‘d like Arnold‘s group on the
mat now.
Hints I can see some nice sitting up.
Helen is sitting nicely.
Source: Language and Communication
Discussion
Data Findings
I found that there 147 utterances. The subject of the study preferred
to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). Second, they chose
imperative with 50 utterances (34%). Next, they constructed interrogative
with 23 utterances (16%). It can be clarified on table 2. The lecturer as the
person who has the superior position produced more casual choice of
words to the students. Even though, I found several utterances that
constructed with formal choice of words. The classroom setting was
provided in the various situations in the questionnaires. The situations
made it possible for the subject of the study to produced directives that
consist of command, order, request, and advice. The topics of situations
talked about the various activities dealing with the teaching and learning
process.
Table 2
The Data of Structure of Teacher‘s Directives
IMPERATIVES Base form of verb 9 50 34%
You + imperative 9
Present participle form 2

of verb
Verb-ellipsis 1
Imperative + modifier 25
Let + first person 4
pronoun
INTERROGATIVES Modals 16 23 16%
Non-modal 7
Interrogative directives
DECLARATIVES Embedded agent 67 74 50%
Hints 7
The following are examples of teacher‘s directives that the subject

of the study constructed when responding to the situation in DCT
questionnaires.
Situation 1: want your students to enter the class
(1) Hello, guys. Are you coming or not?
(2) Let's enter the class.
Situation 2: do not want Ahmad to join your class

(3) I'm sorry. As our agreement, you may join the class next week.
(4) Sorry, I can't let you join my class.
Situation 3: want to tell both of them to stop talking and listen to

your explanation
(5) Excuse me, would you share your discussion with us? (Implied
'stop talking')
(6) Guys, can you stop talking?
Situation 4: want your student to get the eraser on the

administration office
(7) Can somebody do volunteering to take an eraser?
(8) Please go to the administration office and ask an eraser to
Mrs. Wati.

Situation 5: want the students to make the assignment and submit

the assignment today
(9) I would like you to make the assignment and submit it today!
(10) I want you to do the assignment in class and submit it today
before 12.00.
Situation 6: want the students to answer the question and write the
answer on the board
(11) Ahmad, now you answer the question and write it on the
board.
(12) Fika, please write your answer in the board.
Situation 7: want to motivate Heru that he should spend times to

study or he will fail
(13) Heru, I need you to study hard to pass this semester.
(14) I don't want to see you fail this semester.
Situation 8: want the students prepare and study the selected

chapters for the final-semester test.
(15) Ok, please prepare yourself for your next exam.
(16) Study harder than before, please!
Situation 9: want to tell the students that there is a punishment for

them if they broke your rules
(17) For those who discussing and opening the book will be
punished.
(18) I will kick you out if you discuss it with your friends.
Situation 10: want to ask the student to submit the answer sheet and
force him to leave your class

(19) Ahamad, because you've cheated on the test, I really

appreciate if you leave the class.
(20) Bambang, close your book and plaese submit your paper and
leave the class (Implied 'stop cheating').
Analysis
The following are the details information about the structure of
teacher‘s directives that is taken from the data:
Imperatives
The subject of the study liked to use this form, eventhough it took
for about 34% of the data. They constructed this form, since it is relatively
explicit. They would like to make the directives clearly and direct to the
point of what were they going to say with the students. There were several
variants of imperatives according to Holmes. I found they constructed the
various variants in completing the questionnaires. The variants are:
a. Base form of verb, e.g. Speak up.

This is the simple form of the imperative. The subject of the study
produced this form to make their rules more explicit. The purpose is to
minimize the differences of interpretation from the students. Most of them
liked to construct negative form rather than positive form. The examples
are:
- Don't cheating.
- Don't try to do that because I can anlayze it well.
- Don't forget to study the selected chapters.
- Study hard and good luck!

b. You + imperative, e.g. You just see the picture.

This form had the same frequency of occurrences from the previous
form. The function of ―You‖ is used to address all of students, small group
of students and the individual student. The examples are:
 You may leave this class after doing those things (addressing
individual student).
 Ahmad, now you answer the question and write it on the board
(addressing individual student).
 You can continue your discussion later, after the class finish
(addressing small group of students).
 You should prepare for your next final exam (addressing all of
students).
 You have to be confident with your own answer (addressing all of
students).
c. Present participle form of verb, e.g. looking at me

The subject of the study rarely used this third form. I am not sure
what is the reason why they rarely used it. On the contrary, this was a kind
of unique form that the New Zealanders produced the imperatives, since
Holmes found frequently used by them. She found some difficulties to
categorize the utterances, but at the end, she made up her mind to classify
these utterances into the form of present participle form of verb. The
examples of this form from the data are:
 Discussing and opening the book are disallowed.
 Referring to regulation and agreement.
d. Verb-ellipsis, e.g. everybody on the mat

This form also seldom used by the subject of the study. The form

eliminated the verb and directed to the noun. There is an example of this
form:
- Let's up stair for the class.
e. Imperative + modifier, e.g. Children looking this way please.

This form occurred frequently in the data of imperatives. Teacher
used the post-modifier such as please and OK after the imperatives as
suggested by Holmes, but it is not quite often. On the contrary, I found a
large number of the imperatives appeared with the form of pre- modifier.
The function of ―please‖ and ―ok‖ is to soften the directives.
It can be clarified by the following examples:
 Study harder than before, please!

 Please go in front of the class.
 Ok, please prepare yourself for your next exam.
 Please listen carefully.
 Please help the class to get the eraser, just ask to the office. Thank
you.
f. Let + first person pronoun, e.g. Let‘s finish there.

There was a small amount of this form in the data. I found that the
subject of the study used this form to suggest solidarity rather than power.
As it can be recognized that teacher has a superior position, they tended to
use more casual choice of word to the subordinates. The examples are:
 Let's enter the class.
 Let's do that..
 Let's start from Ahmad…
 Let's come to the class, its time to start the class.

Interrogatives
It was surprised that the form of interrogatives to convey directives
occurred 16 % from the whole data. It happened this way because the
subject of the study liked to mention the directives in an explicit way. The
form of interrogatives is less powerful to get the students to the action.
There were two types of interrogatives constructed by the subject of the
study:
a. Modals, e.g. Would you open the window?
There were a large number of the interrogatives data that is used the
form of modals. The subject of the study used ―please‖ to make the
directives softer. It tended to get the students‘ willingness to do the
teacher‘s expectation. It can be described by the following examples:
 Would you please enter the class?
 James, would you please get the eraser on the administration
office?
 Brown, would you please answer and write your answer on the
board?
 Mas, could you help me to get the eraser in the office, please?
 Can somebody help to find an eraser, please?
b. Non-modal Interrogative directives, e.g. People at the back are you

listening?
The subject of the study rarely used the second form of
interrogative directives. It was because of this form is not commanding
enough to get the students to do something. The examples are:
 Hello, guys. Are you coming or not?
 Anyone want to answer it?
 Is anyone want to answer question no.2?

 Are you coming?

 Do you want to joint the class or not?
Declaratives
Declaratives forms were the most frequently occurred in the data of
directives. It was occurred 50% from the whole data. There were two types
of declaratives: embedded agent and hints. The previous type was
expressed explicitly, and on the other hand, the last type was implicitly.
a. Embedded agent
e.g. I want you to draw a picture.
Most of the data of declaratives constructed this form. The subject
of the study preferred to produce this kind of form, since they would like
straight to the point. They liked to be explicit, so that the students would
not have different interpretation. The following examples are taken from a
large number of the data:
 So, would you listen to someone's speaking first, then later we'll let
you speak.
 Any cheating may get consequences.
 You may leave the class now!
 Sorry, I can't let you join my class.
 I will give you E if you do it.
 I would like to start the lesson.
 I'd like to explain the lesson and you can talk your problem after I
finish my explanation.
 Ricky, would you submit the answer sheet! I don't want any of my
students cheating and you can leave the class now.
 I'm sorry. As our agreement, you may join the class next week

b. Hints
The subject of study was rarely used this type, since the form was
expressed implicitly. The disadvantage of this type was the students might
be confused with the teacher‘s expressions. It happened because teacher‘s
expression conveyed an implication meaning. It can be shown by the
following examples:
 Excuse me, would you share your discussion with us? (Implied
'stop talking')
 Thank you, Dewi. Submit your answer sheet, please! (Implied 'stop
cheating')
 Bambang, close your book and plaese submit your paper and leave
the class (Implied 'stop cheating')
 Any problem mas? (Implied 'stop talking')
Conclusion
In conclusion, the result shows that most of the subjects of study
prefer to produce declarative with 74 utterances (50%). Second, they
choose imperative with 50 utterances (34%). Next, they construct
interrogative with 23 utterances (16%). Declaratives provide powerful
directives than the other types. Declaratives gain an explicit expression.
Teachers like to use declaratives, since declaratives are understandable. It
will minimize the misinterpretation from the students.
References
Brown, Douglas. 2001. Teaching by Principles (Second Edition). New
York: Longman, Inc.
Eggins, Suzzane. 1994. An Introduction to Systemic Functional
Linguistics. London: Pinter Publisher.

Holmes, Janet. 1993. The Structure of Teachers’ Directives: In Richard,

Jack and Schmidt, Richard (eds). pp. 89-115.
Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (Second Edition).
New York: Longman.
Hudson, Richard. Anthony. 1980. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Leech, Geoffrey. Oka, M.D.D. (Penerjemah). 1993. Prinsip-prinsip
Pragmatik. Jakarta: Universitas Indonesia Press.
Rani, Abdul; Arifin, Bustanul; Martutik. 2004. Analisis Wacana: Sebuah
Kajian Bahasa Dalam Pemakaian. Malang: Bayu Media.
Wardraugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (Fifth
Edition). London: Blackwell Publisher, Ltd.
Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Norwanto
Designing Lesson Plan Based on Critical Thinking for

Language Classes
Norwanto
Jl. Tentara Pelajar No.2 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
norwanto@yahoo.com
Abstract
Critical thinking includes a process of reasoning in thinking as stated by

some scholars. In the process, there is universal standard to follow: clarity,
accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and fairness. In
language classes, critical thinking creates active classes. To bring critical
thinking to classes, Bloom‘s Taxonomy and critical thinking strategies can
be working definition in order critical thinking to be applied to pedagogical
materials in a practical way. Steps for critical thinking teaching includes
five steps: (1) determining learning objectives, (2) teaching through
questioning, (3) practicing before assessing, (4) reviewing, refining, and
improving, and (5) providing feedback and assessment of learning. A
lesson plan should reflect these five steps.
Keywords: Critical Thinking, Language Teaching, Lesson Plan, Bloom’s

Taxonomy, Critical Thinking Strategies
Abstrak
Berpikir kritis mencakup proses penalaran dalam berpikir seperti yang

dinyatakan oleh beberapa ahli. Dalam prosesnya, ada standar universal
untuk diikuti: kejelasan, akurasi, presisi, relevansi, kedalaman, keluasan,
logika, dan kewajaran. Di kelas bahasa sendiri, berpikir kritis dapat
menciptakan kelas yang aktif. Untuk membawa pemikiran kritis ke dalam
kelas, taksonomi Bloom dan strategi berpikir kritis dapat menjadi metode
yang tepat agar berpikir kritis dapat diterapkan pada materi pedagogis
dengan cara yang praktis. Langkah-langkah untuk mengajarkan berpikir
kritis meliputi lima langkah: (1) menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, (2)
pengajaran melalui pertanyaan, (3) berlatih sebelum menilai, (4) meninjau,
menyaring, dan meningkatkan, dan (5) memberikan umpan balik dan

Designing Lesson Plan Based on Critical Thinking for Language Classes
penilaian pembelajaran. Sebuah rencana pembelajaran harus

mencerminkan lima langkah tersebut.
Kata Kunci : Berpikir Kritis, Pengajaran Bahasa, RPP, Taksonomi

Bloom, Strategi Berpikir Kritis
Introduction
There are many definitions of critical thinking. Moore and Parker
(2009: 3) define critical thinking as ―the careful application of reason in the
determination of whether a claim is true‖. Robert Ennis (in Hunter, 2009)
states that critical thinking is ―reasonable, reflective thinking that is aimed
at deciding what to believe or what to do‖. The two definitions emphasize
critical thinking on reason. Meanwhile, Gieve (1998 in Rear, 2010) gives
some requirements for students to think critically. They must be able to
―examine the reasons for their actions, their beliefs, and their knowledge
claims, requiring them to defend themselves and question themselves, their
peers, their teachers, experts, and authoritative texts‖.
In critical thinking, there is universal intellectual standard which
must be applied to thinking as the assessment of thinking. The standard
comprises clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth, logic, and
fairness (Paul and Elder, 2010). Each part of the standard has some
questions that may help self assessment for thinking. In classes, teacher
may pose these questions in order to help students critically. Paul and
Elder (2010) proposes the questions in the table:
Standard Questions
Clarity Could you elaborate further on that point? Could you
express that point in another way? Could you give me
an illustration? Could you give me an example?
Accuracy Is that really true? How could we check that? How
could we find out if that is true?

Norwanto
Precision Could you give more details? Could you be more

specific?
Relevance How is that connected to the question? How does that
bear on the issue?
Depth How does your answer address the complexities in the
question? How are you taking into account the
problems in the question? Is that dealing with the most
significant factors?
Breadth Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there
another way to look at this question? What would this
look like from a conservative standpoint? What would
this look like from the point of view of . . .?
Logic Does this really make sense? Does that follow from
what you said? How does that follow? But before you
implied this, and now you are saying that; how can
both be true?
Fairness Do I have a vested interest in this issue? Am I
sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others?
Critical thinking can be also incorporated into language classes. Car

(1990), for example, proposes the use of news media in the class.
Comparing differing accounts and editorials may help students read with
questioning attitude. Critical reading, then, has been defined as learning to
evaluate, draw inferences and arrive at conclusions based on the evidence
(Zintz and Maggart, 1984 in Carr, 1990). Meanwhile, for writing, Elbow
(1983: in Carr, 1990) has presented first order and second-order thinking.
For first order thinking, he proposes free writing that will produces
conceptual insight.
Discussion
To bring critical thinking to classes, working definition is important
in order critical thinking to be applied to pedagogical materials in a
practical way (Rear, 2010). Fortunately, Bloom‘s Taxonomy and critical
thinking strategy can be the bridge between critical thinking and classes.

