MSC Thesis 1976 Mathematical Model of The SL RN Direct Reduction Process PDF

MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE SL/RN DIRECT
REDUCTION PROCESS
by
V. VENKATESWARAN
B.E., Indian Institute of Science, 1972
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

T H E R E Q U I R E M E N T S FOR T H E D E G R E E O F
MASTER OF A P P L I E D SCIENCE
In the Department
of
METALLURGY
We a c c e p t this thesis as conforming to the
required standard
THE U N I V E R S I T Y OF B R I T I S H COLUMBIA
A p r i l 1976
(c) V. Venkateswaran, 1976

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that
the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study.
I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis
for scholarly purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head of my Department or
by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication
of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my
written permission.
Department of METALLURGY
The University of British Columbia

20 75 W e s b r o o k P l a c e
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
V6T 1W5
ABSTRACT
A mathematical model has been developed to predict

t h e o p e r a t i n g b e h a v i o u r o f an SL/RN d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n k i l n
from a knowledge o f t h e main process variables. The model i s
b a s e d on s t e a d y s t a t e p r i n c i p l e s a n d i s c a p a b l e o f q u a n t i t a -
t i v e l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e complex chemical reactions i n the kiln
such as r e d u c t i o n , Boudouard reaction, coal volatilization
and c o m b u s t i o n i n t h e f r e e b o a r d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e mass a n d
heat flows. Output from t h e model i s i n t h e form o f a x i a l
p r o f i l e s o f gas, s o l i d s and wall temperatures, and c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n s i n both t h e gas and t h e s o l i d phases. Results from the
model a r e i n good agreement w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s made on t h e 100
ton p e r day p i l o t k i l n a t t h e S t e e l Company o f Canada. The
i n f l u e n c e o f i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s such as t h e type o f
coal, o r e , d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n , t h r o u g h p u t e t c . has been examined
and p r e d i c t i o n s made r e g a r d i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f l a r g e commercial
SL/RN k i l n s f o r s p o n g e iron production.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i i
L I S T OF F I G U R E S . .v i
L I S T OF T A B L E S x i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi i i
Chapter
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 SL/RN P r o c e s s 5
1.2 Other Direct Reduction Processes 11
1.3 Review o f t h e P r e v i o u s Work 15
1.4 Scope o f t h e P r e s e n t Work 17
2 D E V E L O P M E N T OF T H E M A T H E M A T I C A L MODEL 19
2.1 Assumptions Made i n t h e Model 19
2.2 Mass and Heat B a l a n c e E q u a t i o n s 21
2.2.1 Mass B a l a n c e on S o l i d s 23
2.2.2 Mass B a l a n c e f o r Gases 25
2.2.3 Heat B a l a n c e on S o l i d s 30
2.2.4 Heat B a l a n c e on Gases ..... 3 2
2.2.5 Heat B a l a n c e on Wall 3 3
i ii
Chapter Page
2.3 Rate E x p r e s s i o n s 34
2.3.1 Boudouard and R e d u c t i o n
Reaction Rates 34
2.3.2 Air Profile i n the Kiln .... 41
2.3.3 Evolution of Volatiles
from Coal 44
2.3.4 Drying of Solids 44
2.3.5 Combustion i n the Freeboard . . 46
2.3.6 Calcination of Dolomite .... 48
2.4 2.4.1 S p e c i f i c Heats of S o l i d s
and Gases 49
2.4.2 Partial Pressures i n the
F r e e b o a r d Gas Phase ...... 50
2.5 Heat T r a n s f e r i n R o t a r y K i l n s 50
2.5.1 Heat T r a n s f e r Coefficients
Used i n the P r e s e n t Model ... 54
2.5.2 Area Terms f o r Heat T r a n s f e r . . 63
2.6 N u m e r i c a l P r o c e d u r e Used i n t h e Model . . 54
2.7 Internal C o n s i s t e n c y o f the Model .... 69
2.8 S t a r t i n g and I n s t a b i l i t y Problems .... 71
2.9 A d j u s t a b l e Parameters i n the Model. ... 74
3 MODEL C A L C U L A T I O N S AND DISCUSSION 75
3.1 E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e Model 75
3.1.1 E v a l u a t i o n Runs 76
3.2 Predicted Influence of Operating
iv
V a r i a b l e s on K i l n P e r f o r m a n c e 98
Chapter Page
3.2.1 E f f e c t o f Degree of
Reduction Achieved 99
3.2.2 E f f e c t of Throughput 104
3.2.3 E f f e c t o f Lower Coal
Reactivity 104
3.2.4 E f f e c t o f P e l l e t Type 114
3.2.5 E f f e c t o f N a t u r a l Gas 114
3.2.6 E f f e c t o f Dust i n the
F r e e b o a r d Gas 124
3.2.7 Predictions f o r the
Griffith Kiln 127
3.3 General Comments on t h e SL/RN P r o c e s s . . . 136
4 SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S 149
4.1 Suggestions f o r F u t u r e Work 152
REFERENCES 153
APPENDICES
I Source L i s t i n g o f Computer Programme 156
II Important Data Used i n t h e Model 187
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s 6
2 Schematic diagram of the s o l i d s temperature

p r o f i l e i n t h e SL/RN k i l n 9
3 S e c t i o n a l v i e w o f t h e SL/RN k i l n showing
the c o n t r o l volume 22
4 A i r profile for a typical run. 43

i
5 Rates of e v o l u t i o n of v o l a t i l e s from
Forestburg coal 45
6 Rate o f moisture e v o l u t i o n from F o r e s t b u r g

coal 47
7(a) Cross-section of the kiln showing the

h e a t t r a n s f e r modes 52
7(b) C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the k i l n showing the area

terms i n v o l v e d i n the d i f f e r e n t heat t r a n s f e r
equations 52
8 Gas e m i s s i v i t y f o r c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( f r o m
Perry (30)) 56
9 Gas e m i s s i v i t y f o r w a t e r v a p o u r (from
Perry (30)) 57
10 C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the r o t a r y k i l n showing
the d i f f e r e n t r a d i u s terms used f o r c a l -
c u l a t i n g heat loss to surroundings 62
vi
Figure Page
11 Flow s h e e t of the computer program 66
12 Effect of s t a r t i n g s o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e '
on t h e solids temperature profile 73
13 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using Forestburg

c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s 78
14 S o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run
u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s . . . . 79
15 Gas t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r t h e r u n u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s 81
16 I n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e for
the k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and
Griffith pellets 83
17 R e d u c t i o n p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s 84
18 Boudouard r e a c t i o n r a t e f o r the k i l n run

u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .... 86
19 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the k i l n run

u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s . . . . 87
20 Interior view of the p i l o t SL/RN k i l n taken

from the d i s c h a r g e end 89
21 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using lignite

22 S o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run
u s i n g l i g n i t e c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s 93
23 Gas t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r t h e k i l n r u n
24 I n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e
p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g l i g n i t e
vi i
Fi gure Page
25 Reduction p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using

l i g n i t e c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s 96
26 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the k i l n run

27 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g

c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a d e g r e e o f
r e d u c t i o n o f 95% 101
28 S o l i d s , gas, i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l
temperature p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a
d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n o f 95% 102
29 R e d u c t i o n and f r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n
p r o f i l e s f o r the run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l
and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a d e g r e e o f
r e d u c t i o n o f 95% 103
3D A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g

c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a 30%
higher throughput 106
31 S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l
t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run
u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s
w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t 107
p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g
higher throughput. . . 108
33 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
a n t h r a c i t e c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s Ill
34 S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r temperature
p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run using a n t h r a c i t e
v i ii
Figure Page
p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g a n t h r a c i t e
36 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g Forestburg

c o a l and F a l c o n b r i d g e p e l l e t s 116
37 S o l i d s , gas, i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l
temperatures f o r the run using Forestburg
c o a l and F a l c o n b r i d g e p e l l e t s 117
38 R e d u c t i o n and f r e e b o a r d c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s
f o r the k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and
Falconbridge pellets 118
39 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using Forestburg

c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h o u t any n a t u r a l
gas 121
40 S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l
temperature p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h o u t
any n a t u r a 1 gas 122
p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h o u t any n a t u r a l
gas 123
42 E f f e c t o f t h e e m i s s i v i t y o f g a s on t h e gas
temperature 126
43 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g
the F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r
the designed throughput 129
44 S o l i d s temperature p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h
k i l n run u s i n g the F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
p e l l e t s f o r the designed throughput 131
45 Gas t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r t h e G r i f f i t h k i l n
run u s i n g the F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
pellets for designed throughput 132
ix
Fi gure Page
46 Inner wall temperature p r o f i l e f o r the

G r i f f i t h k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g coal
and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r d e s i g n e d
throughput 133
47 Reduction p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h
k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r d e s i g n e d
throughput 134
48 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r
the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g
throughput 135
49 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run
u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h pellets
w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t 138
50 Solid temperature p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h

k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t 139
51 Gas t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r t h e G r i f f i t h
k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
52 I n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l temperature
p r o f i l e s f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g coal and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h
a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t 141
53 Reduction p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n
run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
54 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r
the G r i f f i t h k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g
higher throughput 143
55 E f f e c t o f k i l n d i a m e t e r o n t h e A/V ratio
for d i f f e r e n t degrees of f i l l 1 4 6
56 E f f e c t o f t h e d e g r e e o f f i l l on t h e A/V
r a t i o and mean r e t e n t i o n t i m e f o r a kiln
w i t h i d 6m 1 4 7
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1 Reactivity Parameter for Different

Chars 37
2 T y p i c a l Data f o r the A i r Blown i n t o a

35m L o n g S L / R N K i l n 42
3 Heat Transfer Coefficients i n the L i t e r a t u r e . ... 53
4 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run U s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g Coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s 77
5 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run u s i n g Lignite
Coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s . . 91
6 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run U s i n g F o r e s t b u r g
Coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s w i t h a Degree o f
R e d u c t i o n o f 95% 100
7 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run U s i n g F o r e s t b u r g
Coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s w i t h a 30% H i g h e r '
Throughput 105
A n t h r a c i t e Coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s 110
F o r e s t b u r g C o a l and F a l c o n b r i d g e P e l l e t s 115
F o r e s t b u r g C o a l and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s
W i t h o u t any N a t u r a l Gas 120
xi
Table Page
11 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e G r i f f i t h K i l n Run
U s i n g F o r e s t b u r g C o a l and G r i f f i t h
P e l l e t s f o r the Designed Throughput 128
12 I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e G r i f f i t h K i l n Run
U s i n g F o r e s t b u r g C o a l and G r i f f i t h
P e l l e t s f o r a 30% H i g h e r T h r o u g h p u t 137
xi i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would l i k e to s i n c e r e l y thank my r e s e a r c h super-

v i s o r Dr. K e i t h Brimacombe, f o r h i s a s s i s t a n c e and guidance
throughout the course of this research project. Thanks a r e
also extended t o t h e o t h e r f a c u l t y members o f t h e department
and f e l l o w g r a d u a t e students f o r the helpful d i s c u s s i o n s ,
with special a p p r e c i a t i o n t o M r . B. P r a b h a k a r . The help
received from the t e c h n i c a l s t a f f o f the department i s very
much a p p r e c i a t e d .
In a d d i t i o n g r a t i t u t e i s e x p r e s s e d to the Steel
Company o f Canada f o r t h e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t , a n d t o D r . T.R.
Meadowcroft, M r . K. W i l s o n , ' D r . P . C . R h e e , M r . N i c k Daneliak
a n d M r . C.W.E. J o h n s o n of the Research Centre, Stelco f o r the
invaluable help provided during the course of this research.
x iii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The SL/RN p r o c e s s i s one o f a number o f d i r e c t

r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s t h a t have been designed to produce sponge
iron from i r o n o x i d e on a c o m m e r c i a l scale. The p r o c e s s has
been developed o v e r a p e r i o d o f many y e a r s , i n i t i a l l y by
R e p u b l i c S t e e l and t h e N a t i o n a l Lead Company [ 1 ] (RN) a n d more
r e c e n t l y by t h e S t e e l C o m p a n y o f C a n a d a L t d . a n d L u r g i [ 2 - 4 ]
(SL). As w i l l be s e e n i n the next s e c t i o n i t i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
from the other commercial d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s by i t s
use o f s o l i d c o a l as t h e r e d u c i n g a g e n t , r a t h e r than a gaseous
r e d u c t a n t , and by i t s u s e o f a r o t a r y k i l n as t h e r e a c t o r ,
r a t h e r than a v e r t i c a l shaft.
When v i e w e d t o g e t h e r , t h e SL/RN and o t h e r commercial
d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e seen to occupy an i n c r e a s i n g l y
important p o s i t i o n in the future of steelmaking. This i s
because t h e s p o n g e i r o n p r o d u c t c a n be f e d d i r e c t l y i n t o an
e l e c t r i c arc furnace f o r conversion to steel. This combina-
tion of direct reduction with e l e c t r i c arc furnace steelmaking
1
2
is a t t r a c t i n g c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n as an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e
conventional b l a s t furnace and b a s i c oxygen furnace. The
heightened interest i n the direct reduction-electric a r c
furnace route t o s t e e l making i n recent years c a n be a t t r i b u t e d
to t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s [5].
(i) Technological feasibility: Several direct

reduction processes have overcome t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t y
associated with commercial-size o p e r a t i o n s a n d a r e now i n f u l l
production. A t t h e end o f 1974 d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p l a n t s were
producing 5.2 m i l l i o n m e t r i c t o n s o f s p o n g e i r o n [ 6 ] . An a d d i -
tional 12.7 m i l l i o n t o n s o f p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y i s due t o be
brought on stream i n t h e next three t o four years.
(i i ) Decreasing supply of coking coal: I t i s pre-

dicted that t h e r a p i d growth i n steel production i f tied to
blast furnaces, will lead t o double t h e p r e s e n t demand on
world s u p p l i e s o f c o k i n g c o a l by t h e end o f t h e c e n t u r y .
Since the assured supply o f coking coal i s already a major
problem with e x i s t i n g steel-making capacity i t i s likely to
p r e s e n t an even g r e a t e r d i f f i c u l t y w i t h h i g h e r f u t u r e c a p a c i t y .
Although t h e development o f formed coke processes might alter
t h i s p i c t u r e , t h e present u n c e r t a i n t y with regard t o coke has
enhanced t h e p o s i t i o n o f d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n processes which a r e
not based on c o k i n g c o a l . I t i s important t o note i n this
3
respect that p a r t i a l l y reduced iron oxide from a d i r e c t reduc-

t i o n p l a n t c a n a l s o be employed a s burden i n a b l a s t furnace
operation [ 8 ] . This has t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t of increasing
production without r e q u i r i n g i n v e s t m e n t i n n e wf u r n a c e s a n d
coke ovens.
(iii) Advantage of scale: I ti s well known that

the blast furnace - BOF r o u t e i s only economical on a large
scale, o f the order o f twom i l l i o n m e t r i c tons per year [ 6 ] .
T h u s i f new s t e e l m a k i n g f a c i l i t i e s a r e planned based on t h i s
technology, large capacity and high capital cost a r e required.
In t h e c a s e o fcountries with a r e l a t i v e l y low demand f o r
steel the large increase i nproduction often c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d
owing t o market c o n d i t i o n s . The direct reduction-electric a r c
furnace route on t h e other hand r e q u i r e s a lower c a p i t a l
investment per t o n o f steel i n t h e lower production range making
i t more a t t r a c t i v e f o r s m a l l e r markets.
Although the d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n - e l e c t r i c a r c furnace

route has advantages o f scale a t t h e lower end o f t h e c a p a c i t y
range, economy o f l a r g e s c a l e o p e r a t i o n i s also being realised.
The maximum c a p a c i t y o f a s i n g l e d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n unit which
up u n t i l now h a s b e e n 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 m e t r i c tons per year i s increasing
steadily.
(i v) Improvement in e l e c t r i c arc furnace operation:
Industrial t e s t s have shown t h a t t h e f e e d i n g o f sponge iron

4
i n t o an e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e has a d v a n t a g e s over scrap iron

feeding [6,9]. In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , the t a p - t o - t a p time i s
decreased, thereby i n c r e a s i n g . p r o d u c t i v i t y . Furthermore, owing
to i t s low tramp element content, s p o n g e i r o n c a n be u s e d to
produce higher q u a l i t y steel. I t also appears t h a t sponge i r o n
feed reduces t h e gas and n o i s e e m i s s i o n from an e l e c t r i c a r c
furnace although the dust emission increases. A final advantage
of sponge i r o n l i e s i n i t s a b i l i t y t o be f e d c o n t i n u o u s l y .
Continuous f e e d i n g , which has been a c h i e v e d in practice,
provides a basis f o r automation of the e l e c t r i c arc furnace.
The "important role that direct reduction i s expected
to play i n the f u t u r e o f s t e e l m a k i n g i s reflected in a recent
projection of world steelmaking capacity [10]. In 1 9 7 3 , t h e
world steel production t o t a l l e d about 700 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons
per y e a r . Of t h i s 85% r e s u l t e d from t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l blast
furnace. In t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h e w o r l d
1
production i s expected to
be c l o s e t o 1 b i l l i o n m e t r i c t o n s p e r y e a r w i t h 2 5 % c o m i n g
from the e l e c t r i c furnace. If this projected figure proves
c o r r e c t i t means t h a t 25% more s t e e l will be m a d e v i a t h e c o k e
oven-blast furnace r o u t e w h i l e 150% more s t e e l will be produced
by t h e e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e . S i n c e s u f f i c i e n t s c r a p may n o t b e
available at reasonable c o s t to meet t h i s e x p e c t e d demand an
i n c r e a s i n g amount o f sponge i r o n w i l l undoubtedly be r e q u i r e d
by t h e e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e .
The SL/RN p r o c e s s i s emerging as one o f t h e s t r o n g

contenders i n the f i e l d of the direct reduction of iron ore
5
because of i t s a b i l i t y to use s o l i d r e d u c t a n t such as low

grade coal. Naturally there i s considerable interest in
obtaining a clearer understanding o f the p h y s i c a l and chemical
nature o f t h e p r o c e s s from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f d e s i g n and o p t i m i -
sation. For t h i s reason the p r e s e n t study has been undertaken
to m a t h e m a t i c a l l y model t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s and so r e l a t e i n
q u a n t i t a t i v e terms, kiln performance to process v a r i a b l e s .
1 .1 SL/RN Process
In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s is described in
detail to provide a c l e a r p i c t u r e of the chemical and p h y s i c a l
phenomena v i t a l . t o i t s operation. This material i s essential
to u n d e r s t a n d i n g not only the process i t s e l f but a l s o i t s
mathematical s i m u l a t i o n with which t h i s study i s concerned.
The SL/RN p r o c e s s p r o d u c e s s p o n g e i r o n by r e d u c t i o n
of iron ore with coal i n a r o t a r y k i l n . The importance of
t h i s p r o c e s s r e s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o a l u s e d c a n be n o n -
c o k i n g and t h e r e f o r e i n e x p e n s i v e compared t o n a t u r a l gas used
by m o s t o t h e r d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s . In most p a r t s o f
the world n a t u r a l gas i s a l e s s a t t r a c t i v e r e d u c i n g agent
owing t o i t s r e l a t i v e l y high c o s t and scarcity.
A schematic diagram o f t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s i s given
i n F i g . 1. The charge t o t h e SL/RN k i l n c o n s i s t s o f i r o n
oxide pellets, c o a l , r e c y c l e d char and sometimes dolomite,
which i s added i f the s u l p h u r l e v e l in the coal i s high.
Gas Cleaning
System 'Atmosphere
Air/Fuel
Ore —&>i
Coal - Gases
)mite - &x
Solids • IOOO°C
Char -— i >
k
<C5-
90°C
ige Iron
Fig. 1. S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f the SL/RN process.

7
Shell burners are p o s i t i o n e d along the l e n g t h of the kiln

and a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h a i r b y s h e l l fans. Provision is also
made f o r t h e s u p p l y o f n a t u r a l g a s i f r e q u i r e d as auxiliary
fuel. In t h e p r o c e s s t h e s o l i d s and g a s e s flow in a counter-
current fashion. The rotary kiln is operated usually with
a s l i g h t l y p o s i t i v e pressure to prevent the i n t r u s i o n of un-
regulated a i r . Dams a r e p r o v i d e d a t b o t h e n d s o f t h e kiln
to c o n t r o l the flow of s o l i d s i n the moving bed. The kiln is
n o r m a l l y o p e r a t e d w i t h 25% f i l l i n g , a slope of about 3% and
a rotational speed o f 0.3 t o 0.6 rpm. The hot products con-
s i s t i n g of 91-95% reduced iron 5 unreacted coal char and
gangue e x i t the k i l n at about 1000°C v i a a t r a n s f e r chute into
a rotary cooler. There the products are c o o l e d to roughly
90°C and upon d i s c h a r g e from the c o o l e r are m a g n e t i c a l l y
s e p a r a t e d i n t o s p o n g e i r o n and a non-magnetic tailing. The
amount of c o a l f e d i n t o the k i l n i s a d j u s t e d such t h a t t h e r e
is always a s l i g h t excess of unreacted carbon in the product.
This procedure minimises the p o s s i b i l i t y that the reduced
i r o n c o u l d become r e o x i d i s e d b e f o r e e x i t i n g the k i l n . T h e
u n r e a c t e d c o a l c h a r i s r e c y c l e d as f e e d back i n t o the kiln.
The waste gases exiting the k i l n pass through anafterburner
before d i s c h a r g i n g i n t o the atmosphere.
Looking at the process i n more d e t a i l the k i l n con-

v e n i e n t l y c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o two s e c t i o n s :
I. Preheat Zone
2 . Reduct i o n Zone
8
This division i s more o b v i o u s from F i g . 2 where a s c h e m a t i c

diagram i s p r o v i d e d t o show t h e s o l i d temperature profile
in the k i l n . In the p r e h e a t zone t h e s o l i d s a r e heated from
t h e i r f e e d t e m p e r a t u r e t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e w h e r e CO r e d u c t i o n
can p r o c e e d . Heating i s a c h i e v e d by heat t r a n s f e r from the
hot f r e e b o a r d gases l e a v i n g the r e d u c t i o n zone. Extra heat
c a n be t r a n s f e r r e d into the s o l i d s by combusting natural gas
in the preheat zone. In a d d i t i o n t o heat t r a n s f e r the f o l l o w i
reactions occur i n the preheat zone:
(i) Removal of moisture present in

the charge (ore, coal and d o l o m i t e ) .
( i i ) C a l c i n a t i o n of the dolomite if
present.
( i i i ) . Removal of v o l a t i l e s from c o a l .
(iv) P r e - r e d u c t i o n with hydrogen (in

c o a l ) , i . e .
F e 2 0 3 + 3H 2 = 2Fe + 3H 0
2 (
(v) Combustion in the free board.
The l e n g t h o f t h e p r e h e a t zone i s u s u a l l y about 40 t o 5 0 %

of the total length o f the k i l n . For e f f i c i e n t use o fthe
r o t a r y k i l n t h i s z o n e s h o u l d b e made a s s m a l l a s p o s s i b l e .
As t h e s o l i d s r e a c h a t e m p e r a t u r e i n excess o f 900°C
the carbon g a s i f i c a t i o n r e a c t i o n , more c o m m o n l y known a s
the Boudouard reaction, s e t s i n . Owing t o the endothermic
nature o fthis reaction the temperature o f the solids ceases
to r i s e any f u r t h e r . The t e m p e r a t u r e a t which the solid bed
DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END
F i g . 2. S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f t h e s o l i d s temperature
p r o f i l e i n t h e SL/RN k i l n .
10
s t a b i l i s e s depends o n a number o f f a c t o r s , the most important

being the r e a c t i v e nature o f the c o a l and o r e , and the heat
t r a n s f e r r a t e f r o m g a s e s and wall t o the solids. T h e CO
generated through the Boudouard r e a c t i o n i s used in the
reduction o f iron oxide. The specific reactions are:
C0 2 + C = 2C0 (2)
Fe 0 2 3 + CO = 2 F e + 3C0 2
(3)
An important point t o note i s that

t h e g a s e o u s a t m o s p h e r e i n s i d e t h e s o l i d s bed is reducing i n
nature a s opposed t o the o x i d i s i n g c h a r a c t e r o f the free
board gas. A p a r t o f t h e CO g e n e r a t e d through the Boudouard
reaction i n t h e s o l i d s bed also enters the freeboard gas
phase. Depending on the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f oxygen t h i s i s burnt
on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e s o l i d s bed o r a t the mouth o f the air
tubes. Visual observation i n t o the discharge end o f the kiln
has i n d i c a t e d that over much o f t h e r e d u c t i o n zone the flame
is l o c a l i s e d on the surface o f the bed. The coal used i n the
SL/RN k i l n can be o f i n f e r i o r rank but a t the same t i m e should
have the f o l l o w i n g properties:
High react i v i ty
2 . Low f r e e s w e l l i n g index
3. Low caking tendency
4. High f i x e d carbon
5. High ash fusion temperature

11
The maximum t e m p e r a t u r e a t which t h e k i l n c a n be o p e r a t e d i s

dependent on t h e a s h f u s i o n t e m p e r a t u r e of the coal. If the
kiln i s o p e r a t e d beyond this point, ringing ( a c c r e t i o n ) problems
can develop. With t h e low rank, h i g h l y r e a c t i v e c o a l s t h e
bed i s m a i n t a i n e d a t r o u g h l y 950 t o 970°C while, using high
rank c o a l w i t h a low r e a c t i v i t y such as a n t h r a c i t e , t h e bed
temperature i s higher,rough1y around 1100°C, i f proper metalli-
sation i s t o be a c h i e v e d .
The sponge i r o n p r o d u c t from t h i s p r o c e s s has been
s u c c e s s f u l l y used as f e e d t o the e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e . In
addition i t i s being employed in place of scrap iron f o r the
cementation o f copper and has a l s o found use as c o o l a n t i n
t h e B 0 F , a n d as c h a r g e to the b l a s t furnace.
1 .2 Other D i r e c t Reduction Processes
Although a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number o f d i r e c t reduc-

t i o n p r o c e s s e s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d , only a handful have
been p r o v e n on t h e s c a l e o f a c o m m e r c i a l operation. In o r d e r
to view t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s i n t h e p r o p e r p e r s p e c t i v e t h i s
section provides a brief d e s c r i p t i o n of the other important
reduction processes [5,12-14].
HyL Process: T h i s p r o c e s s has been in operation

s i n c e 1957. The r e d u c t a n t used here i s a mixture of hydrogen
and c a r b o n m o n o x i d e which i s g e n e r a t e d by r e f o r m i n g n a t u r a l
12
gas i n the presence o fa c a t a l y s t . The reduction is carried

out i n a s t a t i c bed t h r o u g h which the hot r e d u c i n g gases are
circulated. The reduction section consists o ffour reactors
with each r e a c t o r being o p e r a t e d i n the f o l l o w i n g staged
sequence:
(i) P r e h e a t i n g of the raw ore by
spent r e d u c t i o n gases.
(ii) Reduction of the heated charge

by hot reducing gas.
(iii) Cool ing of the hot sponge iron

by f resh reducing gas which
r e s u l t s also in the heating of
the reducing gas for stage ( i i ) .
(iv) Removal of the charge and loading

with fresh ore.
Each sequence o foperation takes roughly three hours,

giving a total s o l i d s r e s i d e n c e time o fabout 12 h o u r s . T h e
reduction i s c a r r i e d out i n a temperature range o f approximately
870 t o 1050°C. T h e r e a r e s i x HyL plants in operation pre-
sently with a total i n s t a l l e d c a p a c i t y o f 1.35 million tons
per year.
Midvex Process: T h i s p r o c e s s has been i n o p e r a t i o n

s i n c e 1967. U n l i k e the other r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s i t has
achieved an impressive degree o fpopularity in a relatively
short time. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e HyL process which is based
on b a t c h o p e r a t i o n , t h e M i d r e x process is continuous. The
r e d u c t i o n p l a n t c o n s i s t s o f two main components: a gas
13
reforming unit f o r the production o f reducing gas and a shaft

furnace i n which iron o r e p e l l e t s a r ereduced t o sponge iron.
The shaft furnace i s equipped with separate zones f o r reduc-
tion and c o o l i n g , and t h e s o l i d s flow counter-current t o t h e
rising hot reducing gases. In t h e upper r e d u c t i o n zone t h e
incoming material i s first heated to a reaction temperature
of about 800°C by t h e e x i t i n g r e d u c i n g g a s e s . T h e normal
metallisation achieved i n t h i s zone i s around 92 t o 9 6 % a n d
the sponge i r o n i s c a r b u r i s e d t o 1 t o 1.5%. The sponge i r o n
then descends i n t o t h e lower zone where i ti s c o o l e d t o 50°C
by g a s e s i n a c l o s e d loop system. The spent reducing gas from
the t o p zone c o n t a i n s 60% o f t h e o r i g i n a l carbon monoxide
and hydrogen, and two-thirds i s returned to the reformer f o r
g e n e r a t i o n o f f r e s h 9 5 % CO-H*. r e d u c i n g g a s . The r e s t i s used
as r e f o r m e r fuel. Four p l a n t s a r e i n o p e r a t i o n and s e v e r a l
more a r e s c h e d u l e d f o r completion i n1976.
Arrnco Process: This process has been developed by

