TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING
PAVEMENT DESIGN
LECTURE
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
• the application of technology and scientific principles to the planning,
functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any
mode of transportation in order to provide for safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally
compatible movement of people and goods.

• TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
• is defined as that phase of transportation engineering which deals with the
planning, geometric designs and traffic operations of roads, streets and
highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with
other modes of transportation.
• Area of Concerns of Traffic
Engineer
• 1. planning
• 2. design
• 3. construction
• 4. operation and control
• 5. and management
• Aspects of Traffic Engineering
• Planning of street and highway
facilities
• Design of geometric configuration of
street and highway facilities
• Construction streets and highways
• Traffic operation and control
• Traffic safety
• Maintenance of traffic facilities and
controls
• Management of traffic facilities and
controls
• Two Important Goals for Transport or Highway Engineer:
• 1. Provide a high Level of Service (LOS) = by minimizing travel time
and delays
• 2. Provide high Level of Safety (LOS) = by minimizing accident and
harmful effects to environment

• The two are not only often contradictory but must be achieved in the
context of ever changing constraints such as:
• - Economic (the cost of highway-related projects)
• - Political (the social related impacts of the projects)
• - Environmental (impact related to air, water and noise)
HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
• earliest form of travel was on foot
• pack animals were utilized
• invention of wheel

• a good highway is always interwoven with every phrase of our daily

life. It is impossible to imagine how life would be like without a good
highway

• people and economy depend on highways for the movement of

goods, for travel to and from work, for services, for our social and
recreational needs, etc.
• A Look Back
• 3500 B.C. – the first hard surfaces road appeared in Mesopotamia.
• 3000 B.C. – magnificent road was constructed to aid the building of
the great pyramid of Egypt
• 2000 B.C. – the streets of the great city of Babylon was paved.

• The most advanced highway system of the ancient world was that of
the Roman Empire built primarily for military supremacy.
• Built in stone with 3 ft or more in thickness; many are still in existence.
• After the fall of the Roman Empire, road building along with other forms of
scientific activities was virtually ceased or practically dead for a period of
1000 years.
• 1659 – a stagecoaches was introduced but proven to be ineffective to the
extremely very poor rural roadway condition.
• Early 18th Century – the only convenient means of travel was on foot or
horseback.
• Later Development

• Interest in the art of building roads was revived in Europe in the late
17th and early 18th Century.

• Tresaguet - a French engineer who advocated a new method of road

construction utilizing broken stone as base and covered with small
stones as wearing surface

• Napoleon – gave encouragement resulting in increased activity of

road construction chiefly for military purposes. It led to the
establishment of the National Highway System in Europe
• About the same time in England in early 18th Century, two Scottish
Engineers (Telford and McAdam) developed similar types of
construction

• Telford utilizes the use of large pieces of ledge stone as base material
and smaller stone as wearing surface

• McAdam pioneered the use of smaller broken stone throughout the

road cross section. The later type of construction is still being use and
very popular nowadays because of ease of construction.
• HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATION (grouped according to the type of service
they provide)
• Expressway are divided highway for through traffic with full or partial
control of access and generally with grade separation at major
intersections
• Full control of access means that the authority to control access is exercised
to give preference to through traffic by providing access connections with
selected public roads and prohibiting crossing at grade or direct private
driveway connections
• Partial control of access means that the authority to control access is
exercised to give preference to through traffic to a degree that, in addition to
access connections with selected public roads, there may be some crossing at
grade and some private driveway connection.
• Freeway is an expressway with full control of access and egress.

• Arterial are highways that provide direct service to major population

centers.

• Collectors provide direct service to towns and link up with arterials.

• Local roads connect various regions of a municipality and tie into the
system of collectors.
INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENT DESIGN
• A pavement is defined as a durable surfacing of a road, sidewalk, or
other outdoor area.

• The main purpose of the pavement structure is to provide a means of

reducing the pressure or stress due to a wheel load to a value which
the ground (subgrade) under that structure can support.
• Basic Functions of Pavement
• To help guide the driver by giving visual perspective of the horizontal and
vertical alignment of the travel path. Consequently, the driver is given
information about the driving task and the steering of the vehicle.