Bloom’s taxonomy
Banjamin Bloom (1956) identifies three domain of educational
activities: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (in Clark, 2004). Each
domain has some major categories. Clark (2004) summarizes the three
domain and its categories.
Cognitive domain has six categories. The first is knowledge or the
lowest ability to recall data or information. The second is Comprehension
which means the learners ability to understand the meaning, translation,
interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. The third is
application, the ability to use a concept in a new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction; Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel
situations in the work place. The next higher level, the fourth, is analysis.
In this category, students or learners are expected to be able to separates
material or concepts into component parts, so that its organizational
structure may be understood; distinguishes between facts and inferences.
The fifth is synthesis, how to builds a structure or pattern from diverse
elements; put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a
new meaning or structure. And the last is evaluation or to make judgments
about the value of ideas or materials.
The next domain is affective which has five categories. The first
requires students to have awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention.
This category is usually called as receiving phenomena. The second is
responding to phenomena. In this category, students must be active
participation on the part of the learners, attends and reacts to a particular
phenomenon and learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in
responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding
(motivation). The third is valuing or the worth or value a person attaches to
a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple

Norwanto
acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on

the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values
are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. The
fourth is Organization or students or learners must be able to organize
values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts
between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on
comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. The last is internalizing
values (characterization). Students have a value system that controls their
behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are
concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal,
social, emotional).
Critical thinking strategy

Paul, Binker, and Weil (1995) write 35 aspects or instructional
strategies. These strategies are in three categories: affective strategies,
cognitive strategies – micro abilities, and cognitive strategies – micro
abilities. Affective strategies includes strategy 1 (S-1) until strategy 9 (S-
9): S-1 thinking independently , S-2 developing insight into egocentricity
or sociocentricity , S-3 exercising fairmindedness , S-4 exploring thoughts
underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts, S-5 developing
intellectual humility and suspending judgment, S-6 developing intellectual
courage, S-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity, S-8 developing
intellectual perseverance, S-9 developing confidence in reason
Cognitive Strategies - Macro-Abilities has 17 strategies. They are:
S-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications, S-11
comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts, S-12
developing one‘s perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or

theories, S-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs, S-14 clarifying and

analyzing the meanings of words or phrases, S-15 developing criteria for
evaluation: clarifying values and standards, S-16 evaluating the credibility
of sources of information, S-17 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing
root or significant questions, S-18 analyzing or evaluating arguments,
interpretations, beliefs, or theories, S-19 generating or assessing solutions,
S-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies, S-21 reading critically:
clarifying or critiquing texts, S-22 listening critically: the art of silent
dialogue, S-23 making interdisciplinary connections, S-24 practicing
Socratic discussion: clarifying and questioning beliefs, theories, or
perspectives, S-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives,
interpretations, or theories, and S-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating
perspectives, interpretations, or theories
Cognitive Strategies - Micro-Skills comprise 9 strategies. Those
strategies are S-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice,
S-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary, S-29
noting significant similarities and differences, S-30 examining or
evaluating assumptions, S-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts,
S-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations, S-33
giving reasons and evaluating evidence and alleged facts, S-34 recognizing
contradictions, and S-35 exploring implications and consequences
Steps for critical thinking teaching

There are many constraints in language teaching (and teaching in
general), such as teacher‘s assumption that students cannot learn the
subject at hand unless the teacher covers it. Hence, teachers must give up
the belief and start active learning. This learning can make the course
enjoyable and can encourage students to think critically. In addition,

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Bloom,s taxonomy facilitates teachers to classify instructional activities as

they advance in difficulties (Duron, Limbach, and Waugh, 2006)
Figure 1
5-Step Model to Move Students toward Critical Thinking (Duron,
Limbach, Waugh, 2006)
Designing lesson plan
Indonesian Government Regulation No.19 of 2005 on national

educational standards, article 19 paragraphs 1 tells that teaching learning
process is characterized with interactive, inspiring, fun, challenging, and
active learning. It means that this regulation gives space for critical
thinking. Interactive and active learning such as discussion includes critical
thinking strategies, such as S-33 Giving Reasons and Evaluating Evidence
and Alleged Facts. This strategy can make students insightfully discuss
evidence relevant to the issue and conclusions they consider (Paul, Richard
W. Binker, A.J.A. and Weil, Daniel, 1995). Hence, the following
discussions incorporate critical thinking into lesson plan. The format is

from American English Institute, University of Oregon: Critical Thinking.

The writer adds assessment row to this table. The writer includes the
teaching models above that employ questioning, self and peer assessment,
and teacher assessment in the lesson plan.
Lesson Plan
Instructor: Title of Course: Student Age/Level: 19 –
25 / intermediate
Title of Lesson: Writing Number of Length of lesson: 100
Students: 30 minutes
Research Background of
Classroom Action
Research
I. Overarching goal of the lesson:

After attending this class, students are able to understand how to
write research background effectively
II. Prerequisites.
At the beginning of this lesson, students are expected: (1) to have
intermediate level of English; (2) to have completed their field work
as English teachers in junior or senior high school; (3) to have passed
research methodology class and methodology of language teaching.
III. Instructional Objectives for Bloom‘s domain CT Strategy

the lesson: and level
1. Working in group of 3 to read - Cognitive,  S-21 reading
and discuss given examples Analysis Level critically
of good research background - Affective,  S-32 making
(the condition), the students Responding to plausible
(the audience) will identify phenomena interpretations

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components or information  S-1 Thinking

that should be in a research Independently
background (The behaviour)
accurately in four sentences
(the degree of accuracy)
2. Given questions about
research background, the Cognitive, S-33 Giving
students will write outline of synthesis Reasons and
research background Evaluating
accurately based on Evidence and
components or information Alleged Facts
got in phase 1 activities
III. Lesson Description

1. Pre teaching [15 minutes]
- Teacher introduces the topic
- Teacher introduce the topic through questioning
a. What do you know about research background?
b. Have you ever written research background?
2. Brainstorming and Discussion [70 minutes]

Phase 1
Teacher gives examples of research background to students. The
students work in group of 3 to discuss and restate components or
information that should be written in a research background. They
discuss the following questions:

a. What is each paragraph mainly discussed?

b. Each paragraph informs the components of research background,
what are they?
After discussing the questions, each group, then, presents the
conclusions and get feedback from other groups. The next step is the
teacher‘s feedback.
Phase 2
- Students work individually. This phase will explore individual
experience during their field work. If necessary, they may share their
experiences with their friends but they have to submit the result
individually. The outcome is an outline of a research background.
The students may refer to the previous discussion.
- In writing their outline, The students answer the questions as a
guidance:
- What is the biggest problem or the most urgent problem faced by
students to solve? Could you provide data or information? (the
problems and data should be based on your class during your
field work)
- What is/are the cause(s) of the problem?
- What is the possible solution for the problem? What is your
rationale?
Phase 3
- Students share their outline with their classmates to get feedback
Phase 4
- Teacher provides feedback to students
3. Assignment / Homework
- Write a background of classroom action research based on the outline!

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IV. Assessment
CT assessments Description of CT Assessments
Formative
Teacher walks around the class to observe
Observation
and check students‘ understanding while
they are doing class assignments
Teacher gives some questions, e.g. to find

Short response
out English teaching problems and
students write the answer in a paragraph
Summative
Students write an essay, e.g. research
Extended response
proposal
The first few lines of lesson plan are class identities comprising
instructor‘s name, title of course, students‘ age/ level, title of lesson,
number of students, and length of lesson. It will inform three things:
teacher, students, and course.
The first part is goal of the lesson. Goal and objective refers to the
same thing, outcomes. However, goal refers to general outcome while
objective is more specific. Objective refers to performance students will
acquire in the end of the class.
The next part is prerequisites. These are assumptions teachers are
making about students‘ skills, knowledge, and experience for this lesson.
This is requirements students need to fulfill in order to be able to complete
the lesson.
The third part is instructional objectives. Heinich and his colleagues
(2002 in O'Bannon. 2002) suggest four parts of well written objectives or
usually called as the ABCD's of instructional objectives. The A stands for
Audience. It is ―the learner‖ or ―the student‖ or as specific as ―the third
grade science student‖. The B represents Behavior. It is the verb describing

the competency that the student will be able to perform after the
instruction. It must be measurable, observable, and specific. The C stands
for Condition or the circumstances under which the objectives must be
completed. The last is D or Degree of Accuracy. It is the standard that the
learner must meet to reach acceptable performance.
The fourth part is lesson description. This may include pre-, during,
and post-activities, steps, or techniques that the students are doing.
Assessment
There are two types of assessment: formative and summative
assessment. Garrison and Ehringhaus (2007) explain the differences. The
first assessment is part of instructional process. It informs both students
and teacher about students understanding at a point. Because it can be
incorporated into classroom practice, it can be used to adjust teaching and
learning while they are happening.
Meanwhile formative assessment are conducted during class
practice, summative are given periodically at a particular point in time,
such as after instruction every few weeks, moths, semester, or once a year.
It can be in form of state assessment, semester test, chapter test, etc. It can
be tools to evaluate the effectiveness of programs, schools improvement
goals, alignment of curriculum, or student‘s placement in specific program.
Furthermore, Garrison and Ehringhaus (2007) give some of the
instructional strategies that can be used formatively. The first is
observations. In this assessment, teacher goes beyond walking around the
room to check student‘s work. The teacher may give feedback when he/she
finds student who need clarification. The second is questioning strategies
that should be embedded in lesson/unit planning. It may allows an
opportunity for deeper thinking and inform teacher the degree and depth of

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understanding. The third is self and peer assessment. This assessment

allows student to assess his/her or his/her friend works. It may helps to
create a learning community within a classroom.
Other sample assessments are multiple choice, constructed response
(jigsaw, fill in the blank, and matching), short response (sentence to a
paragraph), extended response (essay or oral presentation), process
performance (showing classmates how to do something, for ex. baking a
cake, assembling an airplane), project performance, portfolio, interview
(oral performance: discussion, impromptus, debate), assessment Rubric.
Conclusion
Critical thinking is a process of thinking involving reasoning as the
basic for action. The process follows self assessment as proposed by Paul
and Elder (2010): clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, depth, breadth,
logic, and fairness. These standards comprise questions that can be applied
in classes of instructional to train critical thinking to students.
Critical thinking can be applied in language classes and employ
Bloom‘s Taxonomy and Critical Thinking Strategy as working definition.
In designing lesson plan, there should be: course identity, goal and
objectives of lesson, prerequisites, lesson description, and assessment. In
writing objectives, ABCD model can become the guidance and it should
also includes Bloom‘s Taxonomy and critical thinking strategies. In
addition, lesson description discusses pre, during, and after classes.
References
Carr, Kathryn S. 1990. How Can We Teach Critical Thinking? Retrieved
27 October 2011 from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9218/
critical.htm

Clark, D. R. 2004. Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains. Retrieved

Dec 8, 2011 from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.
html
Duron, Robert. Limbach, Barbara and Waugh, Wendy. 2006. Critical
Thinking for Any Discipline. International Journal of Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education 2006, Volume 17, Number 2, 160-
166
Garrison, C., & Ehringhaus, M. (2007). Formative and summative
assessments in the classroom. Retrieved from
http://www.nmsa.org/Publications/WebExclusive/Assessment/tabid
/1120/Default.aspx
Hunter, David A. 2009. A Practical Guide To Critical Thinking:
Deciding What to Do and Believe. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc
Moore, Brooke Noel and Parker, Richard. 2009. Critical Thinking. New
York: McGrow-Hill Higher education
O'Bannon, B. 2002. How do I write an instructional objective? Retrieved
October 20, 2011 from http://edtech.tennessee.edu/~bobannon/
writing_objectives.html
Paul, R. and Elder, L.2010. Foundation For Critical Thinking, online at
website: www.criticalthinking.org
Paul, Richard W. Binker, A.J.A. and Weil, Daniel. 1995. Strategy List: 35
Dimensions of Critical Thought. Retrieved October 22, 2011 from
http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/strategy-list-35-dimensions-
of-critical-thought/466
Rear, David. 2010. A Systematic Approach to Teaching Critical Thinking
through Debate. Journal Eltwo, volume 2.

Maslihatul Umami
The Social Context of Early Child Second Language

Acquisition (SLA)
Maslihatul Umami
Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 02 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
umamie@gmail.com
Abstract
This article addresses the material on language acquisition in a social

context and focuses on the gradual shift in the child‘s use of words, from
labeling specific and often single referents to the use of words for
signifying categories of objects, actions, or attributes. The aims of this
study are to search and explore the information whether the social context
of second language acquisition occurred and whether it gives consequences
toward cognitive development of the children. It can be seen from the
results of this study that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one
social context to another, and that it has differential consequences for
cognitive development dependent on the social context in which it occurs.
The crucial significance of actively stimulating language growth in the
classroom, especially by teachers of the socially disadvantaged, is stressed.
Keywords: Social Context, Second Language Acquisition, Children
Abstrak
Artikel ini membahas tentang pemerolehan bahasa dalam konteks sosial

dan berfokus pada perubahan bertahap dalam penggunaan kata-kata pada
anak, mulai dari menandai acuan tertentu dan sering pula acuan tunggal
hingga penggunaan kata-kata untuk menandakan kategori objek, tindakan,
atau atribut. Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mencari dan
menyelidiki informasi tentang konteks sosial pemerolehan bahasa kedua
yang terjadi dan apakah hal itu memberikan konsekuensi terhadap
perkembangan kognitif anak. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari hasil penelitian
bahwa tingkat dan luasnya pergeseran ini bervariasi dari satu konteks
sosial ke konteks yang lain, dan bahwa pergeseran ini memiliki
konsekuensi diferensial untuk perkembangan kognitif tergantung pada

konteks sosial di mana itu terjadi. Kemudian, signifikansi krusial dari

usaha merangsang pertumbuhan bahasa di dalam kelas secara aktif,
terutama oleh guru-guru yang kurang beruntung secara sosial, perlu
ditekankan.
Kata Kunci : Konteks Sosial , Akuisisi Bahasa Kedua , Anak-Anak
Introduction
Children, surrounded by a sea of words, sequentially and
selectively acquires the nouns, verbs, and phrases of their language as well
as the gestures, intonations and dialect of those with whom he interacts.
The rate and breadth of this complex acquisition is proportional to the
scope of their verbal interactions with those charged with their care.
Language is so pervasive in human behavior that the process of
language acquisition is often taken for granted. A comprehensive treatment
of this process is obviously beyond the scope of this paper. There are too
many gaps in our current knowledge to make such an attempt feasible.
In consideration of such limitations, therefore, this paper will focus
upon social conditions that affect language acquisition. More specifically,
it will focus upon the gradual shift in the child‘s use of words, from
labeling specific and often single referents to the use of words for
signifying categories of objects, actions, or attributes. The hypothesis
advanced here is that the rate and breadth of this shift varies from one
social context to another, and that it has differential consequences for
cognitive development dependent on the social context in which it occurs.
This hypothesis will be examined and discussed chiefly in terms of the
pertinent literature, with occasional reference to empirical studies.
The need to modify the cognitive growth patterns of young
children-particularly of those children who live in the slum areas of our
major cities-has added new impetus to the search for a clarification of the

