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Foreword.......................................................................... xxxi xxxi

Preface.............................................................................. xxxiii xxxiii

Summary Table of Contents......................................... xxxvii xxxv

Part I
HISTORY OF THE
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS ACT
Chapter 1. Historical Background of the Wagner
Act................................................................ 1-1 1-1
I. The Inadequacies of Judicial Regulation........ 1-2 —
II. The Rise of Federal Regulation....................... 1-6 —
III. An Affirmative National Labor Policy: The
Ancestry of the Wagner Act............................. 1-10 —
A. The Erdman Act........................................ 1-11 —
B. The Clayton Act......................................... 1-13 —
C. The Railway Labor Act.............................. 1-17 —
D. The Norris-LaGuardia Act......................... 1-19 —
Chapter 2. The Wagner Act Period.............................. 2-1 —
I. The Role of Senator Wagner........................... 2-2 —
II. The National Labor Relations Act: The
Beginning of an Era......................................... 2-3 —
III. Criticism of the Act: One-Sided Legislation... 2-6 —

Chapter 3. The Taft-Hartley Changes.......................... 3-1 —

I. Industrial Unrest and Congressional
Response........................................................... 3-2 —

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A. Union Growth............................................ 3-2 —
B. A Republican Congress............................. 3-3 —
1. Response to President Truman’s
Proposals.............................................. 3-3 —
2. Problem Areas...................................... 3-4 —
3. Differences Between Senate and
House Bills............................................ 3-5 —
C. Presidential Veto........................................ 3-6 —
II. The New Amendments..................................... 3-7 —
A. Employee Rights........................................ 3-7 —
B. Structural Changes in Board A
dministration............................................. 3-8 —
C. Union Unfair Labor Practices................... 3-8 —
D. “Free Speech” Proviso............................... 3-9 —
E. Collective Bargaining Duties..................... 3-9 —
F. Representation Under Section 9.............. 3-10 —
G. Regulation of Internal Union Affairs....... 3-11 —
H. Procedural Changes.................................. 3-12 —
I. Injunctions................................................. 3-12 —
J. “Right-to-Work” Laws................................. 3-13 —
III. The Reaction..................................................... 3-13 —
A. Labor Response......................................... 3-13 —
B. Congressional Response............................ 3-14 —
C. Stalemate Years.......................................... 3-15 —
Chapter 4. The Landrum-Griffin Changes.................. 4-1 —
I. The Impetus of Legislative Investigation........ 4-2 —
II. The Political Climate........................................ 4-3 —
III. Senate Action.................................................... 4-4 —
IV. Struggle in the House...................................... 4-5 —
V. Reconciling Title VII........................................ 4-7 —
A. A Jurisdictional Problem: An
“Unregulated Terrain”.............................. 4-7 —
B. The “Hot-Cargo” Provision....................... 4-8 —
C. Restrictions on Organizational and
Recognitional Picketing............................ 4-9 —
D. Prehire Agreements................................... 4-9 —
E. Voting Rights for Economic Strikers........ 4-10 —
VI. The Conference Committee Version.............. 4-10 —
A. The Changes.............................................. 4-10 —
1. Recognitional and Organizational
Picketing............................................... 4-10 —
2. Secondary Boycott Changes................ 4-10 —
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3. Hot-Cargo Restrictions........................ 4-11 —
4. Prehire Agreements............................. 4-12 —
5. Voting Rights for Economic
Strikers.................................................. 4-12 —
6. Delegation of Board Authority
Authorized............................................ 4-12 —
7. Taft-Hartley Provisions Repealed........ 4-12 —
B. Enactment of the Bill................................ 4-13 —
Chapter 5. The Post–Landrum-Griffin Period............ 5-1 —
I. Jurisdiction Over U.S. Postal Service............... 5-1 —
II. Section 302 Amendments and Additional
Bargaining Subjects.......................................... 5-2 —
III. Health Care Institution Amendments............. 5-5 —
IV. Court Invalidates Act Giving Religious
Conscientious Objectors Exemption From
Union-Security Coverage................................. 5-6 —
V. Unsuccessful Efforts to Amend the Basic
Act...................................................................... 5-7 —

Part II
PROTECTED EMPLOYEE ACTIVITY

Chapter 6. Interference With Protected Rights.......... 6-1 6-1

I. Overview............................................................ 6-6 6-7
A. Introduction............................................... 6-6 —
B. Section 7—Rights of Employees............... 6-6 6-7
1. To Form, Join, or Assist Labor
Organizations ...................................... 6-6 —
2. To Refrain From Such Activities......... 6-7 —
3. Other Concerted Activities.................. 6-7 6-7
C. Employer Interference With Section 7
Rights: Section 8(a)(1).............................. 6-14 6-7
1. Derivative Violations............................ 6-14 —
2. Independent Violations....................... 6-14 —
3. Motive Not an Essential Element
of Section 8(a)(1) Violations.............. 6-15 —
D. Union Restraint and Coercion—
Section 8(b)(1)(A).................................... 6-17 —
1. Not a Derivative Counterpart of
Section 8(a)(1).................................... 6-17 —
2. Nature of the Violation........................ 6-18 —
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3. Motive Not an Essential Element
of Section 8(b)(1)(A) Violations........ 6-21 —
E. “Freedom of Speech”—Section 8(c)
in General.................................................. 6-21 —
1. Threat or Prophecy?............................ 6-23 —
2. The Outer Limit of Employer
Speech.................................................. 6-25 —
II. Organizational and Preelection Activity......... 6-27 6-8
A. In General: Relation of Unfair Labor
Practices to “Laboratory Conditions”
Required for Elections.............................. 6-27 6-8
B. Unlawful Employer Conduct.................... 6-31 6-9
1. Employer’s Restrictions on Union
and Employee Activity on
Employer’s Property............................ 6-31 6-9
a. Basic Presumptions........................ 6-31 6-9
b. Rights of Employees Over
Nonemployees................................ 6-33 6-9
c. No-Solicitation and No-
Distribution Rules Generally......... 6-35 6-10
(1) Presumptions of Validity........ 6-35 —
(2) Facial Validity of Rule............ 6-36 6-10
(3) Unlawful Promulgation or
Enforcement........................... 6-41 6-11
d. Implementation of Rules:
Timing as an Element of
Legality............................................ 6-44 —
e. Union Buttons and Insignia.......... 6-46 6-11
f. “Captive-Audience” Speeches,
Conferences, and Interviews......... 6-50 —
g. No-Access Rules.............................. 6-53 6-12
h. Prohibiting Protected Activity
on Private Property Open to
the Public........................................ 6-55 6-13
i. Prohibiting Distribution of
Political Materials........................... 6-62 —
j. Effect of Contractual Waiver of
Right to Solicit or Distribute......... 6-64 —
2. Specific Conduct That Violates
Section 8(a)(1) ................................... 6-65 6-13
a. Threats to Withdraw, and
Withdrawals of, Benefits................ 6-66 6-13
(1) Permissible Predictions
and Prohibited Threats.......... 6-67 6-13
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(2) Futility of Organizing............. 6-73 6-15
(3) Inevitability of Strikes or
Violence.................................. 6-75 —
(4) Assessing Recurrent Phrases
and Themes............................ 6-76 6-15
(a) “Serious Harm”.............. 6-77 —
(b) “Bargaining Will Start
From Scratch” ............... 6-78 6-15
(c) Statements Regarding
Plant Closings................. 6-80 6-16
b. Promises and Grants of
Benefits........................................... 6-81 6-16
(1) Employer Inducements......... 6-84 6-16
(2) Soliciting or Remedying
Employee Grievances............. 6-88 6-17
(3) Withholding Benefits
During an Election
Campaign............................... 6-91 —
c. Interrogation and Polling.............. 6-95 6-17
(1) Systematic Polling.................. 6-97 —
(2) Individual or Isolated
Questioning............................ 6-103 6-17
(3) Preparation of Defense for
Trial of Unfair Labor
Practice Case.......................... 6-107 6-18
d. Surveillance and
Photographing............................... 6-111 6-19
e. Employer’s Responsibility for
Third-Party Conduct...................... 6-116 —
f. Employer Violence......................... 6-118 —
g. Discipline and Discharge of
Supervisors...................................... 6-119 —
3. Other Unlawful Employer
Interference......................................... 6-120 —
a. Bonuses or Benefits to
Nonstrikers and Strike
Replacements................................. 6-120 —
b. Requests for Employee
Statements to the NLRB................ 6-123 —
c. Employer Conduct Relating to
Authorization Cards....................... 6-124 —
d. Suits and Threats of Suits
Against Employees......................... 6-125 —
(1) Lawsuits Generally................. 6-125 —
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(2) Preempted Lawsuits............... 6-130 —
III. Other Concerted Activity................................. 6-131 6-20
A. Protected Concerted Activity: In
General....................................................... 6-132 6-20
1. Individual Versus Concerted
Activity: Employee Claim of Right
Under a Collective Agreement........... 6-132 —
2. Individual Versus Concerted
Activity: Employee Claim of Right
Under Employment, Safety, and
Other Laws........................................... 6-136 —
3. Employee Activity for “Other
Mutual Aid or Protection” .................. 6-142 —
4. Limits on Protection of Concerted
Activity ................................................. 6-148 6-20
B. Protected Concerted Activity:
Specific Conduct........................................ 6-155 6-20
1. Work Stoppages.................................... 6-155 6-20
2. Honoring Picket Lines........................ 6-156 —
3. Filing or Processing of
Grievances............................................ 6-157 —
4. Weingarten: Employee Request or
Demand for Union Representation
During Investigation............................ 6-159 —
a. Covered Interviews and
Meetings......................................... 6-160 —
b. Rights of Unrepresented
Employees....................................... 6-164 —
c. Requesting and Selecting the
Union Representative.................... 6-167 —
d. Role of Union Representative....... 6-169 —
e. Remedies for Weingarten
Violations........................................ 6-170 —
5. Safety-Related Protests......................... 6-171 —
6. Protests Relating to Employment
Discrimination..................................... 6-174 —
7. Appeals to Agencies and Filing of
Court Actions....................................... 6-175 6-20
C. Limits on Protection of Concerted
Activities..................................................... 6-177 6-21
1. Sit-Down Strikes................................... 6-177 —
2. Partial and Intermittent Strikes.......... 6-179 6-21
3. Strikes in Violation of Section 8(d)
of the Act.............................................. 6-181 —
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4. Other Unprotected Activity................. 6-181 6-22
a. Breach of Confidentiality.............. 6-182 —
b. False Allegations or Affidavits
Concerning the Employer............. 6-185 —
c. Disparagement of the Employer
or Its Business Activities................. 6-185 6-22
d. Disruptive, Profane, or Vulgar
Behavior.......................................... 6-191 6-22
D. Employer Handbook/Work Rules
That May Implicate Protected
Activity........................................................ 6-195 6-24
1. Introduction......................................... 6-196 6-24
2. Various Employer Handbook/
Work Rules Issues................................. 6-197 6-26
a. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Regarding
Confidentiality................................ 6-197 6-26
b. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Regarding Employee
Conduct Toward the Company
and Supervisors.............................. 6-200 6-26
c. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Regulating Conduct
Toward Fellow Employees.............. 6-202 —
d. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Regarding Employee
Interaction With Third
Parties............................................. 6-203 —
e. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Restricting Use of
Company Logos, Copyrights,
and Trademarks.............................. 6-204 —
f. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Restricting Photography
and Recording................................ 6-205 6-26
g. Employer Handbook/Work
Rules Restricting Employees
From Leaving Work........................ 6-205 —
h. Employer Conflict-of-Interest
Rules................................................ 6-206 —
i. Employer No-Solicitation and
No-Distribution Rules.................... 6-206 6-27
j. Employer Implementation of
Otherwise Valid Rules.................... 6-206 —
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IV. Union Restraint and Coercion........................ 6-207 6-27
A. Section 8(b)(1)(A): Restraint and
Coercion of Employees............................. 6-207 6-27
1. Not a Derivative Counterpart of
Section 8(a)(1).................................... 6-207 —
2. Fines and Discipline of Union
Members............................................... 6-208 6-27
a. Discipline for Activity That
Contravenes a Policy of the
NLRA, Including the Filing of
NLRB Petitions and Charges......... 6-211 —
b. Impact of Discipline on
Employment Relationship............. 6-214 —
c. The Effect of Resignation on
Legality of Discipline..................... 6-216 6-28
d. Discipline for Refusal to
Engage in Unlawful or
Unprotected Activity...................... 6-221 —
e. Discipline for Intra-Union
Activity............................................. 6-223 —
f. Reasonableness of Fines
Imposed.......................................... 6-224 —
3. Violence and Threats........................... 6-225 —
B. Sections (8)(b)(1)(B) and 8(b)(4)(A):
Restraint and Coercion in Selection
of Employer Representatives..................... 6-226 —
1. Interference With the Employer’s
Choice of Representatives................... 6-226 —
2. Union Discipline of Supervisor–
Members .............................................. 6-229 —
Chapter 7. Discrimination in Employment................. 7-1 7-1
I. Discrimination as an Unfair Labor
Practice.............................................................. 7-3 —
II. Employer Discrimination................................. 7-5 7-3
A. Persons Within the Protection of
Section 8(a)(3) ......................................... 7-5 7-3
1. Loss of Employee Status Under
Section 8(a)(3).................................... 7-9 —
B. Purpose of the Discrimination.................. 7-10 7-4
1. Conduct Requiring Proof of
Union Animus: The Wright Line
Rule....................................................... 7-12 7-4
a. Refusal to Hire—Salting................ 7-21 —
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2. Conduct Inherently Destructive of
Section 7 Rights................................... 7-21 —
C. Specific Conduct........................................ 7-41 7-4
1. Discharge or Discipline for Union
Activity.................................................. 7-41 7-4
a. Elements of an Unlawful
Discharge........................................ 7-41 7-4
b. Constructive Discharge.................. 7-43 —
c. Employer’s Knowledge of
Employee’s Union Activity............. 7-46 7-5
d. Inferential Proof of Employer’s
Animus............................................ 7-49 7-5
2. Lockouts............................................... 7-54 —
3. Plant Closings....................................... 7-54 7-6
a. Complete Cessation of
Business........................................... 7-55 —
b. Partial Closings............................... 7-56 7-6
4. Transfer of Work: The “Runaway
Shop” ................................................... 7-62 —
5. Replacement and Reinstatement
of Economic Strikers........................... 7-66 —
a. Development of the Law................ 7-66 —
b. Nature of the Duty to
Reinstate......................................... 7-69 —
c. Defenses and Limitations.............. 7-75 —
d. Unfair Labor Practice Striker
Reinstatement................................ 7-80 —
6. Discharge or Discipline of Union
Officers for Strikes in Breach of
Contract................................................ 7-80 —
7. Discrimination Against Union
Organizers and “Salts” ........................ 7-81 7-6
8. Discrimination Based on Race or
Sex......................................................... 7-88 7-7
9. Discrimination Based on Terms
of Collective Bargaining
Agreement............................................ 7-90 —
a. Enforcement of Union-Security
Provision......................................... 7-90 —
b. Compliance With
Superseniority Provision................ 7-91 —
III. Union Inducement of Employer to
Discriminate...................................................... 7-93 7-7
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A. Union Inducements as Unfair Labor
Practice Prohibited by
Section 8(b)(2) ......................................... 7-93 7-7
1. Union Liability Requires Showing
of Agency.............................................. 7-100 —
B. Violations Relating to Seniority
Provisions................................................... 7-103 —
C. Violations Relating to Union-Security
Provisions................................................... 7-109 —
D. Violations Relating to Hiring and
Referral Halls............................................. 7-109 —
IV. Discrimination Because of Involvement
With NLRB Procedures: Section 8(a)(4)........ 7-109 —
A. Truth or Falsity of Testimony.................... 7-110 —
B. Actual Filing of Charge Not
Required..................................................... 7-112 —
C. Release From Normal Work
Schedule..................................................... 7-113 —
D. Proof Scheme for Section 8(a)(4)
Charges Follows Section 8(a)(3)
Charges....................................................... 7-114 —
E. Supervisory Protections............................. 7-118 —
F. Types of Section 8(a)(4) Misconduct....... 7-118 —
1. Lawsuits................................................ 7-121 —
2. Mandatory Arbitration
Agreements and Handbook
Provisions.............................................. 7-124 —
Chapter 8. Employer Domination of and Assistance
to Labor Organizations.............................. 8-1 8-1
I. Introduction: Section 8(a)(2)......................... 8-2 —
II. Labor Organization Defined........................... 8-4 8-2
A. Requirement of Participation by
“Employees”............................................... 8-4 8-2
B. Requirement of “Dealing With”
Employers................................................... 8-6 —
III. Employer Domination...................................... 8-13 —
IV. Employer Interference..................................... 8-20 —
A. Unlawful Recognition or Other
Assistance................................................... 8-20 —
B. Employer Preference Among
Contending Unions................................... 8-24 —
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C. Conduct of Supervisors............................. 8-27 —
V. The Requirement of Employer
Neutrality.......................................................... 8-29 —
A. Development of the Requirement:
The Rise and Fall of Midwest Piping.......... 8-30 —
B. When a Union Is Incumbent.................... 8-34 —
C. When No Union Is Incumbent................. 8-36 —
VI. Employer Support Versus Cooperation.......... 8-37 —
VII. The Union as Party to the Employer’s
Domination, Assistance, or Support................ 8-42 8-2
VIII. Remedies........................................................... 8-44 8-2