• To support vehicle loads – it is the pavement’s function to distribute the

traffic loading stresses to the soil (subgrade) at a magnitude that will not
shear or distort the soil.

• General Types of Pavement

• Flexible Pavement

• Rigid Pavement
• Flexible Pavement

• typically composed of several layers of material with better quality

materials on top where the intensity of stress from traffic loads is
high and lower quality materials at the bottom where the stress
intensity is low

• can be analyzed as a multilayer system under loading

• A typical flexible pavement structure consists of the surface course
and underlying base and subbase courses.
• Each of these layers contributes to structural support and drainage.

Figure 1. Typical section for a flexible pavement

• Perpetual Pavement

• Perpetual pavement is a term used to describe a long-life structural

design, using premium HMA mixtures, appropriate construction
techniques and occasional maintenance to renew the surface.

• Close attention must be paid to proper construction techniques to

avoid problems with permeability, trapping moisture, segregation
with depth, and variability of density with depth.

• A perpetual pavement can last 30 yr. or more if properly maintained.

Figure 2. Generalized perpetual pavement design
• Rigid Pavement

• A rigid pavement structure is composed of a hydraulic cement

concrete surface course, and underlying base and subbase courses (if
used). Another term commonly used is Portland cement concrete
(PCC) pavement

Figure 3. Typical section for a flexible pavement

• The surface course (concrete slab) is the stiffest and provides the
majority of strength. The base or subbase layers are orders of
magnitude less stiff than the PCC surface but still make important
contributions to pavement drainage, frost protection and provide a
working platform for construction equipment

• Rigid pavements are substantially ‘stiffer’ than flexible pavements

due to the high modulus of elasticity of the PCC material resulting in
very low deflections under loading.
• Pavement Type Selection

• Principal Factors
• traffic (volume, percent heavy trucks, degree of congestion resulting from
subsequent rehabilitation efforts)
• soils characteristics (shrink-swell potential, bearing capacity)
• climate/weather (amount of rainfall, icing potential)
• construction considerations (staged, urgency of quick completion, detour
requirements, anticipated future widening)
• recycling (using material from existing structure or other sources)
• cost comparison (life-cycle cost analysis [LCCA] is preferred, but initial
costs may dictate).
• Secondary factors may include

• performance of similar pavements in the area (similar structures with

similar traffic history)
• adjacent existing pavement sections (continuity of cross section)
• conservation of materials and energy
• availability of local materials or contractor capabilities
• traffic safety (reflectivity properties under highway lighting, surface
drainage, maintenance of skid properties)
• traffic noise mitigation (added)
• incorporation of experimental features (unique to one pavement type)
• stimulation of competition between major paving industries
• local preference.
• Rigid and Flexible Pavement Characteristics

Figure 4. Typical stress distribution under a rigid and a flexible

pavement.
• DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOAD

• Flexible Pavement Load

Distribution
• In the case of flexible pavement,
each individual layer contributes
to reduce the stresses caused by
the wheel load in a cone like
manner

Figure 5. Distribution of load on a

flexible pavement
• Rigid Pavement Load Distribution
• A rigid pavement distributes the wheel loads by the beam action of the PCC
slab.
• The PCC slab is made of material that has a high modulus of elasticity of (4-
5 million psi) compared to other pavement material.

Figure 6. Typical beam action of a rigid pavement

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN PRINCIPLES
CALCULATION OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRESSES AND DEFLECTION
• Boussinesq Theory: assumes that the pavement is a one layer thick and the
material is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic.
• In its simplest form, the wheel load can be assumed to consist of a point
load on a single-layer system.