Maslihatul Umami
relationship between language and thought. It is our intention to examine

aspects of word acquisition as related to conceptual development of verbal
mediation.
The literature on the development of language, structured largely in
terms of maturational theory and based on the congruent findings of
careful investigators, specifies an approximate sequence and timetable of
children‘s verbal development. The focus of many of these studies has
been on the rate of language acquisition, the unit studied being the number
of different words elicited from the young child in a standard setting. Here,
the social environment is viewed either as a hampering or as enhancing
medium in which the development of speech occurs, and the basic process
of growth is considered neurophysiologically determined.
Although these studies have given us more facts about the increase
of the child‘s active vocabulary, they develop within the context of modern
psychological theories such as those of Hebb and Hunt (1992).
Similarities in the quantitative features of overt behavior (i.e., the size of
spoken vocabulary) are assumed, by normatively oriented researchers, to
be behaviors functionally equivalent for groups of children differing in
background. However, studies limited to word counting afford little insight
into the dynamic relationship between social experience and language.
While many of these investigators (Gesell & Templin: 1997) may be aware
that the content of speech is culturally determined, too often their writings
have not reflected this awareness.
In contradistinction to the maturational approach to language
development as exemplified by the investigators mentioned above,
Osgood‘s model of language conceptualizes words as abbreviated motor
behavior (Osgood: 1999) .While his approach permits a simplified
description of the complex behavior of language, it focuses on variables

which would appear to be tangential to language acquisition. More

importantly, motor learning requires little social interaction, but language
cannot be acquired in an interpersonal vacuum.
On the other hand, the theoretical writings of Bernstein (1990), and
the recently translated book of Vygotsky (2000), present approaches which
are useful in the study of language acquisition in a social context. In his
writings, Berstein (1990) emphasized status as a major social determinant
of speech patterns within social groups. More centrally related to the
approach taken in this paper are hypotheses advanced by Vygotsky (1970)
three decades ago. He proposed that the conditions that influence the
development of speech (overt language) are also related to the
development of verbal meditation (covert language). Further, he suggested
that a socially determined learning condition of central importance in the
acquisition of language is the availability of adults for engaging the child
in dialogue (McCarthy: 1991).
Consequently, the central theme of this discussion, partially based
on Vygotsky‘s thinking (1970), is that children develop and test their
tentative notions (hypotheses) about the meanings of words and the
structure of sentences chiefly through verbal interaction with more verbally
mature speakers.
The Acquisition of Label

Social interaction with verbally mature individuals, which affects
language acquisition, begins with the occurrence of the infant‘s earliest
vocal responses. Some findings have illustrated the effects of social
environment on vocalization in children as young as six month (Brodbeck
and Irwin, 1996). The child‘s language development in the first two years
of life is primarily in the nature of increasing comprehension of speech of

Maslihatul Umami
those around him. By age two, a child has developed speaking vocabulary,
which may range from 3 to 300 words. In the next two years, the child
shifts from using words exclusively as labels with singles referents to the
use of words, which have multiple referents (rudimentary categories).
This process of acquiring and enlarging the use of labels can be
sketched in general terms. At an elementary stage of language acquisition,
before first birthday, the child perceives a word as being one of a multitude
of attributes of an object (shape, weight, color, and name). By the repeated
association of seeing and touching the object, and hearing the name of the
object, the child acquires a bond between word and referent. Usually, the
source of auditory stimulation is the mother. In addition, children engage
in communicative interaction with siblings, relatives, other children,
teachers and neighbors. The role of more impersonal sources of
communication, e.g., television and radio, has become increasingly
important in children‘s acquisition of words. For example, simple learning
is well understood by advertisers. The highly predictable association
between the picture of the Coca Cola bottle and its name from the TV
sound track is a fact of great utility in label acquisition of words.
Put on a more technical level, in describing language acquisition,
some researchers rely on the conditioning paradigm. However, such a
model presents certain difficulties in that it emphasizes a one-to-one
relationship between stimulus and response. In reality, the word to be
learned is usually embedded in a sentence (the verbal context) and its
referent (the object that is to be paired with the word) is surrounded by a
multitude of extraneous features in the environment. Learning labels
requires selective attention-the inhibition of irrelevant aspects of the
learning environment.

This learning of new verbal responses, particularly by young

children, can be facilitated by a relative invariance in the environment. One
of the major characteristics of the home, a natural setting for language
acquisition, is its intrinsic variability. This is particularly true of lower-
class homes that have been described, and transient in their inhabitants
than middle-class homes. Children raised in such lower-class homes
participated in the studies reported below.
In spite of the complexities and difficulties involved in the process
of label acquisition, children do acquire words in the midst of the ―noise‖
of the natural environment. Some accomplish this more readily than others
do. The abundance of opportunities for hearing the names of objects while
seeing and touching them is such that most two-year-old can understand
and use effectively a number of labels.
Receptive Labeling
Children from different social classes vary in their knowledge of
words. Some studies of social class differences have recorded systematic
variations in verbal indices of children grouped according to fathers and/or
education. Children from high-in-come, high-status families have been
found to speak in longer sentences, more articulately, and with a more
varied vocabulary than do their lower-class peers (Templin, 1997). Thus,
in order to understand better the implications of such findings, it is
necessary to examine qualitative as well as quantitative differences in
children‘s verbal behavior.
One example of qualitative differences in children‘s verbal
behavior emerged from an item analysis of the responses of young Negro
children to a receptive verbal task, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test
(PPVT) (Seidman: 1991). Briefly described, the PPVT consists of a series

Maslihatul Umami
of increasingly difficult items, which require the child to display his

comprehension of labels, when confronted with four drawings, by pointing
to the correct picture-referent. The standardization group for this test
consisted solely of white children residing in and around Nashville,
Tennessee (Seidman: 1991)
As part of a larger investigation, the PPVT was administered to
four-year-old, lower-class Negro children, who had been selected to
participate in a pre-school enrichment program. This program involves the
research and teaching staff of the Institute for Developmental Studies, New
York Medical College, who are also engaged in a variety of projects
involving lower-class Negro children. Currently, pre-school enrichment
classes are being held in eight Manhattan elementary schools. The Peabody
Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT) protocols of approximately 40
experimental and control children-before entering enrichment-was selected
for this illustration (Seidman: 1991). Of the first 35 words of the test,
clusters of items that the children had failed were identified. There, clusters
of words were found to be particularly difficult: action words (digging,
tying, pouring, building, pickling); words related to rural living (leaf, bee,
bush, nest); and words whose referents may be rate in low-income homes
(kangaroo, caboose, accident. Other studies, such as that by Eells (1991),
have shown similar trends in that older lower-class children failed to
identify words, such as ―harp,‖ the referents of which are not usually
available in lower-class environments. These results raised a question of
great interest to us: Why did these lower-class children have such a high
percentage of failure with action words? If the environment provides
abundant opportunity for the child to hear simple labels, then action words
are as likely to be heard by lower-class children as by middle-class
children. Perhaps the explanation lies in the learning environment.

Children from low-income homes have relatively little opportunity to

engage in active dialogue when learning labels. Milner (1996) has
described the paucity of verbal interaction of children with adults in the
low-income Negro home.
It is our contention, therefore, partially supported by Bernstein‘s
(1998) research that the crucial difference between middle-class and lower
class individuals is not in the quality of language, but in its use. The
functional diversity in language may be a direct result of the occupational
and educational experiences of the speaker. Middle-class occupations
generally require and permit verbal interaction with a variety of people.
The individual must continually adjust his speech in terms of rate,
intonation, vocabulary, and grammatical complexity, in an attempt to
provide optimal communication. In contrast to this, the verbal interaction
required in lower-class occupations is of a routine, highly conventionalized
nature. The middle-class individual, then, develops a more flexible to use
of language than that found in persons from lower-class backgrounds. The
gap between the speaker‘s verbal skill and the listener‘s potential for
comprehension is greatest in adult-child verbal interactions. Here, the
ability to use language flexibly is most important-it permits the adults to
adjust his speech to fit the child‘s level of comprehension.
However, if the lower-class child has to rely upon the frequency of
co-occurrence of label and referent to a greater extent than the middle-class
child, then, for him, the invariance between word and referent must also be
greater. Yet, the learning of verbs and gerunds by frequency of occurrence
instead of by active dialogue is more difficult than is the learning of labels
for specific objects. Gerunds such as ―trying‖ were failed, not because the
children were deficient in experience with the referent but rather because
they had difficulty in fitting the label to the varying forms of action

Maslihatul Umami
observed and experienced. This fitting process, which consists of selecting

the specific connection between word and referent, occurs more easily
when there is a variety of verbal interaction with adults. The middle-class
child learns by feedback, by being heard, corrected, and modified-by
gaining ―operant control‖ over his/her social environment by using words
that they hear. The child learns by interacting with and adult teacher who
plays an active role in simplifying the various components of word-referent
relation-ships.
In this discussion, the acquisition of labels has been conceptualized
as the result of the interaction of two major variables. One, the stability of
the word-referent relationship, refers to the features of the referent and the
degree of its invariance within the learning context in the natural
environment. The second variable, derived from the frequency and type of
verbal interaction during language acquisition, refers to the amount of
corrective feedback the child receives while learning a new label, i.e., the
consistency with which his speech is listened to, corrected, and modified.
Figure 1 illustrates the postulated relation of these two variables, in
the acquisition of specific labels (A) and of action words (B). Words such
as ―Coca Cola‖ and ―ball‖ have characteristics of high stability and
physical constancy and they occur within relatively few learning contexts.
Such words are easily learned by the mere frequency of co-occurrence of
word and referent, and require little corrective feedback. Because of the
relatively lower stability of the word referent relationship for words such
as ―key‖ and ―teacher,‖ a somewhat greater amount of corrective feedback
is necessary for their acquisition. (Line A.)

Action words
A
―teacher‖
―Key‖
―ball‖
―Coca Cola‖
Specific labels
High stability Stability of word- Low

referent relationship stability
Most action words occur in contexts of moderate to high variance.

As the stability of the word-referent relationship decreases, the amount of
corrective feedback repaired for acquisition increases. (Line B.)
This relationship is postulated for words that are abundant in the
natural environment of lower class as well as middle-class children-but not
for words such as ―caboose,‖ and ―accident‖ which may occur infrequently
in the lower-class setting. Therefore, the postulated interaction rather than
experiential rarity may explain more simply the slower rate acquisition of
labels and action words by lower-class children.
Briefly, our analysis indicates that the child‘s acquisition of words
with shifting and complex referents will be impeded if required adult-child
verbal interaction is insufficient or lacking.
The Acquisition of Categories

While the child acquiring new labels he also is gaining additional

Maslihatul Umami
referents for those labels already in his repertoire. Young children,

unskilled in the used of words, often reveal their understanding of the
nuances of a label, i.e., the multiplicity of their referents, though non-
verbal behavior. Long before the two-year-old can correctly pronounce the
word ―horse,‖ he indicates that he knows several referents for the word
when he hears it spoken by pointing to his rocking horse or reaching for his
stuffed animal. By the quality and amount of corrective feedback he gives,
the actively participating adult determines the breadth of the generalization
and the precision of the discrimination the child relies upon while learning
multiple referents.
The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test data discussed earlier
indicate that lower-class children, because of insufficient corrective
feedback, have great difficulty in acquiring words that appear in a number
of different contexts. The specific context in which a label is first acquired,
one characterized by low ―noise‖ or one in which these is frequent
reoccurrence of label and referent, is limiting and restrictive. Generalizing
a word from one setting to another requires the discovery of the irrelevant
variations that accompany. As Brown (1988) has said: ―…. a speech
invariance is a signal to form some hypothesis [italic ours] about the
corresponding invariance of referent.‖
This process of discovering invariance common to multiple
instances of a label is fundamental for the conceptual as well as the verbal
development of the young child. However, little is known about the
mechanics of this process, beyond the recognition that both generalizations
and discriminations have to be made by the child learning multiple
meanings of words. It means by means of corrective feedback, the child
learns that a ―dog‖ is not a horse or cat or some other grossly similar object
in his environment (discrimination). He also learns that ―dog‖ is not only

that white thing with black spots, but it is also that big brown thing that
makes a loud noise, and that other thing with the long floppy ears
(generalization).
Example from As-Salaam Kindergarten, Bandungan, Semarang,

Indonesia
Some examples of the verbalizations of lower-class and middle-
class of As-Salaam Kindergarten are given below. (The concept was
represented by pictures of four men at work: a policeman, a doctor, a
farmer, and a sailor).
Lower-class first-graders
1. ―because doctor nurses these other people‖
2. ―because the man and big Bill (policeman) like each other‖
3. ―because they look the same‖
Middle-class first-grades
1. ―because they all men‖
2. ―all the same, all of them are men‖
3. ―They are both people.‖
Two hyphoteses which were formulated in the major study are

relevant here. Verbally less-experienced children were expected to short
the stimulus card into a larger number of piles. It was also anticipated that
middle-class children (as a group, considered to be verbally more-
experienced) would offer an explicit statement of a concept, e.g., ―they are
all animals,‖ while the verbal rationale of lower-class children would
reflect a specific aspect of communality, e.g., ―they all have leggs.‖ These
hyphoteses were partially substantiated .

Maslihatul Umami
The examples given above illustrate the general tenor of responses

given by the children. The middle-class children tended to produce
category labels more often than their lower-class peers who instead were
inclined to focus on non-essential attributes. We may say that those
children who were successful on this task were those who had developed
skills for discovering the crucial, invariant features of objects having the
same name.
Based on the examples, the individual‘s ability to solve complex
problems is related to the use of the children in making up language in
verbal mediation. Jensen (1999) defines verbal mediation as ―... verbal
behavior which facilitates futher learning which controls behavior, and
which permits the development of conceptual thinking.‖ In some of their
research, the Kendlers (2000) have found and increase with age in
children‘s reliance on words as mediators while solving a reversal shift
problem. Antecedent conditions necessary for the development of verbal
mediation have not yet been explored.
In this paper, the reseracher posit, that while the children gains
practice in correctly identifying objects having the same name, and while
they develop their knowledge about the hierarchy of category-names, they
also develop skills of used in verbal mediation. Again, we ascribe a crucial
role in the development of verbal mediation to the availability of adults,
who serve as language models, and who participate in an ongoing dialogue
with the children.
Evidence currently available suggests that some children who can
be described as proficient in overt language skills, also rely upon covert
language-or verbal mediational processes- when approaching complex
problems. Luria‘s studies (1991) of speech-delayed twins exemplify the
parallel development of verbal skills and verbal mediation.