Part III
THE REPRESENTATION PROCESS
AND UNION RECOGNITION
Chapter 9. Restrictions on Preelection Activity:
“Laboratory Conditions”............................ 9-1 9-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 9-3 9-3
A. The Board’s Authority Under
Section 9..................................................... 9-3 9-3
1. Relation to Unfair Labor
Practices................................................ 9-4 9-3
2. Development of the General Shoe
“Laboratory Conditions”
Doctrine................................................ 9-4 —
B. Timing of “Laboratory Period”................. 9-6 —
C. Considerations in Assessing
Objection Allegations................................ 9-9 9-4
1. Substantive Considerations................. 9-9 9-4
a. De Minimis or Isolated
Conduct.......................................... 9-10 9-4
b. Dissemination................................. 9-11 9-4
c. Narrowness of Election
Results............................................. 9-12 9-5
2. Procedural Considerations.................. 9-13 —
D. Regulating Preelection Conduct by
Adjudication Rather Than
Rulemaking................................................ 9-13 —
II. Grounds for Setting Aside Elections............... 9-15 9-6
A. Employer and/or Union Conduct........... 9-15 9-6
1. Misrepresentations............................... 9-15 9-6
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a. Development of the Prior Law
Prohibiting Last-Minute
Misrepresentations: The
Hollywood Ceramics Rule.................. 9-16 —
b. Hollywood Ceramics Overruled:
Voters Allowed to Assess
Misrepresentations......................... 9-17 9-6
(1) General Knit: A Temporary
Return to Hollywood
Ceramics................................... 9-18 —
(2) Return to Shopping Kart:
Hollywood Ceramics Again
Abandoned............................. 9-18 9-6
2. Forged Documents.............................. 9-20 —
3. Misuse of the Board’s Election
Process.................................................. 9-21 9-6
a. Reproduction of Board
Documents...................................... 9-21 —
b. Misrepresentation of Board
Action.............................................. 9-25 —
c. Electioneering at the Polls............. 9-26 9-6
(1) Electioneering Generally....... 9-26 —
(2) The Milchem Rule................... 9-28 9-6
(3) Third-Party
Electioneering........................ 9-29 9-6
d. Other Conduct In and Around
the Polls.......................................... 9-30 9-7
4. Appeals to Racial Prejudice................. 9-33 —
5. The 24-Hour Rule Barring
Speeches to Massed Employees.......... 9-37 9-7
a. Mail Ballots..................................... 9-38 —
b. Paychecks........................................ 9-38 —
B. Employer Conduct.................................... 9-39 9-8
1. Assembly of Employees at Focal
Point of Authority................................ 9-39 —
2. Home Visits.......................................... 9-40 9-8
3. Voter Eligibility List............................. 9-40 9-8
4. Paychecks.............................................. 9-40 —
5. Raffles................................................... 9-41 —
6. Videotaping Employees for
Employer Campaign............................ 9-42 —
7. Pro-Union Conduct of a
Supervisor............................................. 9-43 9-8
8. Payments for Voting............................. 9-44 —
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C. Union Conduct.......................................... 9-45 —
1. In General............................................ 9-45 —
2. Specific Promises and Grants of
Benefits................................................. 9-46 —
3. Waiver of Initiation Fees...................... 9-49 —
4. Other Union Conduct......................... 9-56 —
a. Interrogation.................................. 9-56 —
b. Failure to Disclose
Information.................................... 9-57 —
c. Videotaping.................................... 9-58 —
D. Third-Party Conduct ................................. 9-59 9-8
E. Violence and Threats ............................... 9-67 9-9
III. Remedies .......................................................... 9-71 9-9
Chapter 10. Representation Proceedings and
Elections...................................................... 10-1 10-1
I. Questions Concerning Representation—
Generally........................................................... 10-4 —
A. Petitions by Labor Organizations and
Employees.................................................. 10-7 —
1. Serving and Filing a Petition............... 10-7 —
2. Showing of Interest.............................. 10-7 —
a. Electronic Signatures..................... 10-10 —
b. Notice of Petition for Election...... 10-10 —
3. Employer Denial of Recognition........ 10-11 —
4. Joint Petitions....................................... 10-11 —
B. Petitions by Employers.............................. 10-12 —
1. History Under the Wagner Act........... 10-12 —
2. History Under the Taft-Hartley
Act......................................................... 10-13 —
a. Unrecognized Unions.................... 10-14 —
b. Incumbent Unions......................... 10-15 —
(1) Development of the Law
Before the Allentown Mack
Decision.................................. 10-16 —
(2) The Allentown Mack and
Levitz Furniture Decisions....... 10-17 —
(3) Effect of Section 8(f) in
the Construction
Industry................................... 10-18 —
3. Disclaimer of Interest.......................... 10-19 —
II. Policies and Statutory Provisions
Affecting the Processing of Petitions............... 10-21 —
A. The One-Election-Per-Year Rule............... 10-21 —
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1. The Statutory Bar................................. 10-21 —
2. The Certification Year.......................... 10-23 —
3. The Voluntary Recognition Bar.......... 10-25 —
B. Pendency of Unfair Labor Practice
Charges....................................................... 10-28 —
C. Unlawful Employer Assistance.................. 10-31 —
D. Fluctuating Workforce............................... 10-32 —
E. Contract-Bar Doctrine............................... 10-33 —
1. Requisites of the Contract................... 10-34 —
2. Duration of the Contract..................... 10-35 —
3. Unlawful Clauses.................................. 10-37 —
a. Union Security............................... 10-38 —
b. Checkoff......................................... 10-39 —
c. Racial/Gender
Discrimination................................ 10-40 —
d. “Hot Cargo”.................................... 10-40 —
4. Expanding Units.................................. 10-40 —
a. Prehire Agreements....................... 10-41 —
b. Relocation and Consolidation....... 10-42 —
c. Purchasers....................................... 10-43 —
5. Accretions............................................. 10-43 —
6. Schism, Defunctness, and
Disclaimer............................................. 10-46 —
a. Schism............................................. 10-47 —
b. Defunctness.................................... 10-47 —
c. Disclaimer....................................... 10-48 —
7. Expiration of the Contract Bar:
Timeliness............................................. 10-49 —
a. The Open Period........................... 10-49 —
b. The Insulated Period..................... 10-50 —
c. After the Terminal Date................. 10-51 —
F. Clarification of Units................................. 10-53 —
G. Private Agreements.................................... 10-57 —
1. Agreements Not to Represent
Certain Employees............................... 10-57 —
2. Neutrality and Card-Check
Agreements.......................................... 10-57 —
III. Election Procedures......................................... 10-59 10-4
A. Preelection Matters.................................... 10-59 —
1. Types of Elections................................ 10-61 —
2. Statement of Position.......................... 10-61 —
3. Preelection Hearing............................ 10-62 —
4. Details of the Election......................... 10-64 —
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a. Date................................................. 10-64 —
b. Time................................................ 10-64 —
c. Place................................................ 10-65 —
5. Voter List and Eligibility...................... 10-65 —
a. The Excelsior List of Eligible
Voters’ Names and Addresses........ 10-65 —
b. Eligibility......................................... 10-69 —
c. Construing Stipulations of the
Parties in Representation
Cases................................................ 10-70 —
6. Notice of Election................................ 10-71 —
7. Review of Direction of Election.......... 10-72 —
B. The Election Proper.................................. 10-74 10-4
1. Observers.............................................. 10-74 —
2. Balloting............................................... 10-77 10-4
a. The Ballot....................................... 10-77 —
b. Voting.............................................. 10-77 —
c. Mail Ballots..................................... 10-78 —
d. Defective Ballots............................. 10-80 10-4
3. Challenges............................................ 10-81 —
C. Standards for the Conduct of
Elections..................................................... 10-83 —
1. The Opportunity to Vote..................... 10-84 —
2. Conduct In and Around the
Polling Areas........................................ 10-87 —
3. The Integrity of the Ballots and
the Ballot Box....................................... 10-87 —
4. Conduct of Board Agents.................... 10-89 —
D. Resolution of Challenges and
Objections to the Election........................ 10-93 —
1. Challenges............................................ 10-93 —
2. Objections to the Election................... 10-93 —
3. Resolution of Challenges and
Objections............................................ 10-94 —
E. Runoff and Rerun Elections..................... 10-95 —
F. Certification and Revocation.................... 10-97 —
Chapter 11. Appropriate Bargaining Units................... 11-1 11-1
I. Background....................................................... 11-3 —
II. General Factors in Unit Determinations......... 11-6 11-4
A. Community of Interest Among
Employees.................................................. 11-6 11-4
B. Extent of Union Organization.................. 11-10 —
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C. Desires of the Employees—The Globe
Doctrine..................................................... 11-12 —
D. Bargaining History..................................... 11-13 —
E. Employer’s Organizational Structure....... 11-15 —
III. Types of Units................................................... 11-16 11-5
A. Unit Classifications Required by the
Act............................................................... 11-16 11-5
1. Professionals......................................... 11-16 —
2. Guards.................................................. 11-18 11-5
B. Unit Classifications in General................. 11-23 11-6
1. Craft Units............................................ 11-23 —
2. Departmental Units............................. 11-28 —
3. Plant and Employerwide Units........... 11-30 11-6
4. Single Employer–Joint Employer........ 11-35 11-6
C. Specialized Units....................................... 11-35 11-6
1. Units in Health Care Institutions........ 11-35 11-6
a. Background: The 1974
Amendment to the Act.................. 11-35 —
b. Development of the Law:
Application of Community-of-
Interest Standard and the
Eight-Unit Result............................ 11-37 —
(1) Physicians, Interns, and
Residents................................. 11-38 —
(2) Registered Nurses.................. 11-38 —
(3) Other Professionals................ 11-40 —
(4) Technical Employees............. 11-41 —
(5) Business Office Clericals........ 11-42 —
(6) Service and Maintenance
Employees............................... 11-42 —
(7) Guards..................................... 11-44 —
c. Development of the Law:
Adoption of the “Disparity of
Interest” Standard in
St. Francis (II)................................... 11-44 —
d. Development of the Law: The
Return to the Eight-Unit
Standard—The Board Engages
in Rulemaking and the
Supreme Court Approves.............. 11-45 —
e. Application of the Rule.................. 11-47 —
f. Units in Nonacute Health Care
Institutions...................................... 11-50 11-6
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g. Related Issues................................. 11-51 11-7
(1) Single-Facility Versus
Multifacility Units................... 11-51 —
(2) Prior Bargaining History
in the Institution.................... 11-53 —
(3) Stipulated Units...................... 11-53 —
(4) Decertification Elections....... 11-54 —
(5) Supervisory
Determinations...................... 11-54 11-7
2. Units in Colleges and
Universities........................................... 11-59 —
a. Background.................................... 11-59 —
b. Development of the Law: Basic
Structure of Professional Units
and the Impact of Yeshiva.............. 11-60 —
(1) The Unit of All Full-Time
Faculty Members.................... 11-60 —
(2) Development of the Law:
Faculty as Managerial and
Supervisory Employees—
NLRB v. Yeshiva
University................................. 11-60 —
(3) Yeshiva Applied to Faculty...... 11-62 —
(4) Other Specific Inclusions
and Exclusions....................... 11-64 —
(a) Department
Chairpersons.................. 11-64 —
(b) “Principal
Investigators”.................. 11-65 —
(c) Administrative
Officials........................... 11-65 —
(d) Program Directors......... 11-66 —
(e) Coaches........................... 11-66 —
(f) Visiting Faculty............... 11-66 —
(g) Members of Religious
Orders............................. 11-66 —
(h) Part-Time Faculty........... 11-67 —
(i) Librarians....................... 11-68 —
(j) Research Associates
and Assistants................. 11-69 —
(k) Graduate Students......... 11-69 —
(l) Counselors...................... 11-70 —
(m) Student Athletes............. 11-70 —
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(5) Scope of the Units.................. 11-71 —
(a) Multicampus Units......... 11-71 —
(b) Separate Units for
Professional and
Graduate School
Faculty............................. 11-71 —
3. Units in the U.S. Postal Service........... 11-73 —
a. Background.................................... 11-73 —
b. The Basic Unit................................ 11-74 —
c. The U.S. Postal Service’s
Challenge to the Basic Units......... 11-76 —
D. Multi-Employer Bargaining Units............. 11-76 —
1. The Role of Multi-Employer Units
in the Bargaining Process.................... 11-77 —
2. Establishment of the Multi-
Employer Unit: Its Consensual
Nature................................................... 11-80 —
3. Dissolution of the Unit........................ 11-84 —
a. Total Dissolution............................ 11-84 —
b. Withdrawal After Bargaining
Begins.............................................. 11-87 —
c. Withdrawal After Impasse: The
Bonanno Linen Rule........................ 11-89 —
4. Scope of the Multi-Employer
Unit....................................................... 11-92 —
5. Multilevel Bargaining Units................ 11-94 —
Chapter 12. Recognition and Withdrawal of
Recognition Without an Election.............. 12-1 12-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 12-3 —
II. History............................................................... 12-6 —
A. The Practice Under the Wagner Act........ 12-6 —
B. The Joy Silk Period..................................... 12-7 —
C. The Gissel Decision.................................... 12-12 —
III. Elements of a Bargaining Obligation in
the Absence of an Election.............................. 12-16 12-3
A. Majority Representation............................ 12-16 12-3
1. Form of Designation............................ 12-17 —
2. Name of Union.................................... 12-19 —
3. Status of the Solicitor........................... 12-19 12-3
4. Time of Execution............................... 12-19 —
5. Authentication..................................... 12-20 —
B. Demand for Recognition in an
Appropriate Unit....................................... 12-21 12-3
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C. Employer Unfair Labor Practices............. 12-24 —
1. Conduct Warranting a Gissel
Bargaining Order................................. 12-25 —
a. No Per Se Rules.............................. 12-25 —
b. “Hallmark” Violations: Invasive
Employer Conduct......................... 12-25 —
c. Other Specific Employer
Unfair Labor Practices................... 12-28 —
(1) Threats.................................... 12-28 —
(2) Promise or Grant of
Benefits................................... 12-29 —
(3) Unlawful Efforts to
Undermine or
Discourage Union
Support................................... 12-30 —
(4) Interrogation.......................... 12-31 —
(5) Other Offenses....................... 12-31 —
2. Conduct Not Warranting a Gissel
Bargaining Order................................. 12-33 —
D. The Bargaining Order as an
Extraordinary Remedy.............................. 12-38 —
1. Where the Employer Does Not
Violate Section 8(a)(5)........................ 12-38 —
2. Where the Employer Commits
“Outrageous” Violations but the
Union Lacks Proof of Majority
Support................................................. 12-41 —
IV. Bargaining Obligation Established by
Employer Card Checks, Polls, and Other
Independent Means......................................... 12-43 12-4
V. Defenses to the Remedial Bargaining
Order................................................................. 12-51 12-4
A. Union Lack of Majority Status.................. 12-51 —
1. Timing of the Demand for
Recognition.......................................... 12-52 —
2. Invalid Authorization........................... 12-53 —
a. In General....................................... 12-53 —
b. Nature of the Card......................... 12-54 —
c. Misrepresentations......................... 12-55 —
d. Coercion and Related
Interference.................................... 12-56 —
e. Supervisory Interference............... 12-57 —
B. Change of Circumstances......................... 12-58 —
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C. Union Discrimination or
Misconduct................................................. 12-62 12-4
VI. Withdrawal of Recognition.............................. 12-63 12-5
A. Employee Activity or Inactivity as a
Justifying Consideration............................ 12-72 —
B. Activity or Inactivity by the Union............ 12-76 —
C. Filing of Decertification Petition.............. 12-77 12-5
D. Bargaining-Unit Factors............................ 12-80 —
E. Miscellaneous Factors................................ 12-82 —
1. Union Affiliations................................ 12-82 —
2. Effect of Section 10(b)........................ 12-82 —
3. Appropriate Bargaining Unit—
The Estoppel Doctrine........................ 12-82 —
4. Other Defenses.................................... 12-83 —

