High Frequency X-ray

X-ray machine uses AC power to produce x-Ray. This AC Power, supplies x-ray units with sinusoidal
currents, resulting in ‘peaks and troughs’ leading to the X-Ray tube to produce x-radiation only half of
the cycle.

Single-Phase systems – A single-phase high voltage generator converts this AC power into a half or full
wave rectified supply. The half wave rectification results in a peak voltage that will dip to zero and
increase again. This is why Kilovoltage Peak (kVp) was used as a parameter in earlier X-Rays.

Even after full-wave rectification, a single-phase generator results in ups and down or ripple in the
voltage, hence delivering varying potential to the tube. This impacts the consistency, amount and
penetration power of radiation during the procedure. Only a portion of the radiation is use-able and low
energy radiation is filtered out.

There-phase and Constant Potential Systems – The advancement of high voltage generators from
single-phase to three-phase and then to constant potential generators has solved the problem of
voltage ripples, delivering continuous, uninterrupted voltage.

Fig: 3-phase fully rectified waveform

High frequency X-Ray generators fully rectify AC current and supply the tube with DC current (High
Frequency means – measuring even upto 100KHz instead of standard supply frequency of 50Hz). This
results in a constant stream of relatively consistent radiation hence the term kV is used now rather than
kVp. Most systems now use constant potential generators. The present HF X-Ray generators use the
frequency-inverter-rectifier technology, to produce near constant potential.

In order to obtain similar film optical density and/or to obtain similar radiation dose the HF X-Ray
generators require less exposure time (nearly half- to- 2/3rd) as compared to single-phase (SP)
generators, due to constant potential and radiation. HF generator is found to be approximately two
times more efficient, has better reproducibility and produces sharper, better quality images than Single
phase/ Three phase generator.

Recently high frequency generators are more popular for use in radiography for mammography
and mobile units. High frequency X-ray generators represent state of the art technology that offers two
key advantages. The first one is precision and ease of control, this means that clinical technique factors
can be accurately set in a wide range of operating conditions (KV, mA, exposure time); the other one is
the compactness of the design. By using high frequency generators, it is possible to reduce the size of
the high voltage circuit so much that it can be easily accommodated in a variety of design scenarios.
Both voltage and current are easily controlled over a broad range of load conditions which results in
excellent mAs linearity and exposure reproducibility.

Figure: -1

The circuit produces a nearly constant voltage waveform with extremely low ripple (<1%) which ensures
X-ray quality and quantity. The DC power supply produces a constant voltage from either a single phase
or three phase input supply. Whereas inverter circuit creates high voltage frequency AC waveform. This
AC current supplies the high voltage transformer and creates a waveform of fixed high voltage and
corresponding low current. After rectification and smoothing high voltage capacitors accumulates
electron charges to produce smooth voltage across the X-ray tube, which depends on the accumulated
charges.

The parts of the high frequency x-ray generators are discussed below:

1) Transformer
As we know that a real transformer has various power losses, core losses and copper losses are
the main sources of loss of a transformer. For a given voltage supply, the flux density in a transformer
core is

→ Inversely proportional to supply frequency.

→ Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the core.

So, as the operating frequency of a transformer increases, for the same voltage and power, we
can use less turns and a smaller core cross-sectional area. So, a high-frequency transformer is smaller
than a low frequency transformer of same power rating.

However, the problem running at higher frequencies is the hysteresis losses in the core will
increase with the frequency if the flux density is kept constant. Hence laminated iron core and ferrite
materials are used which needs to be operated at lower flux density but exhibits zero hysteresis losses.

When the pulse operation is carried out, the non linear nature of magnetic core material causes
problems, since the hysteresis loop is highly non-stationary, which causes fluctuations in consecutive
pulses. Thus, if operating characteristics are not carefully tuned, the starting point for each subsequent
pulse maybe different, causing additional, undesirable fluctuations.

Thus, we will find some mysterious design features within inverter to overcome the problems in
transformer.

2) An Inverter
The basic function of an inverter is to take a DC input and produce an AC pulse of frequency W.
There are two basic ways to achieve this goal. In a non resonant inverter, a rectangular pulse is fed to
input of a HV transformer. The duration of the pulse is controlled by the length of the rectangular input
pusle.

On the other hand, in a series resonant (i.e. LC circuit) inverter a trigger pulse is used to
generate a single cycle of resonant oscillation in a series resonant circuit.