Children from backgrounds of educational retardation have been

shown to perform poorly on verbal and conceptual tasks. Jensen (1999)
taught a group of educationlly retarded adolescent to use verbal mediation
in a task which required the learning of a list of paired associates. These
subjects learned to construct a sentence around each pair of meaningful
words. A control group of subjects from similar background, who were not
isntructed in this use of verbal mediation, took five times as long to learn
the deficiencies not only in overt verbal skills but also in verbal
mediational behavior.
In our stress on the importance of variety in stimulation, our
position is in basic agreement with other developmental theorists
concerned with cognitive processes. However, we have also attempted to
specify the demands on the child as he learns. The child,confronted with
several disparate objects having a label in common, has to identify those
critical features by invoking mediating responses. In both of these learning
situations the child is actively searching for invariance among features of
his environment. The tools he uses in this search have been sharpened in
his verbal communication with others.
Communication and cognition, traditionally treated as separate
aspects of language, are posited here as fundamentally interrelated in the
early stages of language acquisition. Language is seen as functional
behavior for the young child. While he uses his slowly developing
communicative skills to inform those who care for him about his needs, he
is also organizing his perceptual and social world through language. The
social environment in which these function develop are highly complex.
Particular importance is the amount of attention paid to the child‘s own
attempts at early verbalizations: the opportunity made available to the child
to learn by feedback, by being heard, corrected and modified-by

Maslihatul Umami
gaining‖operant control‖ over his social environment as he uses words that

he has heard.
In our analysis, the child from a lower socio-economic background
may experience a deficient amount of verbal interaction. He learns most of
his language by means of receptive exposure-by hearing, rather than by the
correction of his own active speech. Words acquired with little corrective
feedback in a stable learning environment will be the minimum use as
mediators, at a later stage of development. In contrast, the child whose
language acquisition is characterized by active participation with a more
verbally mature individual not only develops greater verbal proficiency-as
a result of being listened to and corrected but also is more likely to rely on,
and use effectively words as mediators.
Language is a socially-conditioned relationship betwen the child‘s
internal and external worlds. Once able to use words as mediators, the
child can effectively change his own social and material reality.
Conclusion
Can educational implications for pre-school programs be drawn
from a theoretical statement on language acquisition? Though some of the
ideas presented in this paper may be utilized by the early childhood
educator, primarily, this treatment of verbal behavior is presented as a
model of label acquisition. Ideas developed with in the context of a
simplified and abstract treatment of language may have to undergo
substantial modification in order to be applied in the classroom. However,
some general points related to enrichment can be made, based upon the
above discussion.
Certainly, the crucial importance of actively stimulating language
growth in the classroom is recognized by teachers of the socially

disavantaged. But the felling of urgency they bring to the task of increasing
the verbal repertoire of children sometimes results in a stress on
quantitative growth only. This emphasis on vocabulary expansion is not
surprising in light of the maturational approach to language.
If the communicative and cognitive functions are significantly
related at the beginning of language acquisition, it becomes important to
discover ways for these aspects of language to be maintained interrelatedly
in enrichment programs. A mechanical approach to vocabulary building
will not produce the desired end of developing useful verbal skills. The
teacher should utilized student‘s deeply personal experiences as basic
content while imparting the mechanics of letters. Similary, the teacher in
the enrichment classroom can discover the interests and concerns of her
children by being sensitive to their products. In this case, In an enrichment
program combining instruction and research, the researcher and her
teacher-colleagues worked with the children. Each child was asked to re-
tell a standard story in front of a tape recorder. In studying the
modifications of the story made by each child, much was learned about
sequential language as well as about the themes of particular interest to
young children raised in low-income areas. These children also told a
―made up‖ story, and in these fantasy products, they often related events of
concern. Though some of the children spoke with poor articulation and
others could not think up their ―own‖ story, many children in this group
displayed forcefulness of style and communicative strength in their
descriptions.
As was the researcher purpose, this paper has stressed the
acquisition of highly developed linguistic patterns as being crucial to
young children. Because language is both a highly personal and an
objectively necessary tool, however, the educator must be wary lest

Maslihatul Umami
children learn to resent the acquisition of verbal skills. The teaching of

words must be carried out with originality, flexibility, and restraint.
In becoming aware of some of the feature underlying label
acquisition, the classroom teacher can create a variety of learning contexts
built around experience of significance to the children. The teacher who is
aware of the importance of verbal dialogue in the shift from labeling to
categorizing, can direct learning not only by her own interactions, but,
also, by helping children in the classroom to be effective speakers as well
as active listeners.
References
Bernstein (1998). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brodbeck & Erwin (1996). Sociolinguistics: an Introduction to Language
and Society. NY Penguin
Brown (1988). The learning Curve: Elevating Childrens Academic and
Competence, A Discovery of Speech Variations. Northvale
NJ:Jason Aronson
Eells (1991), Second Language Acquisition and the Critical Period
Hypothesis, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbraum
Gesell & Templin (1991). Interpersonal Dynamics in Second Language
Education: the Visible and Invisible Classroom. Thousand Oaks:
Sage
Hebb & hunt (1992). A Time to Speak: a Psycholinguistic Inquiry into the
Critical Period for Human Speech. Florence KY: Wadswort
Publishing.
Jensen(1999), On Language.New York: New Press

Kendlers (2000), Words as Mediators in Second Language Acquisition

Learning, Florence,KY: Wadsworth Publishing
Lincoln, Y.S & & Guba,E.G(1985), Naturalistic Inquiry, Beverly Hills,
CA, Sage Publications
Luria(1991),the Development of Verbal Skill and Verbal Mediation of
Second Language Learner, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
McCarthy (1991), Second Language Acquisition: an Introductory Course.
Mahwah,Nj. Lawrence Elrbraum.
Milner(1996), Negro Mentality, University Park, PA: the Pennsylvinia
State University
Osgood (1999). Understanding Second language Learning Difficulties:
Looking Beneath the Surface. Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage
Patton, Michael Q (1980), Qualitative Evaluation Methods, London : Sage
Publications
Seidman, Jerome M (1991), The Child, A Book of Readings, Montreal:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc
Templin (1991), A child‘s Learning of two Languages. In E.M. Hatch,ed.
Second Language Acquisition: A book of Readings. Rowley,Mass:
Newbury House.
Taylor,S & Bogdan,R (1998), Introduction to Qualitative Research
Methods(3rd Ed),New York: Wiles.
Vygostky (1970) Attitudes and Motivation in Second language Learning.
Rowley, M.A: Newbury House Publications.

Faizal Risdianto, S.S,M.Hum
A Conversational Implicature Analysis In Oscar Wilde’s

Short Story “Happy Prince”

Jl. Tentara Pelajar No. 02 Salatiga, Central Java, Indonesia
faizrisd@gmail.com
Abstract
The title of this paper is a conversational implicature analysis on Oscar

Wilde‘s ―Happy Prince‖. In this paper, the writer discusses conversational
implicature in one of Oscar Wilde‘s short stories entitled ―Happy Prince‖.
The objectives of the study are to identify the implicature utterances
conveyed by the characters in Oscar Wilde‘s ―Happy Prince‖ and to
describe the implied meaning uttered by the characters in Oscar Wilde‘s
―Happy Prince‖. In this study, the writer applies qualitative research
method. The objects of this study are ten utterances of conversational
implicature in Oscar Wilde‘s ―Happy Prince‖. Those conversational
implicature are obtained through frequent reading and analysis. This study
employed the researcher as the instrument to find adequate and profound
data and analyze them. The procedures and steps that have been used in
this research are: (1) the provision of data, (2) data classification, (3) and
data analysis. In analyzing the data, the writer uses Gricean theory. It is a
theory about conversational implicature generated by four maxims. Those
are maxim of quantity, maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of
manner. Then the last step is (4) the presentation of data analysis. After
conducting the research, the writer found ten conversational implicatures in
Oscar Wilde‘s short story ―Happy Prince‖. In the short story, there are
some variation‘s meanings of the conversational implicature used in the
short story which closely related to the conversational implicature; they are
cooperative, politeness and ironical principle. In Oscar Wilde‘s short story
―Happy Prince‖, there are six maxims of politeness principle, two maxims
of cooperative principles and two maxims of ironical principles. Besides
that, the reasons of the conversational implicature used in Oscar Wilde‘s
short story ―Happy Prince‖ are to make us easyly understand the dialogue
in the short story conversations and it is aimed at minimizing
misunderstanding among the readers and literary critics.

A Conversational Implicature Analysis In Oscar Wilde’s Short Story …
Keywords: Conversational Implicature, Maxims, Gricean Theory, Short

Story
Abstrak
Judul tulisan ini adalah analisis implikatur percakapan pada Cerpen Oscar
Wilde "Happy Pangeran". Dalam tulisan ini, penulis membahas implikatur
percakapan di salah satu cerita pendek Oscar Wilde yang berjudul
"Selamat Pangeran". Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk
mengidentifikasi ujaran implikatur yang disampaikan oleh karakter dalam
Oscar Wilde "Happy Pangeran" dan untuk menggambarkan makna tersirat
yang diucapkan oleh karakter dalam cerpen tersebut. Dalam penelitian ini,
penulis menggunakan metode penelitian kualitatif. Obyek penelitian ini
adalah sepuluh ujaran implikatur percakapan di Oscar Wilde "Happy
Pangeran". Implikatur percakapan tersebut diperoleh melalui aktivitas
membaca dan analisis secara intensif. Penelitian ini menggunakan peneliti
sebagai instrumen untuk menemukan data yang memadai dan mendalam
untuk keperluan analisis data. Prosedur dan langkah-langkah yang
digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah : (1) penyajian data, (2) klasifikasi
data, (3) dan analisis data. Dalam menganalisis data, penulis menggunakan
teori Gricean. Ini adalah teori tentang implikatur percakapan yang
dihasilkan oleh empat maksim. Mereka adalah maksim kuantitas, maksim
kualitas, maksim hubungan, dan maksim cara. Kemudian langkah terakhir
adalah (4) analisis data. Setelah melakukan penelitian, penulis menemukan
sepuluh implikatur percakapan dalam cerita pendek Oscar Wilde "Happy
Pangeran". Dalam cerita pendek tersebut, ada beberapa variasi makna dari
implikatur percakapan yang terkait erat dengan implikatur percakapan;
prinsip kooperatif, kesopanan dan ironis. Dalam cerita pendek Oscar Wilde
"Happy Pangeran", ada enam maksim dalam prinsip kesantunan, dua
maksim dalam prinsip kooperatif dan dua maksim dalam prinsip ironis.
Selain itu, alasan dari implikatur percakapan yang digunakan dalam cerita
pendek Oscar Wilde "Happy Pangeran" adalah untuk membuat kita
memahami dialog dalam percakapan cerita pendek dengan mudah, yang
ditujukan untuk meminimalkan kesalahpahaman antara pembaca dan
kritikus sastra.
Kata Kunci : Implikatur Percakapan, Maxim, Teori Gricean, Cerita

Pendek

Introduction
Language plays important and significant roles in human
communication. They use it by the aim creating common understanding
between the speaker and the hearer. To know what the speaker means, the
hearer should interpret what the speaker‘s utterance is. Dealing with this
interpretation, based on experience, it is a tricky affair. Sometimes there
are possible misunderstandings and sometimes it seems to be the rule
rather than the exception (Jacob L. Mey, 1983: 100). According to Leech,
interpreting an utterance is ultimately ―A matter of guesswork, or (to use a
more dignified term) hypothesis formation ―(1983:30).
Regarding on the above statement, people have to interpret the
speaker‘s saying. In pragmatics, it is called as conversational implicature.
Grice says that conversational implicature can be defined as ―A different
(opposite, additional, etc) pragmatic meaning of an utterance with respect
to the literal meaning expressed by utterance‖ (Jacob L. Mey, 1998: 371).
In a case of conversational implicature the hearer crucially makes
the assumption that the speaker is not violating one of the conversational
maxims, relevance, informativeness, or clarity. This, in fact, has a
contradiction in real daily conversation. It makes it possible for the use of
implicature to give more elaboration on the lingual phenomenon.
According to James R. Hurford, implicature is a concept of utterance
meaning as opposed to sentence meaning. Furthermore, implicature is
related to the method by which speakers work out the indirect illocutions
of utterance (1983: 278). This kind of case can be easily found
conversation taken from literary work of arts like novel or short stories.
Short story is one of the popular genres of fiction which sometimes
contains implicature in the conversation among the characters. In this
paper, the writer will try to elaborate more about conversational

implicature in Oscar Wilde‘s short story ―Happy Prince‖ but it will be

described about the synopsis of this famous classic short story.
Gricean Theories of Conversational Implicature

According to Grice there is a general cooperative principle between
speakers and hearers which controls or guides the way they speak (F.R.
Palmer, 1981: 173). The cooperative principle consists of four maxims
with their sub maxims. The four maxims are: the maxim of quantity which
has the principles of ―Make your contribution as informative as required‖
(for the current purposes of exchange) and ―Do not make your contribution
more informative than is required‖, the maxim of quality which has the
principles of ―Try to make your contribution one that is true‖ and ―Do not
say what you believe to be false‖ or ―Do not say that for which you lack
evidence‖, the maxim of relation which has the principle of ―Be relevant‖
and the last one, the maxim of manner with its principle ―be perspicuous‖
―Avoid obscurity of expression‖, ―Avoid ambiguity‖, ―Be brief‖ and ―Be
orderly‖.
It is important to recognize these maxims as unstated assumptions
we have in conversations. We assume that people are normally going to
provide an appropriate amount of information and they are telling the truth,
being relevant and trying to be as clear as they can. These rules according
which people are expected to behave when communicating with one
another are frequently flouted or violated. And that is the factor which
conversational implicature results from. It occurs when people do not
observe the conversational maxims, it does not matter which one or how
many of them.