Part IV
THE COLLECTIVE BARGAINING PROCESS
Chapter 13. The Duty to Bargain................................... 13-1 13-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 13-4 13-5
A. Historical Background.............................. 13-4 —
1. Origin of the Concept of
Collective Bargaining........................... 13-4 —
2. The Wagner Act................................... 13-6 —
3. The Taft-Hartley Amendments:
The Statutory Language...................... 13-7 —
B. Elements of the Bargaining
Obligation.................................................. 13-9 13-5
1. The Duty to Meet, Confer, and
Negotiate.............................................. 13-9 —
2. The Obligation to Deal in Good
Faith...................................................... 13-10 13-5
3. The Subjects of Bargaining................. 13-12 —
II. Per Se Violations............................................... 13-13 13-5
A. Unilateral Changes.................................... 13-13 13-5
B. Bargaining Directly With Employees........ 13-25 —
C. Refusal to Execute Written Contract........ 13-27 —
D. Refusal to Meet at Reasonable
Times.......................................................... 13-29 13-6
E. Refusal to Confer....................................... 13-30 —
F. Insisting on Nonmandatory Subjects
of Bargaining............................................. 13-31 —
III. The Good Faith Requirement......................... 13-32 13-6
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A. Totality of Conduct Assessed: General
Electric and the Proper Role of the
Parties......................................................... 13-32 —
B. Indicia of Good or Bad Faith.................... 13-40 13-6
1. Surface Bargaining.............................. 13-40 13-6
2. Concessions, Proposals, and
Demands............................................... 13-46 13-7
a. Concessions.................................... 13-46 —
b. Proposals and Demands................ 13-51 13-7
(1) Contract Duration.................. 13-57 —
(2) Checkoff................................. 13-58 —
(3) Management Rights............... 13-60 13-7
3. Dilatory Tactics: Refusing to
Confer at Reasonable Times and
Intervals................................................ 13-62 —
4. Bargaining Representatives................. 13-67 —
5. Representative With Inadequate
Authority to Bargain............................ 13-68 —
6. Imposing Conditions........................... 13-70 —
7. Unilateral Changes.............................. 13-73 13-7
8. Bypassing the Representative:
Individual Contracts of
Employment......................................... 13-79 —
9. Commission of Unfair Labor
Practices................................................ 13-86 —
IV. The Duty to Furnish Information.................... 13-88 13-8
A. The Role of Information in the
Collective Bargaining
Relationship—An Overview...................... 13-88 13-8
1. Bargaining Over New Terms and
Conditions............................................ 13-89 —
2. Representation Under an Existing
Collective Bargaining
Agreement............................................ 13-90 13-8
3. Refusal to Furnish Information as
an Unfair Labor Practice..................... 13-90 —
4. The Union’s Duty to Supply
Information.......................................... 13-92 —
B. Nature of the Duty to Furnish
Information................................................ 13-93 13-9
1. Request or Demand............................. 13-94 —
2. Relevance or Necessity......................... 13-97 13-9
3. Availability............................................ 13-106 13-9
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a. Good Faith Effort to Respond
to Request....................................... 13-106 13-9
b. Delay in Providing
Information.................................... 13-108 —
4. Manner and Form................................ 13-109 —
5. Employer Defenses.............................. 13-113 13-10
a. Claims of Confidentiality or
Privilege Based on Employer
Interests.......................................... 13-114 13-10
b. Claims of Confidentiality or
Privilege Based on Employee
Privacy or Protection...................... 13-120 —
c. Waiver by Union............................. 13-125 —
d. Withdrawal of Recognition............ 13-128 —
C. When the Duty Exists................................ 13-128 —
D. Information That Must Be
Furnished................................................... 13-133 13-10
1. Financial Information.......................... 13-133 13-10
2. Other Information............................... 13-142 13-11
a. Wages.............................................. 13-142 —
b. Hours and Terms and
Conditions of Employment........... 13-144 —
c. Employee and Customer
Information.................................... 13-148 —
d. Strike Replacement
Information.................................... 13-150 —
e. Equal Employment
Opportunity Information.............. 13-151 —
f. Miscellaneous Information
Issues............................................... 13-152 13-11
V. Economic Pressure During Bargaining........... 13-154 13-11
A. Lockout...................................................... 13-155 —
B. Responses to Strikes.................................. 13-158 13-11
VI. Bargaining Impasses......................................... 13-161 13-12
A. Elements of Impasse.................................. 13-161 13-12
B. Effect on the Bargaining Obligation........ 13-167 13-12
VII. Defenses and Exceptions: Waiver,
Suspension, and Termination of
Bargaining Rights............................................. 13-179 13-14
A. Waiver of Bargaining Rights...................... 13-179 13-14
1. Waiver by Express Agreement............. 13-180 13-14
a. “Zipper” Clauses............................. 13-186 —
b. “Management-Rights” Clauses....... 13-189 13-16
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c. Board Jurisdiction to Construe
Collective Bargaining
Agreements..................................... 13-193 13-17
2. Waiver by Bargaining History/Past
Practice....................................................... 13-194 13-17
3. Waiver by Inaction..................................... 13-197 13-19
B. Suspension During Illegal or
Unprotected Activity.................................. 13-203 —
C. Union Loss of Majority.............................. 13-205 13-20
VIII. The Construction Industry: Section 8(f)........ 13-213 13-23
A. History of Bargaining in the Industry
and Application of Section 8(f)................ 13-213 —
B. The Deklewa Decision: Binding
Section 8(f) Agreements and the
Duty to Bargain.......................................... 13-216 13-23
IX. Notice to Terminate or Modify the Labor
Agreement........................................................ 13-224 —
A. Notice Requirements Generally............... 13-224 —
B. Notice Requirements in the Health
Care Industry............................................. 13-230 —
X. Coalition or Coordinated Bargaining............. 13-236 —
XI. Bargaining During the Term of an
Existing Agreement.......................................... 13-240 13-24
XII. Dual Employer Operations: The “Double-
Breasted” Issue.................................................. 13-247 13-25
A. Single Employer......................................... 13-247 13-25
B. Alter Ego.................................................... 13-251 13-26
Chapter 14. Effect of Change in Bargaining
Representative During the Term of a
Collective Bargaining Agreement.............. 14-1 14-1
I. Context in Which the Issue Arises................... 14-1 —
II. Rights and Obligations of New Bargaining
Representative and Employer Under
Contract With Prior Representative................ 14-3 —
A. Representation Proceedings..................... 14-3 —
B. Section 8(a)(5) Proceedings: American
Seating......................................................... 14-4 —
C. Right of Superseded Contracting
Union......................................................... 14-7 —
III. Mergers and Transfers of Affiliation................ 14-8 —
A. Due Process................................................ 14-9 —
B. Continuity of Representation................... 14-14 —
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Chapter 15. Effect of Change in the Employing Unit:
Successorship.............................................. 15-1 15-1
I. Scope of the Topic............................................ 15-3 —
A. Factual Setting........................................... 15-3 —
B. A Summary of the Law.............................. 15-4 —
II. Historical Development................................... 15-6 —
A. Early Rulings.............................................. 15-6 —
B. Wiley v. Livingston: Under Section 301
Contract Obligations of Merged
Employer Survive the Merger................... 15-8 —
1. Impact of Wiley: The Courts................ 15-10 —
2. Impact of Wiley: The Board................. 15-11 —
C. The Burns Case: Under NLRA, Is New
Employer Bound to Prior Employer’s
Contract?.................................................... 15-12 —
D. Burns: The Supreme Court’s View............ 15-14 —
1. The Bargaining Obligation................. 15-14 —
2. The Contractual Obligation................ 15-14 —
E. Aftermath of Burns.................................... 15-16 —
F. Howard Johnson: The Triumph of
Burns Over Wiley......................................... 15-17 —
G. Golden State Bottling Co.: Duty to
Remedy Predecessor’s Unfair Labor
Practices..................................................... 15-19 —
H. Fall River Dyeing: “Successor” Further
Defined....................................................... 15-20 —
III. Successorship and the Bargaining
Obligation......................................................... 15-22 15-3
A. Continuity of the Work Force:
“The Concept of Majority”........................ 15-22 15-3
1. The Applicable Yardstick..................... 15-23 15-3
2. The Appropriate Time for
Measuring Majority Status................... 15-26 —
3. Presumption of the Union’s
Continued Majority Status................... 15-32 15-3
4. Discriminatory Refusals to Hire
Predecessor’s Employees..................... 15-43 15-3
B. Continuity of Identity in the Business
Enterprise or Employing Industry............ 15-48 15-4
C. Continuity of the Appropriate
Bargaining Unit......................................... 15-55 15-4
D. The Effect of Hiatus.................................. 15-64 15-5
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E. Determining When the Bargaining
Obligation Attaches................................... 15-66 —
1. Generally.............................................. 15-66 —
2. The “Perfectly Clear” Exception......... 15-70 —
IV. Successorship and the Contractual
Obligation......................................................... 15-77 15-5
A. The “Alter Ego” Employer........................ 15-77 15-5
1. Alter Ego Status Compared With
Single-Employer Status........................ 15-80 —
2. The Defining Factors of the Alter
Ego Employer....................................... 15-84 15-5
a. The Factor of Common
Ownership...................................... 15-85 15-5
b. The Factor of Employer Motive
to Evade Labor Obligations........... 15-89 —
3. Alter Ego Status Based on the
“Disguised Continuance of the
Old Employer”..................................... 15-95 —
4. Individual Liability: “Piercing the
Veil” of the Alter Ego Employer
Entity..................................................... 15-98 —
5. Application of Alter Ego Test in
Section 301 Actions and in
Arbitration............................................ 15-102 —
6. Application of Alter Ego Test
in Bankruptcy Settings......................... 15-107 —
B. The Stock Purchaser.................................. 15-111 —
C. Adoption of Predecessor’s Contract......... 15-117 15-6
V. Successorship and the Contract-Bar
Doctrine............................................................ 15-120 15-6
VI. Liability of Successor for Predecessor’s
Unfair Labor Practices..................................... 15-124 —
VII. Liability of Successor to Remedy
Delinquent Pension Fund Contributions....... 15-134 15-7
Chapter 16. Subjects of Bargaining................................ 16-1 16-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 16-3 —
II. Historical Background..................................... 16-4 —
III. Development of the Distinction Between
“Mandatory” and “Permissive”......................... 16-7 —
A. Borg-Warner—The Basic Principles........... 16-7 —
B. Pittsburgh Plate Glass—The “Vitally
Affects” Test................................................ 16-8 —
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C. Ford Motor Co.—The Role of the
Board and of Industry Bargaining
Practices..................................................... 16-12 —
D. First National Maintenance Corp.—The
Balancing Test............................................ 16-13 —
E. Application of First National: From
Otis Elevator to Dubuque Packing................ 16-16 —
IV. Mandatory Subjects of Bargaining.................. 16-20 16-4
A. Wages.......................................................... 16-21 16-4
1. In General............................................ 16-21 —
2. Specific Forms of Compensation........ 16-22 16-4
a. Bonuses........................................... 16-22 16-4
b. Pensions.......................................... 16-26 16-4
c. Health and Welfare and
Insurance Plans.............................. 16-30 —
d. Profit-Sharing Plans....................... 16-37 —
e. Stock Purchase Plans..................... 16-38 —
f. Merit Wage Increases..................... 16-39 16-5
g. Housing, Meals, Services, and
Discounts Supplied by
Employer........................................ 16-44 —
h. Other Miscellaneous Benefits....... 16-46 —
i. Payments and Charges to
Nonemployees That Affect
Wages of Employees....................... 16-48 —
3. Effect of Governmental Wage
Controls................................................ 16-49 —
B. Hours.......................................................... 16-50 —
C. Other Terms and Conditions of
Employment............................................... 16-53 16-6
1. In General............................................ 16-53 16-6
2. Specific Terms and
Requirements....................................... 16-56 16-6
a. Seniority, Promotions, and
Transfers......................................... 16-56 —
b. Retirement Eligibility..................... 16-59 —
c. Union-Security, Checkoff, and
Hiring-Hall Provisions.................... 16-59 —
d. Management-Rights and Waiver
Clauses............................................ 16-63 —
e. Plant Rules and Discipline............. 16-65 —
f. Drug and Alcohol Testing.............. 16-70 —
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g. Grievance Procedures and
Arbitration...................................... 16-72 —
h. Safety and Health........................... 16-74 —
i. No-Strike and No-Lockout
Clauses............................................ 16-76 —
j. Work Assignments.......................... 16-77 —
k. No-Discrimination Provisions........ 16-81 —
l. Change in Operations................... 16-82 16-6
m. Major Business Changes................ 16-85 —
(1) Subcontracting and
Removal of Work From the
Bargaining Unit...................... 16-85 —
(a) Background.................... 16-86 —
(b) Supreme Court
Decisions......................... 16-87 —
(c) Otis Elevator (II)............... 16-92 —
(d) Effects of the Decision
to Subcontract or
Transfer Work................. 16-96 —
(e) Relocation of Unit
Work During Contract
Term ............................... 16-97 —
(f) Transfer of Unit
Work ............................... 16-99 —
(2) Partial Closure, Sale, or
Merger of Business, or
Plant Relocation..................... 16-101 —
n. Successorship and “Application
of Contract” Clauses....................... 16-112 —
o. Arrangements and Conditions
for Negotiations............................. 16-114 —
p. Neutrality Agreements................... 16-118 —
V. Permissive Subjects of Bargaining................... 16-119 —
A. In General.................................................. 16-119 —
B. Specific Subjects........................................ 16-122 —
  1. Definition of Bargaining Unit.......... 16-122 —
  2. Parties to a Collective
Bargaining Agreement...................... 16-129 —
  3. Selection of Bargaining
Representative................................... 16-130 —
  4. Union-Recognition Clause................ 16-133 —
  5. Performance Bonds,
Indemnifications, and Legal
Liability Clauses................................. 16-133 —
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  6. Administrative Expense Funds......... 16-135 —
  7. Interest Arbitration and Bi-Level
Bargaining.......................................... 16-136 —
  8. Internal Union Affairs....................... 16-140 —
  9. Union Label....................................... 16-142 —
10. Industry Promotion Funds................ 16-143 —
11. Employees Excluded From
Coverage of the Act: Supervisors
and Agricultural Labor...................... 16-144 —
12. Settlement of Unfair Labor
Practice Charges................................ 16-145 —
13. Tape Recordings, Stenographers,
and Other Technical
Preconditions on the Bargaining
Process................................................ 16-146 —
14. Miscellaneous..................................... 16-148 —
VI. Illegal Subjects of Bargaining.......................... 16-150 —
A. Relationship to Duty to Bargain............... 16-150 —
B. Specific Illegal Subjects............................. 16-152 —