Arrnco o v e r a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d a n d h a s many s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s
to t h e Midrex process. T h e Arrnco p r o c e s s employs a v e r t i c a l
shaft furnace with s o l i d s descending against rising gases.
However, u n l i k e t h e Midrex process which uses a closed loop
system f o r i t sc o o l i n g gases, t h e c o o l i n g gases i n t h e Arrnco
process a r e n o t withdrawn s e p a r a t e l y from thereducing gases
but i n s t e a d r i s e t o t h e t o p a n d e x i t a l o n g with t h e spent
reducing gas. The t o p gas i s scrubbed, cooled and split into
14
two portions. About 60% becomes r e f o r m e r fuel while the

remainder i s f u r t h e r cooled, compressed f o r re-use as c o o l i n g
gas, and a l s o f o r b l e n d i n g with f r e s h r e d u c i n g g a s . The Armco
p l a n t a t Houston uses a steam-methane c a t a l y t i c r e f o r m e r t o
produce t h e r e d u c t a n t from the natural gas. O r i g i n a l l y
pebble s t o v e r e f o r m i n g was a t t e m p t e d in their pilot plant,
b u t l a t e r i t was d r o p p e d i n preference to a steam-natural gas
catalytic reformer owing to t h e s i m p l i c i t y o f o p e r a t i o n o f
the latter.
Purofer Process: T h e p r o c e s s was d e v e l o p e d i n
Germany a n d e m p l o y s a s h a f t f u r n a c e a n d two a l t e r n a t e l y o p e r a t -
ing gas reformers. One o f t h e r e f o r m e r s cracks n a t u r a l gas
to reducing gas o f carbon monoxide and hydrogen while the
other i s being heated. A f t e r a 40 m i n u t e p e r i o d t h e o p e r a t i o n
is reversed. The reforming occurs a t a temperature o f 1400°C
and produces a gas that i s f r e e o f soot and contains less
than 2% C 0 2 + H 0.
2 This process can t o l e r a t e sulphur up t o
a level o f 30 ppm i n t h e n a t u r a l g a s . T h e r a w m a t e r i a l s a r e
mostly i n d u r a t e d p e l l e t s o r s i z e d lumps o f ore, a n d work i s
in progress to i n v e s t i g a t e t h e charging o f green pellets.
FIOR Process: In t h i s process high grade iron ore

fines a r e reduced t o sponge i r o n i n a f l u i d i s e d bed r e a c t o r .
The reduced i r o n p a r t i c l e s then a r e normally compacted i n t o a
uniform high density b r i q u e t t e . Ore p r e p a r a t i o n forms an
15
integral part of this process. The r e a c t o r system contains

m u l t i p l e f l u i d i z e d bed stages in series. Reducing gas is
prepared by o n e o f a n u m b e r o f p r o c e s s e s , e . g . catalytic
steam r e f o r m i n g , or p a r t i a l o x i d a t i o n from a v a r i e t y of hydro-
carbon feedstocks ( n a t u r a l gas, LPG, naphtha, heavy o i l s etc.).
The product m e t a l l i s a t i o n ranges f r o m 90 t o 9 5 % a n d the final
carbon content of the iron product ranges from near zero to
a s m u c h a s 2%. A p l a n t i s under c o n s t r u c t i o n in the Guayana
region of Venezuela having a c a p a c i t y o f 500,000 tons per year.
A number o f o t h e r d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n p r o c e s s e s are
under various stages of development, b u t due to limitation
of space cannot be d i s c u s s e d here.
1 .3 Review of the Previous Work
The rotary kiln i s a w i d e l y used r e a c t o r i n chemical

a n d m e t a l l u r g i c a l i n d u s t r i e s . Some o f i t s m o s t important
uses a r e i n cement p r o d u c t i o n and calcination. Although the
r e a c t o r h a s b e e n i n u s e f o r a l o n g t i m e , v e r y l i t t l e w o r k h a s ::
b e e n d o n e on i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f i t s o p e r a t i o n , particularly
heat t r a n s f e r . F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e d e s i g n and scale-up of
r o t a r y k i l n s i s based h e a v i l y on e x p e r i e n c e r a t h e r t h a n on
fundamental principles. N e v e r t h e l e s s , the fundamental approach
has been a t t e m p t e d i n the past through the f o r m u l a t i o n of
mathematical models of r o t a r y k i l n s f o r d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s
but n o t f o r t h e s p e c i f i c c a s e o f t h e SL/RN process.
16
All the mathematical models developed so f a r f o r

t h e r o t a r y k i l n s a r e b a s e d on p r i n c i p l e s o f m a s s a n d heat
balances. The d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m o d e l s are found in
the type of a p p l i c a t i o n f o r which the r o t a r y k i l n i s used,
e.g.: d r y i n g , c a l c i n a t i o n , cement p r o d u c t i o n e t c . Imber and
P a s c h k i s [15] were the f i r s t to develop a mathematical model
o f t h e r o t a r y k i l n , b a s e d on h e a t t r a n s f e r a l o n e , f o r t h e purpose
of calculating the length of k i l n r e q u i r e d to heat s o l i d s by
a d e s i r e d amount. T h e i r model d i d not take i n t o a c c o u n t any
chemical reactions. Saas [16-17] has d e s c r i b e d a mathematical
model f o r r o t a r y k i l n s used in drying. As i n t h e p r e v i o u s case
i t d e a l s mainly with heat t r a n s f e r but takes i n t o account the
removal of moisture from the solids.
R i f f a u d et al. [18] modelled a r o t a r y k i l n for
alumina production. U s i n g both a n a l o g and d i g i t a l computers
t h e y were a b l e to s i m u l a t e s t e a d y s t a t e and dynamic condi-
t i o n s of the r o t a r y k i l n . Sprang [19] d e s c r i b e s a dynamic
model f o r a cement k i l n . T h o u g h no d a t a was available to check
his p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s , he c l a i m s q u a l i t a t i v e a g r e e m e n t between
his m o d e l a n d t h a t o f an a c t u a l c e m e n t k i l n . Recently Manitius
et al. [20] have f o r m u l a t e d a s t e a d y s t a t e model f o r the
c a l c i n a t i o n o f b a s i c ammonium a l u m i n i u m sulphate in a rotary
kiln. T h e i r model does not i n v o l v e burning in the f r e e board
gas phase of the kiln but takes into account the c a r r y o v e r of
d u s t i n the gas phase. The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e i r model
w e r e s h o w n t o be i n r e a s o n a b l e a g r e e m e n t with measured data.
17
The o n l y p u b l i s h e d w o r k on t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l modelling
o f r o t a r y k i l n s f o r i r o n o x i d e r e d u c t i o n has been the work
o f W i n g f i e l d et al. [21], It is e s s e n t i a l l y a mathematical
model f o r the gaseous r e d u c t i o n o f i r o n o x i d e by h y d r o g e n in
a rotary kiln. S i n c e t h e y d i d n o t have any a c t u a l d a t a with
which t o c o m p a r e t h e i r r e s u l t s , t h e i r m o d e l was of l i m i t e d
use. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d a l s o t h a t the model they developed
was prone to i n s t a b i l i t y problems and the r e s u l t s they obtained
from the model, e.g. s o l i d s temperature, r e t e n t i o n time,were
q u i t e u n r e a l i s t i c f r o m an o p e r a t i n g viewpoint.
No w o r k h a s so f a r b e e n r e p o r t e d i n t h e literature
on t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l modelling of the SL/RN process.
1 .4 Scope of the Present Work
The p r e s e n t p r o j e c t was established in co-operation

with the S t e e l Company o f Canada w i t h the s p e c i f i c aim of
developing a mathematical model o f t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s . The
m o d e ! was to embody the r a t e e x p r e s s i o n s f o r a l l the important
chemical and physical processes o c c u r r i n g i n s i d e an SL/RN
kiln, i n c l u d i n g the Boudouard r e a c t i o n , i r o n oxide reduction,
coal v o l a t i l i z a t i o n , combustion, d r y i n g and heat t r a n s f e r ; and
to c a l c u l a t e k i l n performance expressed i n terms of axial
p r o f i l e s of temperature and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , as a f u n c t i o n o f
important kiln operating variables. An important part of the
p r o j e c t was t o e v a l u a t e t h e m o d e l by c o m p a r i s o n of p r e d i c t i o n s
to d a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e 100 ton/day p i l o t p l a n t at the H i l t o n
18
works, Hamilton. F i n a l l y t h e m o d e l was t o be u s e d t o predict

the e f f e c t of operating variables including type of coal and
ore, t h r o u g h p u t and d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n on t h e performance
of the k i l n . In a d d i t i o n particular attention was t o be paid
to the p r o b l e m o f s c a l e - u p o f t h e SL/RN kiln.
Chapter 2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
The m a t h e m a t i c a l model o f t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s , t h a t i s

developed in this s e c t i o n , i s based on f u n d a m e n t a l principles
of mass and h e a t f l o w . , T h e d i f f e r e n t p h y s i c a l and chemical
r e a c t i o n s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s a r e q u a n t i t a t i v e l y
described through mathematical equations. The s o l u t i o n o f
t h e s e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s r e s u l t i n temperature
p r o f i l e s f o r the s o l i d s , gas and w a l l , and c o n c e n t r a t i o n
profiles f o r the d i f f e r e n t species along the e n t i r e length of
the k i l n . This section gives the general assumptions made
in the model, the development o f mass a n d h e a t b a l a n c e equa-
t i o n s , d e s c r i p t i o n o f the v a r i o u s r a t e terms f o l l o w e d by t h e
numerical procedure used f o r s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s .
2.1 Assumptions Made i n t h e Model
In o r d e r t o s i m p l i f y t h e c o m p l e x mathematical problem
of d e s c r i b i n g t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s a number o f a s s u m p t i o n s have
been made a n d t h e s e a r e l i s t e d below.
19
20
1. The m a t h e m a t i c a l model i s developed for quasi-

steady s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , that i s , the d e r i v a t i v e o f the depen-
dent v a r i a b l e s with time a r e zero a t a l l p o i n t s i n the k i l n .
2. T h e s o l i d s a n d g a s e s move i n p l u g f l o w , which
m e a n s t h e r e i s no a x i a l mixing. S i n c e t h e SL/RN process
e m p l o y s k i l n s t h a t h a v e a l a r g e L/D r a t i o t h i s is a valid
assumption.
3. Heat t r a n s f e r by c o n d u c t i o n a n d r a d i a t i o n i n
the a x i a l direction i s n e g l i g i b l e r e l a t i v e to r a d i a l l y d i r e c t e d
heat t r a n s f e r . This assumption i s thought t o be reasonable
since axial h e a t t r a n s f e r by b u l k m o t i o n o f gases and solids
is c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r than a x i a l c o n d u c t i o n and r a d i a t i o n .
4. There a r e no r a d i a l temperature gradients in the

s o l i d s bed and i n the f r e e b o a r d gas phase. This implies that
the s o l i d s and gases a r e w e l l mixed radially. As a r e s u l t t h e
freeboard gases and the bed each c a n be c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y a
single temperature at a given point in the kiln.
5. The degree of fill of solids i s constant through-

out the k i l n . I f deemed n e c e s s a r y i t i s p o s s i b l e to i n c o r p o r a t e
a position-dependent degree o f f i l l i n t o the model without
any difficulty.
6. Combustion in the freeboard i s instantaneous.

Here again i t i s p o s s i b l e to take i n t o account the case of
incomplete combustion i f d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e on b u r n i n g r a t e s .
21
7. A i r and n a t u r a l gas introduced i n t o the kiln

burner nozzles are considered t o be l i n e s o u r c e s . This
approximation i s c l o s e to the r e a l s i t u a t i o n .
8. Within the s o l i d s bed t h e sum of partial pressures

o f CO a n d C0 2 are equal t o one atmosphere in the reduction
zone. T h i s i s used in the c a l c u l a t i o n of the v o l u m e t r i c rate
of the Boudouard r e a c t i o n .
The above-mentioned are the major assumptions made

in the model. A few o t h e r m i n o r a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t were neces-
sary will be i n d i c a t e d i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e sections in this
chapter.
2.2 Mass and Heat Balance Equations
Having made t h e g e n e r a l assumptions presented in the

previous s e c t i o n , t h e k i l n was broken down i n t o t h i n slices.
One such slice, known as t h e c o n t r o l v o l u m e , i s g i v e n in
F i g . 3. H e a t and mass b a l a n c e s were performed on t h i s c o n t r o l
volume and the r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s were i n t e g r a t e d over the
e n t i r e l e n g t h of the k i l n to y i e l d concentration profiles for
the d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s (from the mass b a l a n c e equations) and
temperature p r o f i l e s (from the heat balance equations). Here
the s o l i d s and gases flow in a counter-current fashion and
the d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h gas flows is considered positive.
F i g . 3. S e c t i o n a l v i e w o f t h e SL/RN k i l n
showing the c o n t r o l volume.
l\3
23
2.2.1 M a s s B a l a n c e on Solids
The g e n e r a l e q u a t i o n u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e mass balance

of any s p e c i e s i s the following:
Rate o f mass Rate o f mass Rate o f mass Rate o f mass

flow i n t o the flow out o f the generation i n consumption i n
c o n t r o l volume c o n t r o l volume the c o n t r o l volume the c o n t r o l volume
S i n c e t h e moving bed o f s o l i d s i s c o m p r i s e d o f t h r e e components

( o r e , c o a l a n d d o l o m i t e ) o n e e n d s up w i t h t h r e e e q u a t i o n s
describing t h e mass balance f o r solids.
(a) Ore:
F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m E q . ( 4 ) we o b t a i n f o r t h e o r e ,
Rate of ore i n = (G A )
0 s
g 2
cm —• s
- cm
a
Rate o f ore out = G A_ + dG dx

0
dx cm'
cm • s
Rate of g e n e r a t i o n = 0
Rate o f consumption = r .A dx + r . A dx —^— C m

r
red s dry s 3
J
cm 0
s
Substituting back i n t o Eq. (4) the r e s u l t i s
24
•GoA. + G A_ + fdG, d x A.
0
dx r
red A
s d x r
dry A
s d x
Then d i v i d i n g throughout by A g dx the f i n a l equation is obtained
dG 0 _
dx r e d+ dr r y (5)
where G 0 i s the f l u x of ore, g/cm «s 2
A s i s the cross s e c t i o n a l area o fs o l i d s , cm 2
r
red i s t h e v o 1 u m e t r
" i c r a
t e of reduction, g/cm «s 3
dry i s t h e v o 1 u m e t r
i c rate of drying, g/ cur
Here the v o l u m e t r i c g e n e r a t i o n term i s zero since nothing i s

added on t othe o r e . The v o l u m e t r i c r a t e term used i n Eq. ( 5 )
and in the other equations d e r i v e d here w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n
detail in a later section in this chapter.
(b) Coal
The d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e mass b a l a n c e equations f o r

coal and dolomite a r e t h e same a s f o r o r e . The e q u a t i o n f o r
coal i s
c
d6
17 boud dryc volt

= r + r + r
. ^
where G i s the f l u x of coal

c
c
r b o u d, i s t h e v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n
K
25
r
dryc 1 S t h e v o l u m e t r i c
rate of drying
r
I t i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o fremoval o f
v o l a t i l e s from coal
(c) Dolomite
d d G
"dx - = r
cal + r
dryd
where G d i s the f l u x of dolomite
r
cal 1 s t n e v o
^ u m e t r
'' c
rate of c a l c i n a t i o n of dolomite
r
dryd 1 S t n e v o
^ u m e t r
i c
rate o f drying
In e q u a t i o n s (5) t o (7) the r a t e e x p r e s s i o n s have t o

be e v a l u a t e d per u n i t volume o f s o l i d s bed.
2.2.2 Mass B a l a n c e f o r Gases
The mass b a l a n c e equations f o r the gases are obtained

again from Eq. (5) with the gases having a positive flux.
(a) Ni t r o g e n
Rate o fn i t r o g e n i n = G „ A .
9 n
dG
Rate o fn i t r o g e n out = G
n
A
g
+
' d x
* -
A
g
Rate o fg e n e r a t i o n = r • A „ dx + r , A d x .
na 9 nv g
R a t e o f c o n s u m p t i o n = 0.
26
Substituting these values i n t o E q . ( 5 ) a n d d i v i d i n g by A g dx

the f i n a l equation i s
dG
dx
n
- r n a + r nv (8)
where G n i s the f l u x of nitrogen
A„ i s the area of freeboard gas
r
na 1S t h e v
t r i c rate of generation
o 1 u m e
of
n i t r o g e n from a i r supply
r i s the volumetric rate of generation of

N from v o l a t i l e s i n coal
2
(g) Oxygen
As i n t h e c a s e o f n i t r o g e n
ox d G
"dx - = r
oa " ob
r ( 9 )
where G Q x i s the f l u x of oxygen
r i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e of oxygen supply

from a i r
r Q b i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f oxygen used up

in burning combustibles
27
(c) Carbon dioxide
dG
dx C0 b r
C0 v r
C0 C (10)
2 2 2
where G Q C 2 i s the f l u x of C0 2
' CQ . i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e of C0 2 generation

2
from combustion products
r
C0 v 1S t h e
e t r i c rate of C0
v o 1 u m
2 generation
2
from v o l a t i l e s in coal
r
C0 C is t n e v o l u m e t r i c
r a t e o f CO generation
2
from dolomite calcination
(d) Carbon monoxide
dG
CO
dx
r
C0bed + r
C0v - r COb (11)
where G c o i s the f1ux of CO
r
C0bed ' ' n s
t r i c r a t e o f CO
t ie v o l u r n e
generation
t h r o u g h B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n i n t h e bed
COv i s t h e v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f CO generation
through v o l a t i l e s in coal
COb i s t h e v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f CO consumption
through burning with oxygen
(e) Methane
dG
—
dx™ = r
mv + r mn - r mb
G m i s the f l u x of methane
r i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e of g e n e r a t i o n of
methane from v o l a t i l e s i n coal
r m n i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of g e n e r a t i o n of
methane from v o l a t i l e s i n n a t u r a l gas
supply
mb 1s
volumetric rate of consumption
t n e
through b u r n i n g with oxygen
(f) Water vapour
dG
dx
w
- r ws + r wb
G w i s the flux of water vapour
r i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of generation of

water vapour from drying s o l i d s
r ^ i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of g e n e r a t i o n of
water vapour from combustion products
(g) Propane
dG
dx_P_ _ r
pv + r
pn - f pb
Gp i s the flux of propane
r i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of generation of

^ propane from v o l a t i l e s i n coal
r i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of g e n e r a t i o n of
P propane from n a t u r a l gas s u p p l y
r . is the volumetric rate of consumption of

P propane through burning with oxygen
(h) Hydrogen
dG
h
dx r
hv " r
hb
G^ i s the flux of hydrogen
r. i s the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e of. g e n e r a t i o n of
hydrogen from v o l a t i l e s in coal
r., i s the volumetric rate of consumption of

hydrogen through b u r n i n g w i t h oxygen
(i ) Ethane
dG
dx
6
= r....
ev + en - r eb
G g i s the flux of ethane
r
e v
is
volumetric rate of generation of
t n e
ethane from v o l a t i l e s i n coal
r
en is
v o l u m e t r i c rate of g e n e r a t i o n of
t h e
ethane from n a t u r a l gas s u p p l y

30
r , i s the volumetric rate of consumption of

ethane through b u r n i n g with oxygen
e
In E q s . (8) to (16) a l l the r a t e e x p r e s s i o n s a r e

calcaulted per unit volume of the f r e e b o a r d gas.
2.2.3 Heat B a l a n c e on Solids
Referring a g a i n to the c o n t r o l v o l u m e i n F i g . 3, heat

balances are performed on t h e s o l i d s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g way.
• Rate of heat i n t o the c o n t r o l volume = -HA.

s s
Rate of heat out of the c o n t r o l volume =
dH
-L"H A "d# * ' s -
S S
+ d x A ]
Rate o f heat g e n e r a t i o n = l r
S g A
s dx.
R a t e o f h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n = l^ sc
A
s
d
*-
under steady s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s
dH
H„A_ + -r-5. • A <
• dx +
l <.„
r
A dx - Tr A dx = 0
H
s s
A +
"s"s ' "dT L
sg r
s L
sc s
dH
o (
q
s + y _ y r = 17)
dx L
sg L
sc
where H $ i s the enthalpy content of s o l i d s , cal/cm s 2
\r i s the summation of a l l heat g e n e r a t i o n terms

S 9
per u n i t volume i n the s o l i d s bed, c a l / c m s 3
31
£r i s the summation o f a l l heat consumption

terms per u n i t volume o f s o l i d s bed,
ca1/cm s 3
For t h e t h r e e c o m p o n e n t s i n t h e b e d o f solids
G C po + Gc C p c + G.C
0
d p d,j - T s - T r
and
dî. dG dG
T
s " T
r c__ 4£r
po dx
+ c
p c dx
+ C
pd d x
dx
r- dC dC. dC dT
T - T G s
s s s- dx
-r dT.
G C + G C + G.C (18)
0
po c pc d pd dx
s u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s i n Eq. (17)
dG dG dG
dT
po dx + C pc - rdx + C pd dx
11
£ sc " ^ s g
r r
s r ^
(19)
s 1 — UO „ UV, fJC 71
dx G C po + G c C pc + G.C
0
d pd, - s s s- 1
where C „po . C p c , C p d, a r e t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t s o f o r e ,
r
coal and d o l o m i t e r e s p e c t i v e l y
32
T g i s the s o l i d s temperature, °C
is the r e f e r e n c e temperature, °C
2.2.4 H e a t B a l a n c e on Gases
In t h e same m a n n e r a h e a t b a l a n c e on t h e f r e e b o a r d
gases gi ves ,
dH
H A dx • A + £r A •dx - T r A d
9 9 g g ax n
L
gg g L
gc g x
dH
= Jr - Vr
dx
gg gc
where H g i s the heat f l u x of gases
\r i s the summation of heat g e n e r a t i o n terms

99
per u n i t volume o f gas phase
Ir i s the summation of heat consumption terms

p e r u n i t volume o f gas phase
H g in turn is given by
T
9 - r T yc G
1
pg-j 9i
dH dG dC.
dT pg.
_9_
-- r
=
T
dx i P9 i dx T
9 dx 4-i g .i dT(
dT
yc G
33
where T g i s the gas temperature, °C

a n d
C p g i s the specific heat o f a p a r t i c u l a r gas
i species
The summation r e p r e s e n t s a l l t h e gas s p e c i e s d e s c r i b e d i n Eqs

(8) to ( 1 6 ) . S u b s t i t u t i n g E q . ( 2 1 ) i n E q . (20) r e s u l t s i n ,
dG
dT L
gg L
gc 1T9 - T r j| YC L
d x- T ^ -
a P g i
(22)
dx dC.
pg i
l 9 - r
T T
9i d T
g + I C
P9i G
9 i
2.2.5 Heat B a l a n c e on t h e Wall
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e t w e l v e mass b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s a n d
two heat balance e q u a t i o n s d e r i v e d above an a d d i t i o n a l equation
i s o b t a i n e d by p e r f o r m i n g a h e a t b a l a n c e on t h e w a l l under
steady state conditions.
Heat R e c e i v e d ! Heat t r a n s f e r r e d Heat l o s s from

by t h e w a l l to outside wall = 0 (23)
from the gas solids to atmosphere
The w a l l t e m p e r a t u r e i s n o t known a p r i o r i i n these

c a l c u l a t i o n s b u t c a n be c a l c u l a t e d o n a n i t e r a t i v e scheme. A
value f o r the wall temperature i s f i r s t assumed and a l l heat
transfer rates are calcula ted. Then the wall temperature i s
checked to determine whether Eq. (23) i s obeyed. I f not a
34
new wall temperature i s assumed and the e n t i r e procedure re-

peated until a s a t i s f a c t o r y balance is obtained. In t h e mathe-
m a t i c a l model the e r r o r a l l o w e d between the assumed and cal-
culated temperatures is 2°C.
2.3 Rate Expressions
The d i f f e r e n t v o l u m e t r i c terms used i n the mass and

heat balance equations are described in this s e c t i o n .
2.3.1 B o u d o u a r d and Reduction Reaction Rates
The reduction of iron oxide i s one of the most exten-

s i v e l y s t u d i e d s u b j e c t s i n the l i t e r a t u r e . A l a r g e number of
models ( t o p o c h e m i c a l , non-topochemical, e t c . ) have been proposed
to d e s c r i b e the r a t e of r e d u c t i o n . Since these models are very
c o m p l e x and r e q u i r e many p a r a m e t e r values like porosity, diffusion
coefficients, t o r t u o s i t y e t c . , they are awkward to use in the
present mathematical model. M o r e o v e r , when i t comes t o industrial
process l i k e the SL/RN, these models are o f l i t t l e value since
the p e l l e t s undergo s p a l l i n g , s w e l l i n g and sometimes c r a c k i n g .
For these reasons the r e d u c t i o n r a t e employed i n the present
mathematical model i s a simple f i r s t order equations based on
experimental w o r k c a r r i e d o u t by P.C. Rhee [22] a t the Stelco
Research C e n t r e w i t h t h e raw m a t e r i a l s used i n t h e SL/RN kiln.
This e s s e n t i a l l y f o l l o w s the approach of Bogdandy [23]. The
35
justification f o r using t h i s method l i e s in the f a c t that i t

is able to give meaningful results.
Although the reducing agent used i n the SL/RN process

is carbon i n the form of c o a l , the r e d u c t i o n i n v o l v e s a
gaseous intermediate, carbon monoxide, according to the f a m i l i a r
reactions:
Fe 0 2 3 ( s ) • 3C0 ( g ) = 2Fe ( s ) • 3C0 z ( g ) (24)
C0 1 ( g ) + C ( s ) - 2C0 ( g ) (25)
In t h i s way, the carbon monoxide used for reduction

i s r e p l e n i s h e d by t h e B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n . Since the carbon
gasification reaction i s highly endothermic in nature the o v e r a l l
r a t e o f r e d u c t i o n s t r o n g l y d e p e n d s on t h e r a t e o f h e a t transfer
from the f r e e b o a r d gas to the s o l i d s bed.
The volumetric rate of carbon c o n s u m p t i o n by the
Boudouard r e a c t i o n is described by,
c e f f 'C0 - C. ., (26)
u
co
2 2
(b)
where v c i s the v o l u m e t r i c rate of carbon g a s i f i c a t i o n ,

mol C / c m s . 3
C C Q i s the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of C0 2 i n the bed,

2
mol/cm 3
36
C c o i s t h e e q u i l i b r i u m CO2 c o n c e n t r a t i o n
2
( b ) f o r the Boudouard r e a c t i o n at the
solids temperature
and
E
B
:
eff = M
c c H e x p (27)
R T
sk^
where M c i s the carbon d e n s i t y , gC/cm 3
H i s the r e a c t i v i t y of the char, cm /gs

3
B is the a c t i v a t i o n energy for this

reaction, ^4-
mol
^sk ^ s t
' ie t e m
P e r a t u r e
°f s o l i d s , °K
The reactivity parameter H , c i n Eq. (27) is characteristic of

a p a r t i c u l a r type of coal char. This i s a measure of the
r e a d i n e s s with which the char r e a c t s with carbon d i o x i d e to
produce the carbon monoxide r e q u i r e d f o r r e d u c t i o n . Table 1
g i v e s the r e a c t i v i t y v a l u e s f o r d i f f e r e n t types of chars that
have been e v a l u a t e d f o r t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s [22]. The a c t i v a t i o n
energy E g used i n Eq. ( 2 7 ) i s 86 Kcal/mol.
The e q u a t i o n used to d e s c r i b e the r a t e of r e d u c t i o n

is a s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n of the equation proposed by Bogdandy
[23]. In t h e p r e s e n t work t h e t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t of the re-
a c t i o n r a t e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by an A r r e h e n i u s type of equation
as f o l l o w s .
37
Table 1
Reactivity Parameters for Different Chars
Char TVDe Reactivity Relative Reactivity