The Politeness Principle

The other principle of conversational implicature is politeness
principles. According to George Yule in ―Pragmatics‖, politeness can be
defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person‘s face
(1996: 60). In this sense, politeness can be accomplished in situations of
social distance or closeness. Showing awareness for another person‘s face
when the others seem socially distant is often described in terms of respect.
Showing the equivalent awareness when the other is socially close is often
described in terms of friendliness, ―camaraderie‖ or solidarity. In simple
terms, George Yule distinguished two politenesses, there are: (1) positive
politeness which deals with face saving act which is concerned with the
person‘s positive face. This tends to show solidarity, emphasizes that both
speakers want the same thing and they both have a common goal, (2)
negative politeness which can be defined as a face saving act which is
oriented to the person‘s negative face which tends to show difference. This
emphasizes the importance of the other‘s time or concerns and even
includes an apology for the imposition or interruption.
Besides that, according to Geoffrey Leech, politeness principles
distinguish into six maxims: (1) the maxim of tact which has the principle
of ―Minimize the expression of beliefs which imply cost to other‖ and
―Maximize the expression of beliefs which imply benefit to other‖, (2) The
maxim of generosity which has the principle ―Minimize the expression of
beliefs that express or imply benefit to self‖ and ―Maximize the expression
of beliefs that express or imply cost to self‖, (3)The maxim of approbation
which has the principle of ―Minimize the expression of beliefs which
express dispraise of other‖ and ―Maximize the expression of beliefs which
express approval of other‖, (4) The maxim of modesty which has the
principle of ―Minimize the expression of praise of self‖ and ―Maximize the

expression of dispraise of self‖, (5) The maxim of agreement which has the
principle of ―Minimize the expression of disagreement between self and
other‖ and ―Maximize the expression of agreement between self and
other‖, (6) The maxim of sympathy which has the principle of ―Minimize
antipathy between self and other‖ and ―Maximize sympathy between self
and other‖.
The Ironical Principle

The phenomenon of irony has been employed in ordinary
conversation as well as in literature since ancient times and it is still a
popular means of expression, especially in English culture. English liking
for the use of irony in conversation in apparent from interaction among
friends, television programs, radio broadcasting and a number of other
ordinary speech situations and there can be no wonder that the use of this
linguistic device is frequently present in fictional discourse if an author
tries to make his/her work of art sound more authentic.
Irony indicates that what is meant is the contradictory of what is
said. The use of irony is intentional, in other word; we employ this
linguistic device in utterance if we want the addressee to encode the extra
meaning hidden in the ironical remark. Irony is contradicting either what
the speaker has said or usually says, or, contradicting what the take to be
true. to read the irony a hearer or reader do not just have to know the
context, but also have to be committed to specific beliefs and positions
within that context (Martina Stykatova, 2009: 53).
Irony principle is a second order principle, which builds upon, or
exploits, the principle of politeness. it allows the hearer to arrive at the
offensive point of the speaker‘s remark indirectly, by way of implicature
(Leech, 1983: 82). Irony, as a number of other means of expression, is also

frequently employed in fictional works like novels and short stories. It

provides interestingness in dialogue, it makes explicit and implicit
dialogues more sophisticated and it is more laborious for readers.
The use of irony in conversation is intentional. The author of the
literary works employs irony with some particular goal; they wish to
achieve a particular purpose. Irony can have a function humor and ridicule.
It can serve only for entertaining the readers. The speaker or writer may
want to be sarcastic, he or she may want to indicate that something is
disapproved but does not want to be too direct when criticizing.
In contrast to all the conversational implicature discussed so far,
conventional implicature are not based on the cooperative principle or the
maxims. They do not have to occur in conversation, and they do not
depend on special contexts for their interpretation. The same as lexical
presuppositions, conventional implicatures are associated with specific
words and result in additional conveyed meanings when those words are
used (George Yule, 1996: 45).
Conventional implicature is always conveyed, regardless of
context. According Levinson, conventional implicature are non-truth-
conditional inferences that are not derived from super ordinate pragmatic
principles like the maxims, but are simply attached by convention to
particular lexical item (1983: 127).
Research Methodology
This research is a qualitative descriptive research. The objects in this
study are ten utterances of conversational implicature in Oscar Wilde‘s
short story ―Happy Prince‖. Those conversational implicature are obtained
through frequent reading and analysis.

This study employed the researcher as the instrument to find

adequate and profound data and analyze them. The procedures and steps
that have been used in this research are: (1) the provision of data, (2) data
classification, (3) data analysis in which in the method of analyzing data,
the writer uses Gricean theory. It is a theory is about conversational
implicature generated by four maxims. Those are maxim of quantity,
maxim of quality, maxim of relation and maxim of manner. Then the last
stage is (4) the presentation of data analysis.
Discussion
The synopsis of “happy prince”
―Happy Prince‖ short story started with the scene when at one cold
night a little swallow flew over the city where a beautiful statue stood. The
swallow‘s friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had not
because he was in love with the most beautiful reed. The other swallows
had told him that his love was ridiculous because the reed had no money
and too many relations, and she was always flirting with the wind.
While he was flying he saw the statue. It was covered by thin leaves
of fine gold; for eyes he had two sapphires and a large red ruby glowed on
his sword. When the prince whom the statue was made after he died he did
not know what tears were - he lived in a palace where sorrow was not
allowed. The court used to call him the Happy Prince, and when he died
the Town Councilors decided to build the statue, which was set up so high
that he could see everything in the city.
The swallow decided to sleep on the statue‘s feet, but just when he
was putting his head under his wings, he felt a drop of water, and then
another. When he looked up he realized that the Happy Prince was crying
because he could see the misery and ugliness of his own city. So the Happy

Prince asked the swallow to be his messenger. Through a small window

the Happy Prince could see a very poor seamstress who was embroidering
passion flowers on a satin gown, and he could also see her ill boy. They
had no food to eat, so the Happy Prince told the swallow to take out the
ruby from his sword and give it to them.
The following night the Happy Prince saw a man in a cold garret
trying out to finish a play, but he was too cold to write, so the Happy
Prince asked the swallow to take out a sapphire from his eyes and give it to
him in order to buy wood. The following day, he saw a match-girl whose
matches had fallen in the gutter, whose father would hit her if she did not
bring home some money. In order to help her, the Happy Prince asked the
swallow to pluck the sapphire from his other eye to give to the girl. As a
result of this action he became blind and the swallow had to fly over the
city in order to tell him what he had seen. He saw two children crying of
hunger and a lot of poverty, so the Happy Prince decided to take out all the
golden leaves so as to give them to the poor children.
At last the swallow realized that he would die because of the cold
winter, and he decided to stay with the Happy Prince. The Prince asked the
swallow to kiss his lips as he loved him, and once the swallow did so he
fell down at the Prince's feet. At that moment a crack sounded inside the
statue as the Prince's heart broke.
Early the next morning, the Mayor saw the statue but, as it was not
beautiful, he decided it was no longer useful, so he decided to pull it down.
The statue was melted in a furnace and reused. The broken lead heart,
however, did not melt, and so it was thrown away on a dust-heap alongside
the dead swallow, the Prince's final friend.
However, an angel charged by God to find "the two most precious
things in the city" returned with the dead bird and the Prince's broken

heart. God approved of the angel's choice, and decreed that both the
swallow and the Prince would live happily in His presence forever.
Interestingly in this short story Wilde personifies the statue of
Happy Prince and The swallow as his creative means of giving social
criticism. Even though this is a fairy tale which at the first time intended
just for Wilde‘s two sons but its educational and humane value go far
beyond the fairy world of children. The story develops children's
compassion and sympathy for the poor and makes adults look back on their
attitude toward the unfortunate people around them. All the good actions of
the Happy Prince are so worthy and touching that he deserves our respect
and admiration.
One of them is the Happy Prince's actions of helping the poor
.Without the ruby from his sword hilt, the seamstress's son may die of
fever. His immediate and valuable action also helps the playwright out
with a sapphire to buy food and firewood and escape from hunger and
coldness. Again, the Happy Prince prevents the poor little match seller
from being beaten by giving her the remaining sapphire. He is not hesitant
to strip himself of all fine gold leaves to help the homeless children.
Although the Happy Prince is a beautiful statue, a splendid work of art, he
accepts his dull and grey appearance to help the needy to have a happy and
sufficient life. His actions deserve being appreciated and praised.
(http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/)
Biography of Oscar Wilde

This beautiful short story was written by Oscar Wilde. He was an
19th century Irish writer whose works include the play ―The Importance of
Being Earnest‖ and the novel ―The Picture Of Dorian Gray‖. He is also
one of the Victorian era's most famous writers, a wit whose good-humored

mocking the general convention which became less favored after he was
jailed for homosexuality.
Wilde grew up in a prosperous family and distinguished himself at
Dublin's Trinity College and London's Oxford. He published his first
volume of poems in 1881 and found work in England as a critic and
lecturer, but it was his socializing (and self-promotion) that made him
famous, even before the 1890 publication of ―The Picture of Dorian
Gray‖.
In 1895, at the height of his popularity, his relationship with the
young poet Lord Alfred Douglas was declared inappropriately intimate by
Douglas's father, The Marquees of Queensberry. Wilde sued for libel, but
the tables were turned when it became clear there was enough evidence to
charge Wilde with "clearly seen Indecency" for his homosexual
relationships. He was convicted and spent two years in jail, after which he
went into self-imposed exile in France, bankrupt and in ill health. His other
works include the comedies ―Lady Windermere's Fan‖ (1892), ―A Woman
of No Importance ―(1893) and an ―Ideal Husband‖ (1895), several
collections of children's stories like ―Happy Prince and Other Tales‖
(1896). Surprisingly , at first Oscar Wilde did write these works of art
just for his own children‘s bed times stories but then these become so
popular not only for children but also for adult people.( Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1964:120)
Social condition at Victorian era

The Victorian era of British history was the period of Queen
Victoria's reign from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It
was a long period of peace, prosperity, excellent sensibilities and national
self-confidence. At the same time, in contrast, it was also a moment when

religious morality changed drastically. When Victoria took the throne, the
Anglican Church was very powerful in running schools and universities,
and with high ranking churchmen holding offices in the House of
Lords. The Church's power continued to rule in rural areas throughout the
Victorian Era; however that was not the case in industrialized cities. In the
cities those against the Church were many and the disagreement or
rejection was everywhere.
The opposing secular group was against what the Anglican Church
was using its power for. The Church demanded obedience to God,
submissiveness and resignation with the goal of making people to do the
will of the Church. Ironically, The Church aimed to fulfill the will of the
elite and cared little if at all about the needs and wants of the lower, poor
peasant class then emerged Methodism, Congregationalism, the Society of
Friends (Quakers) and Presbyterianism. The Methodists and Presbyterians
in particular stressed personal salvation through direct individual faith in
Jesus Christ's sacrificial death and resurrection on the behalf of sinners, as
taught in the New Testament Gospels and the writings of the Apostles
Peter, James and Paul. This stress on individualism is seen throughout the
Victorian Era and becomes even more developed in Middle Class life.
The "Crisis of Faith" would hit religion and the citizens' faith like a
brick. The Crisis of Faith was brought about in 1859 with Charles Darwin's
work On the Origin of Species; his theory was (in the basic form) that the
Natural World had become what it was through gradual change over
thousand years. He stated that natural selection and survival of the fittest
were the reasons man had survived so long. His theory of evolution based
on empirical evidence would call into question Christian beliefs and
Victorian values. People whose lives became totally uprooted felt the need
to find a new system on which to base their values and morality. Unable to

completely lose faith, they combined both their religious beliefs with
individual duty -- duty to one's God, fellow man, social class, neighbor, the
poor and the ill.
These ideas had a great influence in the mind of Oscar Wilde as the
author who had a high social awareness on moral-ethic values and social
justice. He had seen the dark sides of industrialization in England urban
society and tried to give deep criticism through his fairy tales like ―Happy
Prince‖. At first, people just see that this short story is just one of
interesting bedtime stories for children but after a reader reads it many
times there is something different. This was aimed not only for children
but also a good moral inspiration and teaching for adult. (Samekto,
1974:75).
The Conversational Implicature Analysis

"Who are you?" he said.
"I am the Happy Prince."
"Why are you weeping then?" asked the swallow; "You have quite
drenched me."
This conversation is in accordance to the cooperative principle by

the maxim of quantity. When the statue of Happy Prince was asked by the
swallow He gave an answer which was exactly provides the quantity of
expected answer. He did not give an information more that the reply
needed by the swallow.
"I am glad that you are going to Egypt at last, little swallow," said
the prince, "You have stayed too long here; but you must kiss me on
the lips, for I love you."
"It is not to Egypt that I am going," said the swallow. "I am going
to the house of death. Death is the brother of sleep, is he not?" and
he kissed the Happy Prince on the lips, and fell down dead at his
feet.

This conversation is in line with the cooperative principle by the

maxim of quantity. When the statue of Happy Prince was asked by the
swallow He gives an answer which is exactly provides the quantity of
expected answer. Quite similar to above analysis The Happy Prince did not
give an information more that needed by the swallow.
"Far away," continued the statue in a low musical voice, "Far away
in a little street there is a poor house. One of the windows is open,
and through it I can see a woman seated at a table. Her face is thin
and worn, and she has coarse, red hands, all pricked by the needle,
for she is a seamstress. She is embroidering passion-flowers on a
satin gown for the loveliest of the queen's maids-of-honor to wear
at the next court-ball. In a bed in the corner of the room her little
boy is lying ill. He has a fever, and is asking for oranges. His
mother has nothing to give him but river water, so he is crying.
Swallow, swallow, little swallow, will you not bring her the ruby
out of my sword-hilt? My feet are fastened to this pedestal and I
cannot move."
This conversation can be categorized as the politeness principle by

the maxim of sympathy. Intelligently the author used ―Happy Prince‖, the
statue as a means of showing sympathy to the poor seamstress woman
whose little boy is lying ill. This is a nice instance of politeness principle.
"Swallow, Swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "Far away
across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a
desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a
bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips
are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is
trying to finish a play for the director of the theatre, but he is too
cold to write any more. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has
made him faint."
"I will wait with you one night longer," said the swallow, which
really had a good heart. "Shall I take him another ruby?"
"Alas! I have no ruby now," said the prince; "My eyes are all that i
have left. they are made of rare sapphires, which were brought out
of India a thousand years ago. Pluck out one of them and take it to
him. He will sell it to the jeweler, and buy food and firewood, and
finish his play."