Part V
ARBITRATION AND THE ACT
Chapter 17. Relation of Board Action to
Enforcement of Agreements Under
Section 301.................................................. 17-1 17-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 17-2 —
II. Section 10(a) Power of the Board................... 17-3 —
III. Scope and Purpose of Section 301.................. 17-5 17-3
A. Background and Legislative History......... 17-5 —
1. Background.......................................... 17-5 —
2. Legislative History................................ 17-6 —
B. A Source of Federal Substantive Law....... 17-7 —
C. The Steelworkers Trilogy................................ 17-13 17-3
D. Jurisdiction of the Courts: State and
Federal........................................................ 17-22 —
E. Jurisdiction of the Courts:
Preemption................................................ 17-22 —
F. Overlapping Jurisdiction: Conflict or
Accommodation?....................................... 17-23 17-3
1. Federal and State Courts..................... 17-23 17-3
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a. Concurrent Jurisdiction................. 17-23 17-3
b. Statutes of Limitations................... 17-25 17-3
2. The Board and the Courts.................. 17-32 17-4
IV. Injunctions in Aid of Arbitration:
Section 301 Versus Norris-LaGuardia.............. 17-41 17-4
A. The Supreme Court First Bars, Then,
in Boys Markets, Allows, Enjoining of
Strikes Over Arbitrable Grievances........... 17-41 17-4
B. The Boys Markets Injunction: Halting
Strikes Over Arbitrable Grievances........... 17-43 17-4
1. The Prerequisites for Issuance of
Injunctive Relief................................... 17-43 17-4
a. In General....................................... 17-43 —
b. Strike in Breach of a Contract....... 17-45 —
c. Strike Over an Arbitrable
Dispute............................................ 17-48 —
d. Irreparable Injury and the
Balance of Equities......................... 17-53 17-4
e. Employer Ordered to
Arbitrate.......................................... 17-54 —
f. Limitations on Prospective
Relief; Mootness............................. 17-55 —
2. Sympathy Strikes Not Enjoinable:
Buffalo Forge.......................................... 17-57 17-5
3. Safety Strikes........................................ 17-60 —
4. Injunctions Against Employers in
Aid of Employee Choice During
Safety Investigations............................. 17-61 —
5. Injunctions Against Employers
to Preserve the Status Quo.................. 17-62 17-5
C. Injunction Suits in State Courts................ 17-69 17-5
V. NLRB Interpretation of the Collective
Bargaining Agreement..................................... 17-70 17-6
A. Statutory Authority to Interpret
Agreements................................................ 17-71 17-6
B. Cases Where the Board Interprets
Contract Provisions.................................... 17-74 —
1. Interpretation of Lawful Contract
Clauses.................................................. 17-74 —
2. Interpretation to Determine
Whether Express Statutory
Prohibitions Have Been Violated........ 17-75 —
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Chapter 18. Accommodation of Board Action to the
Arbitration Process..................................... 18-1 18-1
I. Introduction and Historical Development..... 18-3 18-3
A. Arbitration and the Courts........................ 18-3 —
B. Jurisdiction of the NLRB Over
Arbitral Matters.......................................... 18-7 18-3
C. From Post-Arbitration Deferral Under
Spielberg to Prearbitration Deferral
Under Collyer.............................................. 18-14 —
1. The Spielberg Rationale for Board
Deferral After an Arbitrator Has
Ruled.................................................... 18-14 —
2. The Collyer Rationale for Board
Deferral Before Arbitration Has
Occurred.............................................. 18-16 —
3. Collyer in the Reviewing Courts........... 18-21 —
D. Contractions and Expansions of
Collyer Deferral Policy................................ 18-22 —
1. Restricting the Deferral Practice:
General American Transportation............ 18-22 —
2. Expanding the Deferral Practice:
United Technologies................................. 18-23 —
E. The Board’s Dubo Deferral Policy............. 18-24 —
II. Prearbitral Deferral: Applying the Collyer
Doctrine............................................................ 18-25 18-4
A. The Parties’ Relationship.......................... 18-25 —
B. The Parties’ Willingness to Arbitrate
and Arbitrability......................................... 18-27 —
C. Whether the Dispute Centers on
Statutory Policy.......................................... 18-31 18-4
1. Matters Only Incidentally Related
to the Collective Bargaining
Agreement............................................ 18-31 —
a. Representation Matters.................. 18-31 —
b. Inadequate Contract
Coverage......................................... 18-33 —
c. Section 8(a)(4) Issues.................... 18-34 —
d. Questions of Law and Statutory
Obligation....................................... 18-34 —
e. Rival Union Situations................... 18-36 —
f. Potentially Illegal Results............... 18-37 —
2. Discharge and Discipline Cases.......... 18-38 —
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3. Matters Involving the Contract:
Unilateral Action................................. 18-39 —
4. Demands for Information................... 18-43 18-4
D. The Board’s Continuing Role in
Collyer and Dubo Deferral Cases................. 18-45 —
III. Post-Arbitral Deferral: Applying the
Spielberg Standards............................................. 18-47 18-5
A. The Issue Under the Act Was
Presented and Considered in
Arbitration.................................................. 18-48 18-5
1. Development of the Law: Early
Indecision and Vacillation................... 18-48 —
2. The “Factual Parallelism”
Standard Under Olin........................... 18-50 —
3. Application of the “Factual
Parallelism” Standard.......................... 18-51 —
4. The Babcock & Wilcox Standard........... 18-55 18-5
B. Fair and Regular Proceedings................... 18-58 —
1. The Arbitral Procedure....................... 18-58 —
2. Hostility of the Tribunal or Union
Representative Toward the
Grievant................................................ 18-60 —
C. Agreement of All Parties to Be
Bound......................................................... 18-61 —
D. The Award Is Not Repugnant to the
Policies of the Act...................................... 18-63 —
IV. Other Factors Affecting the Board’s
Post-Arbitral Deferral Policy............................ 18-68 18-5
A. Representation Cases................................ 18-68 —
B. Certain Unfair Labor Practices:
Sections 8(a)(2) and 8(a)(4).................... 18-71 —
C. Work-Assignment Disputes, Deferral
by Statute.................................................... 18-72 —
D. Settlement or Other Disposition
Under a Grievance Procedure Short
of an Arbitral Award.................................. 18-73 18-5
1. Deferral to Joint Committee
Awards................................................... 18-74 —
2. Deferral to Voluntary Grievance
Settlements........................................... 18-75 —
3. Deferral to Grievances Dropped
by the Union........................................ 18-78 18-5
E. Failure to Abide by an Arbitral
Award.......................................................... 18-79 —
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V. Response of the Reviewing Court to the
Board’s Deferral Standards.............................. 18-80 —