H (lO" )
c
1 6
to A n t h r a c i t e
Anthracite .0269 1
Elkhorn 0.332 22.4
Forestburg** 51.9 1930
Lignite 58.3 2165
Bituminous rank
Sub-bituminous rank
38
v = 4 .48(10- ) A 2
exp 1 -R
C
C0 (R) " C0
2
C
2
0 p
RT s k 'Fe co W c
2
(28)
where v 0 i s the r a t e of oxygen removal per c m 3

per
second
A i s the p r e - e x p o n e n t i a l c o n s t a n t charac-
p
t e r i s t i c o fthe type of p e l l e t
E R i s the a c t i v a t i o n energy f o r the reduction

reaction
Mp e i s the iron c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the bed
is the f r a c t i o n a l reduction
'CO (R) i s
l T b r i urn C 0 c o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r
t l i e e c u 1
2
2 V
the r e d u c t i o n r e a c t i o n
C' C 0
o n i s the a c t u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n of C0 2 i n the
2
bed
The fractional degree of r e d u c t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d on the basis

of the amount of oxygen p r e s e n t in the ore (A v a l u e o f 1.0
corresponds t ohematite composition). Replacing the concentra
tion terms with p a r t i a l pressures the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s are
obtained.
v = M H exp B CO C0 (B) 2
(29)
c c c
RT s k RT s k
39
E
Vo = 4.48(10" ) A 2
exp R 1 1 - R [ P
CO,(R) - W
P
R T
skJ h e
C0 (R)
L H
2
J
The partial pressure o f carbon dioxide i s determined from the

f a c t that under steady state conditions,
v c = v 0 (31 )
This implies t h a t one carbon atom removes o n l y one oxygen

atom from t h e o r e which corresponds t o a maximum c a r b o n con-
sumption. In a c t u a l p r a c t i c e i t i s found that the higher the
reactivity value, the c l o s e r i s the carbon consumption to this
maximum v a l u e . The d i f f e r e n t steps involved in the calculation
of the volumetric rate of Boudouard and reduction reactions
are listed below.
(i) From t h e s o l i d s temperature, equilibrium con-

stants f o r the Boudouard and reduction reactions are calculated
from the f o l l o w i n g equations
!nK b . zlO360_t_20^Z ( 3 2 )
sk
where K fa i s the equilibrium constant f o r the Boudouard

reaction
lnK r = 21°-5 . 2 > 5 2 5 (3 3 )
sk
where K r i s the equilibrium constant f o r the reduction

reaction
40
(ii) From t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n s t a n t s the e q u i l i b r i u m

carbon dioxide partial pressure f o r t h e two r e a c t i o n s i s
computed.
(2 + K.) - ^4K. + K =2
p p ^ b b /-,„\
P
C0 (B)
2 " 2 (34)
p K
C0 (R) =
2 1 +
r
K (35)
Eqs. (34) and (35) a r e d e r i v e d a s s u m i n g P rn + P.. = 1 i n t h e

U U 2 LU
solids bed.
(iii) Using the steady state condition, v c = v ,

0
the p a r t i a l pressure of carbon dioxide i n the bed i s computed.
(iv) The a c t u a l volumetric rates f o r the Boudouard

and r e d u c t i o n reactions are f i n a l l y calculated.
It should be n o t e d that the e q u i l i b r i u m p a r t i a l pressure of

carbon dioxide, Prj0 (R)'
2
c o r r e s
P° n c
' s
to the r e a c t i o n "
F e O + CO = F e + C 0 2 (36)
In a d d i t i o n t o reduction of iron oxide by c a r b o n m o n o x i d e ,

reduction by h y d r o g e n i s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d in the model. Hydrogen
reduction i s p o s s i b l e i f the coal employed f o r r e d u c t i o n has a
41
high content of v o l a t i l e matter c o n t a i n i n g hydrogen. When

hydrogen r e d u c t i o n occurs the r a t e of r e d u c t i o n i n the model
is coupled to the r a t e o f hydrogen e v o l u t i o n from the c o a l .
2.3.2 Air Profile i n the Kiln
The a i r p r o f i l e i n the k i l n i s perhaps the most impor-

tant operating parameter used f o r c o n t r o l l i n g the freeboard
gas temperature. In c o n t r a s t t o o t h e r operating
variables like throughput, t h e e f f e c t on k i l n p e r f o r m a n c e of a
change i n a i r p r o f i l e is almost instantaneous. In o r d e r to
determine the a i r p r o f i l e f o r the model, data p e r t a i n i n g to
the a i r r a t e through d i f f e r e n t burners is required, together
with the burner p o s i t i o n along the l e n g t h of the k i l n . In the
mathematical model the a i r s u p p l y i s t r e a t e d as a l i n e source.
In a d d i t i o n , s i n c e t h e a i r i s b l o w n c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t t o t h e gas
flow, a c e r t a i n e x t e n t of back flow i s a l l o w e d . This necessitated
a smoothening of the a i r p r o f i l e to prevent any a b r u p t change
i n the gas t e m p e r a t u r e s i n the f r e e b o a r d . By way of example,
F i g . 4 gives the a i r p r o f i l e which r e s u l t s from the a i r d i s t r i -
b u t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 2. The area under the curve gives
the t o t a l a i r fed i n t o the k i l n minus the a i r blown through
the end burner which appears a s an i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n i n the
model .
42
Table 2
Typical Data f o r the A i r Blown into a
35m L o n g S L / R N Kiln
Burner Burner Position A i r Blown

F r o m C h a r g e E n d (m) cft/min
1 5.48 700
2 8.23 700
3 11.58 700
4 14.32 700
5 16.15 690
6 18.89 680
7 21.18 690
8 23.77 690
9 26.51 640
10 27.73 550
END 3 4
- 1 3
300
0
CO
Fig- 4. Air profile for a typical run.

44
2.3.3 E v o l u t i o n of V o l a t i l e s from Coal
Because the coal employed i n t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s con-

tains a considerable quantity of v o l a t i l e s , the e v o l u t i o n of
volatiles f r o m t h e c o a l c o n s t i t u t e s one of the important
r e a c t i o n s i n the preheat zone. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n an accurate
p i c t u r e r e g a r d i n g the d i f f e r e n t v o l a t i l e components present
and t h e i r r a t e s o f e v o l u t i o n , a t e s t p r o g r a m m e was e s t a b l i s h e d
at the Fuels Research Institute (Mines Branch) by S t e l c o . The
t e s t s c o n s i s t e d of h e a t i n g a sample o f c o a l a t t h e same r a t e
as i t i s h e a t e d i n an S L / R N k i l n , collecting the gases evolved
a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s and a n a l y s i n g them by mass spectrometer.
F i g . 5 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f one such test involving Forestburg
coal (sub-bituminous r a n k ) , h e a t e d a t a r a t e o f 9°C per minute.
It i s important to note in F i g . 5 that hydrogen is evolved at
a c o n s i d e r a b l e r a t e from 360°C (40 min) to 1080 (120 min).
Since hydrogen i s capable of reducing iron oxide at tempera-
t u r e s as low as 5 0 0 ° C , i t is reasonable t o e x p e c t some hydrogen
reduction of ore p e l l e t s i n the p r e h e a t zone in advance of CO
reduction. As m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , t h i s has been incorporated
in the model. The e x p r e s s i o n s f o r the r a t e at which the dif-
f e r e n t v o l a t i l e c o m p o n e n t s a r e r e l e a s e d by t h e c o a l w e r e a r r i v e d
a t by a p p r o x i m a t i n g the curves in F i g . 5 with polynomial equations.
2.3.4 D r y i ng o f S o l i d s
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e m o v a l of v o l a t i l e components
from coal another important reaction proceeding i n the preheat
T r~ 1 1 1—
Forestburg coal
heated at 9 °C/min
10,000 h
Time (min)
F i g . 5. R a t e s o f e v o l u t i o n o f v o l a t i l e s
from Forestburg coal .
46
zone i s the removal of moisture from a l l three s o l i d components:

•ore, c o a l and d o l o m i t e . S i n c e the ore and d o l o m i t e c o n t a i n a
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e r amount o f m o i s t u r e and a l s o s i n c e the
amount of d o l o m i t e f e d i s s m a l l , the removal of moisture from
o r e and d o l o m i t e i s o f minor importance compared to c o a l . In
the case of ore and d o l o m i t e the v o l u m e t r i c r a t e o f moisture
removal i s c o n s i d e r e d constant over a s e l e c t e d region of the
kiln.
For the case of coal the d r y i n g data used i n the

m o d e l was b a s e d on t h e t e s t s c o n d u c t e d at the Fuels Research
I n s t i t u t e where moisbure was also collected together with the
volatiles. F i g . 6 g i v e s the r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from the test
for Forestburg coal. I t i s c l e a r from F i g . 6 t h a t a c o n s i d e r a b l e
amount o f m o i s t u r e i s e v o l v e d a t temperature higher than 100°C.
T h i s means t h a t a p r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s c a n n o t be u s e d t o g i v e an
accurate value of the total moisture in the c o a l , s i n c e the
temperature used i s o n l y 104 to 110°C. The curve in F i g . 6
was again approximated by a p o l y n o m i a l e q u a t i o n f o r u s e i n
the model .
2.3.5 Combustion i n the Freeboard
In o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e s o l i d s bed a t t h e r e q u i r e d
temperature i n the r e d u c t i o n zone, a l a r g e q u a n t i t y of heat
h a s t o be t r a n s f e r r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y f r o m t h e f e e b o a r d g a s t o the
solids. T h i s i s n e c e s s a r y to meet the l a r g e heat requirements
47
i — 1
Forestburg Cool
Heated at 9°C/min
Time (min)
Fig. 6. Rate of m o i s t u r e e v o l u t i o n from

Forestburg coal.
48
of the endothermic Boudouard reaction. This heat i s generated

i n t h e f r e e b o a r d a r e a by t h e b u r n i n g o f combustibles.
In t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s t h e m a i n c o m b u s t i b l e c o n s t i t u e n t
is carbon monoxide which i s r e l e a s e d from t h e bed as the
Boudouard reaction proceeds. Another combustible is natural
gas which i s o f t e n i n j e c t e d i n the p r e h e a t zone a s an auxiliary
heat supply. N a t u r a l gas injection i s practised frequently in
k i l n runs i n v o l v i n g coal with a high moisture content.
As m e n t i o n e d at the b e g i n n i n g of t h i s c h a p t e r , i t i s
assumed i n the model t h a t i n s t a n t a n e o u s c o m b u s t i o n is achieved
in the f r e e b o a r d gases. Before calculating the q u a n t i t y of
the v a r i o u s combustibles burnt, however, a check i s made t o
assess whether s u f f i c i e n t oxygen is available for complete
combustion. If not, burning i s allowed only to the extent
that oxygen is present. The heat generated by c o m b u s t i o n is
c o n s i d e r e d t o be a v o l u m e t r i c h e a t s o u r c e w h i c h circumvents the
need to t r e a t flame heat t r a n s f e r s e p a r a t e l y .
>
2.3.6 C a l c i n a t i o n of Dolomite
Dolomite i s i n c l u d e d in the charge t o the^J>L/RN kiln

i f the sulphur c o n t e n t of the c o a l i s e x c e s s i v e l y high. The
d o l o m i t e e s s e n t i a l l y a c t s as a s c a v e n g e r f o r s u l p h u r and prevents
the sulphur content of the sponge i r o n from being unacceptably
high. During h e a t i n g , t h e d o l o m i t e c a l c i n e s by r e l e a s i n g C 0 2
to the f r e e b o a r d gas. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s r e a c t i o n on both

49
the heat and mass b a l a n c e s o v e r t h e k i l n is relatively insig-

n i f i c a n t , however, because of the small q u a n t i t y charged.
Nevertheless, c a l c i n a t i o n of the dolomite i s i n c o r p o r a t e d into
the model being a l l o w e d to proceed at a c o n s t a n t r a t e between
set temperature limits.
2.4.1 S p e c i f i c Heats o f S o l i d s and Gases
S i n c e the s o l i d s a r e a m i x t u r e o f o r e , c o a l and dolomite,

the average s p e c i f i c h e a t o f the s o l i d s a t any temperature
will depend on t h e a v e r a g e specific heats of the individual
components. In a d d i t i o n , s i n c e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e solid
components a l s o change with p o s i t i o n along the k i l n (with
temperature) i t i s necessary to c a l c u l a t e the composition of
individual solid: components before v e n t u r i n g into the calcula-
tion of the s p e c i f i c heats. I t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d here t h a t
t h e s o l i d c o m p o n e n t s a r e a s s u m e d t o be a m e c h a n c i a l mixture in
the s p e c i f i c heat c a l c u l a t i o n s . For example, ore i s assumed
t o be a m i x t u r e o f i r o n o x i d e , g a n g u e a n d m o i s t u r e . Here again
the s p e c i f i c i r o n o x i d e used i n the above calculations depends
on t h e d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n . Thus a t the b e g i n n i n g of r e d u c t i o n
the oxide p r e s e n t w i l l be F e 0 ,
2 3 then a mixture of F e 0 2 3 and
F e G \ f o l l o w e d by t h e s e q u e n c e ,
3 Fe u\, a mixture of Fe G\ +
3 3
FeO, FeO a n d f i n a l l y a m i x t u r e o f F e O + F e . The same procedure

i s f o l l o w e d f o r c o a l and dolomite.
The s p e c i f i c h e a t s o f t h e f r e e b o a r d g a s e s a r e less
difficult to c a l c u l a t e compared to the s o l i d s . The average
50
specific heat o f the gases i s computed from t h e s p e c i f i c heat

of i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s b a s e d on t h e r e s p e c t i v e w e i g h t fractions.
In a d d i t i o n t o c a l c u l a t i n g the s p e c i f i c heat, one
should also calculate the derivative of the s p e c i f i c heat
with respect to temperature. This i s obvious from Eqs. (19)
and (22), a n d a r i s e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c heat i s
allowed to vary with temperature i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s .
2.4.2 Partial P r e s s u r e s i n t h e F r e e b o a r d Gas Phase
Knowledge o f the p a r t i a l pressures of the individual

components c o m p r i s i n g t h e f r e e b o a r d gas phase is required for
the c a l c u l a t i o n o f r a d i a t i o n heat t r a n s f e r from the gases to
s o l i d s and i n s i d e w a l l o f the k i l n . S i n c e t h e mass f l o w r a t e
of the i n d i v i d u a l gas components i s c a l c u l a t e d a t each point
in the k i l n from the d i f f e r e n t i a l mass b a l a n c e s , t h e p a r t i a l
pressure i s e a s i l y computed using the c o r r e s p o n d i n g m o l e c u l a r
weights and assuming a total p r e s s u r e o f one a t m o s p h e r e . This
calculation i s repeated f o r each s l i c e of the k i l n to y i e l d
axial profiles of partial pressures.
2.5 Heat T r a n s f e r i n Rotary Kilns
In s p i t e o f t h e r o t a r y k i l n b e i n g u s e d in industrial
o p e r a t i o n s such as d r y i n g and t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f cement f o r
several decades, a q u a n t i t a t i v e understanding of the heat
51
t r a n s f e r mechanisms i n r o t a r y k i l n s i s s t i l l not c l e a r . The

uncertainty arises because there are several different heat
t r a n s f e r modes, a l l o f which a r e i n f l u e n c e d t oa d i f f e r e n t
extent by the kiln variables. Referring t o F i g . 7 ( a ) , these
d i f f e r e n t modes c a n be c h a r a c t e r i s e d as follows:
(i) R a d i a t i o n from gas to wall (A )2
(ii) Convection from gas to wall (A )2
(iii) R a d i a t i o n from gas to s o l i d s (Ai)
(iv) Convection from gas to s o l i d s (Ai)
(v) . R a d i a t i o n from exposed inner

waI I to so I i ds (A i )
(vi) Conduction from covered wall

to so I i ds (A3)
( v i i ) Heat loss by c o n v e c t i o n and

r a d i a t i o n from k i l n s u r f a c e
to surround.i ngs
The t e r m s A!, A 2 and A 3 listed in parenthesis correspond t othe

areas a f f e c t i n g the i n d i v i d u a l heat transfer modes.
In t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n t e q u a t i o n s have been used
by i n d i v i d u a l a u t h o r s t odescribe the c o - e f f i c i e n t s which govern
the heat t r a n s f e r r a t e o f the d i f f e r e n t modes. These are
given in Table 3. From t h i s t a b l e i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e r e i s no
uniform set o fequations t h a t have been employed previously.
Also i n many i n s t a n c e s there i s no i n d i c a t i o n g i v e n a s t o why
a p a r t i c u l a r equation has been s e l e c t e d in preference t o another.
Radiation Chord AB A,
Convection Arc ADB A 2
Conduction Arc ACB A 3
Fig. 7(a). Cross-section of the k i l n

showing the heat t r a n s f e r 7(b). C r o s s - s e c t i o n of the k i l n
modes. showinq the area terms
involved in the d i f f e r e n t
heat t r a n s f e r e q u a t i o n s .
Table. 3 Heat Transfer Coefficients in the Literature
Riffaud (18) Sass (16) Wingfield (21)

Manitius (20) Lyons (31) Sprang (19)
GAS TO SOLIDS 0.023 [ i p _ C ] 0 , 4

x
CONVECTION 0.67 0.67
0.05 G 0.05 G
"V " 8
. VR De" , 17.8(X D i ) 0 , 2
(V /C ) 0 - 8
4 B.T.U 4 B.T.U.
Kg x [ — ] 8 8 P
hr.ft . F hr.ft . F 2
( T -T ) 4 A
( T -T ) 4 4
GAS TO SOLIDS
RADIATION 8 6
8 a ( E T -aV ) 4
(T 4
- T ) 4
8 8 8 8
.2 o e (T - T ) 3 3 8 a
( T -T ) ( T -T) e E
g s g a' ac E
8 8 g s (T8 -T ) g 8 ( T
„ - «>
T
8 s
GAS TO WALL 0.67 0.67 same as In gas
0.05 G 0.05 G
CONVECTION to solids convec-
tion . same as In gas to solids 5 B.T.U. 4 B.T.U.
convection
hr.ft . F 2
hr.ft . F
GAS TO WALL (T 4
-T ) 4
(T - T )
4 4
(T -T )
RADIATION g w 8 w g w (T - T ) 4 4
8 w
? S
3
+T ) 3
<l-V -« oe
8 w •
CT„ - T ) (T -T) (T -T ,
K 8 w' 8 «) I I -T) (T - T )
8 w'
—
g w
(T 4
- T* ) (T 4
- T )4
(T 4
-T) 4
(l-o" )T *-(l-o' ) T
INNER WALL TO It
4
4
SOLIDS o E f W 8 e [ 8 w
] 8 8
, A
, 3 (T - T )
s
RADIATION (T -T )
E
w 8 ' 2o
w
E
3
E
W
( T +T )
g W 8
vi
(T - T ) (T - T ) (T -T) W W
W 8 (T - T„ )
INNER WALL TO
SOLIDS 40 B.T.U, 0.67
0.25 G 148 B.T.U.
(COVERED) hr.ft .F 2 •
hr.ft . F 39.1 B.T.U. 4 B.T.U
2°
hr.ft F hr.ft F
K -thermal conductivity
r
- F L O W R A C E
°
c
F
& A A
E -emissivity of solid 8 thermal conductivity
COMMENTS
s
D^-inner diameter h° l+2hosin(p/2)
o - Stefan Constant Di Inner diameter s 8
A a r e a o f c h a r e
f -correction factor
v -kinematic viscosity , surface 2*-p
e^-emissivity of gas a absorbtivity of gas
p -density S at T v a r e a
°' exposed wall
E -comprlsed of emis- 2n-p angle subtended
g
» s
C -specific heat by the solids at the ^
s i v i t y of solids and P a absorbtivitv of gas
V^-velocity of gas 8
at t centre.
uall
D -equivalent diameter' h„ -0.0758
1. In.addition another radiation term i s also considered.

2. Lengthy expression from a Russian work.
54
2.5.1 Heat T r a n s f e r C o e f f i c i e n t s Used i n the Present Model
The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n d e t a i l s the equations utilised

in the e v a l u a t i o n of the d i f f e r e n t heat t r a n s f e r coefficients
in the present model. These heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e
e v a l u a t e d a t each s l i c e a l o n g the e n t i r e l e n g t h o f the k i l n .
2.5.1.1 Heat T r a n s f e r f r o m Gas t o Wall by R a d i a t i o n
X "* I T 1
*
or e T -a T
h 3gwr (37)
gvT
,T
gg - w
T'
g), w /
E q . ( 3 7 ) gives the heat transfer coefficient from gas to wall

by radiation, where
h
gwr 1 S t n e n e a t
transfer coefficient
a i s the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
e i s the e m i s s i v i t y o f the gas a t the

9
gas temperature
a 1
i s the a b s o r p t i v i t y o f gas a t the
9
wall temperature
The a r e a t e r m t h a t i s used i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h i s h e a t transfer

coefficient i s A as given i n F i g . 7 ( b ) . Symmetrical
2 molecules
l i k e N and 0 do not p a r t i c i p a t e
2 2 i n any r a d i a t i v e exchange
but asymmetrical molecules such a sC0 2 and H 0 do have
2 certain
band lengths over which they emit and a b s o r b radiation.
McAdams [ 2 4 ] g i v e s a d e t a i l e d p r o c e d u r e f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e
55
gas e m i s s i v i t i e s and a b s o r p t i v i t i e s . The e m i s s i v i t y o f any gas

species p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n r a d i a t i v e heat exchange depends on
the p a r t i a l pressure o f that component, the t e m p e r a t u r e and the
mean beam l e n g t h . T h e mean beam l e n g t h f o r the gas i s a func-
t i o n o f t h e geometry o f t h e s y s t e m and i n t h i s case depends on
the diameter o fthe rotary kiln. F i g . 8 shows t h e e m i s s i v i t y
for C 0 f o r d i f f e r e n t values
2 o f t h e p r o d u c t o f m e a n beam length
(L) a n d p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o fthe gas. F i g . 9 gives the emissivity
for H 0. 2 F o r t h e SL/RN model t h e c u r v e s i n F i g s . 8 and 9 were
approximated by polynomial equations and stored i n the computer
program. The steps involved i n calculating the emissivity values
in t h e model a r e summarised below.
(i) C a l c u l a t i o n of the p a r t i a l pressure

of the gas concerned.
(ii) S e l e c t i o n of the a p p r o p r i a t e l i n e
corresponding to that p a r t i a l
p res s u re.
(iii) Reading of the value of e m i s s i v i t y

for the p a r t i c u l a r temperature.
If one i s c o n s i d e r i n g a m i x t u r e o f H 0 and C 0 a s i n .
2 2
the SL/RN k i l n , t h e t o t a l e m i s s i v i t y o f t h e g a s i s
e = £ + £
HQ
- AE (38)
9 co 2 2
where is the t o t a l gas emissivity
e
C0 is the e m i s s i v i t y contribution from C 0 Z
2
e
H 0 is the emissivity contribution f r o m H2C 1
2
56
"E
8" 0.02
0.015 { ^
0.010
0.009
0.008
0.007
0.006
0.005
0.004
0.003
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Absolute temperature, in °R
Fig. 8. Gas emmissivity f o r carbon d i o x i d e (from Perry (30))

57
Absolute temperature, in °R
F i g . 9. Gas e m i s s i v i t y f o r w a t e r vapour
(fro m Perry (30)).
58
Ae i s t h e c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r t o a c c o u n t f o r
the o v e r l a p p i n g o f t h e two a b s o r p t i o n bands
In t h e m o d e l c a l c u l a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , i t w a s f o u n d t o be u n n e c e s -
sary to apply the correction t e r m a s i t was r e l a t i v e l y negligible
2.5.1.2 C o n v e c t i o n from Gas t o W a l l
The heat transfer c o e f f i c i e n t from gas to wall by

c o n v e c t i o n i s g i v e n by E q . ( 3 9 ) :
h gwc„ = 0 . 0 5 G '
n l l
0 6 7
v ( 39 )
where G i s t h e mass f l u x o f t h e g a s e s .
Since the contribution by c o n v e c t i o n t o t h e o v e r a l l heat transfer

rate i s r e l a t i v e l y minor, a change i n i t s magnitude does n o t
affect the overall heat t r a n s f e r rate to any appreciable extent.
This heat t r a n s f e r coefficient has i t s maximum v a l u e a t t h e
c h a r g e end where t h e mass f l u x o f g a s e s i s g r e a t e r . As m e n t i o n e d
e a r l i e r , the area term used with t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t is A . 2
2.5.1.3 Radiation f r o m Gas t o Solids
The equation describing this heat transfer coefficient

is similar to that f o r gas t o wall radiation and i s g i v e n below
o(e T* - a " T!)

W <«>
n
:
V - T J 5
y v
g s'
59
where h g $ r i s the heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t
a" i s t h e a b s o r p t i v i t y o f t h e gas a t t h e
y
solids temperature
The e m i s s i v i t y and a b s o r p t i v i t y c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n
a manner i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t g i v e n i n t h e p r e v i o u s section.
The a r e a t e r m u s e d w i t h t h i s h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t i s Ax-
2.5.1 .4 C o n v e c t i o n f r o m Gas t o S o l i d s
The e x p r e s s i o n employed f o r t h i s h e a t transfer

c o e f f i c i e n t , h g s„c , i s :
h g s c = 0.05G ' 0 6 7
(41)
The a r e a term used h e r e i s Ax.
2.5.1.5 R a d i a t i o n from Exposed Wall to S o l i d s
T h i s h e a t t r a n s f e r mQ.de, t o g e t h e r w i t h radiative
heat t r a n s f e r from gas t o s o l i d s , a c c o u n t f o r r o u g h l y two-
thirds of the t o t a l heat transferred to the s o l i d s . The govern-
ing equation f o r r a d i a t i o n from wall t o s o l i d s i s g i v e n by
h
wsr " f 0
S, E
s< w
T
" T
s» < >
4 2
where h wsr
i i c i o i s the heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t
f i s the f i l t e r i n g factor
60
ew i s t h e e m i s s i v i t v o f t h e w a l l (0.9)
e s i s the e m i s s i v i t y of the s o l i d s (1.0)
I t i s n o t c l e a r f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e w h a t v a l u e o f f s h o u l d be
used i n t h e e q u a t i o n . In a l l t h e model c a l c u l a t i o n s presented
i n t h i s w o r k a v a l u e o f 1.0 h a s b e e n u s e d f o r f . The area
term here i s Ai.
2.5.1.6 Covered Wall to S o l i d s
The m a g n i t u d e o f t h i s heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t i s
t a k e n t o be f i v e t i m e s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c o n v e c t i v e h e a t
transfer c o e f f i c i e n t (Eq. 39). The a c t u a l heat t r a n s f e r mech-
anism from covered wall to s o l i d s w i l l be a m i x t u r e o f a l l t h e
t h r e e modes o f h e a t t r a n s f e r . The area term employed i n t h i s
c a se is A . 3
2.5.1.7 Heat Loss to the S u r r o u n d i n g s
H e a t l o s s f r o m t h e k i l n s h e l l d e p e n d s on t h e t h e r m a l
conductivity of the refractory 1ining employed and i t s t h i c k -
ness. Treating the problem as h e a t t r a n s f e r t h r o u g h a composite
wall and n e g l e c t i n g the thermal resistance of the steel shell the
overall h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t c a n be o b t a i n e d a s follows:
61
2rrr (V 'r r,) r;)~ (43)

2 ~-
2
' 1 I + y (rI 3 3 -
~ r 2
2
TTKJ ( r x + r ) 2 TTK 2 (r 3 + r ) 2
h
SA 2
Tr r i
where is the o v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r coefficient
• r i ,r 2 ,r 3 ,r i> a r e r a d i u s t e r m s d e s c r i b e d i n F i g . 10
Ki,K 2 are thermal c o n d u c t i v i t i e s of the d i f f e r e n t

refractory layers comprising the lining
h<.^ i s the heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t from the

surface of the kiln to the surroundings
by c o n v e c t i o n a n d r a d i a t i o n .
The area term used h e r e i s 2-nr . k
The c o n v e c t i v e heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t from the kiln

shell to the surroundings i s c a l c u l a t e d using the equation
hc D 0. 35
K = 0.11 ( 0 . 5 R + G ) P
2
(44)
euj r' r
and t h e r a d i a t i v e c o e f f i c i e n t by t h e s t a n d a r d Stefan-Boltzmann
equation.
< sh - T
0
(45)
-ss ° TT
where h c i s the c o n v e c t i v e heat t r a n s f e r coefficient
D i s the outside diameter of the kiln
K i s the thermal conductivity of a i r
G r i s the Grashof number

10. Cross s e c t i o n of the rotary k i l n
showing the d i f f e r e n t r a d i u s terms
used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g heat l o s s to
surroundinqs.
CTl
63
P r i s t h e P r a n d t l number
e s s i s the e m i s s i v i t y of the steel shell
T s h i s the temperature of the shell
Ta i s the temperature of the ambient medium
Because the shell temperature was f o u n d t o be virtually

independent of axial p o s i t i o n , the c o e f f i c i e n t h c is evaluated
o n l y once f o r a given run. As n o t e d e a r l i e r t h e s h e l l tempera-
t u r e i s n o t known a p r i o r i b u t i s c a l c u l a t e d by t r i a l and e r r o r
as shown i n t h e s e c t i o n c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h e a t b a l a n c e on
t h e wal1 .
2.5.2 Area Terms f o r Heat T r a n s f e r
In t h e m o d e l t h e a r e a t e r m s used i n the heat transfer

c a l c u l a t i o n s were computed from a knowledge of the angle sub-
t e n d e d by t h e s o l i d s . T h i s a n g l e , a , was determined from the
degree o f f i l l as f o l l o w s . R e f e r r i n g to F i g . 7(b)
A r e a o f s e c t o r OAB = ^ x Trri 2
A r e a o f t r i a n g l e OAB = j x r j 2
x sina
Area of the hatched s e c t i o n = rrrx 2