This conversation is in accordance to the politeness principle by the

maxim of sympathy. Brilliantly Wilde used ―Happy Prince‖, the statue as a
means of showing sympathy to the hungry young man who felt cold that he
was unable to finish a play for the director of the theatre. Then Happy
Prince asked the swallow to pluck expensive sapphire from the statue‘s
eyes and gave it to the hungry man. It is given so that the man can buy
food and firewood and finish his play.
"In the square below," said the Happy Prince, "There stands a little
match-girl. She has let her matches fall in the gutter, and they are
all spoiled. Her father will beat her if she does not bring home
some money, and she is crying. She has no shoes or stockings, and
her little head is bare. Pluck out my other eye, and give it to her,
and her father will not beat her."
This conversation belongs to the politeness principle by the maxim

of sympathy. Smartly the writer used Happy Prince, the statue as a means
of showing sympathy to the little match-girl who will be beaten by her
father if she did not bring some money. Happy Prince then asked the
swallow to pluck his other eye and give the rare Indian sapphire to her.
This was done in order her father will not beat her.
“Dear prince," said the swallow, "I cannot do that"; and he began
to weep.
"Swallow, Swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "Do as I
command you."
This conversation is in line with the politeness principle by the

maxim of sympathy. Intelligently the author told the reader about the
feeling of swallow which did not have a heart to pluck the rare sapphire
from the face of Happy Prince stature. This was done It is given in order to
make a hungry man could buy food and firewood and finish his play.
"I will stay with you one night longer," said the swallow, "But I
cannot pluck out your eye. You would be quite blind then."

"Swallow, Swallow, little swallow," said the prince, "Do as I

command you."
This conversation is in line politeness principle by the maxim of

sympathy. Intelligently the author telling the reader about the feeling of
swallows which did not have a heart to pluck the other rare sapphire from
the face of Happy Prince stature. The swallow afraid this will make him
blind. This was done to the little match-girl who will be beaten by her
father if she did not bring some money. Happy Prince asked the swallow to
pluck the last sapphire in his eye and give the expensive jewelry to her.
This was done in order her father will not beat her.
"It is a ridiculous attachment," twittered the other swallows; "She
has no money, and far too many relations"; and indeed the river
was quite full of reeds. Then, when the autumn came they all flew
away.
This conversation is a flout and violation of the politeness principle

particularly the maxim of approbation. The author told us about the
conversation among the other swallows which criticize the effort of the
swallow which try to disturb the female Reed. A remark that ―the Reed has
no money and far too much relation‖ is a violation of maxim of
approbation.
Ideally as the speaker the swallows made a conversation which
―Maximize the expression of beliefs which express approval of other‖ but
in fact it can be clearly seen that they made a remarks which ―Minimize the
expression of beliefs which express dispraise of other‖.
He was very much admired indeed. "He is as beautiful as a
weathercock," Remarked one of the town councilors who wished to
gain a reputation for having artistic tastes; "only not quite so
useful," He added, fearing lest people should think him unpractical,
which he really was not.

This remark is the instance of ironical expression. In this case, the

words ―one of the town councilors that the statue of Happy Prince is as
beautiful as weathercock‖ is in contradiction with his character. The
readers have known that he said that just to gain a reputation for having
artistic tastes whereas, in fact, he did not have any artistic tastes. This is the
smart way of the author to mildly criticize the dumb government official at
that moment. It is actually offensive but the writer remarks it indirectly
through the characters in the short story by way of implicature.
Early the next morning the mayor was walking in the square below
in company with the town councilors. As they passed the column he
looked up at the statue: "Dear me! How shabby the happy prince
looks!" He said.
"How shabby indeed!" cried the town councilors, who always
agreed with the mayor; and they went up to look at it.
"The ruby has fallen out of his sword, his eyes are gone, and he is
golden no longer," said the mayor in fact, "He is little better than a
beggar!"
"Little better than a beggar," Said the town councilors.
This remark is another example of ironical expression. In this case

it can be seen the funny expression of the stupid town councilors which
always imitate what the major said. Actually, the town councilors has his
own wish and desire but because of his vested interest towards the major
he always justifies what the major said to him..This is the intelligent
craftsmanship of Wilde in mildly criticizing the fool government official at
that moment. It is actually offensive but the writer remarks it indirectly
through the characters in the short story by way of implicature.
Conclusion
In the short story, there are some variation‘s meanings of the
conversational implicature used in in Oscar Wilde‘s short story Happy
Prince, as follows: conversation implicature connected with cooperative

principles, politeness principle and ironical principle. In Oscar Wilde‘s

short story Happy Prince, there are six forms of politeness principle, two
forms of cooperative principles and two ironical principles.
The reasons of the conversational implicature used in Oscar Wilde‘s
short story Happy Prince are to make easy we understand the dialogue or
conversation in the short story. Beside that this is aimed at minimizing
misunderstanding among the readers and literary critics.
References
Encyclopedia Britannica Vol 14th . 1964. ―Oscar Wilde‖. Chicago. William
Benton Publishers.
Grice, Paul. 1975. Logic and Conversation. London. Oxford University
Press.
Hurford, James R. 1983. Semantics of Coursebook. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Leech, Geoffrey. 1983. Principle of Pragmatics. United Stated of America:
Longman Group.
Levinson, Stephen C. 1983. Pragmatics. New York. Cambridge University
Press.
Martina Stykatova. 2009. (http://is.muni.cz/th/124889/ff_m/M.A.
Diploma_Thesis.txt)
Mey, Jacob L. 1983. An Introduction of Pragmatics. United States of
America: Blackwell.
Mey, Jacob L. 1998. Concise Encylopedia of Pragmatics. New York:
Elseiver.
Palmer, F.R .1981. Semantics. New York. Cambridge University Press.
Potter, James L. 1967. Elements of Literature. The United States. The
Odyssey Press.Inc.
Samekto,S.S, M.A. 1974. Ikhtisar Sejarah Kesusastraan Inggris. Jakarta.
PT.Gramedia.
Yule, George. 1996. Pragmatics. New York. Oxford University Press.
http://www.online-literature.com/poe/177/

Setyoningsih
Setyoningsih
State Institute for Islamic Studies (STAIN) Kudus
Jl. Conge Ngembalrejo PO BOX 51 Kudus, Central Java, Indonesia
ning_kds@yahoo.com
Abstract
This study aims to identify and analyze the cultural conflicts between the
main characters in the novel Not Without my Daughter (NW). The analysis
was carried out through the following process. The first procedure related
to problems of classification i.e. cross cultural conflicts. The next phase of
data analysis related to the colletion data of cross cultural conflicts in NW.
The last phase is presentation the result of the analysis that had been
conducted in this research. Having analyzed the data, the researcher
concludes that cultural conflicts occured in NW because of stereotype,
prejudice, and ethnocentrism. Cultural conflicts can be prevented if we
increase our awareness of our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to
cross-cultural differences. However, if we develop intercultural sensitivity,
it does not mean that we need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that
we recognize cultural influences within ourselves and within others.
Keywords : Culture, Cross-Cultural Conflict, Culture Understanding
Abstrak
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi dan menganalisis konflik

budaya antara karakter utama dalam novel Not Without my Daughter
(NW). Analisis ini dilakukan melalui proses berikut. Prosedur pertama
terkait dengan masalah klasifikasi yaitu konflik lintas budaya. Tahap
berikutnya dari analisis data terkait dengan pengumpulan data tentang
konflik lintas budaya pada NW. Tahap terakhir adalah penyajian hasil
analisis yang telah dilakukan dalam penelitian ini. Setelah menganalisis
data, peneliti menyimpulkan bahwa konflik budaya terjadi di NW karena
stereotip, prasangka, dan etnosentrisme. Konflik budaya dapat dicegah jika
kita meningkatkan kesadaran terhadap sikap kita sendiri dan belajar untuk
peka terhadap perbedaan budaya. Namun, jika kita mengembangkan
sensitivitas interkultural, itu tidak berarti bahwa kita harus kehilangan

identitas - tapi lebih karena budaya kita menyadari pengaruh budaya dalam
diri kita sendiri dan pada orang lain.
Kata Kunci : Budaya , Konflik Lintas Budaya , Pemahaman Budaya
Introduction
Learning language is considered as learning its culture since
language is part of our culture (Nasr 1985:1). In Damen‘s opinion
(1987:211-213), as people learn a target language, their learning activity
includes learning the culture of the native speaker. Moreover, he assumes
that culture learning and; language learning are inextricably linked so there
can be no question as to whether culture should be taught or not. Hence,
we may conclude that learning a new culture is an essential part of learning
a new language.
Leveridge (2008) stated that teachers must instruct their students on
the cultural background of language usage. If one teaches language without
teaching about the culture in which it operates, the students are learning
empty or meaningless symbols or they may attach the incorrect meaning to
what is being taught. The students, she added, when using the learnt
language, may use the language inappropriately or within the wrong
cultural context, thus defeating the purpose of learning a language.
Because language is so closely entwined with culture, language
teachers entering a different culture must respect their cultural values. As
Englebert (2004) describes: ―…to teach a foreign language is also to teach
a foreign culture, and it is important to be sensitive to the fact that our
students, our colleges, our administrators, and, if we live abroad, our
neighbours, do not share all of our cultural paradigms.‖
The implications of language being completely entwined in culture,
in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching.

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Language teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background

of language usage, choose culturally appropriate teaching styles, and
explore culturally based linguistic differences to promote understanding
instead of misconceptions or prejudices. Language policy must be used to
create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to
incorporate the cultural values of those being taught. (Leveridge, 2008)
Recent studies focus on the seamless relationship between L2
teaching and target culture teaching, especially over the last decade with
the writings of scholars such as Byram (1989; 1994a; 1994b; 1997a;
1997b) and Kramsch (1988; 1993; 1996; 2001). People involved in
language teaching have again begun to understand the intertwined relation
between culture and language (Pulverness, 2003). It has been emphasized
that without the study of culture, teaching L2 is inaccurate and incomplete.
For L2 students, language study seems senseless if they know nothing
about the people who speak the target language or the country in which the
target language is spoken. Acquiring a new language means a lot more
than the manipulation of syntax and lexicon. Bada stated (2000: 101), ―the
need for cultural literacy in ELT arises mainly from the fact that most
language learners, not exposed to cultural elements of the society in
question, seem to encounter significant hardship in communicating
meaning to native speakers.‖ In addition, nowadays the L2 culture is
presented as an interdisciplinary core in many L2 curricula designs and
textbooks (Sysoyev & Donelson, 2002).
According to Stewart (1972:7), cross-cultural problems occur as
there are differences between patterns of thinking, assumptions and values
in different cultures. The problems often result in misunderstanding and
lead to ineffectual activity in face-to-face communication. By having
different cultural background, people sometimes can be in conflict with

other people. The conflict happens because there is strong contradiction of

norms that belong to each culture. As a result of strong influence of their
culture, people often have ethnocentric, stereotype, prejudice and racist
attitudes toward people whose culture is different from theirs.
Considering the above explanation, this paper identifies and
analyzes cross cultural conflicts caused by misinterpretation, stereotype,
prejudice and ethnocentrism found in a novel Not Without my Daughter.
The nature of conflict

According to Avruch, conflict is a feature of all human societies,
and potentially an aspect of all social relationships. However, ideas about
the root causes of conflict differ widely, and how one conceives of conflict
determines to a large degree the sorts of methods we ultimately design to
manage or resolve it. He added that the first orientation to conflict (and the
world) is sometimes called ―realism‖. This conception of conflict roots it in
the material world, as competition between individuals or groups over
incompatible goals or scarce resources, or over the sources of power
needed to reach those goals or control these resources, including the denial
of control to others. The second one is ―constructivism‖, a different
conception which locates the basic causes of conflict not so much in
material scarcity as in divergent perceptions or beliefs about the nature of
the situation, the other party, or oneself. But these terms, and the
dichotomous way of thinking they enjoin, in actuality mask a great deal of
social and behavioral complexity, both about the nature of conflict and
about the possibilities for managing or resolving it.
Literature indicates the multi-faceted nature of conflict. Mayer
(2000:3) states that conflict may be seen as a feeling or as inconsistent
worldviews. Augsburger (1992:25) indicated that ―conflict is universal,

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cultural and individual.‖ Some authors indicated that cultural differences

and misunderstandings create a major source of conflict (Hermann, et al,
1997:207).
Source of conflict
The sources of conflict play a critical role in determining
appropiate ways to manage conflict. Based on the research conducted by
Joan C Doerr (2004) in her dissertation, participants of her research
referred to six dimensions of conflict and one of them is the
communication process. In line with that, Mayer (2000:16) stated: ‖Culture
affects conflict because it is embedded in individuals‘ communication
styles, history, way of dealing with emotions, values, and structures.
Communication is a complicated process which is affected by different
cultural backgrounds. Communication takes places anytime a person
receives information and assigns meaning to the words or behaviour
(Bergeron, 2000:38). That behaviour may be conscious or unconscious and
it may be intentional or unintentional.
Communication is a complex process, which is used to create
understanding between people (Rutter, 1996:24). As Hesselgrave
(1991:46) remarked:.....effective communication is not easily achieved and
miscommunication is not easy to avoid.‖ The process becomes even more
difficult when the source and the participant originate from different
cultures. The degree of difficulty is due to dissimilarity between the two
original cultures (Myers, et al, 2001:98). The greater the variation between
cultural backgrounds, the more obstacles there are to communication.
Culture
Levine and Baxter (1987) state that culture has been described as
the system of knowledge, beliefs, and behaviour shared by a group of

people. Moreover, people use cultural knowledge and beliefs to understand

their world (what exists), their own experience (what happens to them) and
to guide their own actions and behaviour (what they do). Therefore, when
people share a culture, this means that they also have a shared language
and communication style as well as shared customs, beliefs, attitudes and
values. This shared knowledge is learned and is passed on from generation
to generation.
In addition, culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and
for behaviour acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the
distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in
artifacts (Brislin 1981:5). Culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society (Sherman 1980:77). In
short, culture is the system of knowledge, belief, and behaviour, which are
shared by and transmitted among members of a society.
In conclusion, then, culture can be defined in terms of the
continually changing patterns of learned behaviour, which are shared by
and transmitted among members of a society.
Culture and language

Damen (1987:120-124) views that language and culture have strong
connection in which language serves to facilitate classification and order.
Language reflects cultural emphases and language is related to the
worldviews of the speaker. Moreover, he explains that language learning
implies and embraces culture learning. Indeed, success in learning a second
or even third language is partially related to the acquisition of the cultural
baggage that is carried along with any linguistic system. In line with this,
Frederick (1989:89) quoting Lado and Rivers, states that learning a