Figure 7. Point Load on a one-layer pavement

• EQUATION OF STRESSES
The basic equation for the stresses 𝐾 = variable defined as
at a point in the system is
3 1
𝑃 𝐾= ∗
2𝜋 [1 + 𝑟/𝑧 2 ]5/2
𝜎𝑧 = 𝐾 2
𝑧
Where:
Where: 𝑟 = is the radial distance in
𝑃 = the wheel load in inches from the
pounds centerline of the point
𝑧 = the depth of the point in load to the point in
question in inches question
The Boussinesq Theory is not very representative in terms of pavement
system loading and configuration, since it applies to a point load on
one layer. A more realistic approach is to expand the point load system
to an elliptical area that represents tire footprints. The tire footprints
can be defined by an equivalent circular area with a radius calculated
as
𝑃
𝑎=
𝜌𝜋
Where:
𝑃 = is the tire load in pounds
𝜌 = is the tire pressure in psi,
𝑎 =is the equivalent load radius in inches
• THE AHLVIN & ULERY EQUATIONS

A more conservative approach for flexible pavement design was

developed by Ahlvin and Ulery [1962]. The Ahlvin and Ulery equations
provided solutions for the evaluation of stresses, strains, and
deflections at any point in a homogeneous half-space. The equations
can be used for a material with any Poisson ratio.

𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝜇, describes the change in width to length when the

load is applied along the vertical axis.
• Equaion for vertical stress, 𝜎𝑧

𝜎𝑧 = 𝜌(𝐴 + 𝐵)

• Equation for radial horizontal stress, 𝜎𝑟 , which causes pavement

cracking is

𝜎𝑟 = 𝜌[2𝜇𝐴 + 𝐶 + 1 − 2𝜇 𝐹]
• Equation for deflection, ∆𝑧

𝜌 1+𝜇 𝑎
∆𝑧 = [𝑧𝐴 + 1 − 𝜇 𝐻]
𝐸1

• Where:
𝐸 = the modulus of elasticity
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐹 & 𝐻 = function values taken from Table 1-1 to Table 1-5
𝑃 = the equivalent tire load, in pounds
𝜌 = the tire air pressure due to load, in psi
𝑧/𝑎 = the depth in radii
𝑟/𝑎 = offset distance in radii
𝑧 = the depth of the point in question, in inches
𝑎 = equivalent load radius in inches
• Example

• A tire with an air pressure of 120 psi distributes a load over an area
with a circular contact radius, a, of 5 in. The pavement was
constructed with a material that has a modulus of elasticity of
45,000 psi and a Poisson ratio of 0.60. Calculate vertical stress, the
radial horizontal stress and deflection at a point;

• at a depth of 4 in. and a radial distance of 7.5 in.

• on the pavement surface under the center of the load.

Table 1. One-Layer Elastic Function Value (A)
Table 2. One-Layer Elastic Function Value (B)
Table 3. One-Layer Elastic Function Value (C)
Table 4. One-Layer Elastic Function Value (F)
Table 5. One-Layer Elastic Function Value (H)
RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN PRINCIPLES
• Important Theoretical Analysis ( Westergaard, 1926)

• H.M. Westergaard presented a theoretical analysis for rigid pavement in

1925. He assumed that the PCC slab acts as a homogenous, isotropic, and
elastic solid. He also assumed that the subgrade reacts much like a liquid
such that the deflection of the slab at any point are a function of the load
and the modulus of the subgrade reaction.
• The deflection of the slabs at any point is

∆= 𝑘/𝜌

where:
𝑘 = modulus of subgrade reaction, in psi
𝜌 = the reactive pressure, in psi
• The Westergaard equations were developed for three different
loading cases as shown in Figure 13.

• Three different loading cases

• Interior Load
• Edge Load
• Corner Load

Figure 7. Three Westergaard loading cases

• The Westergaard solutions for stresses and deflections as presented
by Ioanides, Thompson, and Barenberg are as follows.

Case I: For Interior Loading

3𝑃(1+𝜇) 2𝑙 3𝑃(1+𝜇) 𝑙 2
𝜎𝑖 = ln + 0.5 − 𝛾 +
2𝜋ℎ2 𝑏 64ℎ2 𝑏

𝑃 1 𝑎 5 𝑎 2
∆𝑖 = 1+ ln +𝛾−
8𝑘𝑙 2 2𝜋 2𝑙 4 𝑙
 4 𝐸ℎ3
𝑙=
12 1 − 𝜇2 𝑘

𝑏 = (1.6𝑎2 + ℎ2 )0.5 −0.67ℎ if 𝑎 < 1.724ℎ

or
𝑏=𝑎
Where:
𝛾 = Euler’s constant
𝜎𝑖 = bending stress, in psi
𝑃 = total load, in lb
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity, in psi
if 𝑎 > 1.724ℎ
𝜇 = Poisson’s ratio
ℎ = slab thickness, in in
𝑘 = modulus of subgrade reaction, in pci
𝑎 = radii of circular load, in in
Case II: For Edge Loading