- i r j 2
sina
c. TT C
r 2
- - j — [a - s i n a ]
64
But t h i s i s a l s o the degree of f i l l , F

r 2
so t h a t TT x r i 2
x F = —^— [ a - s i n a ]
or a=sina + 2TTF (46)
where r i i s the i n t e r n a l r a d i u s of the r o t a r y kiln.
Since t h i s i s a n i m p l i c i t r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a, i t i s
solved by an i t e r a t i v e procedure using the Newton-Raphson method
[25]. The important areas f o r heat flow c a l c u l a t i o n s are arcs
ACB and ADB, and chord AB. Their respective relationshipst o
a are given below.
arc ACB = 2Trr x 1 - f- (47)

2rr
a r c ADB = 2 ^ ^ = ra x (48)
chord A B = 2r s i n | 1 (49)
2.6 Numerical Procedure Used i n the Model
Since the s o l i d s and gases flow in a counter-current

fashion i n the SL/RN k i l n , the s o l u t i o n of the differential
Eqs. (5) t o ( 1 6 ) , (19) and (22) p o s e s s o m e d i f f i c u l t i e s . T h e
s o l i d s boundary conditions are known a t t h e c h a r g e end and
t h a t of gases at the d i s c h a r g e end. However, i n order to s t a r t
the computations i t i s necessary to have the initial conditions
65
f o r b o t h s o l i d s and g a s e s a t e i t h e r end. This leads to two

routes for solving the mixed boundary p r o b l e m . Assuming that
t h e end conditions f o r the gases at the c h a r g e end are known
the c a l c u l a t i o n s can be s t a r t e d a t t h e c h a r g e e n d . In t h e model
the c a l c u l a t i o n s were begun a t the d i s c h a r g e end owing to the
complicated n a t u r e of the a v a i l a b i l i t y of oxygen f o r combus-
t i o n i n the freeboard gases. In o t h e r w o r d s i t was easier to
follow the gases through the kiln rather than the solids. As
mentioned before, the wall temperature i s not known b e f o r e hand
and h e n c e n e e d s c a l c u l a t i o n on an iterative basis. The flow-
sheet f o r the m a t h e m a t i c a l model is given in Figs. 11(a) to (c).
The s p e c i f i c numerical method used f o r s o l v i n g the
f i r s t order differential equations (5) to (16), (19) and (22)
i s the K u t t a - M e r s o n m e t h o d , w h i c h i s one of the fourth order
Runge-Kutta methods. Briefly stated, the procedure works as
follows. I f A, B, C, D are four intermediate points in a single
integration step, h, t h e n t h e calculations performed are
= xB = x 0
(50)
(51.)
x n = x 0 + h = Xi (52)
Introducing the shorthand notation

66
FLOW SHEET O F THE COMPUTER PROGRAMME
START
READ INPUT DATA
GENERAL C A L C U L A T I O N S
COMMON F O R T H E E N T I R E
L E N G T H OF T H E K I L N
INITIALISE VARIABLES
FOR T H E D I S C H A R G E
END OF THE ROTARY K I L N
AND SET THE SWITCHES
CALCULATE THE COMPOSITION CALL THE SUBROUTINE

OF IRON O X I D E CONTROLLING THE
SWITCHES
CALCULATE THE SPECIFIC

HEATS OF MATERIALS C A L C U U LTE T H E NEW
C O M Pos i rioN O F THE
S O L I I )S
CALCULATE THE D E R I V A T I V E S
OF THE S P E C I F I C HEAT WITH CALCULATE THE
TEMPERATURE DEGREE OF REDUCTION
CALCULATE THE RATES OF

BOUDOUARD R E A C T I O N AND
REDUCTION REACTIONS
M/
CONTINUED
F i g . 11. Flow sheet o f the computer program

67
CALCULATE THE RATES

OF VOLATILES EVOLUTION
FROM COAL
CALCULATE THE PARTIAL

PRESSURE OF GASES IN
THE FREEBOARD
CALCULATE THE RATE OF

AIR SUPPLY INTO THE
KILN
iU
CALCULATE THE DRYING
RATES OF SOLIDS
^ :
CALCULATE THE RATE OF
BURNING OF COMBUSTIBLES
BASED ON OXYGEN
AVAILABILITY
CALCULATE THE VARIOUS

HEATS OF REACTIONS
IN THE SOLID AND GAS
PHASE
VJZ
ASSUME AN INNER WALL

TEMPERATURE
CALCULATE CALCULATE THE VARIOUS MODIFY THE INNER

EMISSIVITIESi HEAT TRANSFER RATES WALL TEMPERATURE
CONTINUED
CALCULATE THE NEW WALL NOT
TEMPERATURE BASED ON
HEAT BALANCE ON WALL SATISFIED
SATISFIED
INTEGRATE THROUGH ONE

STEP AND CALCULATE THE
NEW VALUES OF THE VARIABLES
XL
CHECK FOR BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS AT THE CHARGE
END OF THE KILN
YES
>
CALL PLOT ROUTINE
STOP
69
y[ = f(x , z Y ) z z = 0, A , B, C, D "(53)
the method o f Merson c o n s i s t s o f making t h e e v a l u a t i o n s
Y A = Y 0 + | Y' ;
(54)
Y B = Yo + £(Y 0 + Y^) (55)
Y c = Yo + JL(YJ + 3Yg) (56)
Y D = Y 0 + £(Y 0 - 3Yg + 4Y^) (57)
• Yi = Yo + |(Y 0 + 4Y^. + Yp) (58)
An e s t i m a t e o f t h e t r u n c a t i o n e r r o r i s g i v e n by
i i ; hY -1 hY B + ± hY ' -1 h Y ; (59)
which i s used to control the step s i z e a u t o m a t i c a l l y . The

source l i s t i n g o f the computer program i s given i n Appendix I.
2.7 I n t e r n a l C o n s i s t e n c y o f the Model
In o r d e r t o e n s u r e that the c a l c u l a t i o n s performed

u s i n g t h e model a r e i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , a check was m a d e
on t h e o v e r a l l h e a t a n d m a s s b a l a n c e s . The r e s u l t s o f these
b a l a n c e s a r e shown below f o r a t y p i c a l r u n w i t h Forestburg
coal and G r i f f i t h pellets.
Mass B a l a n c e
Mass i n
ore i n 2010.5 g/s
coal in 1359.9 g/s
Nitrogen 3287.4 g/s
Oxygen 998.7 g/s
Natural gas 31-7 g/s
TOTAL 7688.2 g/s
Mass o u t
sponge iron 1456.0 g/s
non-metal l i e s 349.3 g/s

Ni t r o g e n 3294.9 g/s
Oxygen 59.2 g/s
C a r b o n d i o x i de 1760.4 g/s
water vapour 767.4 g/s
TOTAL 7688.0 g/s
Heat B a l a n c e
R e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e 25°C
S o l i d s come i n a t 1 7 ° C a n d l e a v e a t 1 0 0 0 ° C
G a s e s come i n a t 1 0 ° C a n d l e a v e a t 9 1 3 ° C
71
Heat i n
Burning CO 2052 Kcal/s

Burning volatiles
in coal 1088 Kcal/s
Burning n a t u r a l gas = 379 Kcal/s

Reduction with
carbon monoxide 67 Kcal/s
TOTAL 3586 Kcal/s
Heat out
Boudouard Reaction 1252 Kcal/s

Sensible heat i n
solids 288 Kcal/s
Sensible heat
in gases 1561 Kcal/s
Reduction with
hydrogen 22 Kcal/s
Drying reaction 289 Kcal/s
Heat l o s s through
kiln wall 126 Kcal/s
TOTAL 3538 Kcal/s
As c a n be s e e n , the balances c l o s e to j u s t over 1% w h i c h clearly

demonstrates the internal consistency of the model.
2.8 S t a r t i n g and I n s t a b i l i t y Problems

It should be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t e v e n t h o u g h i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a s t a b l e r u n on t h e c o m p u t e r f o r a
72
hypothetical c a s e , i n r e a l i t y i t may be i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e
such a r u n due t o o p e r a t i o n a l problems associated with the
process. Thus i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t the model i s used with
extreme caution. One o f t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l aspects in this
regard i s the choice of starting temperature f o r the solids
at the d i s c h a r g e end o f the k i l n which a r e n o t known a priori.
To e x a m i n e t h i s p r o b l e m a s e t o f c o m p u t e r r u n s was undertaken
u s i n g c o n d i t i o n s f r o m t h e SL/RN p i l o t k i l n , w i t h different
solids exit temperatures. F i g . 12 g i v e s t h e a x i a l solid tempera-
ture profiles calculated f o r three of the runs. As c a n be s e e n ,
use o f 900°C and 1100°C as t h e i n i t i a l solids temperature
results i n wavy p r o f i l e s t h a t a r e n o t f o u n d i n r e a l i t y . On t h e
o t h e r hand, the starting temperature o f 1000°C y i e l d s a flat
p r o f i l e which i s known t o o b t a i n i n t h e r e d u c t i o n z o n e (more
details c a n be f o u n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g chapter). On t h e b a s i s
of the shape o f t h e s o l i d s temperature profile, the solids
temperature chosen at the e x i t would be 1 0 0 0 ° C . Indeed this
is the e x i t temperature measured f o r these c o n d i t i o n s . This
i n d i c a t e s t h a t even though the solids exit temperature i s not
known i n a d v a n c e i t c a n be a r r i v e d a t by t r i a 1 - a n d - e r r o r u s i n g
the shape o f the r e s u l t a n t s o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e as a
criterion.
Another major problem encountered i n running the
m o d e l was i n s t a b i l i t y . For certain sets of input data the
temperature o f the s o l i d s , f o r example, would rise exponentially
to u n r e a l i s t i c values. I t s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h i s
T
700 1 1
• J 1—- J _
0 4 8 !2 IS
Distance from Discharge End

CO
Fig. 12. E f f e c t of s t a r t i n g s o l i d s tempera ture

on t h e s o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e .
74
problem d i d n o t a r i s e when o p e r a t i n g d a t a t a k e n f r o m s u c c e s s f u l
p i l o t p l a n t t r i a l s were used as i n p u t . For this reason an
i n s t a b i l i t y was t a k e n as an i n d i c a t i o n that the input parameters
f o r the run i n q u e s t i o n would result in unsatisfactory kiln
performance.
2.9 Adjustable Parameters i n the Model
One of the most i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s of t h i s mathe-

m a t i c a l model i s the r e l a t i v e absence of adjustable parameters.
O n l y one a d j u s t a b l e p a r a m e t e r i s employed, near the d i s c h a r g e
end to a c c o u n t f o r t h e unknown r a t e o f h e a t t r a n s f e r to solid
p a r t i c l e s r o l l i n g through the flames a t the s u r f a c e of the bed.
This parameter was a d j u s t e d so as to y i e l d , from a n u m e r i c a l
viewpoint, a stable solution. It i s a permanent feature of the
model and has n o t been found to have a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on
model reliability.
Chapter 3
MODEL C A L C U L A T I O N S AND D I S C U S S I O N
3.1 E v a l u a t i o n o f the Model
One o f the most i m p o r t a n t s t a g e s i n t h e development

of a mathematical model i s i t s e v a l u a t i o n , measured i n terms o f
its ability t o make p r e d i c t i o n s t h a t a g r e e w i t h r e a l i t y . In
t h e c a s e o f t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s m o d e l , c o n s i d e r a b l e time was
spent a t this stage. O p e r a t i n g d a t a f r o m t h e l a r g e SL/RN
pilot kiln ( 3 5 m b y 2.1m i d ) l o c a t e d a t t h e S t e l c o H i l t o n works
were p r o c u r e d a n d used a s i n p u t t o the model. The output from
the model, a x i a l temperature andconcentration p r o f i l e s , were
then compared t o m e a s u r e m e n t s made u n d e r t h e same c o n d i t i o n s
on t h e p i 1 o t k i 1 n .
Two runs i nwhich t h echarge c o n s i s t e d o f indurated
o x i d e p e l l e t s from t h eG r i f f i t h Mine w i t h F o r e s t b u r g c o a l (sub-
b i t u m i n o u s ) a n d l i g n i t e c o a l r e s p e c t i v e l y were s e l e c t e d f o r
this purpose. These p a r t i c u l a r runs were c o n s i d e r e d most
s u i t a b l e because o f the stable operating c o n d i t i o n s achieved
in t h e k i l n , and also as a r e s u l t o f t h e p o t e n t i a l importance,
75
76
from a Canadian v i e w p o i n t o f t h e c o a l s used f o r r e d u c t i o n - both

coals a r e from Western Canada.
3.1.1 E v a l u a t i o n Runs
3.1.1.1 F o r e s t b u r g Coal and G r i f f i t h Pellets
The input parameters used i n t h i s r u n a r e given i n

T a b l e 4. The v a l u e s which have been taken from S t e l c o r e s e a r c h
r e p o r t s [26] a r e averages from a campaign lasting three weeks.
The a i r p r o f i l e used i n t h i s r u n i s g i v e n i n F i g . 13. The a i r
p r o f i l e was c a l c u l a t e d from a knowledge of the burner positions
along t h e k i l n and t h e a i r r a t e through i n d i v i d u a l burners.
The a r e a under t h e c u r v e g i v e s t h e t o t a l a i r r a t e blown into
the k i l n minus the a i r discharged through the end-burner which
is i n c l u d e d i n the i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n s .
Using t h i s a i r p r o f i l e and s o l v i n g the s e t o f f i r s t

order differential e q u a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d i n C h a p t e r 2, a x i a l
c o n c e n t r a t i o n and temperature p r o f i l e s f o r the v a r i o u s gaseous
and s o l i d s components were computed. These a r e presented i n
F i g s . 14 t o 1 9 . F i g . 14 g i v e s t h e s o l i d s t e m p e r a t u r e profile
calculated f r o m t h e model together with temperatures that have
been measured i n the s o l i d s bed. From F i g . 14 i t c a n b e s e e n
that the general agreement between c a l c u l a t e d and measured
temperatures i s quite reasonable. The small d i f f e r e n c e between
the t w o may a r i s e f r o m o n e o f t h e m a n y a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t have
been made i n t h e model s u c h a s no r a d i a l temperature gradients
77
Table 4
I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run Using Griffith
Pellets and F o r e s t b u r g C o a l
Ore - G r i f f i t h Pellets 191.8 tons/day
Coal - Forestburg (sub-bituminous) 129.9 tons/day
Air (total) 52415 f t / t o n

3
ore
Natural gas 676 f t / t o n

3
ore
Degree of r e d u c t i o n ( t o t a l ) 92%
Hydrogen p r e - r e d u c t i o n 8%
Exit solids temperature 1000°C
Solids degree of f i l l 2 5%
10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES)
CO
Fig. 13. A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using Forestburg
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
10.0 15.0 r
35.0 4CUD
DI5 flNCE FROM
T
20.0 25.0 30.0
CHARGE END (METRES)
Fig. 14. S o l i d s temperature p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run
. u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
80
in the bed. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , the measurements themselves,

made u n d e r i n d u s t r i a l c o n d i t i o n s with heavy duty thermocouples,
may be s l i g h t l y in error. Whatever the source of error, the
d i s c r e p a n c y between c a l c u l a t e d and measured temperatures i s not
t h o u g h t t o be s e r i o u s .
F i g . 14 a l s o g i v e s i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g
the k i l n l e n g t h . The model calculates a value f o r the kiln
l e n g t h o f 30m, w h e r e a s the actual l e n g t h i s 35m. I f one t a k e s
i n t o a c c o u n t dams a t e i t h e r e n d o f t h e k i l n a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f
the charging chute, the d i s c r e p a n c y i s only m a r g i n a l l y g r e a t e r
than 10%.
The c a l c u l a t e d g a s t e m p e r a t u r e profile is plotted in

F i g . 15. In t h i s case, comparison with measured temperatures
is exceedingly d i f f i c u l t because t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made
with sheathed, "rapid response" thermocouples, r a t h e r than with
suction thermocouples. I t i s w e l l known t h a t t h e u s e o f a
bare, non-suction thermocouple will r e s u l t i n a gas temperature
measurement t h a t i s lower than the real v a l u e , owing to radiative
exchange between the thermocouple and the wall [ 2 7 ] . For the
SL/RN k i l n t h i s e r r o r was c a l c u l a t e d t o be r o u g h l y 150-170°C.
In an a t t e m p t t o p r e d i c t t h e g a s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e t h a t w o u l d
be m e a s u r e d by a n o n - s u c t i o n t h e r m o c o u p l e , a c o r r e c t i o n was
a p p l i e d and t h e lower t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e i n F i g . 15 w a s o b t a i n e d .
However, even w i t h t h i s c o r r e c t i o n the measured gas temperatures
p r o v e d t o be t o o e r r a t i c t o make a m e a n i n g f u l comparison
possible. T h e o n e p o i n t w h e r e t h e g a s t e m p e r a t u r e was a c c u r a t e l y
LD
r-.
•3. RE PROFILE
CD
Actual
X
LD
LU
a
ZDr-
I—
CC
DC
LU
Q_
2IQ
LU •
R R -
FG
a
o ~l 1 1 1 1 1
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
F i g . 15. Gas temperature p r o f i l e f o r the run
CO
using Forestburq coal and G r i f f i t h
pellets.
82
measured, j u s t beyond the charge end o f t h e k i l n , y i e l d e d a

temperature that agreed well with the calculated value.
F i g . 16 g i v e s the inner wall temperature profile
(upper curve) and the outer shell temperature p r o f i l e (lower
curve). The l a t t e r p r o f i l e agrees c l o s e l y with measurements
t h a t have been r e p o r t e d by o p e r a t o r s . A direct evaluation
of the c a l c u l a t e d inside wall temperature i s impossible,
however, s i n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s have n o t been made. Despite this,
there i s some i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e that the inside wall tempera-
tures calculated are reasonable. As c a n be s e e n f r o m F i g . 16,
the inner wall temperature p r o f i l e reaches a peak over a section
o f t h e k i l n 12 t o 17m f r o m the charge end. This also turns
o u t t o be t h e r e g i o n o f t h e k i l n i n w h i c h t h e maximum accretion
formation i s observed. S i n c e , as e x p l a i n e d i n Chapter 1,
accretions are associated with high inner wall temperatures,
this coincidence i s expected i f the wall temperatures calculated
are r e a l i s t i c . This result i s important s i n c e i t a l s o means
t h a t t h e model c a n be used reasonably to determine the regions
of the kiln i n w h i c h a c c r e t i o n s may p o s e a p o t e n t i a l problem.
The reduction p r o f i l e f o r t h i s r u n i s shown i n F i g .

17. The curve i s m a d e up o f t w o p a r t s , t h e f i r s t corresponding
to hydrogen p r e - r e d u c t i o n and t h e second to reduction b y CO.
Although the t r a n s i t i o n from one type of reduction to the
other i s s h o w n t o be a b r u p t , in reality i twill be considerably
smoother. The general form o f t h e CO r e d u c t i o n curve, showing
T
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 CO

F i g . 16. I n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e
f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g c o a l
andGriffithpellets.
Fig.17. R e d u c t i o n p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
85
a drop i n reduction rate toward the discharge end o f the k i l n

is consistent with the governing rate expressions.
F i g . 18 g i v e s the r a t e o f Boudouard r e a c t i o n as a
function of kiln length. This again shows t h e a p p r e c i a b l e drop
in the r e a c t i o n r a t e with increased degree of reduction. The
sudden r i s e i n t h e B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n r a t e a t 13m i s a n a r t i f a c t
arising from t h e way t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d i n t h e
mathematical model. In r e a l i t y , the rise will be l e s s instan-
taneous, but nevertheless r a p i d , and should not cause undue
error. I t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g to note t h a t t h e peak i n t h e
freeboard gas temperature c o i n c i d e s with the r e g i o n where t h e
B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n r a t e i s maximum. This i s an e x p e c t e d result
s i n c e t h e r a t e o f r e l e a s e o f CO f r o m t h e bed and i t s combus-
tion in the freeboard should a l s o be a maximum a t t h i s point.
The axial concentration p r o f i l e s o f t h e g a s e o u s com-
pounds i n t h e f r e e b o a r d , expressed as p a r t i a l pressures, are
shown i n F i g . 19. The s p e c i e s p l o t t e d here include a l l the
major c o n s t i t u e n t s such a s N , 0 , C 0 , CO a n d H 0 .
2 2 2 2 Since i n
p i l o t p l a n t runs the gas composition was n o t a n a l y s e d at
d i f f e r e n t points along the k i l n , the only check that could be
made w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s was t h e w a s t e g a s composition.
Close agreement between those measured and c a l c u l a t e d composi-
t i o n s was obtained.
One o f t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s to note i n F i g . 19

is the s l i g h t excess o f oxygen present i n the freeboard through
most o f t h e r e d u c t i o n zone. The presence o f t h e oxygen i s
98
a
88
b e l i e v e d t o be i m p o r t a n t because i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e CO d i s -
c h a r g i n g from the bed w i l l be combusted near the s u r f a c eo f
the bed r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e b u r n e r o r i f i c e . The f l a m e s a t the
bed s u r f a c e s h o u l d enhance heat t r a n s f e r back t o the s o l i d s and
so a s s i s t i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e h i g h l y e n d o t h e r m i c Boudouard
reaction a ta satisfactory rate. Without extra heat transfer
from the s u r f a c e flames, i t i s l i k e l y t h a t the bed temperature
would drop t o a lower level where r a t e s o f r e d u c t i o n and carbon
g a s i f i c a t i o n would be u n a c c e p t a b l y low r e s u l t i n g i n poor metalli-
sation. Flames c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e o f the bed have been
observed by k i l n o p e r a t o r s and c a n be s e e n i n F i g . 20, which
shows a v i e w o f the. i n t e r i o r o f t h e SL/RN p i l o t kiln.
Summing up, t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l model is able tosimulate
c l o s e l y r e s u l t s o f the p i l o t kiln test undertaken with
Forestburg coal and G r i f f i t h P e l l e t s based on the following
comparisons.
I . Sol ids temperature
2. Shell temperature
3. Length of the k i In
4. Gas c o m p o s i t i o n and gas temperature

exiting the kiln
5. Presence of s u r f a c e flames in the

reduction zone
3.1.1.2 L i g n i t e Coal and G r i f f i t h Pellets
In o r d e r t o f u r t h e r t e s t t h e v a l i d i t y o f the model
a n o t h e r s e t o f r u n c o n d i t i o n s , c o n d u c t e d o n t h e SL/RN pilot
Fig. 20. I n t e r i o r view o f t h e p i l o t SL/RN kiln
taken from the d i s c h a r g e end.
90
kiln [ 2 8 ] , was simulated using the model. The coal employed

i n t h i s c a m p a i g n was a lignite type from Saskatchewan. The
composition of the coal i s given i n Appendix II. The lignite
coal d i f f e r e d s l i g h t l y from the Forestburg coal in that i t
c o n t a i n e d m a r g i n a l l y more water, l e s s f i x e d carbon a n d was a
l i t t l e more r e a c t i v e . The input data f o r t h i s run are pre-
sented in Table 5.
The a i r p r o f i l e f o r t h i s run i s g i v e n i n F i g . 21.
It d i f f e r s from the p r o f i l e used i n the F o r e s t b u r g run in t h a t
more a i r i s blown i n t o the p r e h e a t zone. The e x t r a a i r i n the
l i g n i t e r u n was r e q u i r e d to combust a higher input of natural
gas which was considered necessary to o f f s e t the higher water
content of the c o a l . Without the a d d i t i o n a l supply of n a t u r a l
gas, the l a r g e r heat requirement f o r d r y i n g the l i g n i t e coal
might have extended the l e n g t h of the p r e h e a t zone and thus
reduced t h e maximum a c h i e v a b l e s o l i d s throughput.
The axial p r o f i l e s obtained from the model are pre-
sented i n F i g s . 22-26. These r e s u l t s were e v a l u a t e d i n an
identical manner to the F o r e s t b u r g run. Again i t was found that
the model p r e d i c t i o n s agreed c l o s e l y with a v a i l a b l e experimental
measurements. In p a r t i c u l a r t h e s o l i d s bed temperature profile,
shown i n F i g . 22, i n d i c a t e d good agreement between measured and
calculated values.
The m o s t i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e between the c a l c u l a t e d

l i g n i t e and F o r e s t b u r g r u n s was the s l i g h t l y lower bed tempera-
ture determined i n the r e d u c t i o n zone f o r l i g n i t e (960°C as
91
Table 5
I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run Using Lignite
Coal and G r i f f i t h Pellets
Coal - Lignite 1 3 8 . 5 tons/day

Dolomi te 5.5 tons/day
Air (total) 5 4 6 7 5 ftVton ore
Natural gas 1 1 6 0 ft /ton ore

3
Degree of r e d u c t i o n (total) 92%
Hydrogen pre-reduction 8%
i r
1D.D 15.D zo.o 25.0 30.0 35.D 40.
Fig. 21 ... . A i r • p r o f i 1 e f o r t h e k i l n r u n u s i n g lignite
coal and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.
F i g . 22 S o l i d s temperature profile f o r t h e k i l n run using lignite c o a l and Griffith
pellets.
i n
r-.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
'9. . G f l S ^ P M R E PROFILE
CD
\ r-v Actual
X
US'
CD
— Corrected 'i
LU
a
ZDr-
I—
cr
LU
Q_
cn -
1
LG
a
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Fig. 23. Gas temperature p r o f i l e f o r . t h e k i l n run using l i g n i t e coal and G r i f f i t h pellets
D.D 5.0 10.0 15.0 2D.0 Z5.D 30.0 35.0 40.0
Fig. 24. Inner w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n a lignite
coalandGriffithpellets.
i r

g. 25. R e d u c t i o n p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g l i g n i t e c o a l and Griffith pellets.
o
C3 T
0.0 5.0
l r
ZO.D 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.
10.0 15.0
Fig. 26 DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES)