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language should not be separated from learning the pattern and values of
the culture of which it is a part.
In addition, Leveridge (2008) states the relationship between
language and culture is deeply rooted. Language is used to maintain and
convey culture and cultural ties. Different ideas stem from differing
language use within one‘s culture and the whole intertwining of these
relationships start at one‘s birth.
The dialectical connection between language and culture has
always been a concern of L2 teachers and educators. Whether culture of
the target language is to be incorporated into L2 teaching has been a
subject of rapid change throughout language teaching history. In the course
of time, the pendulum of ELT practitioners‘ opinion has swung against or
for teaching culture in context of language teaching. For example, during
the first decades of the 20th century researchers discussed the importance
and possibilities of including cultural components into L2 curriculum
(Sysoyev & Donelson, 2002).
Kitao (1991) giving reference to several authors lists some of the
benefits of teaching culture as follows:
First, studying culture gives students a reason to study the target
language as well as rendering the study of L2 meaningful (Stainer,
1971). Second, studying culture makes studying foreign language
real. From the perspective of learners, one of the major problems in
language teaching is to conceive of the native speakers of target
language as real person. Although grammar books gives so called
genuine examples from real life, without background knowledge
those real situations may be considered fictive by the learners.
(Genc & Bada, 2005). In addition providing access into cultural
aspect of language, learning culture would help learners relate the
abstract sounds and forms of a language to real people and places
(Chastain, 1971). Third, studying culture increases studying
students‘ interest. The affect of motivation in the study of L2 has
been proved by experts like Gardner and Lambert (1959, 1965,
1972). In achieving high motivation, culture classes does have a

great role because learners like culturally based activities such as

singing, dancing, role playing, doing research on countries and
peoples, etc. Fourth, studying culture motivates students to study
foreign languages. The study of culture increases learners‘ not only
curiosity about and interest in target countries but also their
motivation. For example, when some professors introduced the
cultures of the L2s they taught, the learners‘ interests in those
classes increased a lot and the classes based on culture became to
be preferred more highly than traditional classes. (Genc & Bada,
2005). Fifth, studying culture is useful not only for understanding
people of other cultures but to help students understand themselves
and their own culture. In an age of post-modernism, in an age of
tolerance towards different ideologies, religions, sub-cultures, we
need to understand not only the other culture but also our own
culture. Most people espouse ethnocentric views due to being
culture bound, which leads to major problems when they confront a
different culture. Being culture bound, they just try to reject or
ignore the new culture. As if it is possible to make a hierarchy of
cultures they begin to talk about the supremacy of their culture.
This is because they have difficulty understanding or accepting
people with points of view based on other views of the world.
(Genc & Bada, 2005). Besides these benefits, studying culture gives
learners a liking for the native speakers of the target language.
Studying culture also plays a useful role in general education;
studying culture, we could also learn about the geography, history,
etc. of the target culture (Cooke, 1970).
McKay (2003), furthermore, contends that culture influences

language teaching in two ways: linguistic and pedagogical. Linguistically,
it affects the semantic, pragmatic, and discourse levels of the language.
Pedagogically, it influences the choice of the language materials because
cultural content of the language materials and the cultural basis of the
teaching methodology are to be taken into consideration while deciding
upon the language materials. For example, while some textbooks provide
examples from the target culture, some others use source culture materials.

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Cultural Conflict
According Avruch , by definition, conflict occurring between
individuals or social groups that are separated by cultural boundaries can
be considered ―cross-cultural conflict.‖ But individuals, even in the same
society, are potentially members of many different groups, organized in
different ways by different criteria: for example, by kinship into families or
clans; by language, religion, ethnicity, or nationality; by socioeconomic
characteristics into social classes; by geographical region into political
interest groups; and by education, occupation, or institutional memberships
into professions, trade unions, organizations, industries, bureaucracies,
political parties, or militaries. Avruch added that the more complex and
differentiated the society the more numerous are potential groupings. Each
of these groups is a potential ―container‖ for culture, and thus any complex
society is likely to be made up various ―subcultures,‖ that is of individuals
who, by virtue of overlapping and multiple group memberships, are
themselves ―multicultural.‖ This means that conflict across cultural
boundaries may occur simultaneously at many different levels, not just at
the higher levels of social grouping.
Second language learning is characterized by miscommunication,
failure to communicate clearly, however, is not merely a linguistic
problem; linguistic ―conflict‖ has the potential to turn into cross-cultural
conflicts. (McAllister 1995:13). Miscommunication can happen in
intercultural communication. Intercultural communication is
communication between members of different cultures. This definition is
simple, but the process is complex. Intercultural communication involves
differing perceptions, attitudes, and interpretations. We know that even two
people from the same culture can have communication problems. People
can unintentionally hurt each other by something they say or do. Isn't it

logical, then, that communication problems can be compounded among

people who do not have the benefit of shared experiences (i. e., language
and culture)? In short, intracultural communication is communication
between two persons or groups not sharing similar cultural pattern. It is
common that even two people in the same culture can have cultural
conflicts that we called intracultural communication. Cultural conflict is a
conflict that occurs as a friction of different cultures. In addition, cultural
conflicts occur as a result of misinterpretation, etnocentrism, stereotype
and prejudice.
Misinterpretation
Misinterpretation happens between people from different cultures.
Communication between members of different cultures can arouse
misunderstanding which causes misinterpretation. This problem happens
because people interpret something according to their own culture and it is
possible for members of different cultures to have different interpretation
on the same thing. He should not assume that if someone says or does, the
listeners always interpret one‘s message according to their cultural
meaning.
Stereotype
The identification of stereotypes is an important key to cross-
cultural communication. Stereotypes are standardized and oversimplified
descriptions applied to groups or people; teenagers are irresponsible, Jews
are greedy. Occasionally they are classified based on limited experience, as
when a person knows one Armenian and decides that all Armenians are
just like the one he or she knows.
Stereotype is sometimes distorted description of group of people
whether negative or positive which prevents us from viewing people as

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individual with distinct and unique characteristic. Often stereotypes are

based on indirect experience contradictory information or no information
at all. Blacks were once stereotyped simultaneously good-natured people
and savages. Stereotypes are imbedded in cultures. Old folktales create and
keep stereotypes alive (Stewart, 1981:202)
People who are limited in personal experiences become easy to
have their own interpretations that make stereotype or overgeneralization.
Stereotype is to decide that something is common to all members of
culture. People who have stereotype about a group of people fail to
understand the variety that exists in the culture. They ascribe to the whole
what is observed merely of a part. (McAllister 1995:16)
Stereotypical beliefs prevent us from seeing people as individuals with
unique characteristics. Negative stereotypes lead to prejudice: suspicion,
intolerance, or hatred of other cultural groups.
One of the best way to avoid problem of stereotyping and
unintentional slights is to make an aeffort at approaching all people as
human beings (Arai, et al, 2001:447; Hiebert, 1985:98; Samovar, et al,
1981:87). This mental choice helps one to be more aware of the similarities
among people, irregardless of race of skin colour. It also helps to build a
positive attitude toward people of other cultures.
Prejudice
Prejudice is the negative prejudgement of entire group usually a
racial or ethnic groups they have ever seen-Chinese children learned about
the aggressive, ―big nosed‖ ―round eyes‖ before the diplomatic thaw
between East and West in the 1970s and many Americans knew that
Vietnamese were sneaky, cunning, untrustworthy, and dirty.
Prejudiced attitudes may also grow from direct interaction between
members of different groups. If all the interaction is between one group in

a superior position and another group in an inferior position, then it is sure

to become stereotyped. It makes prejudice stronger, and a vicious circle is
begun (Stewart, 1981:203).
Prejudice is a judgment that a particular ethnic group is inherently
inferior to others. If anyone who judges another culture and not his/her
own, he/she is guilty of racial prejudice (McAllister 1995:17)
Brislin (1981:41-42) states that prejudice refers to a person‘s
emotional reactions and, thus, represents the affective component.
Moreover, he says that usually people react negatively to others on an
emotional basis, with an absence of direct contact or factual material about
the others.
Furthermore, Brislin (1981:69) comments that prejudice can be
expressed in a variety of forms, from vicious racism, to deeply felt
disapproval of behaviours of other group. Prejudice is commonly viewed
as hostile, rigid, and overt which could be changed if people would come
into contact and learn more about each other. It is very necessary to have
an understanding to reduce prejudice.
Ethnocentrism
The emotional response which people often have when first faced
with another culture is known as ethnocentrism. Difficulties in intercultural
communication arise when there is little or no awareness of divergent
cultural values and beliefs. In cross-cultural interaction, speakers
sometimes assume that what they believe is right, because they have grown
up thinking their way is the best. This ethnocentric assumption can result
in negative judgments about other cultures. Another manifestation of
ethnocentric attitudes is that people become critical of individuals from
different cultures. (Doerr, 2004)

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According to McAllister (1995:14), ethnocentrism is believing that

‗culturally different‘ means bad or wrong. As being different means bad or
wrong, then an ethnocentric person thinks that anyone who is different
from him/her is either bad or wrong. This problem begins with the
perception of members of a certain culture that ‗their own culture is the
best and other cultures are the worst‘. This bad attitude involves treatment
toward another culture‘s belief, actions, speech attitude and perceptions.
Ethnocentrism blinds us so that we cannot see the good in others. Thus, as
cultural identity, ethnocentrism represents the bright side of ethnocentrism,
but when such cultural bias is used to support negative evaluation of the
new and strange culture, it is the dark side of ethnocentrism.
In the following example, Rosamine and Merita demonstrate that
they cannot understand each other's points of view. Rosamine and Merita
are talking to each other about relationships between children and parents.
In Rosamine‘s culture children live with their parents until marriage
because dependence on parents is considered positive. In Merita's culture
children leave home when they are eighteen because independence and
self-reliance are considered positive.
Rosamine: ―I think it‘s terrible that in your country children leave their
parents when they‘re so young. Something that shocks me
even more is that many parents want their children to leave
home. I can‘t understand why children and parents don‘t like
each other in your country.‖
Merita: ― In your country parents don‘t allow their children to become
independent. Parents keep their children protected until the
children get married. How are young people in your country
supposed to learn about life that way?‖
Both women are insensitive to each other's values concerning

family life. They have been raised and conditioned according to cultural
norms. Therefore, each bas a different view of what is right.

There are two dimensions which assist a person in overcoming this

propensity toward ethnocentrism (Haris & Kumra, 2000: 610): (1) An
increased awareness of one‘s culture and (2) An awareness of the
differences in work values and cultural values of other cultures.
Lingenfelter and Mayers (2001:23) add one further step to
successful cross-cultural interaction, which is the desire to become a
‗learner‘ in the new culture. Becoming a ‗learner‘ implies the concept of
discovery, as new ideas are shared and explored. It also requires people to
be open and teachable in the face of new ideas.
Negotiation of cross-cultural conflict

People will never understand someone from another culture without
understanding what she or he assumes about the world and worlds. In other
words, we can say that people need to know cross-cultural understanding.
One of the main reasons cultures are so different is that they have different
values. This is because, human nature usually interprets ‗different‘ as ‗bad‘
or ‗wrong‘. A fundamental principle of cross cultural understanding is that
only someone who is culturally literate in his/her own culture can truly
understand why she/he believes and behaves as she/he does. We can say
that by looking into the heart of our own culture, we will be much prepared
to understand other cultures. Actually, most people do not know their own
core values. People who are ignorant of their values, beliefs and
assumptions are culturally illiterate. They cannot ‗read and write‘ their
values.
Most of us are too close to our own cultures to be able to see its
details, to notice anything usual, to identify what lies behind the surface.
Within our own cultures, everything seems perfectly normal; we are like
someone who is standing with his face pressed light up against a mirror,

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we cannot see very much about ourselves from that position. In order to
become culturally literate, we have to step back away from the mirror in
order to see things about ourselves. And when we understand ourselves
and our own culture we can understand people from other cultures.
From the definition above, we can see that misinterpretation,
ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudices have negative meaning. The
attitudes can cause the appearance of conflict with other culture. Actually,
we can reduce and eliminate negative stereotypes, ethnocentrism, prejudice
by increasing awareness of our own attitudes to cross-cultural differences
or ethnic and racial diversities as well as establishing personal or direct
relationships with individuals from different religions, races or cultures.
Research Methodology
Novel as one kind of literary text is interesting to be analysed since
novel is a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length in which
characters and actions representative of real life are portrayed in a plot of
more or less complexity (Rees 1973:106). That is why people seem to be
interested in reading novels rather than poetry or play.
Collie and Slater (1987:4) explain, the ‗world‘ of a novel offers a
full and vivid context since it is a created one. A reader can find an
author‘s thoughts, feelings, customs, possessions, belief, fear, and joy, and
how they speak which are reflected through the characters. They added that
this vivid imagined world could quickly give the foreign reader a feel for
the codes and preoccupations that structure a real society. Furthermore,
Koesnosoebroto (1988:20) says that the novel, more than any other genre,
can give form to a set of attitudes regarding society, history and the general
culture of which the novel is a part. In short, it is possible for students to
learn a nation‘s culture through a novel.

The object of the study is a novel Not Without my Daughter (NW

for short) by William Hoffer and Betty Mahmoody. NW is a ‗non-fiction
novel‘ in which the author presents actual people and events in story form
(Koesnosoebroto 1988:26). The researcher has chosen this novel because it
reflects the social condition and the culture of people, which comes into
contact with another culture. By reading this novel, the readers can learn
cross-cultural conflict revealed in the novel so it will increase their cultural
awareness.
The novel talks about an American woman who was trapped in Iran
society, which has different culture from hers. The story is based on the
true story of Betty Mahmoody, an American woman who was trapped in
Iran society with her daughter. It happened in 1984-1986. It started on 3rd
august 1984 when Moody, Betty and their daughter went to Tehran, Iran.
They planned to stay there for two weeks to see Moody‘s family. At first,
his family welcomed them happily. However, they changed their attitude
slowly since they were upset why Moody took an American woman as a
wife. At that time, Iran was embroiled in a bitter war with Iraq. They
assumed that America supported Iraq. That was the reason why they hated
American. Cultural conflicts often occurred when Betty was staying there
as she had different culture from that of Iranian such as belief, custom, and
value. After experiencing difficult times, she and her daughter, Mahtob
finally arrived safely home in Michigan on 7th February 1986, for an
ecstatic but bittersweet reunion with their family. She was helped by
William Hoffer and his wife, Marilyn, in writing her story. Hoffer is the
co-author of midnight express, another story of an American held captive
in the Middle East. This material is chosen because it contains cultural
conflicts between the main character, i.e. Moody, an Iranian and her
American wife, Betty Mahmoody.

