Yenepoya (Deemed to be University)

PhD Program--July 2019 Batch

PhD course work
December 14, 2019 – April 11, 2020

ASSIGNMENT BOOK
PAPER I: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND
BIOSTATISTICS
Title of Topic: Research process
Faculty in Charge: Dr. Leena K.C

Campus ID :12817/ July 2019

DATE: 26/01/2020
 RESEARCH TERMINOLOGIES
1. Abstract -A brief summary of a research project and its findings. A summary of a study
that describes its most important aspects, including major results and conclusions.
2. Accessible population -The population from which the researcher can realistically select
subjects for a sample, and to which the researcher is entitled to generalize findings.
3. Action plan -A plan to implement change as a result of an action research study.
4. Action research - A type of research focused on a specific local problem and resulting in
an action plan to address the problem.
5. Administrative Data -Information about individual children, families, and/or providers
of early care and education and other family benefits that are collected and maintained as
part of the operation of government programs.
6. Affective Measures -- procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an
individual's feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
7. Aggregate -- a total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is
an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the county. As
a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.
8. Alpha Level - The probability that a statistical test will find significant differences
between groups (or find significant predictors of the dependent variable), when in fact
there are none.
9. Alternating-treatment design - A single-subject design for studying two or more
treatments.
10. Alternative Hypothesis - The experimental hypothesis stating that there is some real
difference between two or more groups. It is the alternative to the null hypothesis, which
states that there is no difference between groups.
11. Anecdotal records - Records of observed behaviors written down in the form of
anecdotes. The best anecdotes tell exactly what the participant did or said without making
evaluative statements in the process of reporting this information.
12. Anonymity -- a research condition in which no one, including the researcher, knows the
identities of research participants.
13. Appetency - Clear, understandable representation of the data
14. Aptitude test - An instrument used to predict performance in a future situation.
15. Association- A relationship between objects and variables.
16. Associational research - A general type of research in which a researcher looks for
relationships having predictive and/or explanatory power. Both correctional and causal-
comparative studies are examples.
17. Assumption - Any important assertion presumed to be true but not actually verified;
major assumptions should be described in one of the first sections of a research proposal or
report.
18. Attrition - The rate at which participants drop out of a longitudinal study. If particular
types of study participants drop out faster than other types of participants, it can introduce
bias and threaten the internal validity of the study.
19. Autonomy- The capacity to think, decide and act on the basis of such thought and
decision freely and independently and without let or hindrance.
20. Average Measures- There are three main measures of the average of a set of numerical
data. These are the mode, the median and the mean.
21. Baseline - A control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.
22. Behaviorism -school of psychological thought concerned with the observable, tangible,
objective
23. Bias -- A loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in
research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can also occur at
other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design of questions, or in the
way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that the research findings will not be
representative of, or generalizable to, a wider population.
24. Bibliography - A list of the books referred to in a research project. It usually appears at
the end, or as a separate section, known as an appendix.
25. Bimodal Distribution - A distribution in which two scores are the most frequently
occurring score.
26. Biography/biographical study - A form of qualitative research in which the researcher
works with the individual to clarify important life experiences.
27. Bootstrapping -A popular method for variance estimation in surveys. It consists of sub
sampling from the initial sample. Within each stratum in the sample, a simple random
subsample is selected with replacement.
28. Bracketing - A process used by researchers working within the Husserlian
phenomenological tradition to identify their preconceived beliefs and opinions about the
 phenomenon under investigation in order to clarify how personal biases and experience
might influence what is seen heard and reported.