Figure: -2

Basic conceptual diagram of a series resonant inverter circuit is shown. A DC voltage V feeds the
primary of a transformer via a set of switches S1 and S2. Because the load RL shunts the main inductance
of the primary winding L1, only the leakage inductance L and the distributed capacitance C play a role in
determining the natural resonance frequency of the circuit. In practical concept, switches S1 and S2 are
implemented as electronic gates like SCR, IGBT, MOSFETS or other intelligent power modules. These

switches can be made to operate automatically either by using some sort of feedback mechanism that
senses the current in the main loop, or by using specific electronic components that by design open
when the current flowing through them reaches zero.
 Figure: -3

Practical concept diagram of series resonant inverter is shown where switches 1 and 4 are used
to generate positive pulses whereas 2 and 3 for negative pulses.

3) HV Generator
The pulses, generated by the inverter, cause current to flow through the primary of the HV
transformer. This causes high voltage pulse to appear on the secondary output which is rectified by full
wave rectifier circuit and fed to the X-ray tube.

Figure: -4
HV generator is shown in the diagram. Here the positive lobe of the pusle charges the capacitor C1 and
C3 through the open diode D1 and D3 respectively. The negative lobe of the pulse charges the capacitor
C2 and C4 through the diode D2 and D4 respectively. The output voltage is the sum of potentials on the
capacitors thus the voltage gets increased. A high voltage, high current and high frequency generator,
designed using two high voltage transformers, fed from a single inverter. Each transformer feeds a
voltage doubler, both voltage doublers are connected in series; thus, the final output voltage at the
output of each transformer.

Feedback Control
a) Voltage Regulation
The elements of a HV circuit of an X-ray machine are highly non linear, and thus extremely
difficult to control directly. To achieve this goal, a voltage sensing circuit is used. The measured voltage
is compared to the reference voltage that represents a set point. A regulator (voltage-controlled
oscillator) or a servo amplifier applies a series of drive pulses whose frequency increases as the
difference between set and measured voltages gets larger, upto a certain maximum limit. These drive
pulses then control the switches in the inverter.

Figure: -5

The actual voltage across the tube, Vactual, is measured using the voltage sense taps and compared to
the reference voltage Uref that determines the desired set voltage across the tube. The difference
between those two voltages forms an error signal, the more frequent are the pulses at the output of the
voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO); and the more frequent are the pulses at the output of the invertor,
which drives the voltage U up. If the error signal is negative, the output of the VCO stops until the
voltage U drops.

b) Current Regulation
As it was already mentioned, in high frequency generators the X-ray tube current is regualted
independently of the tube voltage. In HF generator designs, a high frequency filament circuit with pulse-
frequency modulation and closed loop current regulation is utilized. In HF filament circuit, the reference
values of a filament current for each for each focal spot are electronically stored in the digital control
section of the generator. As the filament current can vary by a few percent from tube to tube, due to
production tolerance of cathodes, filament current is monitored. So, the tube current is independent of
the voltage regulation. Only the ripple influences the space charge characteristics. In such setup, modes
of operation that require time varying tube currents are implemented.

Figure: -6

This loop controls current independently of the tube voltage. The tube filament heating current
IH is supplied by an independent HF generator. The regulator of this generator is fed on error signal that
is equal to the difference between the actual heating current (IH actual) and the reference heating
current (IH reference). The reference heating current is determined by using lookup tables that link the
reference IH to the error between the actual X-ray tube current I and its corresponding set value Iref.

c) Timing and exposure circuits

Discrete timing devices are no longer needed in digitally controlled high frequency generators. If
timed exposure is needed for some special applications, this functionality is easily programmed into the
digital control part of the system. The duration of an exposure is monitored using clock signals required
for the operation of digital circuits. If the exposure needs to be terminated, the drive circuit is simply
blocked. With such an arrangement, any single exposure can be controlled within limits of a single pulse.

Clearly, higher frequency pulses allow better control of exposure, as the duration of the energy
packet becomes smaller with increasing frequency. Also, the availability of multiple sensors that provide
feedback signal in real time makes it possible to implement robust exposure control circuits that allow
for more precise control of X-ray exposures than was previously possible.
 Figure: -7

An example of mAs switching circuit for set exposure control is shown. The actual tube current is
sensed and integrated in time by a dedicated circuit; the value of this integral is compared to the set
mAs reference. The exposure is terminated when the measured mAs is equal to the reference mAs, set
by the user.

d) Automatic Exposure Control (AEC) or Photo-timer

AEC measures the actual amount of radiation exposure incident on IR (Image Receptor) and
terminates the X-ray production when required amount is obtained. In this design, a radiation detector
is used to sense the radiation that reaches the film cassette. As long as the X-ray beam is on, this
detector produces current whose integral is proportional to the film exposure. The value of this integral
is compared to the reference exposure needed to produce the desired film density. The exposure is
terminated when the actual exposure reaches the set value of desired film density.