PART VI
ECONOMIC ACTION
Chapter 19. The Primary Strike...................................... 19-1 19-1
I. Introduction: The Right to Strike................... 19-2 —
A. Constitutional Protection.......................... 19-3 —
B. Preemption................................................ 19-10 —
C. Statutory Protections and Restrictions..... 19-12 —
1. Protections to Engage in Strikes......... 19-13 —
2. Restrictions on the Right to Strike...... 19-14 —
II. Strikes Protected Under the Act...................... 19-19 —
A. Generally.................................................... 19-19 —
B. Economic and Unfair Labor Practice
Strikes......................................................... 19-20 —
1. Unfair Labor Practice Strikes.............. 19-21 —
2. Economic Strikes................................. 19-25 —
III. Unprotected and Prohibited Strikes............... 19-34 —
A. Unlawful or Wrongful Means.................... 19-34 —
1. Sit-Down or Sit-In Strikes..................... 19-34 —
2. Minority Strikes.................................... 19-36 —
3. Partial and Intermittent Strikes.......... 19-36 —
4. Picket Line Misconduct; Strike
Violence................................................ 19-40 —
B. Unlawful or Wrongful Ends...................... 19-45 —
1. Strikes in Violation of the Act............. 19-46 —
2. Strikes in Breach of Contract.............. 19-49 —
3. Strikes in Circumvention of the
Exclusive Bargaining
Representative...................................... 19-52 —
IV. Rights of Employees Respecting Picket
Lines: Sympathy Strikes.................................... 19-54 —
A. Statutory Rights of Employees.................. 19-54 —
B. Effect of Contractual Waiver of Rights..... 19-58 —
C. Sympathy Strikes Not Enjoinable:
Buffalo Forge................................................ 19-60 —
Chapter 20. The Lockout................................................ 20-1 20-1
I. Introduction: Historical Perspective............... 20-2 —
A. Basic Concepts........................................... 20-2 —
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B. Lockouts for Unlawful or Wrongful
Purposes..................................................... 20-4 —
C. Evolution of Justifiable Lockouts:
The Defensive Lockout............................. 20-7 —
1. The Single-Employer Defensive
Lockout................................................. 20-7 —
2. The Defensive Multi-Employer
Lockout................................................. 20-9 —
D. Legitimation of the “Offensive”
Lockout: Economic Lockouts and
American Ship Building................................ 20-11 —
E. Brown Food and Its Progeny—The
Multi-Employer Lockout........................... 20-15 —
II. Contemporary Law of Lockouts...................... 20-20 20-2
A. The Offensive Economic Lockout—
In General.................................................. 20-20 20-2
1. Lockouts Occurring in
Conjunction With Employer
Unfair Labor Practices......................... 20-21 —
2. The Use of Replacements.................... 20-28 —
3. The Pre-Impasse Lockout.................... 20-31 —
4. The Lockout During First
Negotiations......................................... 20-34 —
5. The Partial Lockout............................. 20-34 —
6. The “Common Interest” Lockout....... 20-37 —
7. Timing of Lockout............................... 20-38 —
8. Notification of Purpose of
Lockout................................................. 20-39 20-2
Chapter 21. Picketing for Organization and
Recognition................................................. 21-1 21-1
I. Introduction: Recognitional Picketing in
History............................................................... 21-2 —
A. Taft-Hartley Amendments:
Section 8(b)(4)(C) Forbids Picketing
Where Another Union Is Certified........... 21-3 —
B. Curtis Brothers: Recognitional Picketing
Not Regulated by Section 8(b)(1)(A)...... 21-3 —
C. Landrum-Griffin Amendments:
Enactment of Section 8(b)(7).................. 21-4 —
II. Picketing Defined............................................. 21-6 —
A. Threats of Picketing.................................. 21-6 —
B. Patrolling or Carrying Placards................ 21-8 —
C. Handbilling as Picketing........................... 21-12 —
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III. Proscribed Organizational or Recognitional
Objective........................................................... 21-14 —
A. Evidence of Proscribed Object................. 21-15 —
B. Picketing to Protest Unfair Labor
Practices or Discharges.............................. 21-21 —
C. Area-Standards Picketing.......................... 21-27 —
1. Area-Standards Object Not
Proscribed............................................ 21-27 —
2. Picketing on Private Property............. 21-34 —
D. Members-Only Agreements...................... 21-34 —
E. Prehire Agreements................................... 21-35 —
IV. Picketing When Another Union Is
Currently Recognized....................................... 21-37 —
A. Contract-Bar Limitations on Picketing..... 21-38 —
B. Section 8(a)(2): Assistance to
Incumbent as Defense............................... 21-40 —
C. Section 8(a)(2) Defense............................ 21-41 —
D. Inapplicability of Informational
Proviso............................................................... 21-42 —
V. Picketing Within Twelve Months of a Valid
Election............................................................. 21-42 —
A. Validity of the Election.............................. 21-46 —
1. Invalidity of the Direction of
Election...................................................... 21-46 —
2. Other Assertions of Invalidity.............. 21-47 —
B. Determinative Dates.................................. 21-48 —
1. The Violation....................................... 21-48 —
2. The Remedy......................................... 21-48 —
VI. Picketing of Unreasonable Duration Absent
a Petition........................................................... 21-49 —
A. Reasonable Period of Time....................... 21-50 —
B. Effect of Filing or Refraining From
Filing a Petition.......................................... 21-53 —
VII. The Informational Picketing Proviso.............. 21-55 —
A. Scope of the Proviso: Dual-Purpose
Picketing..................................................... 21-58 —
B. The Statutory Requisites........................... 21-59 —
1. Appeal to the Public............................ 21-59 —
2. Truthfully Advising the Public............. 21-61 —
3. Absence of Impermissible Effect......... 21-63 —
Chapter 22. Secondary Activity: Handbills, Pickets,
and Strikes................................................... 22-1 22-1
I. Introduction: Development of the Law.......... 22-3 —
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A. The Generally Protected Nature of
Picketing and Handbilling........................ 22-4 —
1. The Constitutional Dimensions.......... 22-4 —
2. Basic Statutory Protection................... 22-6 —
B. Regulation of Secondary Activity
Before Taft-Hartley.................................... 22-7 —
C. The Taft-Hartley Amendments:
Secondary Activity Limited....................... 22-11 —
D. The Landrum-Griffin Amendments:
Closing the Taft-Hartley
“Loopholes”............................................... 22-12 —
II. Section 8(b)(4)(B): Prohibited
Secondary Activity Defined.............................. 22-15 22-4
A. Definitions of Terms.................................. 22-15 22-4
1. Any Person........................................... 22-15 —
2. Induce or Encourage........................... 22-17 —
3. Cease Doing Business.......................... 22-22 22-4
B. The Elusive Distinction Between
Primary and Secondary Conduct.............. 22-24 —
C. The Situs of the Dispute............................ 22-29 —
1. Primary Situs........................................ 22-29 —
2. Common and Ambulatory Situs.......... 22-31 —
D. The Reserved Gate and the Related-
Work Test.................................................... 22-35 —
1. General Electric: To Whom May the
Union Appeal?..................................... 22-36 —
2. Carrier Corp............................................ 22-39 —
3. Application in the Construction
Industry................................................ 22-40 —
4. Application Generally: The
Totality of Conduct Test...................... 22-44 —
a. The First Moore Dry Dock
Criterion: The Primary
Employer Is Present at the
Site.................................................. 22-48 —
b. The Second Moore Dry Dock
Criterion: The Primary
Employer Is Engaged in Its
Normal Business at the Situs......... 22-50 —
c. The Third Moore Dry Dock
Criterion: Picketing Must
Occur Reasonably Close to the
Situs of the Primary Employer...... 22-51 —
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d. The Fourth Moore Dry Dock
Criterion: Picketing Must
Identify the Primary
Employer........................................ 22-56 —
E. The Ally Doctrine...................................... 22-57 —
1. Struck Work.......................................... 22-59 —
2. The Straight-Line Operation/
Single-Employer Status........................ 22-63 —
F. Applying the Primary-Secondary
Tests............................................................ 22-68 22-4
1. Conduct Other Than Picketing.......... 22-71 22-4
2. Nature of Related Work....................... 22-76 —
3. Location of the Picketing.................... 22-76 —
G. Bannering.................................................. 22-79 —
H. Political Boycotts........................................ 22-81 —
III. Handbilling....................................................... 22-85 —
A. DeBartolo II: Consumer Handbilling
Not Prohibited by
Section 8(b)(4)(B).................................... 22-85 —
B. Standards for Lawful Handbilling............ 22-88 —
1. The Conduct of Handbilling.............. 22-90 —
2. Location of Handbilling...................... 22-94 —
IV. Consumer Picketing......................................... 22-95 22-5
A. The Tree Fruits Case: Point of Sale
Picketing of Struck Product...................... 22-95 —
B. Development of the Law After Tree
Fruits........................................................... 22-97 22-5
1. “Merged Products” and Other
Problems of the Economic
Setting................................................... 22-97 —
2. Total Economic Boycott of the
Secondary Employer—The Safeco
Caveat................................................... 22-100 —
3. Specificity of the Union’s Appeal:
Location and Timing........................... 22-102 22-5
4. Application by State Courts................. 22-107 —
V. Actions for Damages Under Section 303........ 22-107 22-5
A. Nature of the Action.................................. 22-107 22-5
1. Relationship to Section 8(b)(4).......... 22-107 22-5
2. Who Can Sue and Be Sued?................ 22-111 —
3. Effect of Arbitration Clause................. 22-116 —
B. Relationship to Related Board
Proceedings—Res Judicata and
Collateral Estoppel.................................... 22-117 —
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C. The Measure of Damages.......................... 22-119 22-5
D. Limitations, Federal Preemption, and
Supplemental Jurisdiction........................ 22-124 22-5
1. Statutes of Limitations......................... 22-124 —
2. Federal Preemption............................. 22-125 22-5
3. Supplemental Jurisdiction................... 22-127 22-6
Chapter 23. Section 8(e): The “Hot-Cargo”
Agreement................................................... 23-1 23-1
I. Introduction: The Law Before Landrum-
Griffin................................................................ 23-2 —
II. Enactment of Section 8(e): Agreements
to Boycott Prohibited....................................... 23-5 —
A. Scope of the Provision............................... 23-5 —
B. Constitutionality........................................ 23-8 —
III. Interpretation and Application....................... 23-9 23-2
A. Definitions and Coverage.......................... 23-9 —
1 “To Enter Into” and the Statute of
Limitations........................................... 23-9 —
2. Agreements to Cease Doing
Business................................................ 23-11 —
B. Picket Line Clause..................................... 23-17 —
C. Struck and Nonunion Goods and
Work........................................................... 23-20 —
D. Subcontracting and Work-Allocation
Clauses........................................................ 23-23 —
1. Early Development.............................. 23-23 —
2. National Woodwork: Work
Preservation as Primary
Objective............................................... 23-28 —
3. Application of National Woodwork........ 23-31 —
a. Work-Preservation Clauses
Generally......................................... 23-31 —
b. Union-Standards Clauses............... 23-40 —
c. Fringe-Benefit Fund Clauses......... 23-42 —
d. Right-of-Control Exception:
Enterprise Association ....................... 23-45 —
E. Construction Industry Proviso
Allowing Agreements Concerning
Job-Site Work.............................................. 23-50 23-2
1. Scope of the Proviso: Connell and
Woelke & Romero.................................... 23-51 —
2. Job-Site Work........................................ 23-56 —
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3. Obtaining and Enforcing
Subcontracting Agreements................ 23-59 23-2
4. Clauses Prohibiting Double-
Breasting............................................... 23-64 —
F. Garment Industry Proviso......................... 23-67 —
Chapter 24. Jurisdictional Disputes and
“Featherbedding”........................................ 24-1 24-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 24-1 —
II. Jurisdictional Disputes...................................... 24-2 24-2
A. Background: Development of the
Law.............................................................. 24-2 —
B. Enactment of Sections 8(b)(4)(D)
and 10(k)................................................... 24-2 24-2
1. Limited Enforcement by the
Board.................................................... 24-3 —
2. The CBS Case....................................... 24-4 —
3. Scope of Section 8(b)(4)(D).............. 24-6 24-2
C. Procedure in Jurisdictional Dispute
Cases........................................................... 24-17 —
1. Generally.............................................. 24-17 —
2. Voluntary Adjustment.......................... 24-18 —
3. Disclaimer............................................. 24-22 —
4. Judicial Review of Section 10(k)
Awards................................................... 24-24 —
D. Factors Determining Jurisdictional
Disputes...................................................... 24-26 24-2
E. Post-Hearing Procedure............................ 24-32 —
F. Relationship of Section 8(b)(4)(D)
Proceedings to Other Actions and
Unfair Labor Practice Proceedings.......... 24-38 24-2
III. “Featherbedding”............................................. 24-42 —
A. Background................................................ 24-42 —
B. Judicial Limitations.................................... 24-44 —
C. Application of the Law.............................. 24-46 —