𝑃 𝐸ℎ3
𝜎𝑒 = 0.529(1 + 0.54𝜇) 2 log10 4
− 0.71
ℎ 𝑘𝑎

𝑃
∆𝑒 = 0.408(1 + 0.4𝜇)
𝑘𝑙 2
Case III: For Corner Loading

3𝑃 𝑎1 0.6
𝜎𝑐 = 2 1 −
ℎ 𝑙

𝑃 𝑎1
∆𝑐 = 2 1.1 − 0.88
𝑘𝑙 𝑙

where:
𝑎1 = distance to point of action of resulted load on
common angle bisection
• Example

• A 15,000-lb single axle load is placed on a PCC slab that is 10.0 in.
thick. The concrete has a modulus of elasticity of 4.5 million psi with
a Poisson’s ratio of 0.18. The modulus of subgrade reaction is 200
pci. Tire pressure is placed at 100 psi and 𝑎1 is 12.0 in. Calculate the
stress and deflection if the total is placed on the corner of the slab.
The AASHTO Flexible-Pavement Design
Procedure
• Serviceability Concept
• Engineer’s point of view – pavement failure occurred whenever cracking,
rutting, or other surface distresses or distortion become visible

• Public’s point of view – pavement failure is associated with a poor ride

(discomfort)

• Serviceability Index
• A number that ranges from 1 to 5 performance that is given by a panel of
raters that drive over the pavement section to assess the pavement
performance
• Terminal Serviceability Index
• The accumulation of traffic loads will cause the pavement to deteriorate, as
expected, the serviceability rating will drop
• When the pavement hits this index, raters feel that the pavement can no
longer perform in a serviceable manner

• Pavement Serviceability-Performance Concepts

• Developed by Carey and Irick in 1962
• The pavement on general has a performance history
• Pavement usually begins its service life in excellent condition
• As traffic loading is applied and there is continuous interaction with the
environment, the pavement deteriorates.
• Pavements continue to deteriorate until it reaches an unserviceable level or
unacceptable level (Terminal Serviceability Index)
Figure 8. Pavement performance trends
• From Figure 14, it has been found that combining all the possible
effects for the serviceability performance of the pavement, a new
pavement has an initial PSI rating of approximately 4.2 to 4.5.
• The pavement will then continue to deteriorate until it reaches an
unacceptable level of which the PSI will drop to a level called TSI
(Terminal Serviceability Index).
• TSI does not mean that the road is no longer passable, but it will
entail that the highway already needs rehabilitation or
maintenance.
• An interstate highway (expressway) will usually have a TSI of 3 while
a local road can have a TSI of 2.0.
• The AASHTO Equation for Flexible Pavement
log10 𝑊18 = 𝑍𝑟 𝑆𝑜 + 9.36[log10 (𝑆𝑁 + 1)] − 0.20

∆𝑆𝑃𝐼
log10
+ 2.7 + 2.32 log10 𝑀𝑅 − 8.07
1094
0.40 +
𝑆𝑁 + 1 5.19
Where:
𝑊18 = 18-kip equivalent single axle load (ESAL)
𝑍𝑅 = reliability
𝑆𝑜 = overall standard deviation
𝑆𝑁 = structural number
∆𝑃𝑆𝐼 = design present serviceability loss
𝑀𝑅 = resilient modulus of the subgrade soil
Definitions:
• 𝑊18 - Automobiles and truck traffic provide a wide range of vehicles
axle types and axle loads. If one were to attempt to account for the
variety of traffic loading encounter on a pavement, this input
variable would require a significant amount of data collection and
design evaluation. Instead, the problem of handling mixed traffic
loading is solved with the adoption of a standard 18-kip (80.1kN)-
equivalent single-axle load (ESAL). The idea is to determine the
impact of any axle load on the pavement in terms of the equivalent
amount of pavement impact that an 18- kip single-axle load would
have.
• 𝑍𝑅 is the probability that serviceability will be maintained at
adequate levels from a user’s point of view throughout the design
life of the facility. This factor estimates the probability that the
pavement will perform at or above the TSI level during the design
period.