F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the k i l n run u s i n g l i g n i t e coal and Griffith
pellets.
98
compared to 990°C). This result i s directly a t t r i b u t a b l e to

the higher r e a c t i v i t y o f t h e l i g n i t e c o a l . A l lother points
discussed i n the previous section apply equally to this run.
3.2 P r e d i c t e d I n f l u e n c e o f O p e r a t i n g V a r i a b l e s on K i l n Performance
Having passed s u c c e s s f u l l y through the evaluation

s t a g e , t h e m o d e l was n e x t r u n i n a p r e d i c t i v e mode. That i s ,
t h e m o d e l was r u n u n d e r a variety of operating conditions that
have n o t been explored experimentally or fully characterized
in o r d e r t o examine t h e i n f l u e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s on t h e
kiln performance. Included i n the l i s t of variables investi-
gated a r e degree of reduction achieved, throughput, coal r e -
a c t i v i t y , p e l l e t r e d u c i b i 1 i t y , n a t u r a l gas i n j e c t i o n and d u s t
in the f r e e b o a r d gas (through a change i n the gas e m i s s i v i t y ) .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e model p r e d i c t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in this
section.
One o f the major difficulties that arose in this
s t a g e o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t h e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t o f
a s i n g l e v a r i a b l e on t h e k i l n o p e r a t i o n . Because the process
i n v o l v e s c l o s e l y coupled heat and m a t e r i a l exchange steps i t
was f o u n d t o be v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e to change one v a r i a b l e
without seriously upsetting a stable kiln operation. For
example, a change o f throughput without a corresponding adjust-
ment i n t h e a i r p r o f i l e gave r i s e t o i n o p e r a b l e performance,
e.g. a v e r y low bed temperature. For this reason i n many o f
99
the cases d i s c u s s e d , o n e o r m o r e v a r i a b l e s may h a v e b e e n

changed simultaneously.
3.2.1 E f f e c t o f Degree o f Reduction Achieved
In o r d e r t o s t u d y the e f f e c t o f a higher degree of

r e d u c t i o n a c h i e v e d , a r u n was u n d e r t a k e n with a charge c o n s i s t i n g
of F o r e s t b u r g coal and G r i f f i t h pellets. The i n p u t c o n d i t i o n s
f o r t h i s c a s e a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 6. The c o n d i t i o n s a r e i d e n -
tical to the previous Forestburg run except f o r the higher
degree o f r e d u c t i o n e f f e c t e d here, 95%. I t s h o u l d be n o t e d
t h a t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s i t was n e c e s s a r y to
alter the original a i r profile i n that the a i r rate through the
end b u r n e r was r e d u c e d from 300 t o 150 c f m . The a i r p r o f i l e
employed i n this run i s given i n F i g . 27. The r e s u l t s computed
from the model a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g s . 28 a n d 2 9 . I t c a n be
seen t h a t the l e n g t h o f k i l n r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e a 95% reduc-
t i o n i s 3 2 . 5 m , a s c o m p a r e d t o 30.0m f o r t h e c a s e o f 9 2 % reduc-
tion. I f t h e l e n g t h o f k i l n i s f i x e d t h i s means t h a t t h e
throughput m u s t be d e c r e a s e d f o r a higher degree of reduction.
I t s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t i s n o t e c o n o m i c a l t o go t o
r e d u c t i o n s much h i g h e r t h a n 9 2 % b e c a u s e t h e r a t e o f r e d u c t i o n
drops o f f e x p o n e n t i a l l y with increasing reduction. In a d d i t i o n
r e d u c t i o n s beyond 95% a r e not p r a c t i c a b l e because i t leads to
problems i n processing the p e l l e t s i n the e l e c t r i c arc furnace.
100
Table 6
I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run Using Forestburg
Coal and G r i f f i t h Pellets with a Degree
of R e d u c t i o n of 95%
Coal - Forestburg 129.9 tons/day
Air (total) 52540 s c f t / t o f ore
Natural gas 676 scft/t of ore
Degree of reduction (total) 95%
T
o.a 5.0 1U.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.
Fig. 27. A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s with
d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n of 95%.
i 1 r
0.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25..? 30. 35.0 40.0
o
Fig. 28 DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES) ro
S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run

u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a d e g r e e o f r e d u c t i o n o f 95%.
r\3
PERCENTAGE REDUCTION
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
J _l
o
-s LO
UV
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r+
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-5
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eo L
PRRTIRL PRESSURES OF FREE B0RRD GASES
1 04
3.2.2 Effect of Throughput
Again the o r i g i n a l F o r e s t b u r g r u n has been used as

a base case to e v a l u a t e the i n f l u e n c e of s o l i d s throughput.
T h e d a t a f o r t h i s r u n a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 7. In t h e p r e s e n t
run t h e o r e t h r o u g h p u t has been i n c r e a s e d by 30% f r o m 190.8
t o n s / d a y to 249.4 t o n s / d a y . In t h i s r u n i t has a l s o been
n e c e s s a r y t o a l t e r t h e a i r p r o f i l e as s e e n i n F i g . 30, to
maintain similar t e m p e r a t u r e c o n d i t i o n s . The results obtained
from the mathematical model f o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s are g i v e n i n
F i g s . 31 a n d 3 2 . The c a l c u l a t i o n s showed t h a t the i n c r e a s e d
throughput resulted i n a n i n c r e a s e o f 5m i n the r e d u c t i o n zone
a n d 1.5m i n the p r e h e a t zone. T h i s i s an e x p e c t e d r e s u l t s i n c e
the thermal burden i n the r e d u c t i o n zone i s much h i g h e r t h a n i n
the p r e h e a t zone because of the endothermic Boudouard reaction.
Other f e a t u r e s of t h i s run look s i m i l a r to the original
Forestburg run.
3.2.3 E f f e c t o f Lower Coal Reactivity
A r u n was u n d e r t a k e n t o s t u d y k i l n b e h a v i o u r when
the coal b e i n g c h a r g e d was of a c o n s i d e r a b l y higher rank, e.g.
a n t h r a c i t e c o a l , which a l s o has a c o n s i d e r a b l y l o w e r reactivity
value. R e f e r r i n g back to T a b l e 1 a n t h r a c i t e coal c a n be seen
to have a r e a c t i v i t y t h a t i s t h r e e o r d e r s o f magnitude less
than t h a t of the F o r e s t b u r g (sub-bituminous) c o a l . The input
parameters f o r t h i s run are l i s t e d i n T a b l e 8 and the a i r
1 05
Tabl 7
Input Data f o r the Kiln Run U s i n g Forestburg Coal and
Griffith P e l l e t s w i t h a 30% Higher Throughput
Ore - Griffith Pellets 249.36 tons/day
Dol o n i t e 0.0
Ai r ( t o t a l ) 50100 s c f t / t o n ore
Natural gas 578 s c f t / t o n ore
Degree of r e d u c t i o n 92%
Hydrogen pre-reduction 8%
S o l i d s degree of fill 25%

0.0 1D.0 15.0 20.0
25.0 30.0 40.0 o
CT)
Fig. 30 Air profile f o r the k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h pellets with a

30% higher throughput.
T i 1 1 r
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 <o.o
F i g . 31 o
S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r t h e
k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r
throughput.
1 09
profile i s given i n F i g . 33. The r e s u l t s from t h e model a r e

presented i n F i g s . 34 a n d 3 5 . The irost s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e of
the m o d e l - p r e d i c t i o n s i s the high temperature of the solids
bed i n the reduction zone (1080°C) as compared t o t h e o r i g i n a l
Forestburg run (990°C). This f i n d i n g agrees well with obser-
vations made d u r i n g limited pilot kiln trials employing
anthracite coal and G r i f f i t h pellets. The high solids tempera-
ture i s a d i r e c t consequence o f t h e low coal r e a c t i v i t y , and
is required to maintain the Boudouard r e a c t i o n a t a s u f f i c i e n t l y
high rate to ensure reasonable metallisation. Another important
r e s u l t worth noting i s the length of the reduction zone r e l a -
tive to the preheat zone. From F i g . 34, t h e r e d u c t i o n zone
can be s e e n t o o c c u p y a m u c h l o n g e r f r a c t i o n of the kiln
( 2 1 . 5 m ) a s c o m p a r e d t o 17m i n t h e F o r e s t b u r g run. That the
preheat zone i n t h e a n t h r a c i t e case i s shorter is a direct
result of a higher feed rate of natural gas. In m a k i n g these
comparisons i t should be b o r n e i n m i n d t h a t t h e m a x i m u m
achievable throughput found with anthracite coal i s considerably
lower than i n the case of the Forestburg coal. Again this
result i s confirmed by t h e p i l o t k i l n trials. I t should be
noted that since the ash softening temperature [11] of the
anthracite coal ( 1 2 6 0 ° C ) i s much h i g h e r than that of Forestburg
coal (1040°C), operating the kiln a t the higher s o l i d s bed
temperature i n t h i s case does n o t pose any a c c r e t i o n problems.
no
Table 8
I n p u t D a t a f o r t h e K i l n Run U s i n g Anthracite
Coal and G r i f f i t h Pellets
Coal - Anthracite 69.12 tons/day
Dolomite 4.32 tons/day
Air (total) 56190 s c f t / t o n ore
Natural gas 2135 s c f t / t o n ore
Degree o f r e d u c t i o n (total) 92%
Solids degree o f f i l l 20%

T
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30 35.0 40.
Fig. 33. A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run usinq anthracite
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
in
-1 1 • 1 1 1 r
Fig. 34. S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r t e m p e r a -

t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r the k i l n run u s i n g
a n t h r a c i t e c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s .
a
a
o <=>
CO
Fig. 35. R e d u c t i o n and f r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n profiles

f o r t h e k i l n run u s i n g a n t h r a c t i e c o a l and
Griffith pellets.
114
3.2.4 E f f e c t of Pel l e t Type
The i n f l u e n c e o f p e l l e t t y p e on k i l n o p e r a t i o n can
be i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h t h e m o d e l b y a d j u s t i n g t h e p e l l e t r e d u c i -
bility factor. In t h i s run,, t h i s p a r a m e t e r was changed to
correspond to F a l c o n b r i d g e p e l l e t s , which are more easily
reduced than G r i f f i t h pellets. D e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g ore r e d u c i -
b i l i t y are given in Appendix II. The input data f o r this run
are presented i n T a b l e 9. T h e a i r p r o f i l e was again adjusted
to g i v e a s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n as s e e n i n F i g . 36. F i g s . 37 a n d 38
show t h e m o d e l - p r e d i c t e d profiles. The most i m p o r t a n t feature
o f t h i s r u n was the lower temperature o f the s o l i d s bed ( F i g .
37) c o m p a r e d t o t h e G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s case ( F i g . 14). This was
accompanied by a l o w e r p r e d i c t e d l e n g t h o f t h e k i l n (28.5m).
Once a g a i n , t h i s means t h a t when o p e r a t i n g w i t h t h i s charge
i t s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e t h r o u g h p u t in a kiln
of fixed length while maintaining a high degree of reduction.
Because of the lower wall temperature, this will result in
smoother kiln operation with l e s s e r a c c r e t i o n problems.
3.2.5 Effect of Natural Gas
Natural gas i s i n j e c t e d i n t o the p r e h e a t zone of the

S L / R N k i l n a s an a u x i l i a r y h e a t s o u r c e t o e n h a n c e h e a t t r a n s f e r
to the s o l i d s . The r a t e o f n a t u r a l gas i n j e c t i o n i n t o the kiln
d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e o f c h a r g e employed. I t has a l r e a d y been
s e e n t h a t a m u c h h i g h e r r a t e o f n a t u r a l g a s was utilized in
115
Table 9
Input Data f o r t h e K i l n Run Using Forestburg
C o a l and Falconbridge Pellets
Ore - Falconbridge pellets 191.8 tons/day
N a t u r a l gas 676 scft/ton ore
Degree of r e d u c t i o n ( t o t a l ) 92%
Hydrogen per-reduction 8%
S o l i d s degree of f i l l
in
o
T
10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Fig. 37. S o l i d s , g a s , i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e f o r
the run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and F a l c o n b r i d g e p e l l e t s .
2-] i i r- 1 1— r
Fig. 38. R e d u c t i o n and f r e e b o a r d c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r

the k i l n r u n u s i n g F o r e s t b u r q c o a l and F a l c o n b r i d g e
pellets.
119
the run with a n t h r a c i t e coal compared to the F o r e s t b u r g c o a l ,

even though t h e o r e t h r o u g h p u t was s m a l l e r i n the former case.
To s t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f n a t u r a l g a s i n j e c t i o n i n the
p r e h e a t z o n e , a r u n was made w i t h o u t any n a t u r a l g a s , but
o t h e r w i s e under identical c o n d i t i o n s to the o r i g i n a l Forestburg
run in which g a s was i n j e c t e d a t a r a t e o f 676 c f / t of ore.
The i n p u t c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h i s run are p r e s e n t e d i n Table 10.
The a i r p r o f i l e i s g i v e n i n F i g . 39. F i g s . 40 a n d 41 s h o w the
predicted profiles from the model. By c o m p a r i s o n w i t h F i g . 14
the absence o f n a t u r a l g a s i n t h i s r u n c a n be s e e n t o e x t e n d
t h e l e n g t h o f t h e p r e h e a t z o n e b y 1.2m and a l s o to d e c r e a s e
the waste gas t e m p e r a t u r e to 745°C. A t t h e same t i m e i t s h o u l d
be n o t e d t h a t t h e w a s t e gas i s r i c h e r i n oxygen (3%). I f the
a i r i n p u t to the p r e h e a t zone i s r e d u c e d s o t h a t no oxygen
appears i n the waste gases, that i s to reduce the thermal burden
on t h e g a s e s , a h i g h e r w a s t e gas t e m p e r a t u r e r e s u l t s and the
e f f e c t o f a l a c k o f n a t u r a l gas combustion diminishes. Thus
it i s seen t h a t a t the low gas r a t e s employed with Forestburg
coal the i n j e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l gas p l a y s a r e l a t i v e l y minor role
in the k i l n o p e r a t i o n . A t h i g h e r n a t u r a l gas r a t e s , such as
were u t i l i z e d w i t h the a n t h r a c i t e c o a l , the p r e s e n c e of this
h e a t h a s a m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on h e a t t r a n s f e r i n t h e
preheat zone.
I t s h o u l d be m e n t i o n e d t h a t the c o n c l u s i o n drawn
above i s b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n of instantaneous combustion
in the f r e e b o a r d gas. However i n the e v e n t of i n c o m p l e t e
120
Table 10
Input Data f o r t h e K i l n Run Using Forestburg Coal
and Griffith Pellets Without Any Natural Gas
Ore - Griffith pellets 191.8 tons/day
Natural gas
Degree of r e d u c t i o n (total) 92%
Hydrogen pre-reduction
S o l i d s degree of f i l l 2 5%
i — r
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Fig. 39 Air p r o f i l e f o r t h e k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and Griffith pellets
w i t h o u t any n a t u r a l gas.
a
in
i | 1 1 1 1 r
Fig. 40. S o l i d s , gas, i n n e r w a l l and o u t e r s h e l l t e m p e r a t u r e . p r o f i 1 e s f o r

t h e k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r q c o a l and R r i f f i t h . p e l 1 e t s w i t h o u t
PERCENTAGE REDUCTION
20.0 40.0 60.0 100.0
J JL
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PARTIAL PRESSURES OF FREE BOARD GASES
1 24
combustion the e f f e c t of natural g a s may b e m o r e pronounced

in the preheat zone.
3.2.6 E f f e c t o f Dust i n the Freeboard Gas
One o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t g e n e r a l l y arises i n the

operation o f r o t a r y k i l n s , s u c h as t h e SL/RN k i l n , i s the gen-
e r a t i o n of dust due t o p a r t i c l e s a b r a d i n g against one a n o t h e r
in the s o l i d s bed. The dust i s carried out of the kiln in
the f r e e b o a r d g a s , and i s i m p o r t a n t , not only because i t repre-
sents a loss of material (although usually minor) but also
because i t can profoundly influence heat t r a n s f e r from the
gas to the kiln wall and bed s u r f a c e by a l t e r i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e
gas emissivity. The e x t e n t to which dust i s generated in the
SL/RN k i l n i s d i f f i c u l t to quantify p r e c i s e l y from p i l o t plant
trials. However, from photographs o f the k i l n i n t e r i o r , such
as shown i n F i g . 20, i t i s b e l i e v e d that the dust loading in
the f r e e b o a r d gas i s small, a t l e a s t i n the r e d u c t i o n zone.
For t h i s reason, the freeboard g a s h a s b e e n a s s u m e d t o be " n o n -
dusty" i n a l l t h e model runs r e p o r t e d to this point. Neverthe-
less, because dust c a n be a p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m , i t was decided
to i n v e s t i g a t e i t s i n f l u e n c e on k i l n b e h a v i o u r when t h e c h a r g e
consisted of Griffith p e l l e t s and Forestburg coal.
Hottel [ 2 9 ] has suggested that f o r engineering purposes

the e f f e c t o f dust o n g a s e m i s s i v i t y c a n be t a k e n into account
by a d d i n g 0.1 t o t h e n o n - l u m i n o u s g a s e m i s s i v i t y . This adjustment
125
was m a d e f o r t h e r u n w h o s e i n p u t c o n d i t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 4.
The f r e e b o a r d g a s t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t r e s u l t e d from t h i s c a l c u -
lation i s presented i n F i g . 42 t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r o f i l e
o r i g i n a l l y obtained with the non-dusty gas. I t c a n be seen
that, as expected, t h e dusty gas has a lower temperature, par-
ticularly i n t h e r e d u c t i o n zone compared t o the non-dusty gas.
T h a t t h e e f f e c t o f d u s t i s seen more i n t h e r e d u c t i o n zone
than i n t h e p r e h e a t zone can be a t t r i b u t e d t o two reasons.
(i) The gas in t h e r e d u c t i o n zone has a

lower e m i s s i v i t y (in the absence of
dust) than in the p r e h e a t zone owing
to a lack of water vapour. Thus the
a d d i t i o n o f 0.1 t o e g i n c r e a s e s the
gas e m i s s i v i t y in the r e d u c t i o n zone
by a p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y larger amount.
(ii) The gas t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e reduct ion

zone is c o n s i d e r a b l y higher than in
the p r e h e a t zone w i t h the r e s u l t that
radiant heat t r a n s f e r c o n t r i b u t e s more
to the o v e r a l l heat flow process in
the r e d u c t i o n zone. Again the ef fect
of increasing eg w o u l d be g r e a t e r in
the reduction zone.
This result i s important from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f the model. I t

means t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f d u s t o n h e a t t r a n s f e r i s g r e a t e s t i n t h e
r e d u c t i o n zone where t h e f r e e b o a r d gas has i t s l o w e s t velocity,
and i s l e a s t l i k e l y t o p i c k up dust from t h e bed s u r f a c e ( F i g .
20). On t h e o t h e r hand i n t h e p r e h e a t zone where t h e f r e e b o a r d
gas v e l o c i t y i s r e a c h i n g a m a x i m u m v a l u e s o Niat d u s t e n t r a i n -
ment i s enhanced, dust has a r e l a t i v e l y minor e f f e c t on heat
transfer. Thus, the assumption o fa non-dusty g a s i n t h e model
would appear t o be q u i t e justifiable.
r
1600 h
1400 h
I200h
1000 h
800 h
600
80 160 240 320
Distance from Charge End (m) ro
Fig. 42. E f f e c t of the e m i s s i v i t y o f qas on the qas
temperature.
127
The change in the gas emissivity also resulted in a

c h a n g e i n the s o l i d s and inner wall temperature. The solids
s h o w e d an a v e r a g e d r o p o f a r o u n d 2 0 - 3 0 ° C , w h i l e the inner wall
r e g i s t e r e d a drop of around 50-70°C.
3.2.7 Predictions f o r the G r i f f i t h Kiln
Perhaps the most important i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t can be

undertaken with the m a t h e m a t i c a l model, is to study the effect
o f s i z e on kiln operation - the q u e s t i o n of scale-up. In
this regard, a unique opportunity presented itself, since
at the s a m e t i m e t h a t t h e m o d e l was being developed, Stelco
was constructing a large production size kiln, 125m long by
6 m i d , a t the G r i f f i t h M i n e , Red Lake, Ontario. The model
t h u s was run to p r e d i c t the o p e r a t i n g behaviour of t h i s large
kiln, using as input p a r a m e t e r s , the a n t i c i p a t e d operating
conditions. The r e s u l t s o f two model runs where the feed rate
o f s o l i d s was 100% and 130% of the designed s p e c i f i c a t i o n are
reported below.
3.2.7.1 100% Design Capacity
The Griffith kiln is rated to process 72 tons/hr of

iron ore p e l l e t s taken from the G r i f f i t h Mine o p e r a t i o n s with
Forestburg coal being u s e d as t h e s o l i d reductant. The input
v a r i a b l e s employed: i n t h i s run are p r e s e n t e d in Table 11.
Fig. 43 s h o w s t h e theoretical air profile selected for this
Table 11
Input Data f o r the G r i f f i t h K i l n Run Using Forestburg Coal
and G r i f f i t h Pellets f o r the Designed Throughput
Ore - G r i f f i t h pellets 1728 tons/day
Coal - Forestburg 1186 tons/day

3
ore
Natural Gas 0 ft /ton

3
ore
Degree of r e d u c t i o n 95%
S o l i d s degree of f i l l 20%
43
o
IT).
a
ro.
CJ
to >— N
LU
£<?
or i3
GC
a
\
cn'
a
1 1 — 1 1 —
a.o DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES)
60.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0
ro
co
Fig. 43. A i r p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g the F o r e s t b u r g
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r the d e s i g n e d t h r o u g h p u t .
130
set of operating conditions. The r e s u l t s c a l c u l a t e d using

the model a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g s . 44 t o 4 8 . From F i g . 44, t h e
computed k i l n length c a n b e s e e n t o be s l i g h t l y o v e r 80m, b u t
considerably shorter t h a n t h e 125m o f t h e a c t u a l kiln. Of
the c a l c u l a t e d length a b o u t 30m o r 3 7 % i s r e q u i r e d to preheat
the solids. The bed t e m p e r a t u r e through t h e r e d u c t i o n zone i s
around 975°C. The gas temperature p r o f i l e i s quite s i m i l a r to
the p r o f i l e i n the p i l o t kiln. The wall temperature i s lower
than that c a l c u l a t e d f o r the p i l o t kiln p r e s u m a b l y due t o an
absence of i n s u l a t i n g brick i n the G r i f f i t h kiln. This i s also
responsible f o r the higher shell temperature calculated. In
common w i t h the p i l o t kiln there i s a need to maintain a slight
excess o f oxygen i n the freeboard through most o f the reduc-
tion zone.
\ I t should be m e n t i o n e d t h a t i n these calculations

instability was a much g r e a t e r problem than i n the p i l o t kiln
runs r e q u i r i n g some e x t e r n a l control on t h e B o u d o u a r d reaction
rate. B a s e d on e x p e r i e n c e with the p i l o t plant runs, this
s i t u a t i o n may i n d i c a t e t h a t the anticipated set of operating
conditions will r e s u l t i n poor k i l n performance.
Further detailed analysis of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
the p i l o t and G r i f f i t h kilns revealed an i n t e r e s t i n g fact.
For a 25% degree o f f i l l t h e r a t i o of surface area to volume
of the s o l i d s bed per u n i t length of the G r i f f i t h kiln is
roughly one-third the value f o r the pilot kiln. This means
t h a t l e s s h e a t p e r u n i t v o l u m e o f b e d c a n be t r a n s f e r r e d to the
solids i n the G r i f f i t h kiln.
o
in
co
Fig. 44. Sol i d s t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g the F o r e s t b u r g - 1
coal and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r the d e s i g n e d t h r o u g h p u t .

GRSJEEMEERRTURE PROFILE
âctual
cor reefed
i
"I 1 1 1 1
30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0 n 120.
105.0
t h r o u run
t h e G r i f f i t h k i l n
1 â nHd rG rr iffff Ji t-h^ p e il l]e t /s If o r d e s i g n e d

t e r 0 f i e 0
1
g h p u tu .s i n g t h e Forestburq
i r 75.0 90.0 105.0 120
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 END (METRES)
DISTANCE FROM CHARGE G r i f f i t h k i l n r u n u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g
F i g . 46. Inner w a l l temperature p r o f i l e f o r the throughput.
a
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0

DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES!
Fig. 47. F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run using Forestburg
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s f o r d e s i g n e d t h r o u g h p u t .
CO
li !
CO
cx
F i g . 48. F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r the G r i f f i t h kiln run usinq Forestburg

c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s for designed throughput.
136
3.2.7.2 130% Design Capacity
The f a c t that the actual G r i f f i t h kiln is longer

than seems r e q u i r e d f o r i t s d e s i g n e d throughput l e d t o an attempt
to p r e d i c t k i l n performance using a throughput w h i c h was 130%
of i t s rated-capacity. The operating c o n d i t i o n s assumed were
again c l o s e to the c o n d i t i o n s used i n the p i l o t k i l n . The
input data f o r t h i s run is given in Table 12. The theoretical
a i r p r o f i l e used i s s h o w n i n F i g . 49 a n d the r e s u l t s from the
m o d e l c a l c u l a t i o n s i n F i g s . 50 t o 54. The solids temperature
i n the r e d u c t i o n zone i s very s i m i l a r to the 100% run. As
discussed i n the p r e c e d i n g case, due to i n s t a b i l i t y problems
encountered, the B o u d o u a r d r e a c t i o n r a t e had t o be externally
controlled. The gas composition p r o f i l e s again show t h a t an
excess of oxygen over most of the r e d u c t i o n zone i s in evidence.
The l e n g t h of the k i l n c a l c u l a t e d from the model f o r t h i s run
i s 98m. Thus from these model c a l c u l a t i o n s i t i s c l e a r that
the G r i f f i t h kiln should be a b l e t o h a n d l e throughputs that are
higher than i t s rated capacity.
3.3 General C o m m e n t s on t h e S L / R N Process
Having examined the influence of d i f f e r e n t operating

v a r i a b l e s on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e S L / R N k i l n i t is clear
that i t is a complex operation involving c l o s e l y coupled heat
and mass t r a n s p o r t s t e p s . This is contrary to the r a t h e r simple
p i c t u r e one might have i n i t i a l l y of s o l i d iron oxide pellets
1 37
Table 12
Input Data f o r the G r i f f i t h K i l n Run U s i n g F o r e s t b u r g C o a l
and G r i f f i t h Pellets f o r a 30% H i g h e r Throughput
Ore - G r i f f i t h pellets 2246 tons/day
Coal - . F o r e s t b u r g 1544 tons/day

3
ore
N a t u r a l gas 0 ft /ton ore

3
Solids degree of f i l l 20%

in
fM_J
Fig. 49. A i r p r o f i l e f o r t h e G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and Griffith

p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t .
i r
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0
DISTANCE FROM CHARGE END (METRES) CO
F i g . 50, So
y*G r i*f!f;n ?t ?h r p erl ?l e tPs
and
a t u
:
r o f i
the G r i f f i t h kiln run using Forestburq
i e f o r
with a 30% higher throughput.

coal
to
XT. EMP E PROFILE
CD
X
co r rected
CD
LU
a
LLJO
ZDr-
r—
GC
CC
LU
Q_
21a
LU •
nzm.
a
a' ~1 1 1
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90. 105.0 120.0 -Pa
o
F i g . 51 Gas t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e f o r t h e G r i f f i t h k i l n r u n u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and
G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a 3 0 % h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t . • • ••
0.0
i r
15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0
F i g . 52 I n n e r w a l l a DISTANCE
n d o u t e r s h FROM
e l l t eCHARGE
m p e r a t u r e END
p r o f(METRES)
i l e s f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run
u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t .
I I I I I I I I
0.0 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0
. 53. R e d u c t i o n p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n run u s i n g F o r e s t b u r g c o a l and G r i f f i t h
p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t .
30.0 45.0 75.0 90.0 105.0 120.0
Fig. 54. F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n p r o f i l e s f o r the G r i f f i t h k i l n oo
run usinq Forestburq
c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s w i t h a 30% h i g h e r t h r o u g h p u t .
144.
passing through a long tube i n t e r a c t i n g chemically with coal

and e m e r g i n g i n a reduced state. In t h i s c h a p t e r i t has been
s e e n t h a t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e SL/RN k i l n is strongly influenced
by t h e t y p e o f c o a l and o r e p e l l e t s c o m p r i s i n g t h e c h a r g e , by
the a i r p r o f i l e s imposed a n d by t h e k i l n size. It would also
seem c l e a r f r o m t h i s work t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f k i l n performance
without the services of a mathematical model, such as d e v e l o p e d
here, i s v i r t u a l l y out of the question.
At this stage of the study i t i s p o s s i b l e to d e l i n e a t e
some o f t h e m o r e g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f k i l n b e h a v i o u r , particularly
as r e g a r d s t h e r a t e l i m i t i n g s t e p s . The model has shown t h a t
the o p e r a t i o n of the k i l n i s extremely s e n s i t i v e to heat flow ;
conditions. This i s reflected i n the fact that the a i r profile

is the most important o p e r a t i n g v a r i a b l e because i t a b s o l u t e l y ., .
c o n t r o l s the gas temperature, through combustion* and i n
addition, the s o l i d s bed temperature through heat transfer
from the gas. There i s strong evidence therefore that the
SL/RN p r o c e s s i s g o v e r n e d i n i t s o p e r a t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y by h e a t
transfer. T h i s c o n c l u s i o n s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e i f t h e two zones
of the k i l n a r e examined separately. In t h e p r e h e a t zone, which
has t h e m a j o r f u n c t i o n of i n c r e a s i n g the s e n s i b l e heat of the :
s o l i d s , heat t r a n s f e r i s c l e a r l y the r a t e c o n t r o l l i n g step.
In t h e r e d u c t i o n z o n e , h e a t t r a n s f e r i s a l s o e x t r e m e l y impor-
tant because the Boudouard r e a c t i o n i s so h i g h l y endothermic
in nature. In o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e bed t e m p e r a t u r e at a
145
higher l e v e l and ensure f a s t r e a c t i o n r a t e s , heat must be

supplied to the bed to meet the demands of the Boudouard
r e a c t i on.
If heat t r a n s f e r i s the r a t e c o n t r o l ! i n q step in

the SL/RN p r o c e s s i t is possible to f u r t h e r s t a t e t h a t , for
purposes of kiln design and operation, one of the most impor-
t a n t v a r i a b l e s i s the r a t i o of the s u r f a c e of the bed to i t s
enclosed volume. The A/V r a t i o has been c a l c u l a t e d as a function
of diameter f o r v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f f i l l and i s shown i n F i g .
55. Here i t can be s e e n t h a t f o r a g i v e n d i a m e t e r t h e A/V ratio
increases with decreasing degree of fill. At the same time
from the s c a l e - u p p o i n t of view, i f the d i a m e t e r of the kiln is
increased and t h e A/V r a t i o i s kept constant, the percentage
degree of f i l l must decrease to maintain heat transfer rates.
It i s not p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , t o v i e w t h e A/V r a t i o in such a
simple way. In t h e f i r s t p l a c e , an increase in kiln diameter
will a l s o r e s u l t i n an increase i n t h e mean, b e a m l e n g t h and
consequently, e m i s s i v i t y of the gas, thereby increasing the
r a d i a n t heat transfer rate. In t h e second place t h e A/V ratio
i t s e l f a f f e c t s the residence time of s o l i d s i n the kiln. This
i s s h o w n i n F i g . 56 f o r t h e 6m id Griffith k i l n where the
mean r e s i d e n c e t i m e has been c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g average solids
t h r o u g h p u t and bulk density, and assuming plug flow behaviour.
I t can be s e e n t h a t an increase i n t h e A/V r a t i o which is
d e s i r a b l e from a heat transfer viewpoint results in a faster
decrease in the r e s i d e n c e time o f s o l i d s • T -an.'undesirable, effect.
i 1 1 r
Diameter, m
F i g . 55. E f f e c t o f k i l n d i a m e t e r o n t h e A/V ratio for different
degrees of f i l l .
147
148
Clearly a balance m u s t be s t r u c k b e t w e e n t h e A/V and the