29. Case Study -The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular
participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects themselves.
30. Categorical variables -Variables that differ only in kind, not in amount or degree.
31. Causal Analysis - An analysis that seeks to establish the cause and effect relationships
between variables.
32. Causal Explanation - An attempt to explain the occurrence of a particular phenomenon or
event by identifying the cause.
33. Causal Hypothesis -A statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the
dependent variable in some way.
34. Causal Model - A model which represents a causal relationship between two variables.
35. Causal Relationship -The relationship established that shows that an independent
variable, and nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how
much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.
36. Causal-comparative research - Research to determine the cause for, or consequences of,
existing differences in groups of individuals; also referred to as ex post facto research.
Census An attempt to acquire data from each and every member of a population.
37. Census - The collection of data from all members, instead of a sample, of the target
population.
38. Central Tendency - The central tendency of a frequency distribution is the average,
middle or most common score. Measures of central tendency include the mean, the median
and the mode.
39. Chaos theory - A theory and methodology of science that emphasizes the rarity of general
laws, the need for very large data bases, and the importance of studying exceptions to
overall patterns.
40. Chi-square Analysis - A common non-parametric statistical test which compares an
expected proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
41. Chi-square test - A non-parametric test of statistical significance appropriate when the
data are in the form of frequency counts; it compares frequencies actually observed in a
 study with expected frequencies to see if they are significantly different.