• 𝑆𝑜 - standard deviation. This takes into account the designers’

inability to accurately estimate the variation in future 18-kip (80.1
kN)-equivalent axle loads, and the statistical error in the equations
resulting from variability in materials and construction practices.
• 𝑆𝑁 – structural number. This represents the overall structural
requirement needed to sustain the design traffic loadings.

𝑆𝑁 = 𝑎1 𝐷1 + 𝑎2 𝐷2 𝑀2 + 𝑎3 𝐷3 𝑀3

where:
𝑎𝑖 = is the structural layer coefficient and is given in
Table 10
𝐷𝑖 = the layer thickness
𝑀𝑖 = drainage coefficient of the sub-layer
• ∆𝑃𝑆𝐼 - amount of the serviceability loss over the life of the pavement. This
is determined during the pavement design process. The engineer must
decide the final PSI level for a particular pavement. Note: pavement
roughness, cracking, patching, and rutting cause the loss of serviceability.
PSI denotes for present serviceability index.
• 𝑀𝑅 - soil resilient modulus. This is used to reflect the engineering
properties of the subgrade. Each time a vehicle passes over a pavement,
stresses developed in the subgrade. After the load passes, the soil relaxes
and the stress is relieved. Relationships between MR and California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) were determined. CBR is the ratio of the load-bearing capacity
of the soil to the load bearing capacity of a high quality aggregate,
multiplied by 100. For a known CBR, MR can be approximated by,

𝑀𝑅 = 1500 ∗ 𝐶𝐵𝑅
A flexible pavement is to be designed to last for 12 years. The initial
PSI is 4.2 and the final PSI is 2.5. The subgrade has a soil resilient
modulus of 15,000 psi. M2 and M3 are assumed to be 0.94 and 1.0
respectively. Reliability is 98% with an overall standard deviation of
0.45. For the design, the daily car, pick-up truck, and light van traffic is
25,000, and the daily truck traffic consists of 1150 passes of single-
unit truck with single and tandem axles and 350 passes of tractor
semitrailer trucks with single, tandem, and triple axles. The axle
weights are

Cars, pickup trucks, light vans = two-2,000-lb, single axle

 Single-unit trucks = 14,000-lb. - steering, single axle
= 22,000-lb. - drive, tandem
Tractor Semi-trailer trucks = 10,000-lb – steering, single
axle
= 20,000-lb – drive, tandem axle
= 46,000-lb – tractor, triple

Four inches of hot-mix asphalt is to be used as the wearing surface and

6 inches of soil cement as the base. Determine the required thickness
for the subbase using crushed stone materials.
• A flexible pavement is constructed with 4 in. (10.16 cm) of hot mix
asphalt wearing surface, 8 in. (20.32 cm) of emulsion/aggregate-
bituminous base, and 8 in. (20.32 cm) of crushed stone subbase.
The subgrade has the soil resilient modulus of 10,000 psi, and M2
and M3 are equal to 1.0 for the materials in the pavement
structure. The overall standard deviation is 0.5, the initial PSI is 4.5,
and the TSI is 2.5. The daily traffic has 1080 20-kip single axles, 400
24-kip single axles, and 680 40-kip tandem axles. How many years
would you estimate this pavement would last (i.e., how long before
the PSI drops below a TSI of 2.5) if you want to be 90% confident
that your estimate was not too high?
Table 6. Axle-Load Equivalent Factors for Flexible Pavements, Single Axles, and TSI
= 2.5
Table 7. Axle-Load Equivalent Factors for Flexible Pavements Tandem Axles, and
TSI = 2.5
Table 8. Axle-Load Equivalent Factors for Flexible Pavements, Triple Axles, and TSI
= 2.5
Table 9. Cumulative Percent Probabilities of Reliability, R, of the Normal Distribution,
and Corresponding Zr

Example: To be 99% confident that the pavement will remain at or above its TSI, a ZR value of –2.326
would be used in.