residence t i m e t , and f o r the G r i f f i t h kiln t h i s may lead to
15% d e g r e e o f f i l l as b e i n g optimum.
S t r i c t l y speaking, t h i s a n a l y s i s , i n v o l v i n g A/V ratio
and residence time, applies only to the preheat zone of the
kiln. The s i t u a t i o n i s more c o m p l i c a t e d i n the reduction
z o n e b e c a u s e t h e A/V r a t i o can have a c a t a s t r o p h i c effect on
the r a t e s o f the B o u d o u a r d and reduction reactions. If the
A/V r a t i o i s too small (large degrees of fill, long residence
t i m e ) so t h a t t h e r a t e o f h e a t t r a n s f e r per u n i t volume of
bed i s low, the bed t e m p e r a t u r e may s e e k a low value due to
the e n d o t h e r m i c Boudouard r e a c t i o n . In t h e l i m i t , the bed
t e m p e r a t u r e may be so l o w t h a t the r a t e of r e d u c t i o n is effec-
t i v e l y h a l t e d and the length of the reduction zone required
to a c h i e v e metallisation increased drastically. In a kiln
of f i x e d l e n g t h t h i s w o u l d mean e x t r e m e l y poor m e t a l l i s a t i o n ^
and unsatisfactory performance. On the b a s i s of the analysis
it would appear the kiln should be r u n w i t h a higher degree of
f i l l in the preheat zone than in the r e d u c t i o n zone.
Chapter 4
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A m a t h e m a t i c a l model has been s u c c e s s f u l l y developed

f o r t h e SL/RN direct reduction kiln. This model, based on fun-
damental principles of conservation o f heat and mass, incor-
porates mathematical expressions to q u a n t i t a t i v e l y describe
the r a t e s o f the i m p o r t a n t chemical and p h y s i c a l processes.
Using operating variables asinput p a r a m e t e r s , the model i s able
to c a l c u l a t e a x i a l t e m p e r a t u r e and c o n c e n t r a t i o n profiles in
both the freeboard gas and the s o l i d s bed. The a b i l i t y of
the model to r e l i a b l y p r e d i c t the operating performance of an
SL/RN k i l n has been c a r e f u l l y t e s t e d b y c o m p a r i s o n o f model
calculations to measurements made o n a l a r g e p i l o t k i l n a t
the H i l t o n Works, S t e l c o . The m a t h e m a t i c a l model has then
been used to p r e d i c t the i n f l u e n c e of s e v e r a l operating varibles
on k i l n b e h a v i o u r on the s c a l e of the l a r g e p i l o t kiln using
in most cases Forestburg c o a l and G r i f f i t h p e l l e t s . T h e
r e s u l t s o f these p r e d i c t i o n s can be summarised as follows.
149
150
(i) Coal type: In agreement with measurements,

the model h a s shown t h a t t h e b e d t e m p e r a t u r e i s s t r o n g l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e rank o f coal used a s s o l i d reductant, being
highest for anthracite and lowest for lignite. Further,
i t h a s been d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f a n t h r a c i t e cpal results
in a reduction i n t h e t h r o u g h p u t o f t h e SL/RN kiln.
(ii) Pellet type: The useo f a highly reducible

pellet as characterised b y a r e d u c i b i l i t y p a r a m e t e r h a s jthe
effect o f reducing t h e b e d t e m p e r a t u r e a n d a t t h e same time
increasing thethroughput o f the kiln.
(iii) Reduction achieved: Increases i n p e r cent

reduction f r o m 92 t o 9 5 % g i v e r i s e t o a n 8% i n c r e a s e i n length
of kiln requi red .
(iv) Throughput: An i n c r e a s e o f 30% i nthe solids

throughput r e s u l t s i na 22% increase i nt h ekiln length. A
major f r a c t i o n o f this increase i n length i slocalised i n the
reduction zone.
(v) Dust: The presence o f dust hasa profound

e f f e c t on t h egas temperature profile.
(vi) Natural gas: Using Forestburg coal, the

influence o f natural gasa t a rate o f 676 s c f / t o n o f o r e only
marginally reduces t h epreheat zone. With a n t h r a c i t e coal
1 51
the i n j e c t i o n o f n a t u r a l gas i s seen t o p l a y a more important

r o l e because of the longer reduction zone required.
S c a l e - u p c a l c u l a t i o n s have a l s o been performed with

the mathematical model. Computer r u n s have been undertaken
to p r e d i c t the performance o f t h e new c o m m e r c i a l size SL/RN
kiln a t the G r i f f i t h mine. These have shown t h a t t h i s kiln
s h o u l d be c a p a b l e o f e x c e e d i n g the designed capacity o f 1200
tons o f sponge i r o n per day.
On t h e b a s i s o f m o d e l p r e d i c t i o n s i t seems c e r t a i n
t h a t t h e SL/RN p r o c e s s i s c o n t r o l l e d by h e a t t r a n s f e r i n t h e
kiln. T h i s means t h a t one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t scale-up parameters
i n d e s i g n i n g SL/RN k i l n s i s t h e A/V r a t i o o f t h e b e d . It; a l s o
conforms with the f i n d i n g that the a i r p r o f i l e i s the most
critical control variable.
152
4.1 S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e Work
1. The model s h o u l d be r e f i n e d as a n d when better

d a t a i s a v a i l a b l e on t h e heat t r a n s f e r a s p e c t o f r o t a r y
kilns.
2. Based on f u r t h e r c o m p a r i s o n with results from

the G r i f f i t h k i l n , t h e m o d e l may b e u s e d t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t s
of d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s on c o m m e r c i a l scale operation.
3. The use o f t h e model as a b a s i c t o o l i n t h e

optimization a n d c o n t r o l o f S L / R N k i l n s may be investigated.
REFERENCES
S m i t h , R.P., C E P S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s , V o l u m e 5 9 , N u m b e r 43,
May, 1963.
S i b a k i n , J.G., P r e s e n t e d a t the General Meeting o f AISI at

New Y o r k , May, 1962.
K u r t Meyer, G u n t e r H e i t m a n n , and W o l f g a n g J a n k e , J . M e t a l s ,
J u n e , 1966, pp. 748-752.
F r a s e r , M . J . a n d G r i g g , C.R., The E n g i n e e r i n g Journal,

June , 1 965.
P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e S e v e n t h A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e o f 11SI at
J o h a n n e s b u r g , South A f r i c a , 1973.
Rollinger, B., I a n d SM, J a n u a r y , 1975, pp. 10-17.
A l t e r n a t i v e routes to S t e e l , Proceedings of the Annual

G e n e r a l M e e t i n g o f I r o n and S t e e l I n s t i t u t e o f
L o n d o n , 1 971 .
P e a r c e , F . J . , C a n a d i a n M i n i n g and M e t a l l u r g i c a l Bulletin,
A p r i l , 1964.
S i b a k i n , J . G . , H o o k i n g s , P.H. a n d R o e d e r , G.A., T r a n s .
E n g i n e e r i n g I n s t i t u t e o f C a n a d a , V o l . 11 , No. E - l ,
May, 1968.
G r e a v e s , M.J., E/MJ, February, 1975.
M e a d o w c r o f t , T.R., J o h n s o n , C.W.E. a n d W i l s o n , K., Canadian

C o a l C o n f e r e n c e , V i c t o r i a , B.C., 1974.
1 53
154
Betram, J.M., Iron a n d S t e e l E n g i n e e r , J u l y , 1972, p p .

31-40.
M i l l e r , J.R., E/MJ, May 1 9 7 2 , p p . 68-76.
McManus, G . J . , I r o n Age Metal Working I n t e r n a t i o n a l ,

A p r i l , 1971.
I m b e r , M. a n d P a s c h k i s , V . , I n t . J . H e a t M a s s T r a n s f e r ,
Vol . 5 , 1 962 , p p . 623-638.
Allan S a s s , I a n d EC P r o c e s s D e s i g n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t ,
V o l . 6, N o . 4, O c t o b e r , 1 9 6 7 , p p . 5 3 2 - 5 3 5 .
K a i s e r , V . A . a n d L a n e , J.W., I a n d EC P r o c e s s D e s i g n
a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , V o l . 7, 1 9 6 8 , p p . 3 1 9 - 3 2 0 .
R i f f a u d , J . B . , K o e h r e t , B. a n d C o u p a l , B., B r i t . Chem.
Eng. a n d P r o c . T e c h . , V o l . 1 7 , No. 5, May, 1 9 7 2 .
Sprang, I I I , H.A., A u t o m a t i c a , V o l . 8, 1 9 7 2 , p p . 3 0 9 - 3 2 3 .
A n d r z e j M a n i t i u s , Ewa K u r c y u s z , a n d W i e s l a w Kawecki,
I n d . E n g . Chem. P r o c e s s D e s . D e v e l o p . , V o l . 13,
No. 2 , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 1 3 2 - 1 4 2 .
W i n g f i e l d , S.L., P r o t h e r o , A. a n d A u l d , J . B . , J . I n s t .
F u e l , M a r c h , 1 9 7 4 , p p . 64,-72.
S t e l c o R e p o r t s 720061 .
v o n B o g d a n d y , L . a n d E n g e l l , H . J . , The Reduction of Iron

Ores, S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n , H e i d e l b e r g , New Y o r k ,
1971.
M c A d a m s , W.H., Heat Transmission, 3rdEd., McGraw-Hill,

New Y o r k , N. Y., 1 9 5 4 .
D o r n , W.S. a n d M c C r a c k e n , D.D., Numerical Methods with

Fortran IV Case Studies, John W i l e y & Sons, I n c . ,
New Y o r k , 1 9 7 2 .
S t e l c o r e p o r t s 740041, 730085.
155
27. K r e i c h , F . , Principles of Heat Transfer, 2nd Ed., I n t . Text

Book Company, 1969.
28. Stelco Reports 720161.
29. H o t t e l , H . C . a n d S a r o f i m , A . F . , Radiative Transfer.

M c G r a w - H i l l Book Co., 1967.
30. P e r r y , R.H. a n d C h i l t o n , C.H., C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s H a n d b o o k ,
F i f t h E d i t i o n , McGraw H i l l Book Company, 1973.
31. L y o n s , J.W., M i n . H.S., P a r i s o t , P . E . a n d P a u l , J . F . ,

I & EC P r o c e s s D e s i g n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , V o l . 1,
No . 1 , J a n u a r y 1 9 6 2 .
APPENDIX I
SOURCE LISTING OF THE COMPUTER PROGRAM
156
157
rj **********************************************************************
c
c ***** MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF SL/BN PROCESS
c ***** FOE THE DIRECT REDUCTION OF IRON OXIDE ******
c ***** I N THE ROTARY KILN ******
C
r **********************************************************************
C NOMENCLATURE
C RATE OF INPUT CHARGE
C ORE FEED RATE IN TONS/HR ORE
C COAL FEED RATE IN TONS/HR REDC
C DOLOMITE FEED RATE IN TONS/HR — DOLL
C AIR FEED RATE (END) SCFM —-AIR
C
C ANALYSIS OF FEED MATERIAL
C
C ORE ANALYSIS IN PERCENT — FEED (3)
C FEED{1)= HAEMATITE
C FEED (2)=MOISTURE
C FEED(3)=GANGUE
C
C GANGUE ANALYSIS FROM ORE GANGO (5)
C GANGO(1)=SILICA
C GANGO(2)=ALUMINA
C GANGO(3)=SODIUM OXIDE
C GANGO(4)=CAO 1
C GANGO(5)=MGO
C
C COAL ANALYSIS COAL (12)
C COAL (1)=FIXED CARBON
C COAL (2)= WATER
C COAL (3) =METHANE
C COAL (4)=ETHANE
C COAL (5)=CARBON MONOXIDE
C COAL(6)=HYDROGEN
C COAL(7)=OXYGEN
C COAL (8) =NITROGEN
C COAL(9)=ASH
C COAL (10)=SULPHUH
C COAL(11)=CARBONDIOXIDE
C COAL (12) =PROPANE
C
C ANALYSIS OF ASH FROM COAL AASH (6)
C AASH (1)=SILICA
C AASH (2)=ALUMINA
C AASH (3)=SODIUM OXIDE
C AASH(4)=FEO
C AASH(5)=CAO
C AASH(6)=MGO
C
C ANALYSIS OF DOLOMITE FLUX (5)
C FLUX (1)=CAC03
C FLUX (2) =MGC03
C FLUX(3)=GANG0E
C FLUX(4)=MOISTURE
C
C ANALYSIS OF ASH IN DOLOMITE GANGF (5)
C GANGF (1)=SILICA
C GANGF {2) = ALU MIN A 1 5 g
C GANGF(3)=SODIUM OXIDE
C GANGF(tl) =FEO
C ANALYSIS OF AIR
C MOIST-IBS OF WATER PER 100 SCF —-RMOIS
C
C VOLUME OF NATURAL GAS IN SCFM VGAS
C GAS (1)=METHANE
C GAS (2) =ETHANE
C. GAS (3) =PROPANE
C
C CHARACTERISTICS OF THE KILN
C LENGTH CF THE KILN IN CMS RLEN
C DIAMETER OF THE KILN CMS' DIAM
C DEGREE OF F I L L FRACTION FILL
C
C TEAPERATURE OF AIR TAIR
C PERCENT DEGREE OF METALLISATION AMET
C RETENTION TIME OF SOLIDS RTME
C THE EMISSIVITY VALUES FOR GASES ARE DESCRIBED THROUGH
C POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
C RATES OF VOLATILES REMOVAL FROM COAL ALSO DESCRIBED
C WITH THE HELP OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
C TEMPERATURE OF NATURAL GAS TNAT
C
C INSULATION FOR THE KILN RX(3),RK(3)
C RX (I)=THICKNESS OF INSULATION
C RK (I)=THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE MATERIAL
C THE CHARACTERISTICS OF COAL AND ORE ARE INCORPORATED
C IN THE SUBROUTINE EOUD
C
IMPLICIT REAL*8 (A-H,C-Z)
EXTERNAL FUNC
DIMENSION Y (15) ,F (15) ,T (15) ,S (15) ,G (15) ,DUSTC (4)
DIMENSION AX(30) ,AY(30) ,AZ(30) ,AM(30)
DIMENSION RD (100) ,RBD (100) , RVHD (100) ,RVCOD(100) ,RVMD (100)
DIMENSION BATD (100) ,C02D (100) ,RND (100) ,ROD (100),SHD (100)
DIMENSION COD(100) ,HD{100) ,RATD(100) ,BP(11)
DIMENSION RS (12)
DIMENSION TSD (100) ,TWD(100) ,TGD (100) ,DIST (100) , AIRD (100) ,TCD (100)
LOGICAL SSCHB,SWCHV,SHCHM,SWCHR,SWCC,PIN PAN r
COMMON/SH/SWCH
LOGICAL SWCH,SW2
COMMON/ANDY/XG (30) , YG (30) / ZG (30)
COMMON/DISTAN/BP
COMMON/PARAM/TSD,TWD,TGD,TCD,DIST,AIRD
COMMON/CL/CLFX,UTME
COMMON/PARAM1/RD,RBD,RVHD,RVCOD,RVMD,SHD
COMMON/PARAM2/WATD,C02D,RND,ROD,COD,HD,RATD
COHMON/COAD/FEED(3),GANGO(5)
COMMON/CFAD/FLUX(4),GANGF(5)
COMMON/CCAD/COAL(12) ,AASH (6)
COMMON/ADJUST/PARI,PAR2,REDP,BURN,TLEN
COMMON/COMM/BLEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/DCPS/DCPORE,DCPCOA,DCPDOL
COMMON/HNEW/TOTNI,TOTCO,TOTCD,TOTET,TOTPR,TOTHY
COMMON/CPS/CPOPE,CPCOAL,CPDOL
COMMON/BANG/CVGS,RAGS,CVGW,RAGW,CDWS,RAWS
COMMON/PRESS/PPR(9)
C0MM0N/PCLY/P(11,25) ,Q(11,32)
COMM0N/SPECY/FEO,FE2O3,FE3O4,FS
COMHON/DUSTS/ODUST,CDUST,ADUST,DL1,DL2
COMMQN/RDUSTS/RODT,RCDT,RADT
COMMON/EMISS/EMIS,ABSS,ABSW
COMMQN/ARC/CHORD,ARCA,ARCB,ARCC
COMMON/RPAR/EL,DIAM
COMMON/SWITCH/PIN,PAN
COMMON/AREAS/AW,AS,AG
COMMON/GASHTR/GCVS,GRS,GCVa,GRH,GSWT,RHVM
COMMON/HTCOEF/HCVGSC,HRGSC,HRHSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC,HCVSAC
COMMON/HTRFER/HCVS,HRGS,HRl-JS,HCWS„HRST
COMKON/TEMP/T8AL,TBALN
COMMON/THICK/RX (3) , RK (3) , AIDIA
COMMON/COMBR/RBCO,RBH,REM,ABE,BBP,RBO
COMMGN/DRYR/OEED,BOLOD,BOLOC
COMMCN/FROD/RPC02,RPH20
COMMON/CFLUX/FLUXO,FLUXB
COMMON/THriCH/S'tfCHB,SBCHV,SWCHM,SWCHR,SHCC
CO MMCN/BGRE/RHBO,RHVOL,RHDO,R HDRY,RHPED,EHBG,R FSB
COMMON/FILE/GH(11,9)
COMMON/HYC/CETH,CPRO
COMMON/LAST/AIR,RHOIS,VGAS,GAS(3) ,N1,N2
COMMON/EEACT/HFORM(30)
COMMON/CPST/AX,AY,AZ
COMMON/BUD/RC,RO,RC02,RCO,RCB
COMMON/DEGR/RMAS,RMETH,RCOONT,RiATER,RCHECK
COMHCN/VCLT/RVH,RVC0,RVCO2,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT, BHO,RCM
COMMCN/DELT/EINT
COMMON/CAMG/FACT
COMMON/MISSED/ROXYT,ROXYN,TOTFE
COMMON/RATES/.RNIT,RMOI,RME,RET,RPR,ROX,BHGAS
COMMON/AMBI/TAIR,TNAT
COMMON/MISSIN/ARED,AOLOD,AOLOC
NAMELIST/LISTA/ORE,REDC,BOLL,AIR
NAMELIST/LISTB/FEED,GANGO
NAMELIST/LISTC/CQAL,AASH
NAMELIST/LISTD/FLUX,GANGF
NAMELIST/LISTE/BMOIS,TAIR,TNAT,VG&S,AHET,RTME,N1, N2
NA MELIST/LISTF/RX,RK
NAMELIST/LISTG/RLEN,DIAM,FILL
NAMELIST/L1STH/PAR1,PAR2,BURN,TLEN,REDP
NAMELIST/LISTI/DOST,DI1,DL2,DUSTC
C READING INPUT DATA FOR THE PROGRAM
READ(5,10)ORE,REDC,DOLL,AIR
READ (5,10) (FEED (I) ,1=1,3)
READ(5,10) (GANGO (I) ,1=1,5)
READ(5,10) (COAL(I) ,1=1,12)
READ (5, 10) (AASH (I) ,1=1,6)
READ(5,10) (FLUX (I) ,1=1,4)
READ(5, 10) (GANGF(I) ,1=1,4)
READ(5,10)RMOIS
SEAD(5,10) (GAS (I) ,1=1,3)
HEAD(5,10)8D0R,BDCL,BEDL
READ(5,10) (RX(I) ,1=1,3)
READ (5,10) (RK (I) ,1=1,3)
READ(5,10)TAIR,TNAT
10 FORMAT(8G10.4)
READ(5,10)VGAS,N1,N2
READ(5,10)AMET.
I
BEAD (5, 10)RTME
READ (5,10)RLEN,DIAM,FILL 160
CALL FREAD(5,•REAL... •,PAR 1,PAR2,CORN,TLES,REDP)
READ(5,10)AMAXL
READ (5, 10) DUST,DL1 ,DL2, (DUSTC (I) ,1=1,3)
READ (5,10) TSIN
C READ COEFFTENTS OF S P E C I F I C HEAT
DO 15 1=1,25
READ (5, 10) AX (I) ,AY(I) ,AZ(I) ,AM(I)
XG (T)=AX (I) /AM (I)
YG (I) = AY (I)/AM (I)
ZG (I)=AZ (I)/AM (I)
15 CONTINUE
C READ STANDARD HEATS OF FORMATIONS
DO 25 1=1,25
READ (5,31) HFORM (I)
31 FORMAT (F10.4)
25 CONTINUE
READ (5,33) NUMB
33 FORMAT (11)
C POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS FOR DESCRIBING EMISSIVITY OF C02
DO 50 J=1,25
READ (4) ( P ( I , J ) ,1=1,11)
50 CONTINUE
C POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS FOR DESCRIBING EMISSIVITY OF H20
DO 56 J=1,32
READ (4) ( Q ( I , J) ,1=1,11)
56 CONTINUE
C COEFFIENTS OF THE POLYNOMIAL FOR THE REMOVAL OF VOLATILES
C FROM COAL
DO 30 K=1,7
HEAD (8) (GH (I,K) ,1=1,11)
30 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,LISTA)
WRITE(6,LISTB)
WRITE(6,LISTC)
WRITE(6,LISTD)
WRITE(6,LISTE)
WRITE(6,LISTF)
WRITE (6,LISTG)
WRITE (6,LISTH)
WRITE(6,LISTI)
C CALCULATION OF AREAS OCCUPIED BY GAS AND SOLIDS
AS= (3. 1416*DIAH*DIAM/4.)*FILL
AG= (3. 1416*DIAM*DIAH/4.)* ( 1 . - F I L L )
CALL ANGLE (FILL,ALPHA)
C CALCULATION OF DIFFERENT ARC LENGTHS
CHORD=DIAM*DSIN(ALPHA/2.)
ARCA=3.1416*DIAM*(1.- (ALPHA/ (2. *3. 1416) ) )
ARC8=3„1416+DIAM-ARCA
C CALCULATION OF THE EFFECTIVE BEAMLENGTH FOR RADIATION
RAD=DIAM/2.
EL=0.9* (RAD+RAD*DCOS(ALPHA/2.))
AW=AS+AG
ARCC=ARCA+ARCB
PIN=.TRUE.
PAN=.TRUE.
TERM=454./(AS*3600.)
ODUST=DUST*DUSTC(1) *TERM
CDUST=DUST*DUSTC(2) *TERM
ADUST=DUST*DOSTC (3) *TERM
Ri1AS = ORE*2000. *454./(3600. *AS)
OCOAL=BEDC*20Q0.*454./(3600.*AS) 1 6 1
ODOL=DCLL*2000.*454./(3600.*AS)
ALEN=10.0
H«LOSS=0.0
RMETH=0.0
HWATER=0.0
RCOUNT=OCCAL*COAL(3)
TOTNI=OCCAL*COAL(8)
TOTCQ=CCCAL*COAL (5)
TQTCD=OCCAL*COAL (1 1)
TOTET=GCCAL*COAL (4)
TOTPR=OCOAL*COAL(12)
TOTHY=CCCAL*COAL(6)
ROXYT=BBAS*0.3*FEED(1)
ROXYN=ROXYT-(ROXYT*AMET)
IOIF£=RMAS*FEED (1)*0.7
FLUXD=CDCL
FLUXO=RMAS
AR ED— FLO XO* FEE D (2) / (B1E"N*0. 5)
AOLOD=FLUXD*FLUX(4) /(RLEN*0.5)
AOLO=FLUXD*FLUX(1)*44./100.084FL0XD*FLUX(2) *44./84.32
AOLOC=ACLO/(BLEN*0. 333)
SWCHV=.FALSE.
SWCHR=.FALSE.
SWCHM=.FALSE.
SWCH=.TRUE,
SHCC=.TB0E.
SW2=.TB0E.
FLUXO=BHAS
CLFX=OCOAL
FLUXD=ODOL
CETH=CLFX*COAL(4)/(RLEN*0.333)
CPRO=CL FX*COAL(12)/(RLEN*0 .333)
FACT=FLUX (1) /FLUX (2)
CALL AIRE (10. , ASK)
GLEN=BP (N1) -BP (N2)
VGAS=VGAS*0.472/(GLEN*AG)
C I N I T I A L I S I N G VALUES OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES
C ATT HE DISCHARGE END OF THE KILN
Y (1) =BMAS- (FEED (2) *RMAS+AMET*RMAS*F£ED(1) *0. 3) -ODUST
CCCN=RMAS*FEED(1)*0.3*AMET*REDP*12./16.
CCON=CCCN+CCON*BURN
Y (2) =OCOAL- (OCOAL* (COAL (2) +COAL (3) +COAL (4) +COAL (5) +COAL (6) +COAL (7)
1+CCAL(8)+COAL(11)+COAL (12)))-CCON-ADUST-CDUST
Y (3) =ODCL- (ODOL*FLUX (4) +0DOL*FLUX(1) * (44./10 0.) +ODOL*FLUX (2) * (44./
184,32))
N=14
DO 60 1=4,12
Y (I) =0.0
bO CONTINUE
Y (4) =AIR*0.472*0.79*2 8./(AG*22. 4)>
Y (5)= AIE*0.472*0.21*32./ (AG*22.4)
Y(13)=TSIN
Y(14)=20.
DO 70 1=1,14
D(I)=Y (I)
70 CONTINUE
RCHECK=CCOAL*COAL(2)
U TflE=R T M E/'B L E N
SWCH'B=. TRUE,
ANALYSIS CF THE SOLIDS AT THE DISCHARGE END
SOBi:=aflftS*FEED (1) - H M A S * A H E I * F E E D ( 1 ) * 0 . 3 - O D U S T
SOG=R!1AS*F2EC (3)
FEED(2)=0,0
FEED ( 1 ) = S O R E / (SORE+SOG)
FEED (3)= S C G / (SORE + SOG)
S.FC=OCGAL*COAL (1) -CCON-CDUST
CSAS-=OCCAL*COAL (9) -ADUST
CSUL=OCCAL*COAL(10)
CSTO=SFC-+CSAS+CSUL
COAL(1)=SFC/CSTO
DO 220 1=2,8
COAL (I) =0.0
0 CONTINUE
COAL (9)=CSAS/CSTO
COAL(10)=CSUL/CSTO
COAL(11)=0.0
COAL (12) =0.0
SCAG^FLUX ( 1 ) * O D O L * ( 1 . - ( U 4 . / 1 0 0 . ) )
SMGO=FLUX (2) *ODOL* (1. - (4 4 . / 8 4. 3 2) )
I F (OBO L . EQ. 0.0) GO TO 230
SDG=FLUX (3) *OD01
SGT-SCAC+SMGC+SDG
FÛX (1)=SCAO/SGX
F L U X (2) =SJ3GO/SGT
FLUX (3) =SDG/SGT
FLUX (4) =0.0
CONTINUE
DIFFL=DL2-DL1
ODUST=ODUST/DIFFL
CDUST=CDU5T/DIF?L
A DUST= AC U S T / D I F F L
AIRC=AIR
TS=200.
RHBOA=0.0
RHVOLA=0.0
RHDO A=0. 0
RHREDA=0.0
HfiSTA=0. 0
RFSBA=0.0
RHEGA=0.0
GSWTA=0. 0
RHGASA=0.0
RhlVMA=0. 0
RHDRYA=0.0
AIBIA=BIAM
TWAL=885.
CALL PPPESS
TW ALN=TWAL
CALL H T E A T E
CALL WALL (WI.O:SS,TS)
TWAL=THALN
DIST (1)=0.0
RD (1) =AMET*100.
WATD(1)=0.0
C02D (1) =0.0
RND (1) =0.79
KOD ( 1) =0. 21
COD (1) =0.0
H D (1) = 0 . 0
T 5 D {1) = Y ( 1 3 )
TG D { 1) =Y ( 1 4 )
T al D (1) = T W A L N
T C D ( 1) = TW A L N
A I B D (1) = 0 . 0
M= 1
E--.001
H=10.0
tf[lIN=0.0 1*H
0XY=1.-AflET
WSIT2(6,240)
240 F J H M A T (» 1 « , 4 5 X , • - - R E S U L T S — '////)
ALEM=0.0
0INI = Y (1)*AS
C I N I = Y (2) * A S
DIN.I = Y (3) * A S
CALL HEATS
W R I T £ { 6 , 6 3 0 ) A L E N , 0 1 N I , C I NI ,1)1 N I , Y (1 3) , Y ( 1 4 ) , T W A I N , TW A L , OX I ,
1HWLOSS
X = 0.0
500 CONTINUE
M--M+ 1
DO 7 5 0 1=1,5
Z--X + H
ALE N=Z
RINT=Z-X
CALL OXIDE
CALL HEATS
CALL DERIV
C A L L BCUD
CALL RATE
CALL PPRFSS
CALL AIRR(RAIR)
CALL DRYING
CALL BUSNT
CALL RAPR
C A L L HBURN
200 CONTINUE
CALL HIRATE
CALL WALL(WL0SS,TS)
IF(DABS(TWALN-TWAL).LE.2.0)GO TO 1400
TtfAL=TWALN
GO T O 2 0 0
14 00 CONTINUE
CALL D R K C ( N , X , Z , Y, F , H , H H I N , E , FTJNC ,G , S , T )
HWLOSS=HWLOSS*WLCSS*.RINT
A I R C = A I R C+ R I NT * B A I R
R H BOA = RH BOA + RHBO * R I N T * AS
RHVOLA=BHVOLA+RHVOL*RINT*AS
EHDOA=RHCCA+fiHDO*RINT*AS
fitfKE DA = RHR EDA + RH R E D * R I N T * A S
HRSTA=HRSTA+HRST*RINT*AS
RFSBA=RFSBA+RFSB*RINT*AS
RHEGA=RHBGA+RHBG*RINT*AG
GSWTA-GSWTA+GSKT*RINT*AG
ft FIG A S A = R H G A S A + E H G A 3 * fiIN T * A G
EHVt'l A=H1IVNA + RH V M * R I N T * A G
R H D R Y A = R H D R Y A + R'HDRY*.RINT'-*AS
I F ( X . G £ . AilAXL) SW2=.FALSE.
I F {Y (13) o G B. 1 2 00.) S W 2 = • ." A L S E. ' •'- 164
1? (£ (1 3) . L E . 2 0 . ) SW2 = . FAi.SE.
C A L L A N AIYS
C A L L DEGREE
CALL CCNTCL
DO 610 K=1, 14
D(K)=Y(K)
610 CONTINUE
750 CONTINUE
XGK=Y( 1-4)+273.
CPN=CP (14,YGK)
C PCO = C r ( 1 1 , Y G K )
CPC02-=CP (12, YGK)
CPO=CP(13,YGK)
WRITE(6,770)CPN,CPCO CPCQ2,CPOf
770 FORMAT(4X,U(F6.4,2X))
I F ( N U M B . N E . 1 ) G O TO 666
C A L L WRCTE
666 CONTINUE
C A L L C C R E C T ( Y (14) , T W A I N , T C )
DO 6 20 J = 1 , 1
R S ( J ) = Y ( J ) *AS
52 0 CONTINUE
» R I T E (6 ,630) ALrtN, ( R S ( I ) , 1 = 1 , 3 ) ,Y (13) , Y ( 1 4 ) ,TWALN,TS,TC,OXY,HWLOSS
6 3 0 F OR MAT ( 2 X, F 6 . 1 , 2 X , 3 (? 8. 1, 4 X) , 5 (F6 . I , 3X) , 1 X , F 6. 4 , 4 X , F 8 . 1 /)
DJ c 5 0 J=4,12
3S ( J ) =Y ( J ) * A G
65 0 CONTINUE
WRITE (o ,635) ( R S ( J ) , J = 4 , 1 2 ) , A I 3 C
635 FORMAT (2X,10 ( F 8 . 1 , 4 X ) / )
WUi'E ( 6 , 640) (PPR (I) ,1=1,9)
640 FORMAT(8X,9(F5.2,4X)////)
STORING VALUES FOR T H E PLOTS
D I S T (M) = A L E N
TCD (M) =TC
TSD(M) =Y (13)
TGD (M) = Y (14)
'I D (M) '= T w A L N
SdU = TS
AIRD (M) • = R A13
RD (M)= (1.-OXY) * 100.
R3D(M) =RC*10. * * (5)
RVHD (M) =RVH
RVCOD(M)=evco
R7MD (M) = F:VM
n'ATD (M) =PFR (6)
C 0 2 0 (K) = EFR (3)
R21D (M)=PFR (1)
h JD ( M) = PPR (2)
COD (M) = PPB (4)
E-1D (M)=PPR (9)
66C CONTINUE
I F ( . N O T . S W 2 ) G O TO 5 5 5
GO TO 500
555 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,570)RHBOA,SHVCLA,RHDQA,RHREDA,HRSTA,RKDRYA
570 FORM AT { 4 X , » R H B O A = » , F 1 1 . 1,2X, » R H V O L A = » , F 1 1 . 1,2X, R HDO A=',
1
1 F 1 1 . 1,2X,'RHRED A = ' , F 1 1 . 1, 2 X , * H f i S T A = , F 1 1 . 1,2X, »R HDRY A=' , F 11 . 1)