42. Citation- The act of acknowledging or documenting a reference source used in preparing
an assignment, report or project. It is also described as documentation. A full citation lists
accurate information about author, title, publication date and related facts. There are a
number of different citation styles.
43. Claim - A statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research
question and that is affirmed with evidence based on research.
44. Closed-ended question - A question and a list of alternative responses from which the
respondent selects; also referred to as a closed-form item.
45. Cluster Analysis -A method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait
are grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector to group
data according to certain characteristics.
46. Cluster sampling/cluster random sampling - The selection of groups of individuals,
called clusters, rather than single individuals. All individuals in a cluster are included in
the sample; the clusters are preferably selected randomly from the larger population of
clusters.
47. Codebook - Any information on the structure, content, and layout of a data set. The
codebook typically provides background on the project, describes the data collection
design, and gives detailed information on variable names and variable value codes.
48. Cohort Analysis -- Group by group analytic treatment of individuals having a statistical
factor in common to each group. Group members share a particular characteristic [e.g.,
born in a given year] or a common experience [e.g., entering a college at a given time].
49. Cohort study - A design (in survey research) in which a particular population is studied
over time by taking different random samples at various points in time. The population
remains conceptually the same, but individuals.
50. Collaboration - Research in which service users and careers are active partners and share
some of the responsibilities and control. The opinions of service users and careers have
equal weight with those of professionals and there is collaboration at every stage of the
research process.
51. Comparison group - The group in a research study that receives a different treatment
from that of the experimental group.
52. Completion Rate - In survey research, this is the proportion of qualified respondents who
complete the interview.
53. Conclusions - A brief summary of how the results of an experiment support or contradict
a hypothesis.
54. Concurrent validity- The degree to which the scores on an instrument are related to the
scores on another instrument administered at the same time, or to some other criterion
available at the same time.
55. Confidentiality -a research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the
identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information that a
participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and with the
expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate the original consent
agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
56. Control group -A group of subjects in an experimental study that does not receive the
experimental treatment.
57. Convenience sampling (accidental sampling). A non-probability sampling procedure
that involves the selection of the most readily available people or objects for a study.
58. Correlation - The extent to which values of one variable (X) are related to the values of a
second variable (Y). Correlations may be either positive or negative.
59. Correlational studies - Research studies that examine the strength of relationships
between variables.
60. Correlation coefficient - A statistic that presents the magnitude and direction of a
relationship between two variables.
61. Criterion validity - The extent to which an instrument corresponds or correlates with
some criterion measure of the information that is being sought; the ability of an instrument
to determine subjects’ responses at present or predict subjects’ responses in the future.
62. Critical region (region of rejection) -An area in a theoretical sampling distribution that
contains the critical values, which are values considered to be statistically significant.
63. Critique (research critique). Assesses the strengths and weaknesses of a study.
64. Cronbach’s alpha - Provides an estimate of the reliability of a written instrument when
considering all possible ways to divide the items on the instrument into two halves.
65. Debriefing - A meeting with research participants at the conclusion of a study that ensures
their understanding of the reasons and the justification for the procedures used in the
study.
66. Deductive reasoning - A reasoning process that proceeds from the general to the specific,
from theory to empirical data. degrees of freedom (df). A concept in inferential statistics
that concerns the number of values that are free to vary.
67. Delphi technique - A data-collection method that uses several rounds of questions to seek
a consensus on a particular topic from a group of experts on the topic.
68. Dependent t test - A form of the t test that is used when one set of scores or values is
associated or dependent on another set of scores or values.
69. Dependent variable- The “effect”; a response or behavior that is influenced by the
independent variable; sometimes called the criterion variable.
70. Equivalence reliability - The degree to which two forms of an instrument obtain the same
results or two or more observers obtain the same results when using a single instrument to
measure a variable.
71. Ethnographic studies - Research studies that involve the collection and analysis of data
about cultural groups.
72. Event sampling. Observations made throughout the entire course of an event or behavior.
73. Experimenter effect - A threat to the external validity of a research study that occurs
when the researcher’s behavior influences the subjects’ behavior in a way that is not
intended by the researcher.
74. Explanatory studies - Research studies that search for causal explanations; usually
experimental.
75. Ex post facto studies- Studies in which the variation in the independent variable has
already occurred in the past, and the researcher, “after the fact,” is trying to determine if
the variation that has occurred in the independent variable has any influence on the
dependent variable being measured in the present.
76. Impact factor- A number used to evaluate the influence of a particular journal.
77. Independent t test -A form of the t test that is used when there is no association between
the two sets of scores or values being compared.
78. Independent variable -The “cause” or the variable thought to influence the dependent
variable; in experimental research it is the variable manipulated by the researcher.
79. Indexes - Compilations of reference materials that provide information on books and
periodicals.
80. Inductive reasoning - A reasoning process that proceeds from the specific to the general,
from empirical data to theory.
81. Inferential statistics- That group of statistics concerned with the characteristics of
populations and uses sample data to make an inference about a population.
82. Informed consent - A subject voluntarily agrees to participate in a research study in
which he or she has full understanding of the study before the study begins.
83. Meta-analysis - A technique that combines the results of several similar studies on a topic
and statistically analyzes the results as if only one study had been conducted.