Part VII
RELATIONS BETWEEN EMPLOYEE AND UNION
Chapter 25. The Duty of Fair Representation............... 25-1 25-1
I. Introduction: Origin of the Duty..................... 25-2 —
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A. Relationship to Exclusive
Representation: Steele and Tunstall............ 25-2 —
B. The Duty Defined: Vaca v. Sipes................. 25-5 —
II. Jurisdiction and Procedures to Enforce
the Duty............................................................. 25-8 25-2
A. The Courts................................................. 25-8 25-2
1. Exhaustion of Contractual
Remedies.............................................. 25-11 —
2. Exhaustion of Internal Union
Remedies.............................................. 25-15 25-2
3. Parties to Fair Representation
Actions.................................................. 25-21 —
4. Right to Jury Trial................................ 25-24 —
B. The Labor Board....................................... 25-25 25-3
1. Unfair Labor Practice Cases................ 25-25 25-3
2. Board Representation
Proceedings.......................................... 25-31 —
3. Preemption and
Accommodation................................... 25-33 25-3
III. Nature of the Duty............................................ 25-41 25-3
A. The Duty Described................................... 25-41 —
B. The Nature of the Duty in Grievance
Handling and Contract
Administration........................................... 25-53 25-3
C. The Duty in Collective Bargaining........... 25-64 25-4
IV. Statutes of Limitations...................................... 25-78 25-4
V. Remedies........................................................... 25-88 25-7
A. The Board.................................................. 25-88 —
1. Unfair Labor Practice Cases................ 25-88 —
2. Representation Proceedings............... 25-94 —
B. The Courts................................................. 25-95 25-7
1. Damages............................................... 25-95 25-7
2. Attorneys’ Fees..................................... 25-98 25-7
3. Injunctions and Other Equitable
Remedies.............................................. 25-102 —
4. Apportionment of Liability................. 25-104 25-8
Chapter 26. Union Security............................................ 26-1 26-1
I. Introduction: Historical Evolution.................. 26-2 —
A. Union Security: The Obligation of
Membership............................................... 26-2 —
B. The Wagner Act and the Closed
Shop............................................................ 26-3 —
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C. The Taft-Hartley Amendments:
Modifying the Lawful Obligations of
Membership............................................... 26-4 —
D. Developments After Taft-Hartley.............. 26-5 —
II. Required Membership—The Union
Shop.................................................................. 26-7 26-2
A. In General.................................................. 26-7 26-2
1. Financial-Core Membership................ 26-9 26-2
2. Failure to Tender Payments................ 26-19 —
3. Miscellaneous Requirements.............. 26-20 —
B. Enforcement Procedures.......................... 26-22 —
1. Information and Notice to
Employees of Obligation..................... 26-27 —
C. The 30-Day Grace Period.......................... 26-30 —
D. Uniform Periodic Dues and Fees.............. 26-32 —
1. The Requirements of
Sections 8(a)(3) and (b)(2)................ 26-32 —
2. Initiation Fees...................................... 26-37 —
E. The Belated Tender................................... 26-40 —
F. The Contract Bar....................................... 26-42 —
1. Representation Elections..................... 26-42 —
2. Union-Shop Deauthorization
Elections............................................... 26-44 —
G. The Section 8(f) Exception: The
Construction Industry............................... 26-45 —
H. Market-Recovery Dues............................... 26-47 —
III. Variations: The Agency Shop and
Maintenance of Membership........................... 26-48 —
A. Agency Shop.............................................. 26-48 —
B. Maintenance of Membership.................... 26-52 —
IV. Section 14(b) and State “Right-to-Work”
Laws................................................................... 26-54 26-3
V. Hiring-Hall and Job-Referral Practices............ 26-63 26-4
A. General Rules............................................. 26-63 26-4
B. Remedies.................................................... 26-76 —
VI. The Dues Checkoff........................................... 26-81 26-4
A. The LMRA and the Courts........................ 26-81 —
B. The Checkoff in the Public Sector........... 26-84 —
C. The NLRB.................................................. 26-86 26-4
1. Jurisdiction of the Board..................... 26-86 —
2. Specific Violations................................ 26-89 26-4
VII. Constitutional Dimensions and Other
Statutory Requirements................................... 26-94 26-5
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A. Constitutionality of the Union Shop........ 26-94 26-5
B. Effect of Political and Other
Expenditures Arguably Unrelated
to Collective Bargaining............................ 26-97 26-5
C. Religious Objectors................................... 26-113 —