1
WRITE(6,58)RFSEA,RHBGA,GSWTA,RHGASA,RHVMA
58 FORMAT ( 3 X , ' R FS D A - , F 1 1 . 1 , 2 X , ' 3HBGA = ' ,1-1 1 . 1.,2X, «G5tfTA= ' ,
1
1F11.1,2X, RHGASA=' ,F1 1 . 1 , 2 X , R H V M A f ' , F i l . 1 )

1 1
1 6 5
CALL PLATO (M) i

CALL PLCTND (J
STOP
END
^ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * **** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
c
C THIS SUBROUTINE CAICULATES THE AVERAGE VALUE CF
C DCP/CT FOR O R E , CCAL AND DOLOMITE
C
.~ **********************************************************************
SUBROUTINE DZEIV
IMPLICIT REAL*8 ( A - H , C - Z )
COMKON/ANDY/XG (30) ,YG(30) ,ZG(30)
COMHON/DCFS/DCPORE,ECECOA,DCPDOL
C 0 M M 0 N / C G M M / R L E • J, D (14) , A L E N , O X Y
C J MMCN/CC AD/FEED (3) , GANGO (5)
C O i ' i i i O N / C F A D / F L U X (4) ,GANGF (5)
COMHON/CCAD/COAL(12) ,AASH (6)
C O M M O N / C F L U Y / F L U X O , F L UXD
COMMCN/S FE'C Y / F FQ , FE2G 3 , FE304 , FE
C AVERAGE DCP OF ORE
DT = D (13) +2"73.
DCPGAN =GANGO (1) *DCP(3,DT) + G£NGO(2) *DCP(4,DT) +GANGO (3) *DCP(2 2,DT) •
1GANGC (4) *DCP {6, ET) +GANGO (5) *DCP (7,DT)
0CPOX=FE2O3*DCP (1,DT) +FE3C4*DCP (21,DT) + FEC *DC P ( 9 , DT) + FF;»DCP ( 8 , DT)
DCPw=DCP (23,DT) :
DCPOR E= r.CPOX*FEED (1) +CCPS*FEED (2) +DCPGAN'*FEED ( 3 )

C AVERAGE DCP OF COAL
DCPA5H=AASH (1) *DCP (3,DT) + A A S H (2) *DGP (4,DI) + AASH (3) *DCP (22,DT) +AASH
1 (4) *DCP (9 DT) + AASH (5) *DCP (6,DT) + AASH (6) *DCP (7,DT)
r
DCPCOA=CCAL (1) *DCP (2,CT) +COAL (2) *DCP (23, DT) + COAL (3) *DCP (17, DT) +COA
1L (4) *DCP (16,DT) + CCAL (5) *DCP (11, DT) +COAL (6) *DCP { 1 5, DT) +COAL(7) *DCP (
213,DT) +CCAL(8) *DCP(14,DT) +COAL(9) *DCPASH + COAL (10) *DCP (5,DT) +COAL (1
31) *DCP (12,DT)
C AVERAGE DCP OF DOLOMITE
IF ( F L U X D . E Q . O . 0 ) G O TO 9 9
1=19
J=20
IF (D ( 1 3 ) . G T . 6 50.) 1 = 6
IF (D (1 3) . G T . 5 0 0 . ) 1 = 7
DCP i)G-GAi'lGF (1) *DCP (3, ET) +GANGF (2) *DCP (4, DT) +GANGF (3) *DCP (22, DT) + GA,
1NG? ( 4 ) *DCP ( 9 , D T )
DCPDGL=FLUX ( 1) *DCP ( I , ET) +FLUX (2) *DCP ( J , D T ) + FI.UX (3) *DCFi}G+ FLU X (4) *D
1CP(23,BI)
2ETU3N
99 DCFDCL=0.0
R F.TU;\M
END
r **********************************************************************
C
C ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE FRACTIONS OF DIFFERENT
C * * * * * OXIDES PRESENT IN THE CHARGE
C
C *********#*#********#********#* ************************* **************
SUBROUTINE OXIDE
IMPLICIT R E A L * 8 ( A - H , C - Z )
COMflCN/CCMM/RLr.N,D(14) , M E N , OXY
COMMON/MISSED/POXYT,FCXYN,TOTFF
COMMON/SPECY/FEO,FE203,FE304,FE 166
TERMA=TCTFE.
TERMB=ECXYN
IF ( O X Y . L T . O . 662) GO TC 40
IF(OXY.GT.0.662.AND.OXY.LE..883)GO TO 50
C THE SPECIES PRESENT ARE F E 2 0 3 , F E 3 0 4
FEO=0.0
F3203=((TERMB/TERMA)-0.382)/0.0477
FS304=(1.-FE203)
FE=0.0
GO TO 100
C THE SPECIES PRESENI ARE FE304 AND FEC
50 FE2O3=0.0
FE304= ( ( T E R M B / T E R M A ) - 0 . 2 8 6 5 ) / 0 . 0 9 55
FEC=1.-FE304
FE=0.0
GO TC 100
C SPECIES PRESENT ARE FEO AND FE
40 FE2O3=0.0
FE3O4=0.0
FEO=((TERMB/TERMA)/0.2865)
F E= 1 . - F E C
100 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
C *******************************************
C
C THIS SUBROUTINE CALCULATES < THE AVERAGE SPECIFIC
C HEATS CF ORE, COAI AND DOLOMITE
C
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SUBROUTINE HEATS
COMMON/CCAD/FEED(3) ,GANGO (5)
COMMON/CFAD/FLUX(4),GANGF(5)
COHHON/CCAD/COAL(12) ,AASH(6)
CCMMCN/SPECY/FEO,FE20 3 , F E 3 0 4 , F E
COMMON/CCMM/RLEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/CFS/CPOBE,CPCOAL,CPDOL
COMMON/OFLUX/FLUXO,FLUXD
C AVERAGE CP OF ORE
TO=D (13) +273.
CPGANG = GANGO ( 1 ) * C P ( 3 , T O ) + G A N G O ( 2 ) * C P ( 4 , T O ) + G A N G O ( 3 ) * C P ( 2 2 , T O ) + G A N G
10(4) *CP (6,TO) +GANGO (5) *CP (7,TC)
CPOX = FE203*CP (1,TO)+FE304*CP ( 2 1 , T O ) + F E O * C P ( 9 , T C ) + F E * C P ( 8 , T O )
CPW = CP (23,TO)
CPORE=CPCX*FEED (1)+CPW*FEED(2)+CPGANG*FEED(3)
C SPECIFIC HEAT OF COAL
TC = D (13)+273.
CPAS H= A ASH (1) *CP ( 3 , T C ) +AASH (2) *CP (4, TC) +A ASH (3) *CP (2 2,TC) +AASH (4) *
1 CP (1 ,TC) +AASH (5) *CP (6,TC) +AASH (6) *CP (7,TC)
CPCOAL=CCAL (1) *CP (2,TC) +COAL (2) *CP (23,TC) +COAL (3) *CP (17,TC) + COAL (4
1) *CP (16,TC) +COAL (5) * C P ( 1 1 , T C ) +COAL(6) *CP ( 1 5 , T C ) + CCAL(7) * C P ( 1 3 , T C ) +
2COAL (8) * C P ( 1 4 , T C ) +COAL (9) *CPASH+COAL (10) *CP (5,TO) +COAL (11) *CP (12,1
3C)
C AVERAGE SPECIFIC HEAT OF DOLOMITE
I F ( F L U X D . E Q . 0 . 0 ) G O TO 99
TD=D (13) +273.
1=19
J=20
I P ( D ( 1 3 ) .GT.65C.)I=6 I D /
I F ( D ( 1 3 ) .GT.500.) J=7
CPDG=GANGF (1) *CP (3,TD) +GAUGF (2) *CP (4,TD) +GANGF (3) *CP (22,TD) +GANGF (
14)*CP(9,TD)
CPDOL=FLUX (1) *CP (I,TD) + FLUX (2) *CP(J,TD) +FLDX (3) *CPDG+FLUX (4) *CP ( 2 3
1,TD)
RETURN
99 CPDOL=0.0
RETURN
END
(2 **************************************
C
C ****CALCULATICN OF HALL TEMPERATURE ******
C
Q **********************************************************************
SUBROUTINE WALL (WLCSS,TSUR)
LOGICAL PIN,PAN
COMMON/A SC/CHO ED,ARCA,ARCE,ARCC
COMHON/AREAS/AW, AS, AG
COMMCN/CCMM/RLEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/TFMP/TWAL,TWALN
COMMON/HTCOEF/HCVGSC,HRGSC,HRHSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC, HCVWAC
COMMON/THICK/RX (3) , RK (3) ,AIDIA
COMMON/SWITCH/PIN,PAN
I F (. NOT. PAN) GO TO 10
TOUTC=15.
TAMBIC=TSUR
TDIFF= (TAMBIC-TOUTC)*1.8
HTCON=0.000135*1.69
STEFAN=1.355D-12
TOUTK=TCUTC*273.
TAMBK=TAMBIC+273.
HTRAD=0.9*STEFAN*(TOUTK**4-TAMBK**4)/(TOUTK-TAMBK)
HTSA=HTRAD+HTCON
R0=AIDIA/2.
R1 = R0+RX (1)
R2=R1+BX (2)
R3=B2+BX (3)
RESA=(B1-B0)/(3.1416*BK (1) * (B1 + R0) )
RESB = ( (E2-B1) / (3. 1416*RK (2) * (R2+R1)) )
RESC=1./(HTSA*2.*3. 1416*R3)
HWAOC=1./ (RESA + HESB+RESC)
10 CONTINUE
PAN=.FALSE.
C CALCULATION OF HEAT LOSS FROM OUTSIDE TO AMBIENT CONDITION
C CALCULATION OF WALL TEMPERATURE
HGWOC=HCVGWC+HRGWC
HWSOC=HRWSC+HCWSC
TWALN= (HGWCC*ARCA*D(14) +HRWSC*CHORD*D(13) +HWAOC*TOUTC +
1HCWSC*ABCB*D(13))/(HGWCC*ARCA+HRWSC*CHORD+HWAOC+HCWSC*ARCB)
WLOSS=HWAOC*(TWAL-TOUTC)
TSUR=HWACC*(TWAL-TOUTC)*RESC+TOUTC
RETURN
END
Q **********************************************************************
C
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE RATE OF PRODUCTION ****
c ***** CF C02 AND H2G FROM BURNING COMBUSTIBLES ****
C
168
£ ******************************************
SUBROUTINE E APR
IMPLICIT REAL*8 (A-H,0-Z)
COMMCN/PROD/EPC02,RPH2O
COMMON/CCMBR/RBCO, REH,REM,RBE, RBP,RBO
RPCO2=RBCO*44./28.+RBM*4 4./16.+RBE*88./30.+RBP*132./44.
RPH2C=RBH*18./2.+RBM*36./16.+RBE*54./30.+RBP*72./44.
RETURN
END
C **********************************************************************
c
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE RATES CF COMEUSTION ***
c ***** OF THE VARIOUS COMBUSTIBLE SPECIES *****
C
**********************************************************************
c
SUBROUTINE BURNT
I M P L I C I T REAL*8 (A-H,0-Z)
REAL*8 ME
CO MMON/CCMM/RLEN, D (14) ,ALEN,OXY
COMMON/CCMBR/RBCO,RBH,EEM,RBE,RBP,RBO
COMMON/BUD/RC,RO,RC02,RCO,RCB
COMMON/RATES/RNIT,RMOI ,RME,RET,RPR,ROX,RHGAS
COMMON/AREAS/AM,AS,AG
COMMGN/DELT/RINT
COMMON/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,RVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
CONV=AS/AG
CO = D (7)+RCO*RINT*CGNV+RVCO*RINT*CONV
H2=D(12)+SVH*RINT*CCNV
ME=D (8)+RVM*CONV*RINT+RME*RINT
ET=D (11) +RVE*CONV*RINT+RET*RINT
Pfi=D (10) +RVP*RINT*CONV + RPR*EINT
CB=RCB*BINT*CONV
OXYG=D (5)+ROX*RINT
IF ( (OXYG/32.) .LT. (CB/12.))GO TO 90
OXYG=OXYG-CB*32./12.
CHECK TO SEE WHETHER OXYGEN PRESENT I S SUFFICIENT
TO BURN CARBON MONOXIDE
I F ( (OXYG/16.).LT. (CO/28.))GO TO 100
RBCO=CC
OXYG=OXYG-RBCO*16./28.
IF ( (OXYG/16.).LT. (H2/2.))GO TO 110
RBH=H2
OXYG=OXYG-RBH*16./2.
I F ( (OXYG/64.) .LT. (ME/16.)) GO TO 120
RBM=ME
0XYG=0XYG-RBM*6U./16.
I F ( ( O X Y G / 1 1 2 . ) , L T . ( E T / 3 0 . ) ) GO TO 130
RBE=ET
OXYG=OXYG-RBE*112./130.
I F ( (OXYG/160.) .LT. (PR/44.)) GO TO 140
*BP=PR
90 GO TO 999
RC B=OX YG* 1 2. * A G/ (Rl NT * 3 2 . *AS)
RBCO=0.0
RBH-=0. 0
RBM=0.0
RBE=0.0
RBP=0. 0
169
GO TO 9 9 9
100 RBCO=(CXYG/16.) * 2 8 .
RBH=0.0
EBH=0.0
RBE=0.0
HBP=0. 0
GO TO 9 9 9
110 EBH= (OXYG/16.) * 2 .
RBM=0.0
R8E=0.0
RBP=0.0
GO TO 9 9 9
120 RBM=OXYG*16./64.
RBE=0.0
RBP=Q.O
GO TO 9 9 9
130 RBE=OXYG*30./112.
RBP=0.0
GO TO 9 9 9
140 aBP=OXYG*4U./160.
999 CONTINUE
RBO=RBCC*16./2 8.+RBH*16./2.+RBM*64./16. +RBE*112./30.+RBP*160 . / 4 4 .
RBCO=RECO/RINT
RBH=fiBH/RINT
RBM=RBM/RINT
RBE-=RBE/RINT
EBP=RBP/RINT
R BO= RBO/RINT
RETURN
END
Q **********************************************************************
C
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE EMISSIVITY CF THE GAS
C ***** EMISSIVITY VALUES ARE CALCULATED USING THE POLYNOMIAL
c ***** EQUATIONS CALCULATED BEFOREHAND
C
Q **********************************************************************
c
c
c
SUBROUTINE EMIT (TG,EM)
IMPLICIT BEAL*8 (A-H,0-Z)
COMMON/EPAR/EL,DIAM
COMMON / P O L Y / P (11,25) , Q (11,32)
COMMON / P B E S S / P P R ( 9 )
C CALCULATION OF EMISSIVITY FOR CARBONDIOXIDE
DIMENSION A (25) , B (32)
DATA A / 5 . , 3 . , 2 . , 1 . 5 , 1 . , 0 . 8 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 4 , 0 . 3 , 0 . 2 , 0 . 1 5 , 0 . 1 , 0 . 0 8 , 0 . 0 6 , 0 . 0 4
1,0.03,0.02,0.015,0.010,0.008,0.006,0.005,0.004,0.00 3,0.00 2/
DATA B / 2 0 . , 1 0 . , 5 . , 3 . , 2 . , 1 . 5 , 1 . 2 , 1 . 0 , 0 . 8 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 5 , 0 . 4 , 0 , 3 , 0 . 2 5 , 0 . 2 0 ,
10. 1 5 , 0 . 1 2 , 0 . 1 0 , 0 . 0 8 , 0 . 0 7 , 0 . 0 6 , 0 . 0 5 , 0 . 0 4 , 0 . 0 3 5 , 0 . 0 3 , 0 . 0 2 5 , 0 . 0 2 , 0 . 0 1
25,0.012,0.01,0.007,0.005/
FEL=EL/30.54
TGR=TG
EX= ( T G R / 4 5 0 0 . ) * 4 . 6 2 5
PCL=FEI*FPR (3)
I F ( T G R . L T . 5 2 5 . ) G O TO 70
IF ( P C L . G T . 5 . ) GO TO 50
IF ( P C L . L T . 0 . 0 0 2 ) GO TO 70
DO 55 J= 1,25
JK=J+1
I F (PCI. LE. A (J) .AND.PCI.GT. A (JK) ) GO TO 40
55 CONTINUE
50 WRITE(6,60)
60 FORMAT (1X,'THE VALUE OF PCL EXCEEDS 5 FEET-ATMOSPHERES')
CALL EXIT
70 EMCO=0.0
GO TO 101
40 Y = P {1, J) +EX* (P (2,J) +EX* (P (3,J) + EX* (P (4, J) +EX* (P (5, J) + EX* (P (6, J) +EX
1*(P(7,0) + E X * ( P ( 8 , J ) + EX*(P (9, J) + EX* (P (10, J) +EX* (P (11, J) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
EMCO = DEXP(2.303* ({Y/4.894)-2.5229))
C EMISSIVITY FCR HATER VAPOUR
101 PCLW = PPR (6) *FEL
I F (PCLK . GT. 20. ) GO TO 90
I F (TGR.IT. 525.)GO TO 100
I F (PCLW.LT.0.005) GO TO 100
DO 110 1=1,32
IJ=I+1
IF (PCLW. LE. B (I) . AND.PCLW.GT. B (IJ) ) GO TO 120
110 CONTINUE
90 WBITE(6,130)
130 FORMAT (IX,'THE VALUE OF PCL EXCEEDS 20 FEET ATMOSPHERES *)
CALL EXIT
100 EMW=0.0
GO TO 140
120 YW = Q(1,I) +EX*(Q(2,I) +EX*(Q(3,I) + E X * ( Q ( 4 , I ) + E X * ( Q ( 5 , I ) +EX* (Q (6,1) +2
1 X * ( Q ( 7 , I ) + E X * ( Q ( S , I ) + E X * ( Q ( 9 , I ) +EX* (Q (10, I) +EX* (Q (11, I) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
EMW=D£XP (2. 303* ( (YH/4.894) -2. 154 9) )
140 E M=£ MCC + EM S
RETURN
END
C
c ***************************************
c
c
C*****FUNCTION SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE S P E C I F I C ****
C*****HEATS CF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENT ****
C
Q **********************************************************************
c
c
FUNCTION CP(I,T)
COMMON/ANDY/XG(30) , YG (30) ,ZG (30)
CP=XG (I) +YG (I) *T/10.**3+ (ZG (I) *10.**5/ (T**2) )
RETURN
END
Q **********************************************************************
C
c ***** FUNCTION SUEROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE DERIVATIVE ****
c ***** OF THE SPECIFIC HEATS
C
Q **********************************************************************
c
c
FUNCTION DCP(I,T)
COMMON/ANDY/XG(30),YG(30) ,ZG(30)
DCP=YG ( I ) * 1 0 . * * ( - 3 ) - Z G ( I ) * 2 . * 1 0 . * * 5 / (T**3)
RETURN 1 7 1
END
C ****************************************
c
C*****SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE ANGLE SUBTENDED BY * * * * *
C*****SOLIDS AT THE CENTRE *****
C
C **********************************************************************
c
c
C HERE NEWTON RAPHSON ITERATIVE TECHNIQUE IS USED IN
C THE CALCULATIONS
SUBROUTINE ANGLE (F,ALPHA)
PI=3.1416
N0IT=6
NIT=1
ANGO=PI/2.
TOL=1.E-03
10 ALPHA= ANGO-((DSIN(ANGC) + 2 . * P I * F - A N G 0 ) / ( D C O S ( A N G O ) - 1 . ) )
I F (DABS (ALPHA-ANGO) . L E . T O L ) GO TO 20
ANGO=ALP HA
NIT=NIT+1
I F ( N I T . L E . N O I T ) GO TO 10
WRITE (6,30)
30 FORM AT (1X,* THE NUMBER OF ITERATIONS EXCEEDS 6')
CALL EXIT
20 CONTINUE
RETURN
END
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
c
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE RATE OF BOUDOURD *****
c ***** flNE gATE CF REDUCTION REACTION *****
C
C **********************************************************************
SUBROUTINE BOUD
LOGICAL SWCHB,SHCHV,SHCHM,SWCHR,SWCC
COMMON/BUD/RC,R0,RCO2,ECO,RCB
COMMON/TWITCH/SWCHB,SWCHV,SWCHM,SHCHR,SWCC
COMMON/ADJUST/PARI,PAR2,REDP,BURN,TLEN
TSK=D(13)+273.
I F (. NOT.SWCHB) GO TO 40
8=1.-OXY
AMC=0.253
AMFE=0. 76 3
HC=0.519D18
AP=3.14D-3
TERMA= ( - 2 0 3 6 0 . / T S K ) +20.97
AKB= DEXP (TERMA)
TERKB= ( 2 1 0 5 . / T S K ) - 2 . 5 2 5
AKR=DEXP(TERMB)
PC020= ( (2. +AKB) -DSQRT (4 . *AKB+AKB**2) ) / 2 .
PC02F=AKR/ (AKR + 1.)
TERMC=HC*AMC*DEXP ( - 8 6 0 0 0 . / ( 1. 987*TSK) ) / ( 8 2 . * T S K )
TSRMD=0.0448*AMFE*AP*(1.-R)*DEXP(-7250./(1.987*TSK))
TERME= FCC2F*(TERMD+TEEMC*PC020)
TERMF= (TERMD + PC02F*TEEMC) 172
PC02=TERME/TERMF
PC0=1.-FCC2
BC=TER MC*(PC02-PC020) * 1 2 .
R0=TERMD*16.*(PC02F-PCC2) / P C 0 2 F
RCO=RC*28./12.
RC02=0.0
RCB=RC*EURN
I F ( D ( 1 3 ) . L E . 850.) ECB=C. 0
BETUBN
40 CONTINUE
RCO2=0.0
RCO=0.0
RC=0.0
RO=0.0
RCB=0.0
RETURN
END
Q *****************************************
c
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE PARTIAL PRESSURE CF THE
C GASES IN THE FREE EOARE
C
rj * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
c
c
SUBROUTINE PPRESS
IMPLICIT REAL*8 ( A - H , 0 - Z )
DIMENSION PR (9)
COMMON / F R E S S / P P R ( 9 )
CO MMCN/CCMM/RLEN,D(14) , A L E N , O X Y
PR (1) = D (4) / 2 8 .
PR (2) =D (5) / 3 2 .
PR (3) =D (6) / 4 4 .
PR (4)=D ( 7 ) / 2 8 .
PR (5) = D (8) / 1 6 .
PR (6) =D (9) / I 8.
PR (7) =D (10) / 4 4 .
PR(8)=D(11)/30.
PR (9)=B ( 1 2 ) / 2 .
SUMPfi=0.0
DC 10 1=1,9
10 SUMPR=SUMPR*PR(I)
DO 20 1=1,9
20 PPR (I) =PB (I) /SUMPR
RETURN
END
C **********************************************************************
c
c ***** CALCULATION OF VARIOUS HEAT TRANSFER TERMS ******
C
c **********************************************************************
C
c
SUBRCUTINE HT R ATE
COMHON/ARC/CHORD,ABCA,ARCB,ARCC
COMMCN/PRESS/PPB(9)
COMMCN/GASHTR/GCVS,GRS,GCVW,GRH,GSWT,RHVM
COMMCN/EPAR/EL,DIAM
173
COMMON/AREAS/AH,AS,AG
COMMON/HTCOEF/HCVGSC,HRGSC,HRWSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC,HCVWAC
COMMON/HTRFER/HCVGS,HRGS,HRWS,HCWS,HRST
COMMON/TEMP/TWAL,TW ALN
COMMON/BANG/CVGS,RAGS,CVGW,RAGW,CDWS,RAWS
COMMCN/EMISS/EMI5,AESS,ABSW
C HEAT TRANSFER BY CCNVECTICN FROM GAS TO SOLIDS
GSFLUX=(D(4) + D (5) +D (6)+D(7) +D(8) + D(9) +D (10)+D (11)+D (1 2) ) * (AG/AW)
TKELS=D (13) +273.
TKELG=D (14) +273.
TKELW=TWAL+273.
HCVGSC=0.000135*0.05* ( (GSFLUX/0.0001352)**0.67)
HCVGS=HCVGSC* (CHORD/AS) * (D (1 4) - D (13) )
C HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION FROM GAS TO SOLIDS
SIGHA=1.355D-12
TR ANS= D ( 1 3 ) * 1 . 8 + 492,
T R A N G= D (14) * 1. 8 + 4 9 2 .
TRANW=TWAL*1.8+492.
CALL EMIT (TRANG,EMIS)
CALL EMIT(TRANS,AESS)
EMIS=EMIS+0.0
A8SS=ABSS+.0
HRGSC=SIGMA*(EMIS*TKELG**4-A3SS*TKELS**4)/(TKELG-TKELS)
liRGS=HEGSC* (CHORD/AS) * (C (14) - D (13) )
C HEAT TRANSFER FROM WALL TO SOLIDS BY RADIATION
FU=0.9
HRWSC=SIGMA*FU*(TKELW**4-TKELS**4)/(TKELW-TKELS)
HRWS = HEWSC* (CHORD/AS) * (TWAL-D (13) )
C HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION FROM WALL TO SOLIDS
HCWSC=5.*HCVGSC
HCWS=HCWSC* (CHORD/AS) * (TWAL-D (13) )
C HEAT TRANSFER EY CONVECTION GAS TC WALL
HCVGWC=HCVGSC
C HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION GAS TO WALL
CALL EMIT (TRANW, ABSW)
ABSW=ABSW+0.0
HRGWC=SIGMA*(EMIS*TKELG**4-ABSW*TKELW**4)/(TKELG-TKEL W)
C HEAT TRANSFERRED FROM GAS TO SOLIDS BY CONVECTION
C AND RADIATION
GCVS=HCVGSC*(CHORD/AG)* (D (14) - D (1 3) )
GRS= HRGSC* (CHORD/AG)*(D(14) -D(13) )
C HEAT TRANSFERRED FROM GAS TO WALL BY CONVECTION
C AND RADIATION
GCVW=HCVGWC* (ARCA/AG) * (D(14)-TWAL)
GRW=HRGWC* (ARCA/AG) * (D (14)-TWAL)
GSWT=GCVS+GRS+GCVW+GRW
CVGS=HCVGS*AS
RAGS=HRGS*AS
CVGW=GCVW*AG
RAGW=GRW*AG
CDWS=HCWS*AS
RAWS=HRWS*AS
RETURN
END
Q *#*******************************^
c
C*****SUBEOUTINE TO CALCULATE THE VOLUMETRIC RATE OF ***
C*****MOISIURE REMOVAL FROM , ORE,DOLOMITE AND VOLUMETRIC * * *
C*****RATE CF CALCINATION OF DOLOMITE
174
c ***************************************** .*****
c
c
c
SUBROUTINE DRYING
LOGICAL SHCHB,SWCHV,SWCHM,SWCHR,S8CC
C0MMCN/CCMM/BLEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/TWITCH/SWCHB,SMCHV,SWCHM,SWCHB,SWCC
COMMGN/DUSTS/ODUST,CODST,ADUST,DL1,DL2
COMMON/SDUSTS/EODT,RCET,RADT
COMMCN/DRYR/ORED,DOLOD,DOLOC
COMMON/MISSIN/ARED,AOLOB,AOLQC
I F (SWCHB)GO TO 50
ORED=ARED
DOLQD= AGLOD
DOLOC=AOLOC
GO TO 999
50 ORED=0.0
DOLOD=C.0
DOLOC=0.0
999 CONTINUE
I F (ALEN.GE.DL1.AND.ALEN.LT.DL2)GO TO 500
RODT=0.0
RCDT=0.0
BADT=0.0
RETURN
500 CONTINUE
DELTAL=BI2-DL1
RODT=ODUST*2.*(ALEN-DI1)/DELTAL
RCDT=CDUST*2.*(ALEN-D11) /DELTAL
RABT=ADUST*2.*(ALEN-DL1)/DELTAL
RETURN
END
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
C
C ****SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE VOLUMETBIC RATE ********
C ****QF AIR AND NATURAL GAS SUPPLY *********
C
C
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SUBROUTINE AIRR (RAIR)
I M P L I C I T REAL*8 (A-H,G-Z)
LOGICAL SWCH
DIMENSION BP(11)
COMMON/HYC/CETH,EPRO
COMMON/DISTAN/BP
COMM0N/LAST/AIR,RHOIS,VGAS,GAS(3),N1,N2
COMMON/RATES/RNIT,RMOI,BME,RET,RPR,BOX,RRGAS
COMMON/AMBI/TAIR,TNAT
COMMON/DELI/RINT
COMMON/SW/SWCH
CALL AIRE (ALEN,AIR)
AIR1=AIR
ALEN=AIEN+RINT
CALL AIRE (ALEN,AIR)
AIR2=AIR
HAIR- ( A I R 1 + A I B 2 ) / 2 .
175
ALEN=ALEN-RINT
AIR=RAIR
AIR= (AIR*0.472)/AG
RNIT=AIR*28.*0.7 9/22.4
ROX=AIR*32.*0. 21/22. U
I F (ALEN. LT.BP (N2) .OB. ALEN.GE. BP (N1) ) GO TO 50
RME=VGAS*16.*GAS(1)/22.4
R3T=VGA S*GAS(2) *30./22.4
RPR=VGAS*GAS(3) *44./22.4
GO TO 99
50 RM£=0.0
RET=0.0
RPR=0.0
GO TO 99
99 RMOI=0.0
HIG H T= 273.
TAI=TAIR+273.
TNA=TNAT+273.
RHGAS=RNIT*ENT(HIGHT,TAI,16)+EOX*ENT ( H I G H T , T A I , 1 3 ) + R M £ * E N I (HIGHT, T
1 N A , 1 7) +EET*ENT(HIGHT,TNA,16) +RPR*ENT(HIGHT,TNA,18)
RETURN
END
C
C
C ****THIS SUBROUTINE CALCULATES THE RATE EXPRESSION FOR * * * * * * * * *
C ****VOLATILES AND MOISTURE FROM COAL *****
C
Q **********************************************************************
c
SUBROUTINE RATE
DIMENSION Z{7)
LOGICAI SWCHB,SHCHV,SSCHM,SWCHR,SWCC
COMMCN/VCLT/BVH,RVCO,RVC02,EVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
COMMCN/CCMM/ELEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/TWITCH/SWCHB,SWCHV,SWCHM,SHCHR,SWCC
COMMON/CL/CLFX,UTME
COMMON/HYC/CETH,CPRO
COMMON/RNEW/TOTNI,TOTCO,TOTCD,TOTET,TOTPR,TOTHY
COMMON/FILE/GH(11,9)
COMMON/DELT/RINT
COMMCN/DEGR/RMAS,RMETH,RCCUNT,RWATEfi,RCHECK
I F (.NOI.SHCC) GO TO 190
ACN=0.0
ACO=0.0
ACD=0.0
A£T=0.0
APR=0. 0
AHY=0.0
SWCC=.FALSE.
190 CONTINUE
A=((3500.-ALEN)*.091428)-25.
AB=A/20.
AM = D ( 1 3 ) / ( 9 . * 1 0 . )
I F (. NOT. SHCHV) GO TO 50
I F ( D ( 1 3 ) . L T . 2 5 0 . ) G O TO 50
DO 10 1=1,5
2 (I) =GH (1,1) + AB* (GH (2,1) +AB* (GH (3,1) +AB* (GH (4,1) + AB* (GH (5,1) +AB* (G
1 H (6,1) + AB* (GH (7,1) +AB* (GH (8,1) +AB* (GH (9,1) +AB* (GH (10 , 1 ) + AE* (GH (11 ,
21))))) ))))))
10 CONTINUE
I F ( D ( 1 3 ) .LE.250.) Z (1) =0.0
IF(D(13) .LE.250.)Z(2)=0.0
I F (D (13) .LE. 310.) Z (3) =0.0
I F ( D ( 1 3 ) .LE.360.) Z (U) =0.0
I F (D (1 3) .LE.4 50.) Z (5) =0.0
WRITE(6,15)ALEN,D(13) ,CLFX,UTME, (Z (I) ,1=1,5)
5 FORMAT (1X,9 (E12. 5,2X) )
RVH=D£XP (2. 303* (Z (4) /2„) )*1.D-6*CLFX*UTME
RVCO=DEXP (2. 303* (Z (2) /2.) ) * 1. D-6*CLFX*OTME
RVC02=DEXP(2. 3 0 3 * ( Z ( 1 ) / 2 . ) ) * 1.D-6*CLFX*UTME
RVM=DEXP (2.303* ( Z ( 3 ) / 2 . ) ) * 1.D-6*CLFX*UTME
RVN=DEXP (2. 3 0 3 * ( Z ( 5 ) / 2 . ) ) * 1 . D - 6 * C L F X * U T M E
RHO=RVH* (16./2.)
RVE=CETH
RVP=CP,RO
I F (.NOT.SWCHR) GO TO 20
RVH=0.0
GO TO 60
20 CONTINUE
RHO=0.0
GO TO 60
50 EVH=0.0
RVCO=0.0
RHO=0.0
RVCO2=0. 0
RVM=0.0
RVE=0.0
RVP=0.0
RVN=0.0
RVT=0.0
60 I F (. NOT.SWCHM) GO TO 80
I F (AM. I T . 1.75) GO TO 80
DO 70 M=6,7
Z (M) =GH (1,M) +AM* (GH (2 , M) + A M* (GH (3 , M) «-AM* (GH (4 , M) + AM* (GH (5,M) +AM* (G
1 H (6, M) +AM* (GH (7,M) +AM*(GH(8,M) +AM* (GH (9,M) + AM* (GH (10,M) + AM* (GH (1 1 ,
2M)))))))))))
70 CONTINUE
M=6
I F (D (13).GE. 360..AND.C(13) .LT.525.)M=7
I F (D (13) .LT. 150. .OR.D (13) .GE.525.) GO TO 80
RCM=Z(M)*0.210D-2*CLFX*DTME
GO TO 99
80 RCM=0.0
CONTINUE
I F (ACN.GE.TOTNI) SVN = 0.0
I F (ACO.GE.TOTCO) RVCO=0.0
I F (ACD.GE.TOTCD)RVCO2=0.0
I F (AET.GE.TOTET) RVE=0.0
IF (APR.GE.TOTPR) RVP=0.0
I F (AHY.GE.TOTHY) RVH=0.0
ACN=ACN+FVN*RINT
ACO = ACQ + RVCO*RINT
ACD = ACD • RVC02*RINT
AET = AET + RVE*RINT
APR = APE + RVP*RINT
AHY = AHY + RVH*RINT
RVT=RVH+RVCO+RVC02+RVK+RVE+RVF+RVN
RETURN
END
1 77
C **********************************************************************
c
C ****SUBBOUIINE TO CONTROL THE SWITCHES IN THE PROGRAM ********
C
c **********************************************************************
c
SUBROUTINE CONICL
IMPLICIT RE AL*8 ( A - H , C - Z )
COMMON/ABJDST/PAR1,PAR2,REDP,BURN,TLEN
CQMMCN/COMM/RLEN,D(14),ALEN,OXY
COMMON/TWITCH/SWCHB,SKCHV,SWCHM,SWCHR,SWCC
LOGICAL SWCHB,SWCHV,SWCHM,SWCHR,SWCC
COMMON/DELT/RINT
COMMON/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,BVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
COMMGN/DEGR/RMAS,RMETH,BCOUNT,RWATER,RCHECK
RMETH=RMETH+RVM*RINT
RW ATEk=RWATER+RCfi*BINI
IF (OXY.GE.REDP) GO TO 10
SWCHB=.TRUE.
SWCliV= . F A L S E .
SWCHR=.FALSE.
SWCHM=.FALSE.
RETURN
10 SWCHB=.FALSE.
SWCHB=.TRUE.
I F (OXY.GE.1.)SWCHR = . F A L S E .
I F (RMETH. GE. RCOUNT) GO TO 20
SWCHV=.TRUE.
GO TC 30
20 SWCHV=.FALSE.
30 IF (RWATFR.GE.RCHECK) GC TO 40
SWCHM=.TEUE.
RETURN
40 SWCHM=.FALSE.
RETURN
END
C **********************************************************************
C
C * * * * 3 U E R O U T I N E TC CALCULATE THE OXYGEN REMAINING ********
C * * * * I N THE CEE OXY ******
C
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SUBROUTINE DEGREE
COMMCN/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,RVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
CO MMON/HISSED/ROXYT,RCXYN,TOTFE
COMMON/DELT/RINT
COMMON/BUD/BC,BO,BC02,BCO,RCB
ROXYN=ROXYN+BINT*RO+RHO*RINT
OXY=ROXYN/ROXYT
RETURN
END
2 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
3 ***** FUNCTION SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE ENTHALPY *********