84. Meta-synthesis - A technique used in summarizing reports of two or more qualitative
studies that cover the same topic.
85. Methodological studies- Research studies that are concerned with the development,
testing, and evaluation of research instruments and methods.
86. Non-directional research hypothesis - A type of research hypothesis in which a
prediction is made that a relationship exists between variables, but the type of relationship
is not specified.
87. Nonequivalent control group design - A type of quasi-experimental design; similar to
the pretest posttest control group experimental design, except that there is no random
assignment of subjects to groups.
88. Non-experimental research - Research in which the researcher does not manipulate or
control the independent variable.
89. Non-parametric tests - Types of inferential statistics that are not concerned with
population parameters, and requirements for their use are less stringent; can be used with
nominal and ordinal data and small sample sizes.
90. Normal distribution - A symmetrical bell-shaped theoretical distribution; has one central
peak or set of values in the middle of the distribution.
91. Null hypothesis (H0) - A statistical hypothesis that predicts there is no relationship
between variables; the hypothesis that is subjected to statistical analysis.
92. One-group pretest-posttest design- A type of pre-experimental design; compares one
group of subjects before and after an experimental treatment.
93. One-shot case study- A type of pre-experimental design; a single group of subjects is
observed after a treatment to determine the effects of the treatment. No pretest
measurement is made.
94. One-tailed test of significance - A test of statistical significance in which the critical
values (statistically significant values) are sought in only one tail of the theoretical
sampling distribution (either the right or the left tail).
95. Open-ended questions - Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words.
96. Operational definition - The definition of a variable that identifies how the variable will
be observed or measured.
97. Ordinal level of measurement (ordinal data) - Data can be categorized and placed in
order; small, medium, and large is an example of a set of ordinal data.
98. Outcomes research - Research that examines the outcomes or results of patient care
interventions.
99. Percentile. A data point below which lies a certain percentage of the values in a frequency
distribution.
100. Personality inventories- Self-report measures used to assess the differences in
personality traits, needs, or values of people.
101. Phenomenological studies- Research studies that examine human experiences
through the descriptions of the meanings of these experiences provided by the people
involved.
102. Pilot study-A small-scale trial run of an actual research study.
103. Population- A complete set of persons or objects that possess some common
characteristic of interest to the researcher.
104. Positively skewed - A frequency distribution in which the tail of the distribution
points to the right
105. Q sort (Q methodology)- A data-collection method in which subjects are asked to
sort statements into categories according to their attitudes toward, or rating of, the
statements.
106. Qualitative research -Research that is concerned with the subjective meaning of
an experience to an individual.
107. Quantitative research -Research that is concerned with objectivity, tight controls
over the research situation, and the ability to generalize findings.
108. Quasi-experimental design - A type of experimental design in which there is
either no comparison group or no random assignment of subjects to groups; includes the
nonequivalent control group design and time-series design.
109. Query letter- A letter of inquiry sent to a journal to determine the editor’s interest
in publishing a manuscript. The letter usually contains an outline of the manuscript and
important information about the content of the manuscript.
110. Questionnaire - A paper-and-pencil self-report instrument used to gather data
from subjects.
111. Quota sampling -A nonprobability sampling procedure in which the researcher
selects the sample to reflect certain characteristics of the population
112. Random assignment -A procedure used in an experimental study to ensure that
each study subject has an equal chance of being placed into any one of the study groups.
113. Range - A measure of variability; the distance between the highest and lowest
value in a group of values or scores.
114. Ratio level of measurement (ratio data)- Data can be categorized, ranked, the
distance between ranks specified, and a “true” or natural zero point identified; the amount
of money in a checking account or number of requests for pain medication are examples of
ratio data.
115. Refereed journal - A journal that uses experts in a given field to review
manuscripts.
116. Survey studies- Research studies in which self-report data are collected from a
sample to determine the characteristics of a population.
117. Symmetrical distributions - Frequency distributions in which both halves of the
distribution are the same.
118. Systematic random sampling- A random sampling process in which every kth
(e.g., every fifth) element or member of the population is selected for the sample.
119. Systematic review- A rigorous scientific approach that combines results from a
group of research studies and looks at the studies as a whole; also called an integrative
review, can summarize many studies at once, while focusing on a single area of interest.
120. Table of random numbers - A list of numbers that have been generated in such a
manner that there is no order or sequencing of the numbers. Each number is equally likely
to follow any other number.
121. Target population - The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher
wishes to generalize the findings of a study.
122. Telephone interviews - Data are collected from subjects through the use of phone
calls rather than in face-to-face encounters.
123. Triangulation- The use of two or more different sampling strategies, data
collectors, data collection procedures, or theories in one study.
124. t test (t) - A parametric statistical test that examines the difference between the
means of two groups of values. Types of t tests are the independent t test (independent
samples t test) and the dependent t test (paired t test).
125. Two-tailed test of significance - A test of statistical significance in which critical
values (statistically significant values) are sought in both tails of the sampling distribution;
used when the researcher has not predicted the direction of the relationship between
variables.
126. Type I error - A decision is made to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually
true; a decision is made that a relationship exists between variables when it does not.
127. Type II error - A decision is made not to reject the null hypothesis when it is false
and should be rejected; a decision is made that no relationship exists between variables
when, in fact, a relationship does exist.
128. Validity (of instruments) -The ability of an instrument to measure the variable
that it is intended to measure. See also internal validity and external validity of
experimental studies.
129. Variable - A characteristic or attribute of a person or object that differs among the
persons or objects being studied (e.g., age, blood type).
130. Volunteers -Subjects who have asked to participate in a study.