Part VIII
ADMINISTRATION OF THE ACT
Chapter 27. Jurisdiction: Coverage of the Act............... 27-1 27-1
I. Constitutionality............................................... 27-3 27-3
A. As a Regulation of Commerce.................. 27-3 —
B. The Shadow of the First Amendment:
Jurisdiction Over Religious
Organizations............................................. 27-5 27-3
II. Statutory Jurisdiction........................................ 27-13 27-3
A. Basic Coverage: “Commerce” and
“Affecting Commerce”.............................. 27-13 —
B. Foreign Operations................................... 27-19 —
C. The United States Postal Service.............. 27-24 —
D. Health Care Institutions............................ 27-24 —
E. Nonprofit Organizations........................... 27-28 —
F. Relation to Jurisdictions of Other
Agencies..................................................... 27-30 27-3
1. Railway Labor Act................................ 27-30 27-3
2. Shipping Act......................................... 27-33 —
III. Definitions and Limitations on
Coverage............................................................ 27-34 27-4
A. Person......................................................... 27-34 —
B. Employer.................................................... 27-35 27-4
1. Single-Employer Status........................ 27-36 27-4
2. Joint Employer..................................... 27-41 27-4
3. Agents................................................... 27-43 —
4. Exclusions From Coverage of the
Act......................................................... 27-46 —
a. International Organizations.......... 27-47 —
b. Indian Tribes.................................. 27-47 —
c. Political Subdivisions..................... 27-48 —
(1) Departmental or
Administrative Arm of
Government........................... 27-49 —
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(2) Responsible to
Government or General
Electorate................................ 27-50 —
d. Government Contractors............... 27-52 —
C. Employee.................................................... 27-55 27-5
1. In General............................................ 27-55 27-5
2. Excluded Categories of
Employees............................................ 27-59 27-5
a. Supervisors...................................... 27-59 —
b. Managerial Employees................... 27-73 —
c. Confidential Employees................. 27-78 —
d. Agricultural Laborers..................... 27-81 —
e. Independent Contractors.............. 27-85 27-5
(1) In General.............................. 27-85 —
(2) Insurance Agents.................... 27-88 —
(3) Owner–Operators in the
Trucking Industry................... 27-88 27-5
(4) Newspaper Carriers and
Distributors............................. 27-91 —
(5) Freelance Performers,
Musicians, and
Announcers............................ 27-93 —
(6) Taxicab Owner–Operators
and Lessees............................. 27-94 —
(7) Service Station Operators...... 27-96 —
(8) Freelance Photographers...... 27-97 —
(9) Miscellaneous
Classifications......................... 27-97 —
f. Family Members and
Relationships.................................. 27-100 —
g. Domestic Servants.......................... 27-102 —
h. Medical Residents and
Interns............................................. 27-103 —
i. Employees of “Nonemployers”...... 27-104 —
j. Retired Employees......................... 27-104 —
k. Section 8(d) Loss-of-Status
Clause.............................................. 27-106 —
IV. Discretionary Administrative
Jurisdictional Standards................................... 27-107 —
A. In General.................................................. 27-107 —
B. Specific Assertions or Denials of
Coverage..................................................... 27-109 —
C. Advisory Opinions and Declaratory
Orders........................................................ 27-122 —
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Chapter 28. Federal Preemption of State Regulation... 28-1 28-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 28-2 —
A. The Constitutional Basis........................... 28-4 —
B. The Congressional Role............................ 28-5 —
C. The Judicial Role....................................... 28-6 —
II. Evolution of Preemption Doctrine.................. 28-7 28-3
A. The Actual and Potential Conflict of
State and Federal Regulation.................... 28-7 —
B. The Briggs & Stratton Detour: State
Regulation of Conduct Left
Unregulated by Congress.......................... 28-8 —
C. The Preemptive Effect of NLRB
Primary Jurisdiction................................... 28-9 —
D. Federalism: Recognizing Important
Matters of Particular Local Concern........ 28-11 28-3
E. Matters of Peripheral Concern to the
NLRA.......................................................... 28-14 —
F. A Brief Gap in Regulation: State
Power Preempted Despite Board
Refusal to Act............................................. 28-15 —
G. A Foundation: Garmon Preempts State
Regulation of Conduct Arguably
Protected or Prohibited by the Act........... 28-16 28-3
H. Briggs & Stratton Overruled: States
May Not Regulate Economic Weapons
Furnished by Congress.............................. 28-27 28-4
I. Garmon Refined: Reconsidering the
Preemption of Arguably Protected or
Prohibited Conduct................................... 28-36 —
III. Garmon Preemption in Specific
Situations........................................................... 28-40 28-5
A. Picketing in General.................................. 28-40 —
B. Trespass...................................................... 28-42 28-5
C. Violence, Threats of Violence, and
Intimidation............................................... 28-45 —
D. Other Intentional Torts............................. 28-47 —
1. Defamation: Linn v. Plant Guard
Workers................................................... 28-47 —
2. Inflicting Emotional Distress:
Farmer v. Carpenters............................... 28-51 —
3. Fraud, Misrepresentation, and
Other Intentional Torts....................... 28-53 —
E. Internal Union Matters............................. 28-56 —
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IV. Preemption Under Section 301....................... 28-59 28-6
A. Section 301 Suits........................................ 28-59 —
B. The Preemptive Effect of
Section 301................................................. 28-61 28-6
C. Relationship to the NLRB......................... 28-76 —
1. Introduction: Exclusive
Jurisdiction of Board Versus
Concurrent Jurisdiction...................... 28-76 —
2. Jurisdiction in Representation
Matters.................................................. 28-78 —
3. Jurisdiction in Other Matters.............. 28-83 —
D. Relationship to the Norris-LaGuardia
Act............................................................... 28-85 —
V. Preemptive Effect of Other Statutory
Provisions.......................................................... 28-89 28-7
A. Section 303 Actions................................... 28-89 28-7
B. State Power Under Section 14(b) to
Regulate Union-Security
Agreements................................................ 28-91 28-8
C. State Power to Regulate When the
Board Declines Jurisdiction Under
Section 14(c).............................................. 28-96 —
D. Board Cession Under Section 10(a)........ 28-97 —
E. Fair Representation................................... 28-98 28-9
1. Concurrent Jurisdiction of Board
and Courts............................................ 28-98 —
2. Federal Law Governs........................... 28-101 28-9
F. Disputes Not Within the Coverage of
the NLRA................................................... 28-104 —
Chapter 29. Accommodations to Other Federal
Enactments.................................................. 29-1 29-1
I. The NLRA and the Antitrust Law.................... 29-2 29-2
A. Historical Development of the Antitrust
Laws............................................................ 29-3 —
B. Loss of the Exemption Through
Combination With Nonlabor
Groups........................................................ 29-6 29-2
C. The Requirement of a “Labor
Dispute”...................................................... 29-10 —
D. The Issue of the Board’s Primary
Jurisdiction................................................. 29-14 —
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E. The Connell Decision: Union
Restraints on Subcontracting in the
Construction Industry............................... 29-15 —
F. Application of the Statutory
and Nonstatutory Exemption After
Connell......................................................... 29-19 29-3
G. Employer Antitrust Suits as Illegal
Retaliation for Protected Activity.............. 29-31 29-4
II. The NLRA and the Bankruptcy Code............. 29-33 29-4
A. Power of Bankruptcy Court to Reject
Collective Bargaining Agreement............. 29-34 —
1. Requirements for Rejection of a
Collective Bargaining Agreement....... 29-35 —
2. Modification of Post-Retirement
Health Benefits.................................... 29-43 —
3. Bargaining After Rejection Is
Authorized............................................ 29-44 —
4. Post-Petition Collective Bargaining
Agreements.......................................... 29-45 —
B. Priority of Wage and Employee
Benefit Plan Contributions....................... 29-47 29-4
1. Pre-Petition Claims.............................. 29-47 29-4
2. Post-Petition Claims for Wages and
Benefits Due Under an Unrejected
Agreement............................................ 29-48 —
3. Priority of Claims for Wages and
Benefits Due Under Rejected
Agreement............................................ 29-50 —
4. Enforcement of an Unrejected
Collective Bargaining
Agreement............................................ 29-51 —
C. Severance Pay and Withdrawal
Liability....................................................... 29-53 —
D. Limitations on Jurisdiction of the
Bankruptcy Courts..................................... 29-55 29-4
1. Bankruptcy Code Automatic Stay
Provision............................................... 29-56 29-4
2. Jurisdiction of Bankruptcy Court
to Enjoin NLRB Proceedings.............. 29-58 —
E. Bankruptcy of a Labor
Organization.............................................. 29-61 —
III. The NLRA and Immigration Law.................... 29-62 29-5
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Chapter 30. RICO and Labor Law.................................. 30-1 30-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 30-4 —
II. Historical Background of RICO and Its
Applicability to Labor Disputes....................... 30-6 —
A. Legislative History..................................... 30-6 —
1. Expansion of the Statute From a
Measure to Control Organized
Crime.................................................... 30-6 —
2. RICO and Labor Disputes................... 30-9 —
B. Subsequent Amendments and Proposals
to Limit RICO............................................ 30-11 —
1. Extraterritorial Application................. 30-13 —
C. State Laws Applicable to Labor
Racketeering.............................................. 30-13 —
III. Overview of the Statute.................................... 30-15 —
A. Key Elements.............................................. 30-15 —
1. Racketeering Activity........................... 30-16 —
2. Person................................................... 30-20 —
3. Enterprise............................................. 30-21 —
4. Pattern.................................................. 30-28 —
5. Causation.............................................. 30-37 —
B. Three Substantive Violations.................... 30-42 —
1. 18 U.S.C. §1962(a): Using or
Investing Racketeering Income.......... 30-42 —
a. Investment Injury........................... 30-43 —
b. Person/Enterprise Distinction...... 30-44 —
2. 18 U.S.C. §1962(b): Acquiring or
Maintaining an Interest in an
Enterprise............................................. 30-45 —
a. Acquisition Injury........................... 30-46 —
b. Control............................................ 30-47 —
c. Person/Enterprise Distinction...... 30-48 —
3. 18 U.S.C. §1962(c): Conducting an
Enterprise’s Affairs Through
Racketeering........................................ 30-48 —
a. Person/Enterprise Distinction...... 30-51 —
(1) Application to Corporate
Relationships.......................... 30-52 —
(2) Application to Association-
in-Fact Enterprises................. 30-54 —
b. Operation or Management
Requirement................................... 30-59 —
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4. 18 U.S.C. §1962(d): Conspiracy to
Violate the Substantive Provisions...... 30-64 —
a. Relationship to Substantive
RICO Violations............................. 30-66 —
b. Agreement by the Defendant to
the Commission of Predicate
Acts.................................................. 30-68 —
c. Injury From an Act in
Furtherance of the Conspiracy...... 30-70 —
d. Intra-Corporate Conspiracies........ 30-70 —
IV. Predicate Acts Commonly Alleged in Labor
Cases.................................................................. 30-72 —
A. 18 U.S.C. §664: Embezzlement From
Pension and Welfare Funds...................... 30-72 —
B. 18 U.S.C. §1954: Unlawful Welfare Fund
Payments.................................................... 30-77 —
C. 29 U.S.C. §186: Restrictions on
Payments and Loans to Labor
Organizations............................................. 30-79 —
D. 29 U.S.C. §501(c): Embezzlement From
Union Funds.............................................. 30-85 —
E. 18 U.S.C. §1951: “Racketeering”
Prohibited by the Hobbs Act..................... 30-88 —
1. History of the Hobbs Act..................... 30-89 —
2. Enmons.................................................. 30-91 —
3. Application of the Hobbs Act to
RICO Cases After Enmons.................... 30-93 —
a. Legitimate Objectives.................... 30-93 —
b. Property.......................................... 30-96 —
c. Nonapplicability of Enmons to
Other Statutes................................ 30-97 —
4. Application of the Hobbs Act to
RICO Cases after Scheidler II................ 30-98 —
