Lecture 39 April 20; 3 PM-4 PM

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 SOLID STATE PHYSICS
Lecture 35 April 12:
Lecture 36 April 13:
Lecture 37April 17:
Lecture 38 April 19:
Lecture 39 April 20:
Lecture 40 April 24:
Free electron theory of metals, diffusion and drift
current for metals..classical mechanics applied
Free electron theory of metals, Fermi energy, Fermi-
Dirac distribution, Fermions, Quantum mechanics
applied
Band theory of solids, Formation of allowed and
forbidden energy bands. electron lattice interaction
considered with quantum mechanics
Semiconductors and insulators, Fermi level for
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor,
Concept of effective mass - electrons and holes, direct
and indirect band gap semiconductors
Hall effect (with derivation)

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 First lecture was about the classical theory for metals

1. Electrical conductivity () Ohms law

2. Thermal conductivity (K) Fourier’s law

3. And their ratio K/ =const Wiedemann –Franz law

Drude - Lorentz theory.. Used classical theory of gas to electrons in metal and
Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics ; Classical free electron theory of metals

Drift current: current flow by the application of the electric field

Diffusion current: Current flow due to the variation in the charge distribution

It served some purpose, but failed in explaining many other things… like.. Low
specific heat of metals (conduction electrons) experimentally observed, Hall
effect, etc..

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

2nd Lecture: Sommerfeld’s Quantum theory of metals

Used quantum mechanics and Fermi-Dirac statistics. It was the 2nd stage in the
development free electron theory of metals

1. The energy levels of the conduction electrons are quantized.

2. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels occur as per
Pauli exclusion principle.

Known as Drude-Sommerfeld model: classical concept of free electron

considered with quantum mechanics

Kinetic energy of the electron is quantized..

Analogous to particle in a box

Fermi energy defined

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

2nd Lecture: Sommerfeld’s Quantum theory of metals
Used Schrodinger wave equation for the electrons in a potential well to the
electron in metals and Pauli exclusion principle
Probability of finding an electron at a particular energy level E

F(E) is the Fermi-Dirac

distribution

Fermi level, Fermions-spin half particles

Electros near to the Fermi level only participate in the conduction process

 Low specific heat of metals explained, but Hall effect NOT

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Lecture 2: Merits of quantum free electron theory

1) Changed the concept of free lee electron or conduction electrons

in metals
2) Successfully explained thermal and electrical conductivity of
metals
3) Thermionic emission from metals explained
4) Temperature dependence conductivity explained
5) The theory explained experimentally observed electronic specific
heat of metals
6) Explained paramagnetic susceptibility
But failed to Explain
Ferromagnetism in metals
Why some materials are Metal, insulator and semiconductors?

This all explained at the third stage of development “ Band theory of solid’
developed by Bloch, Kroning-Penney

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Lecture 3: Band Theory of Solid

We continued treating valance electrons as independent (by neglecting e--e-

interaction like in stage 1 and stage 2 ) but now we consider the electron-ion
interaction. Solid is a periodic arrangement of atoms…

1) Electron-ion interaction considered but neglected e-e interaction

2) Periodic potential function (x), V=0 and V=V0 , periodic square wave
3) Schrödinger wave equations- for electron in a periodic potential
4)Bloch function - solution of Schrödinger wave equation in a periodic
potential- Bloch electrons and Bloch wave function
5) Kroning - Penning model- simplification of the periodic potential
6) E-k diagram- deviation from the parabolic behavior compared to quantum
free electron theory
7) Splitting of energy levels- formation of band
8) Allowed and forbidden energy – concept of band gap and band overlap

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Lecture 3: Band Theory of Solid

Kinetic energy of electron

k2

Quantum free electron theory Quantum nearly free electron theory

Electron-lattice interaction
In fact the periodicity of the potential function is responsible
for the gap

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Lecture 4: Classification of solids

1. Classification of solids with band theory concept

 Splitting of energy levels: FORMATION OF A BAND
 Merging of bands: BAND OVERLAP
 Valance and conductions bands; BAND GAP
 Conductors (Metals), Semiconductors and Insulators

2. Semiconductors
 Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
 Fermi level for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor,

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Lecture 4: Fermi level for semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductors

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 Quick Quiz Response on the 4/19/2018 Lecture

No Question Attempts Right Wrong

1 Fermi level represents the energy level with 5 3 2
probability of its occupation of
2 The energy level of an acceptor atom typically lies 5 3 2
very close to
3 The energy level of donor atom typically lies very 5 3 2
close to

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Fermi level represents the energy level with probability
of its occupation of

a) 100%
b) 50%
c) 25%
d) 0%

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 The energy level of an acceptor atom typically lies
very close to

a) Conduction band
b) Valence band
c) Middle of the band gap
d) In conduction band

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 The energy level of a donor atom typically lies very
close to

a) Valence band
b) Conduction band
c) Middle of the band gap
d) In conduction band

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Today we will learn about

1. Extrinsic semiconductors

2. Concept of effective mass - electrons and holes,

3. Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD April 20, 2018

 Extrinsic semiconductors Group IV

Hole
e- e+

Group V Group III

N-Type semiconductor P-Type semiconductor

 By doping Si or Ge with By doping Si or Ge with Group III
Group V elements elements
 Majority carriers: electrons Majority carriers: holes

April 20, 2018 Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD 16

 Extrinsic semiconductors
N-Type semiconductor P-Type semiconductor

k-Boltzmann’s constant, T-temperature, Na and Nd density of acceptor and donor

atoms, Nv and Nc density of holes in the valance band and density of electrons in the
conduction band
Fermi level lies just below Fermi level lies just above
the conduction band the valence band

April 20, 2018

In intrinsic semiconductor Fermi level is at the middle of the band gap
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 Effective Mass (m*) electrons and Holes

The concept of effective mass (m*) introduced to explain the

curvature of the E-k diagram -

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 imagine y=E
x=k

If the same electron in energy bands shows

different shape then the mass must be different??

Effective mass concept formulated to explain it..

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 For free electron theory m=m*

Differentiating the above equation we get

Effective mass is inversely proportional to the curvature of the band

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There are crystals in which the effective mass of the carriers is
much larger or much smaller than m0.
The effective mass may be anisotropic, and it may even be
negative.
The important point is that the electron in a periodic potential is
accelerated relative to the lattice in an applied electric or magnetic
field as if its mass is equal to an effective mass.

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 m* is changing at different energies of the electron or along
the energy band?…

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 Direct Band gap semiconductors
In E-k diagram, when the lowest-energy point of the conduction band lies directly
above the highest-energy point of the valence band in a semiconductor, the
movement of a electron across the band gap conserves momentum and the gap is
classified as "direct"

GaAs, InP, CdS are direct band gap semiconductors

Energy (E)

Conduction band

Valence band

optical transitions more likely in k-Vector

materials with direct band gap Used in solar cell, LED etc
compared to indirect bandgap.

April 20, 2018 Prof. Reji Thomas DRC-DRD 26

 Indirect Band gap semiconductors
When the highest-energy point of the valence band is not directly below the lowest-
energy point in the conduction band , a phonon must carry away the momentum off-
set if a transition is to occur between the valence and conduction band.

Si or Ge are indirect bandgap semiconductors

Conduction band
Energy

This causes optical transitions to be much less

likely in materials with indirect band gap
compared to direct bandgap semiconductors.
Photon
Valence band

Indirect band gap: Transition assisted with phonon ( quantized lattice vibrations)

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