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The research is a qualitative descriptive research. The primary data

were cross cultural conflicts caused by ethnocentrism, stereotype and
prejudice obtained from the novel NW through frequent reading and
analysis. This study employed the researcher as the instrument to find
adequate and profound data and analyze them. The procedures that had
been used in this research were (1) provision of data; (2) classification and
data analysis; (3) presentation of data analysis. The first procedure related
to problems of classification i.e. cross cultural conflicts. The phase of data
analysis related to the collection data of cross cultural conflicts in NW.
They were classified into misinterpretation, ethnocentrism, stereotype and
prejudice. The last phase is presentation the result of the analysis that had
been conducted in this research.
Discussion
Characters
Two kinds of characters that are discussed are major and minor
characters. Main characters are the most important characters in a story.
Minor characters are characters of less important than those of the main
(Koesnosoebroto 1988:67)
Main characters
There are two main characters: Betty Mahmoody and Sayyed
Bozorg Mahmoody or Moody. Betty was optimistic in facing difficulty.
She always tried to find chances or way out of her problems. She was also
a brave and desperate woman. When a chance to run away came, she
determined to make a desperate run for freedom. She was honest too.
Unless she liked something, she would say it directly although some
people would get angry to her. Moreover, she was a good and loving
mother.

Moody was illustrious lineage in his homeland, Iran. He was a

brilliant man who could master any subject. He was a physician trained in
America. Culturally he was a mixture of east and west as he had lived in
the United States for two decades. He was already beginning to bald and
not particularly handsome, but his strong stocky build was appealing. He
had paradoxical personality as he was a loving husband and father but he
was also short-tempered and belligerent. Sometimes he was kind. On other
occasion, he turned into an evil man.
Minor characters
Five minor characters in the novel are Sara Mahmoody Ghodsi or
Ameh Bozorg, Helen Balassanian, Hamid, Judy, and Amahl. Ameh Bozorg
was Moody‘s sister. She was a large-boned, broad-shouldered woman
quite a bit older than Moody who was forty-seven years old. She had
greenish brown eyes. She married Sayyed Salam Ghodzi or Baba Hajji and
had six sons and three daughters. Helen worked in the Swiss embassy in
Tehran. She was austere but friendly. She was tall and thin. She was about
forties. She was also helpful.
Hamid was a menswear-shop owner. He was tall and dark-haired.
He was an ex-officer in the shah‘s army. He was also trying to find a way
out for himself and his family. He helped Betty by letting her use his
phone.
Judy was a young and blond-haired American woman. Her Iranian-
born husband was a contractor in New York city. She introduced Betty to
Rasheed, someone who knew people who could take people out of Iran
through turkey.
Amahl was a short, thin man. He hoped someday he could get
himself and his family out of Iran, but the circumstances of his life were
extraordinary intricate. By day he was a successful businessman,

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outwardly supportive of the Ayatollah‘s government. By night his life was

a web of intrigue.
Setting
Setting in the story was divided into place and time where and
when the story occurred. The places were in America, Iran and Turkey.
The time in which the story occurred was from 1974 to 1986.
Mood or atmosphere
The atmosphere of NW was the Iranian culture. It concerned with
the way of dressing and the celebration. In dressing Iranian women were
required to keep their arms, legs and foreheads covered. They were
wrapped almost completely in chadors. A chador was a large half-moon-
shaped cloth entwined around the shoulders, foreheads and chin to reveal
only eyes, nose and mouth. They wore montoes, which were large coats
that reach down nearly to ankles and rosaries, long and heavy scarves
when they went outside. However, if there were guests came, they still had
to wear the chadors.
Meanwhile for celebration, there were some mentioned in the story.
The first was the Muslim Sabbath. On that day, Friday, families gathered
in the home of the eldest relative to spend extra time in prayer. The second
celebration was war week. It was an annual celebration of the glories of
Islamic combat, occasioned by the ongoing war with Iraq and, by
extension with America, since Iraq was simply a puppet of the United
States. There was a demonstration of ominous roar of jet aircraft that flew
low. Bright flashes of antiaircraft fire lit up the sky, followed by sharp,
booming airborne explosions. The third one was No-ruz day- the Persian
New Year. It was a two-week holiday during which all the women scrub
their houses clean in preparation door rounds of celebration. Families

whiled away their time at dinner parties, teas, and receptions in the homes
of relatives. It was on 21st march.
Plot
Incentive moment
The story began when Betty Mahmoody went to Iran with moody,
her Iranian-born husband and her daughter, Mahtob to visit her husband‘s
family. He swore that they would stay in Tehran for only two weeks.
However, he lied and said they would stay in Tehran forever. Although she
did not agree the idea, he was adamant.
Complication
Moody asked her to go to see her dad alone, without her daughter
as her dad was sick. She was surprised with his change at first, but then she
knew the mad reasoning behind his sudden decision to let her return to
America. He wanted her to sell everything they owned in America and he
would not allow her coming back before she brought the money. He held
Mahtob as a hostage.
Climax
Moody imprisoned her for three days until she got onto the airplane
so that she could not make a contact with Amahl, someone who could help
her getting out of iran. Finally, she had a chance when an ambulance came
to pick moody up. She decided to do something to get out of moody‘s
house and run her plan. Finally, she succeeded and then made a difficult
journey to turkey.
Resolution
The resolution started when Betty arrived at the border between
Iran and turkey. Although they were still far from free, at least, they were

Setyoningsih
out of Iran. However, it was not the end of the story. It was just the
beginning of the resolution. The next story was how they journeyed to
Ankara, turkey, where they could fly safely to America.
Theme
Themes that can be formulated from the novel are: (1) A mother
who loves her daughter so much that she dares to face any danger for her
daughter‘s sake and (2) there must be a way out of any problems as long as
you try hard.
Point of view
This story uses the first point of view as the author tells the story in
the first person. She appears as one of the main characters. Therefore, she
occupies the position of ―I‖.
Analysis of cultural conflicts in NW which were caused by

ethnocentrism, stereotype and prejudice
Ethnocentrism
After being stayed in Ameh Bozorg‘s house for a couple of months,
betty and Moody moved to Reza‘s house. Reza was the fifth son of Ameh
Bozorg. She admitted that his house was cleaner than Ameh Bozorg‘s, but
she thought that it was still filthy
In many respects Essey was a far better housekeeper than Ameh
Bozorg, but the house was still filthy by American standard.
(p.456)
She judged hygiene based on American not Iranian standard. She

considered Ameh Bozorg as a bad housekeeper. She knew little about the
basic hygiene. On the contrary, she was a paragon of cleanliness to Iranian
people.

―Even Ameh Bozorg was a paragon of wisdom and cleanliness next

to the people on the street of Tehran. (p.431)
It can be said that Betty considered American standard of hygiene

was higher than Iranian. In this case, Betty included ethnocentric people
who tended to see her own group, country, culture as something that was
the best.
Stereotype
One evening after having dinner in one of Moody‘s cousins‘ house,
Betty was involved in a conversation with them. They talked about how
women were oppressed in Iran which was not true according to Iranian.
―Well, the son said, ―I‘m sure before you came you heard a lot of
things about how women are oppressed in Iran. Now that you have
been here, you understand that those are all lies?‖ (p.434)
By reading the quotation above, we can see that Americans

considered that women were oppressed in Iran.
―That‘s not what I see at all,‖ I said (p.434)
Betty as an American still considered that this was true. Even when
she and Moody were back in home, they still argued about it.
―You should agree with him.‖
―But it‘s not true.‖
―Well, it‘s true,‖ he said. (p.434)
She believed that men oppressed women in Iran. However, Moody,

as an Iranian thought in the opposite way. So, in conclusion, American had
an opinion about the stereotype of Iranian men that they oppressed women.
There is another example of stereotype of Iranian people according to
Betty. She regarded that Iranian people hated American, although they
venerated American education. The example of this was Moody who had
studied in America to be a physician.

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―What was an American woman doing flying into a country that

had the most openly hostile attitude toward Americans of any
nation in the world? (p:417)
However, not all of them hated American. Some of them like

Americans such as Chamsey and Zaree who were neighbors‘ of Moody‘s
family in Shustar, even considered themselves as American.
Both women considered themselves American (p:522)
There were also some people who wanted to go out of Iran to America.
They preferred living in America to Iran. They were Hamid who was an
ex-officer in the shah‘s army and was a menswear-shop owner and Amahl.
Actually, Iranian people were divided into two groups. The first group was
very fanatic to the Ayatollah Khomeini‘s Shiite sect of Islam such as Ameh
Bozorg, Baba Hajji, Reza, Mammal. The other one seemed a bit more
westernized. The other one seemed a bit more westernized. They were
more likely to speak English such as Chamsey, Zaree, Hamid, and Amahl.
Prejudice
Prejudice is a judgment that a particular ethnic group is inherently
inferior to others. In NW, we can also find Betty‘s prejudice toward Iran
country which can be seen in the citation below,
―Surely, I thought, in time Moody would be sickened by the filth
around him. He would realize that his professional future was in
America, not in a backward nation that had yet to learn the basic of
hygiene and social justice (p:444)
Here, Betty considered that Iran was a filthy country because

Iranian did not know the basics of hygiene. She thought that Moody, his
husband was not proper staying in Iran since a doctor, he must know the
value of hygiene. She also regarded Iran as a backward nation that

indirectly means that she was of the opinion that Iran was inferior to her
country. In short, Betty has negative judgment toward Iran country.
Conclusions
Cultural conflicts occurred because of friction of different cultures
between Betty‘s culture, in this case America, and Iran culture. The
cultural aspects causing conflicts found in NW were misinterpretation,
prejudice, stereotype and ethnocentrism. It is necessary for English
learners to know about the English culture so that they may have a better
cross culturally understanding. Further they will be more tolerant and wiser
in order to reduce cultural conflicts that may occur in intercultural
communication.
Cultural conflicts can be prevented if we increase our awareness of
our own attitudes and learn to be sensitive to cross-cultural differences.
However, if we develop intercultural sensitivity, it does not mean that we
need to lose our cultural identities-but rather that we recognize cultural
influences within ourselves and within others. By understanding other
cultures well, we could respect other cultures and reduce cultural conflicts
that might occur in intercultural communication.
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INDEX
A G
Akuisisi Bahasa Kedua, 178 Gricean theory, 195, 196, 202
Anak-Anak, 178
Analisis Kesalahan, 130 H
As-Salaam Kindergarten, 188 Happy Prince, 195, 198, 201, 202,
Assessment, 173, 174, 176 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209,
210, 211, 212
B
Be, 129, 198 I
Berpikir Kritis, 164 illocutionary act, 147, 149
Bloom‘s Taxonomy, 163, 165, 175 Implikatur Percakapan, 196
Budaya, 214 Instruksi, 147, 148
C K
Conversational Implicature, 195, Konflik Lintas Budaya, 214
196, 198, 207 Konteks Sosial, 178
Critical Thinking, 163, 169, 170,
175, 176 L
Critical Thinking Strategies, 163
Cross Cultural Conflicts, 213 Language Classes, 163
Cross-Cultural Conflict, 213, 236 Language Teaching, 163, 237, 238
Culture, 213, 217, 218, 236, 237, Lesson Plan, 163, 170
238, 239
M
Culture Understanding, 213
Maslihatul Umami, 177
D Maxims, 196
directives, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152, Muhammadiyah University
153, 154, 156, 158, 159, 160, 161 Semarang, 147, 151
E N
Early Child, 177 Norwanto, 163

English Lecturers, 147 Not Without my Daughter, 213,
Error Analysis, 129, 132, 133 216, 228
F
O
Faizal Risdianto, S.S,M.Hum, 195
Oscar Wilde, 195, 196, 198, 201,
204, 205, 207, 211, 212

A Correlative Study of Reading Speed
P Struktur Instruksi Guru, 148

Students Writing, 129
Pemahaman Budaya, 214
Students‘ Composition, 129
Pengajaran Bahasa, 164
Petunjuk Pengajar, 148
T
R Taksonomi Bloom, 164
teacher‘s directives, 147, 150
Rochmat Budi Santosa, 129
Teacher‘s Directives, 147, 153
RPP, 164
Teori Gricean, 196
Rr. Dewi Wahyu Mustikasari, 147
The Social Context, 177
S the structure of teacher‘s directives,
147
Second Language Acquisition, 132, Tindak Ilokusi, 148
177, 193, 194, See SLA Tulisan Mahasiswa, 130
Setyoningsih, 213
Short story, 196, 197 W
Social Context, 177
Writing skills, 134
242 REGISTER, Vol. 1, No. 1, June 2008

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Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011 ISSN 1979-8903

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Vol. 4, No. 2, November 2011 ISSN 1979-8903

Error Analysis on the Use of ―Be‖ in the Students‘ Composition

The Structure of Teacher‘s Directives of the English Lecturers of

Designing Lesson Plan Based on Critical Thinking for Language Classes .

The Social Context of Early Child Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

A Conversational Implicature Analysis In Oscar Wilde‘s Short Story

Cross Cultural Conflicts in Not Without my Daughter

Submission Guidelines .........................................................................243

Error Analysis on the Use of “Be” in the Students’

Rochmat Budi Santosa

Keywords: Error Analysis, Students Writing

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi, menganalisis, dan

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Kata Kunci : Analisis Kesalahan , Tulisan Mahasiswa

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From the comparison of the two sentences, it can be stated that

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Based on the background of the problems above, the formulation of

The importance of error analysis

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Analyzing the errors made by students provides many benefits in

The difference between error and mistake

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compound-complex sentence. Simple sentence is the sentence that contains

Data sources and data

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use of ‗be‘ in English sentences. In addition, to simplify the analysis, each

Data analysis method

Discussion and finding

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3. Almost of all the existing writings, we always find sentence/sentences

Based on the analysis of error regarding the use of 'be' it can be

Error in omission of 'be'

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Error in the addition of 'be'

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it adds unnecessary ‗was‘. As in 'past tense', ‗happen‘ is replaced by a

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Error in application of 'be'

In this sentence there is 'am' specifically used by the first person

4 073 I were not finded

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running until station.

Errors in the placement of 'be'

This is a significant positive sentence pattern 'Near the mosque

Complex errors in the Use of 'be'

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In the long sentences there is 'was' as a 'be' in past form. Complex

2 112 We weren‘t spoken about study.

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Harmer, Jeremy. 2004. Teach Writing. England: Pearson Education

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The Structure of Teacher’s Directives of the English

Rr. Dewi Wahyu Mustikasari

Teacher‘s directive is an interesting item to discuss since it can be

Keywords: illocutionary act, directives, teacher’s directives, the structure