a. Background of National
Organization for Women v.
Scheidler............................................ 30-98 —
b. The Supreme Court’s
Interpretation of the Hobbs Act
in Scheidler II and
Scheidler III....................................... 30-99 —
c. Courts’ Interpretation of the
Hobbs Act Post–Scheidler II............. 30-101 —
F. Immigration Violations............................. 30-106 —
1. Trollinger v. Tyson.................................. 30-107 —
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2. Williams v. Mohawk Industries............... 30-109 —
3. Zavala v. Walmart.................................. 30-112 —
4. Joseph v. Signal International LLC.......... 30-115 —
5. Other Decisions of Note...................... 30-115 —
V. Issues in Civil Litigation................................... 30-127 —
A. Standing..................................................... 30-128 —
1. Person................................................... 30-128 —
2. Business or Property............................ 30-128 —
3. “By Reason of”...................................... 30-132 —
4. Standing Under Section 1962(d)....... 30-143 —
B. Accommodation to the Labor Laws......... 30-145 —
1. Early Leading Cases on
“Preemption” of Civil RICO Claims.... 30-147 —
a. Butchers Local 498 v. SDC
Investment........................................ 30-148 —
b. MHC, Inc. v. Mine Workers............... 30-149 —
2. The Emerging Majority Rule............... 30-151 —
a. Cases Recognizing Limited
Labor Law “Preemption”............... 30-153 —
b. Cases Rejecting Labor Law
“Preemption”.................................. 30-156 —
3. The Minority Rule................................ 30-158 —
4. Accommodation of RICO and Labor
Laws in Criminal and Consent
Decree Cases........................................ 30-159 —
C. Vicarious Liability...................................... 30-162 —
1. Claims Under 18 U.S.C. §1962(c)...... 30-162 —
a. Where the Principal Is Not
Distinct From the Enterprise......... 30-162 —
b. Where the Principal Is Distinct
From the Enterprise....................... 30-164 —
2. Claims Under 18 U.S.C.
§§1962(a)–(b)...................................... 30-167 —
D. Aiding and Abetting Liability.................... 30-168 —
E. Statute of Limitations................................ 30-173 —
VI. Remedies........................................................... 30-178 —
A. Criminal Sentences.................................... 30-178 —
B. Criminal Forfeiture................................... 30-179 —
C. Trusteeships and Other Injunctive
Relief.......................................................... 30-182 —
D. Damages in Private Actions....................... 30-190 —
E. Arbitration of RICO Claims...................... 30-193 —
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Chapter 31. NLRB Procedures....................................... 31-1 31-1
I. Organization of Board and Office of
General Counsel............................................... 31-2 31-3
A. Background................................................ 31-2 —
B. The Board.................................................. 31-3 —
C. The General Counsel................................ 31-6 31-3
D. The Administrative Law Judges
(ALJs)......................................................... 31-8 —
E. The Regional Offices................................. 31-8 31-4
II. Procedures in Representation Cases............... 31-9 31-5
A. The Petition............................................... 31-14 —
B. Timeliness of Petitions.............................. 31-16 —
C. Investigation of Petitions........................... 31-20 31-6
D. Consent Elections...................................... 31-22 —
E. Representation Hearings.......................... 31-22 —
1. Timing of the Preelection
Hearing................................................. 31-23 —
2. Notice of Petition for Election............ 31-24 —
3. Statement of Position.......................... 31-24 —
4. Purpose and Conduct of
Hearing................................................. 31-26 —
F. Representation Decisions.......................... 31-28 —
1. By the Regional Director..................... 31-28 —
2. By the Board......................................... 31-29 —
3. Oral Argument..................................... 31-31 —
G. The Election............................................... 31-31 —
1. Date and Place..................................... 31-31 —
2. Eligibility of Voters............................... 31-33 —
3. Voting Procedure................................. 31-36 —
H. Objections to the Election and
Challenged Ballots..................................... 31-37 —
I. Amendment, Clarification, and
Revocation.................................................. 31-40 —
J. Deauthorization and Decertification
Elections..................................................... 31-40 —
III. Procedures in Unfair Labor Practice
Cases.................................................................. 31-41 31-7
A. Background................................................ 31-42 —
B. The Unfair Labor Practice Charge........... 31-43 31-7
  1. Time for Filing................................... 31-43 31-7
  2. Investigation of Charge..................... 31-47 —
  3. Disposition of Charge........................ 31-47 31-9
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  4. Settlement of Unfair Labor
Practice Charges................................ 31-48 31-9
a. Informal Settlements................... 31-50 31-10
b. Formal Settlements...................... 31-52 31-10
c. Non-Board Settlement
Agreements.................................. 31-53 31-11
  5. The Complaint and the Answer........ 31-54 31-11
  6. The Unfair Labor Practice
Hearing.............................................. 31-56 31-12
  7. The Administrative Law Judge’s
Decision.............................................. 31-60 31-14
  8. The Board’s Decision........................ 31-61 31-14
  9. Compliance Procedures.................... 31-62 31-15
10. Applicability of the Equal Access
to Justice Act...................................... 31-62 31-15
IV. Procedures Applicable to All Cases................. 31-65 31-15
A. Ex Parte Rule............................................. 31-65 31-15
B. Discovery.................................................... 31-66 —
C. Subpoenas.................................................. 31-68 —
D. Request for Information Under the
Freedom of Information Act..................... 31-72 —
E. Applicability of the Right of Privacy
Act............................................................... 31-75 —
F. Elections Filing.......................................... 31-75 —
V. The NLRB and Rulemaking............................ 31-76 —
VI. Other Rulemaking Initiatives........................... 31-78 31-16
Chapter 32. NLRB Orders and Remedies...................... 32-1 32-1
I. General Principles............................................ 32-3 —
II. Orders in Representation Cases
(Section 9)........................................................ 32-6 32-4
III. Orders and Remedies in Complaint Cases
(Section 10)...................................................... 32-8 32-5
A. Provisional Remedies................................ 32-8 32-5
1. General Principles............................... 32-8 —
2. Discretionary Injunctions Under
Section 10(j)......................................... 32-9 32-5
a. Statutory Purpose........................... 32-9 —
b. The Board’s Utilization of
Section 10(j)................................... 32-10 —
c. Judicial Standards.......................... 32-10 32-5
d. Temporary Restraining
Orders............................................. 32-15 —
e. Delay in Filing Petition.................. 32-15 32-6
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f. Injunctions Against
Employers....................................... 32-17 —
g. Injunctions Against Unions........... 32-20 —
h. Duration of Section 10(j)
Relief............................................... 32-20 —
3. Mandatory Injunctions Under
Section 10(l)......................................... 32-21 —
a. Standards for Issuance................... 32-21 —
b. Temporary Restraining
Orders............................................. 32-26 —
c. Limitations on Charging
Party................................................ 32-26 —
d. Duration of Injunctions................. 32-27 —
4. Temporary Orders Under
Sections 10(e) and (f)......................... 32-28 —
B. Final Orders and Remedies...................... 32-29 32-6
1. Final Orders and Remedies for
Employer Misconduct.......................... 32-32 32-7
a. Section 8(a)(1) Violations............. 32-32 32-7
b. Section 8(a)(2) Violations............. 32-36 —
c. Sections 8(a)(3) and (4)
Violations........................................ 32-38 32-9
(1) In General............................ 32-38 32-9
(2) Reinstatement...................... 32-39 —
(3) Instatement and Refusal-
to-Hire/Consider Cases....... 32-41 —
(4) Backpay Eligibility................ 32-42 —
(5) Make-Whole Awards............ 32-45 32-9
(6) Backpay Calculations........... 32-47 —
(7) Backpay Period.................... 32-49 —
(8) Interim Earnings and
Mitigation............................. 32-52 —
(9) Provision of Records and
Payments.............................. 32-54 32-10
(10) Discriminatory
Discontinuance of
Operations........................... 32-56 —
d. Section 8(a)(5) Violations............. 32-58 32-11
(1) In General.............................. 32-58 —
(2) Duration of Bargaining
Order...................................... 32-58 —
(3) Breadth of Bargaining
Order...................................... 32-60 —
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(4) Bargaining Orders Denied
Because of Union
Misconduct............................. 32-61 —
(5) Remedies for Particular
Kinds of Section 8(a)(5)
Violations................................ 32-61 32-11
(a) Unilateral Changes........ 32-61 —
(b) Supplying
Information.................... 32-63 —
(c) Bargaining Orders
Without Certification..... 32-64 32-11
(i) Where the
union can show
a majority 32-64 32-11
(ii) Where the
union lacks a
majority 32-70 —
(d) Execution of
Contractual Provisions
Where There Is an
Agreement...................... 32-70 —
(e) Execution of
Contractual Provisions
Where There
Is No Agreement............ 32-72 —
(f) Surface Bargaining........ 32-74 —
(g) Change of
Operations...................... 32-74 —
(h) Remedies Against
Successor to
Bargaining
Obligation...................... 32-77 32-12
(i) Withdrawal of
Recognition.................... 32-78 32-12
(j) Refusing to Process
Grievances...................... 32-80 —
2. Special Remedial Problems
Involving Employers............................ 32-81 32-13
a. Flagrant Violations......................... 32-81 32-13
b. Litigation Costs, Attorneys’
Fees, and Union Expenses............. 32-87 32-14
c. Imposing Remedial Order on
Successor to Wrongdoer................ 32-91 —
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d. Imposing Remedial Order on
Joint Employer............................... 32-92 —
e. Imposing Remedial Order by
Piercing the Corporate Veil........... 32-93 32-14
3. Final Orders and Remedies for
Union Misconduct............................... 32-95 32-15
a. Section 8(b)(1)(A) and (B)
Violations........................................ 32-95 32-15
b. Section 8(b)(2) Violations............. 32-98 32-15
(1) General Principles.................. 32-98 32-15
(2) Scope of Order....................... 32-101 —
(3) Hiring-Hall Cases................... 32-101 —
c. Fair Representation Cases............. 32-103 32-16
d. Section 8(b)(3) Violations............. 32-106 32-16
e. Section 8(b)(4) Violations............. 32-107 32-17
f. Section 8(b)(5) Violations............. 32-108 —
g. Section 8(b)(6) Violations............. 32-108 —
h. Section 8(b)(7) Violations............. 32-109 —
i. Section 8(e) Violations.................. 32-109 —
4. Special Remedial Problems
Involving Unions.................................. 32-111 32-17
a. Flagrant Violations......................... 32-111 —
b. Litigation Costs............................... 32-112 32-17
Chapter 33. Judicial Review and Enforcement.............. 33-1 33-1
I. Introduction...................................................... 33-2 —
II. Appellate Review and Enforcement................ 33-4 33-2
A. Board’s Rulings Subject to Review............ 33-4 —
1. Parties Entitled to Enforcement
and Review............................................ 33-7 —
2. Intervention......................................... 33-11 —
3. Place for Filing for Enforcement
or Review.............................................. 33-11 —
4. Procedure............................................. 33-14 —
B. Scope of Review......................................... 33-17 33-2
1. Questions of Fact................................. 33-17 33-2
2. Questions of Law.................................. 33-24 —
3. Issues That Can Be Raised on
Review................................................... 33-30 33-2
a. Board Final Orders........................ 33-30 33-2
b. Subpoena Enforcement................. 33-33 —
4. Judicial Review of Equal Access
to Justice Determinations.................... 33-34 —
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5. Disposition of Cases by Reviewing
Court..................................................... 33-36 —
6. Award of Costs and Expenses on
Review................................................... 33-38 —
III. Direct Review and Enforcement...................... 33-39 —
A. Review of Representation
or Certification Action.............................. 33-39 —
B. Review of Unfair Labor Practice
Proceedings................................................ 33-45 —
C. Review Through Collateral
Proceedings................................................ 33-48 —
IV. Interim Appellate Relief................................... 33-52 —
Appendix National Labor Relations Act..................... APP-1 —
Table of Cases.................................................................. T-1 T-1

Index.................................................................................. IN-1 —