Table 10. Structural Layer Coefficients

Rigid Pavement Design Procedure
The design of rigid pavement is similar in concept to the design flexible
pavement system. The major difference between the flexible and rigid
pavements is the mode of failure. A flexible pavement usually fails due
to rutting and fatigue cracking (alligator cracking). A rigid pavement,
however, usually fails due to joint and crack deterioration. Transverse
and longitudinal cracks as well as corner breaks also lead to failed rigid
pavement system.
The AASHTO Rigid Pavement Design
Procedure
• The AASHTO Design Equation can be used for the design of a rigid
pavement system. The design procedure is based on the field test
results of the AASHO Road Test. The procedure is applicable to
jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP), and continuous
reinforced pavement (CRCP).
• The JPCP does not have any steel reinforcement in the slab.
• The JRCP has welded wire fabric.
• The CRCP has steel bars for reinforcement.
• The AASHTO Equation for Rigid Pavement

∆𝑃𝑆𝐼
log10
log10 𝑊18 = 𝑍𝑅 𝑆𝑜 + 7.35[log10 (𝐷 + 1)] − 0.06 + 3.0
1.624x107
1+
𝐷 + 1 8.46

𝑆 ′ 𝑐 𝐶𝑑 (𝐷0.75 − 1.132)
+(4.22 − 0.32𝑇𝑆𝐼) log10
0.75 18.42
215.63𝐽 𝐷 −
𝐸𝑐 0.25
𝑘
• Where
𝑊18 = the 18-kip equivalent single-axle load
𝑍𝑅 = the reliability(z-statistic from the standard normal curve)
𝑆𝑜 = the overall standard deviation of traffic
𝐷 = the PCC slab thickness, in inches
𝑇𝑆𝐼 = the pavement’s Terminal Serviceability Index
∆𝑃𝑆𝐼 = the loss on serviceability
𝑆′𝑐 = the concrete modulus of rupture, in psi
𝐶𝑑 = the drainage coefficient
𝐽 = the load transfer coefficient
𝐸𝑐 = the concrete elastic modulus, in psi
𝑘 = the modulus of subgrade reaction, in pci
Input parameters that are different from the parameters discussed
under flexible pavement are defined in the following:
• 𝐸𝑐 = The concrete modulus of elasticity is derived from the stress
strain curve as taken in the elastic region. The modulus of elasticity
is also known as Young’s Modulus. Portland cement concrete can
have an elastic modulus between 3 and 7 million psi.

• 𝑘 = The effective modulus of subgrade reaction, depends upon

several different factors including moisture content and density.
Typical value of k can have a range of 100 to 800 pci. as shown in
Table 1-11, or can be estimated by the following formula;
𝑀𝑅
𝑘=
19.4
• 𝑆′𝑐 = the concrete modulus of rupture is a measure of the tensile
strength of the concrete. Typical values ranges from 500 to 1,200
psi.

• 𝐽 = the load transfer coefficient is a factor that is used to account

for the ability of the pavement to transfer load from one slab to
another across a joint r crack. A typical value of J is 3.2.
Table 11. Relationship Between CBR and Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, K
Table 12. Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavement, Single Axles and TSI=2.5
Table 13. Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavement, Tandem Axles and TSI=2.5
Table 14. Axle Load Equivalency Factors for Rigid Pavement, Triple Axles and TSI=2.5
• Using the AASHTO rigid pavement design procedure, determine the slab
thickness that will provide for 20 years service. The initial PSI was placed at
4.2 while the final PSI is 2.5. The reliability is assumed at 95% while the
standard deviation is 0.35. The modulus of subgrade reaction is 400 pci. while
the modulus of elasticity of concrete is 4,500,000 psi. The modulus of rupture
is 700 psi while the load transfer coefficient is 3.2 and the drainage
coefficient for the subgrade is 1.0. The daily traffic consists primarily of trucks
with 200 passes of a truck with single axles and another 375 passes of
semitrailer truck with a tandem axle. The axle weights are:
Single-unit truck: 10,000-lb steering, single axle
24,000-lb drive, single axle
Semitrailer truck: 8,000-lb steering, single
20,000-lb drive, tandem axle
32,000-lb trailer, tandem axle