2 ***** DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES **********
2 ***** CF ANY COMPONENT **********
; *********************************************************************
1 78
FUNCTION ENT ( T I , T F , I )
COMMON/ANEY/XG (30) , YG (30) ,ZG (30)
2NT=XG (I) * (TF-TI) +YG (I) *. 5* ( T F * * 2 - T I * * 2 ) *10.** (-3) +ZG (I) * ((1 / T I )
1- (1./TF) ) *1.D5
RETURN
END
C ****SUBROGTINE TO CALCULATE NET HEAT GENERATED IN THE ********

c **** THE FREE EOAR £ THROUGH DIFFERENT REACTIONS
B E D A N C *******
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
C
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SUBROUTINE HBURN
DIMENSION AX (30) , AY (30) ,AZ (30)
COMMON/COMBR/RBCO,REH,RBM,RBE,RBP,RBO
COMMCN/CPST/AX,AY,AZ
COMMON/CAMG/FACT
COMMON/REACT/HFORM(30)
COMMON/DRYR/ORED,D0LCD,D0L0C
C0MMCN/BUD/RC,R0,RC02,RC0,RCB
COMMON/BCRS/RHBO,RHVOL,RHDO,RHDRY,RHRED, RHBG, RFSB
COMMCN/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,RVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
COMMON/ADJUST/PAR1,PAR2,REDP,BURN,TLEN
T=D(13)
FAC2=1.0
I F (ALEN.GE.TLEN)GO TO 20
FAC =PAR1- ( (PAR1-PAR2)*ALEN/TLEN)
GO TO 30
20 CONTINUE
FAC=0.0
30 CONTINUE
REAC10=540.
REAC11=0.0
R2AC12=-11333.
REAC13=-11060.
CALL HFUNCT(1. ,1.,12,2.,11,0.,25,T,BEAC1)
CALL HFUNCT(1. ,1. , 11, 1.,8,1.,12,I,REAC2)
CALL HFUNCT(1.,19,0.,25,1.,6,1. , 12, T , REAC3)
CALL HFUNCT(1.,20,0.,25,1.,7,1.,12,T,REAC4)
CALL HFUNCT(1.,11,0.5,13,1.,12,0.,25,T,REAC5)
CALL HFUNCT (1.,2,1.,13,1.,12,0.,25,T,BEAC6)
CALL HFUNCT(1.,17,2.,13,1.,12,2.,24,T,REAC7)
CALL HFUNCT (1.,1,3.,15,2.,8,3.,24,T,REAC8)
CALL HFUNCT(1.,15,0.5,13,1.,24,0.,25,T,REAC14)
REAC9=FACT*REAC3+(1.-FACT)*REAC4
RHBO=(REAC 1/12.) *RC
RHRSD= (RFAC2/16.)*RO+RHO*(REAC8/48.)
RHDO=(REAC9/44.) *DOLOC
KH DRY= REAC10*(ORED + DOLOD + RCM)
RHV0L=REAC11*RVT
RHCOBB=REC0*(REAC5/28.)*(1.-FAC)+ RCB*(REAC6/12.)*(
11.-FAC2) *AS/AG
RHBG=RHCCBB + FBH*(REAC 14/2,)+RBM*(REAC7/16.)+REE*REAC
112 + RBP*RFAC13
179
RFSB=RBCC*(REAC5/28.)*FAC*AG/AS+RCB*(REAC6/12.)*FA
1C2
RETURN
END
Q *****************************************
C
C * * * * T H I S SUBROUTINE CONTAINS THE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS ******
C * * * * THIS I S AN EXTERNAL FUNCTION FOR EKC *****
C
Q **********************************************************************
c
c
SUBROUTINE F U N C ( X , Y , F )
DIMENSION Y (1) , F (1)
COMMON/EDUSTS/RODT,RCDT,RABT
COMMON/BUB/RC,RO,RC02,ECO,RCB
COMMCN/DRYR/ORED,DOLCE,EOLOC
COMMON/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,RVC02,RVM,RVE,EVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
COMMCN/BCRE/RHBC,RHVOI,RHDO,EHDRY,RHRED,RHBG,RFSB
COMMON/RATES/RNIT,£MOI,RME,RET,RPR,ROX,RHGAS
COMMON/CCMBR/RBCO,RBH,REM,RBE,RBP,RBO
COMMON/CCMM/BLEN,D (14) , O X Y , A L E N
COMMON/HTRFER/HCVGS,HRGS,HBWS,HCWS,HBST
COMMCN/PRCD/RPC02,RPH2O
COMMON/AEEAS/AH,AS,AG
CO MM ON/CO AD/FEED (3) ,GANGO (5)
COMMON/CFAD/FLUX (4) ,GANGF (5)
COMMON/CCAD/COAL (12) , A A S H (6)
COMMON/CES/CPORE,CPCOAL,CPDOL
COMMON/DCPS/DCPORE,DCFCOA,DCPDOL
COMMON/GASHTE/GCVS,GES,GCVW,GRW,GSHT,EHVM
CONV=AS/AG
HRST=HCVGS+HRGS+HR¥S+HCWS
C EQUATIONS DESCRIBING THE MASS BALANCE
T2=D (1 3) +273.
T1=273.
RHVM=RVN*C0NV*ENT(T1,T2,14)+(RVCO2+DOLOC)*CONV*
1£NT(T1 , T 2 , 1 2 ) + (RCO+EVCC) * C O N V * E N T ( T 1 , T 2 , 1 1 ) + (ORED +
2DOLOD+RCM) *CONV*ENT(T1,T2,24)+EVH*CONV*ENT(T1,T2,15)
3+RVM*CCNV*ENT(T1,T2,17)+BCB*CONV*ENT(T1,T2,12)*44./12.
4+ RHO*ENT ( T 1 , T 2 , 2 4 ) * ( 1 8 . / 1 6 . )
F(1) =CRED+RO + RHO + RODT
F (2)=RC+FCM+RVT+ECB+RCDT+RADT+RHO*2./16.
F (3)=DCLCD+DOLOC
F (4) =RNIT+RVN*CONV
F(5) = R O X - R E O - R C E * 3 2 . * C O N V / 1 2 .
F(6)=RVCC2*CCNV+EPC02+DCLOC*CONV+RCB*CONV*44./12.
F(7) =RCO*CCNV+BVCO*CONV-RBCO
F(8)=RVM*CONV+RME-RBM
F(9) =RPH2C+RMOI+(ORED + DOLOD + RCM) *CCNV+RHO*CONV*18./16.
CONV=AS/AG
F (10)=RPR+RVP*CONV-BEP
F (12) = RVH*CONV-EBH
CALL HEATS
F(11)=RVE*CONV-EBE+RET
CALL DERIV
C EQUATIONS DESCRIBING THE HEAT BALANCES
C
TQLD=D (14)+273.
180
F ( 1 3 ) = ( (EHBO+RHVOL+RHEO+RHDRY+RHRED-HRST+RFSB)- (Y ( 1 3 ) * (F (1)*CPORE
I + F (2) *CECOAL+F (3) *CPDOL) ) ) / ( (Y(1) *DCPORE+Y (2) *DCPCOA+Y (3) +DCPDOL)
2*Y (13) + (CPORE*Y (1)+CPCOAL*Y (2)+CPDOL*Y (3) ))
PRGDCP=Y<4) *DCP(14,TOLD) + Y(5) *DCP (13, TOLD) +Y (6) *DCP (12,TOLD) +Y (7)
5DCP (11,TOLD) + Y (8) *DCP (17,TOLD) +Y (9) *DCP (24,TOLD) + Y (10) *DCP(18,TOLD
2) +Y (11) *DCP (16,TOLD) + Y (12) *DCP (15,TOLD)
PRCPDG=CF(14,TOLD) *F (4) +CP(13,TOLD) * F (5) +CP (12,TOLD) * F ( 6 ) +CP (1 1 ,TC
1LD) *F(7) +CP (17,TOLD) *F (8) +CP (24,TOLD) *F (9) +CP (18,TOLD) *F (10) +CP (16
2,TOLD) *F (11) +CP (15,TOLD) *F (12)
PRCPG=Y (4) *CP (14,TOLD) +Y (5) *CP (13,TOLD) + Y (6) *CP (12,TOLD) +Y(7) *CP (1
II ,TOLD) +Y (8) *CP(17,TOLD) +Y (9) *CP(24,TOLD) + Y (10) *CP (18,TOLD) +CP (16,
2TOLD)*Y{11) + Y(12) *CP(15,TOLD)
R DHG=RODT*(D(14)-D(13))*CPORE+(RCDT+RADT)*CPCOAL*
1 (D(14) -D (13) )
F(14)=((-RHBG-GSWT+RHGAS+BHVM-RDHG)-Y(14)*PRCPDG)/(PRCPG+PRGDCP*
1Y(14))
RETURN
END
Q * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
c
c ***** SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE COMPOSITION OF SOLIDS ********
C
rj * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
C
SUBROUTINE ANALYS
COMMCN/CCAD/FEED(3) ,GANGO(5)
COMMON/CFAD/FLUX (4) ,GANGF (5)
COMMON/EDUSTS/RODT,RCDT,RABT
COMMON/CCAD/COAL(12),AASH(6)
COMMON/VCLT/RVH,RVCO,RVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,RHO,RCM
COMMCN/DRYR/ORED,DOLCE,DOIOC
COMMON/BUD/RC,RC,RC02,RCO,BCB
COMMCN/COMM/ELEN,D(14) ,ALEN,OXY
COMMON/CAMG/FACT
COMMON/DELT/RINT
C CALCULATION OF THE NEW ORE COMPOSITION
HAEM=FEED (1) *D (1)+RO*RINT+RODT*RINT+RHO*RINT
OREM=FEED (2) *D (1) +ORED*RINT
OREG=FEED (3) *D (1)
ORET=HAEM+OREM+OREG
FEED (1)=HAEM/OEET
FEED (2)=OREM/ORET
FEED(3)=CREG/ORET
C
C CALCULATION OF THE NEW DOLOMITE COMPOSITION
CAC=FLUX (1) *D (3) +DOLCC*FACT*RINT
MGC=FLUX (2)*D (3)+DOLOC*(1.-FACT)*RINT
FG=FLUX (3) *D (3)
FM = FLUX (4) *D (3) +DOLOD*RINT
FT=CAC+MGC+FG+FM
FLUX(1)=CAC/FT
FLUX (2) =MGC/FT
FLUX(3) = FG/FT
FLUX(4)=FM/FT
C
C CALCULATION OF THE NEW COAL COMPOSITION
CFC=COAL (1)*D(2) +RC*RINI+RCDT*5INT+RCB*RINT
CFM=COAL (2)*D(2)+RCM*RINT
CME=COAL (3)*D(2)+RVM*SINT
CET=COAL (4) *D (2) •RVE*RINT
CCO=COAL (5) *D{2) +RVCO*RINT
CN=COAL (8) *D (2)+RVN*RINT
CHY=CCAL (6)*D(2)+RVH*EINT+RHO*RINT*2./16.
CO=COAL (7) *D (2)
CASH=COAL ( 9 ) *D (2) +RADT*RINT
CS=COAI (10) *D (2)
CC02=COAL (11) *D (2) +RVC0 2*RINT
CPR=COAL (12) *D (2) +RVP*RINT
CT=CFC+CFM*CME+CET+CC0+CHY*CC+CN+CASH+CS+CCO2+CPR
COAL ( 1 ) = C F C / C T
COAL ( 2 ) = C F M / C T
COAL (3) = C M E / C T
COAL ( 4 ) = C E T / C T
COAL (5) = C C O / C T
COAL ( 6 ) = C H Y / C T
COAL (7)=CO/CT
COAL(8)=CN/CT
COAL (9)=CASH/CT
COAL ( 1 0 ) = C S / C T
COAL (1 1) = C C 0 2 / C T
COAL ( 1 2 ) = C P R / C T
RETURN
END
C * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
C *
C * SUBROUTINE F O R PRINTING SEVERAL USEFUL VALUES
C *
Q **************************************
SUBROUTINE WROTE
COMMON/BUD/RC,RO, F C 0 2,RCO,RCB
COMMON/BANG/CVGS,RAGS,CVGW,RAG«,CDWS,RAWS
COMMON/DRYR/ORED,DOLCC,DOLOC
COMMON/VCLT/HVH,RVCO,EVC02,RVM,RVE,RVP,RVN,RVT,aHO,ECM
COMMCN/ECRE/RHBO,RHVOI,RHDO,RHDRY,RHRED,RHBG, RFSB
COMMON/RATES/RNIT,RMOI,RME,RET,RPR,ROX,RHGAS
COMMCN/CCMBR/RBCO,REH,REM,RBE,RBP,RBO
COMMON/HTCOEF/HCVGSC,HRGSC,HRWSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC,HCVWAC
COMMON/CCAD/FEED (3) ,GAMGO(5)
COMMON/CFAD/FLUX(4) , G 8 N G F (5)
COMMON/CCAD/COAL(12) ,AASH (6)
COMMCN/CPS/CPORE,CPCOAL,CPDOL
COMMON/DCPS/DCPORE,DCPCOA,DCPDOL
COMMCN/SPECY/FEC,FE203,FE304,FE
J=6
WRITE ( J , 5 ) A L E N
5 FORMAT ( 4 X , * A L E N , F 6 . 1 , * CMS')
= ,
WRITE(J,10)RC,RO,RCB
10 FORMAT (4X,•RC=•,E12.5,2X,«RO=»,E12.5,2X,•RCB=•,E12.5)
WRITE (0,20)ORED,DOLOD,DOLOC
20 FORMAT (4X,»OEED=•,E12.5,2X,'DOLOD=»,E12.5,2X,•DOLOC= ,E12 . 5) 1
WRITE(J,30)RVT,RCM,RHC
30 FORMAT (4X,•RVT=•,E12.5,2X,'RCM= ,E12. 5,2X,•RHO=• , E12. 5) 1
1
WRITE(0,40)RHBO,RHVOL,RHDO,RHDRY,RHRED,RHBG,RFSB
40 FORMAT(4X,» RHB0=',E12.5,2X,»RHV0L=»,E12.5,2X,*RHDO=»,E12.5,2X,
1'RHDRY=',E12.5/4X,'RHRED=»,E12.5,2X,•RHBG=•,E12.5,2X,'RFSfi=»,
WRITE(J,50)RNIT,RMOI,RME,RET,RPR,ROX,RHGAS
50 FORMAT(4X,«RNIT=•,E12.5,2X,'BMOI=•,E12.5,2X,»RME=•,E12.5,2X,
1 RET= ,E12.5,2X, RPR= ,E12.5,2X,•ROX= ,E12.5,2X,•RHGAS=•,
, , , , 1
2E12.5)
WRITE(J,60)RBCO,BBH,REM,RBE,RBP,BBO
60 FORMAT ( 4 X , • R B C O = ' , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , * R B H = « , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , R B M = ' , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X ,
1
1'R B E = ' , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , ' R B P = « , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , ' R B O = ' , E 1 2 . 5 )

WRITE(J,70) HCVGSC,HRGSC,HBWSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC
70 FOKMAT(4X,•HCVGSC= ,E12.5,2X,'HRGSC=',E12.5,2X,•HRWSC=•,E12.5,
1
12X, • H C W S C = ' , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , • H C V G W C = « , E 1 2 . 5 , 2 X , ' H R G W C = * , E 1 2 . 5 )

WRITE(J,75)CVGS,RAGS,CVGW,RAGW,CDWS,RAWS
75 FORMAT ( 1 X , 6 E 1 2 . 5 )
W R I T E ( J , 80) (FEED (I) ,1=1,3)
80 FORMAT(4X,'ORE',4X,3(F5.3,2X) )
W R I T E ( J , 9 0 ) (COAL (I) ,1 = 1 , 12)
90 F O R M A T ( 4 X , * C O A L ' , 4 X , 1 2 ( F 5 . 3 , 2X))
WRITE ( J , 100) (FLUX (I) ,1=1,4)
100 FORMAT(4X,»DOLOMITE*,4X,4(F5.3,2X) )
WRITE(J,110)CPCRE,CPCCAL,CPDOL
110 FORMAT(4X,•CPORE=•,F6.3,2X,'CPCOAL=«,F6.3,2X,'CPDOL=»,F6.3)
WRITE(J,120) DCPORE,DCPCCA,DCPDOL
120 FORMAT ( 4 X , • D C P O R E = • , F 6 . 3 , 2 X , D C P C O A L = • , F 6 . 3 , 2 X , ' D C P D O L = • , F 6 . 3 / / )
1
WRITE(J,130)FE 2 C 3,F E 3 C 4,F £ 0 , F E

130 FORMAT(4X,•FE203=«,F4.2,2X,»FE304=•,F4.2,2X,•FEO=',F4.2,2X
1,»FE=«,F4.2)
WRITE ( J , 1 4 0 ) E M I S , A B S S , A B S W
140 FORMAT ( 4 X , • E M I S = • , F 5 . 3 , 2 X , • A B S S = » , F 5 . 3 , 2 X , • A B S W = » , F 5 . 3 )
RETURN
END
Q ***************************************************************
C *
C * SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE THE AIR RATE
C *
Q **************************************************************
SUBROUTINE A I R E ( A L E N S , A I R S )
DIMENSION BD(11) , B P ( 1 1 ) , E A ( 1 1 ) , A A ( 1 1 )
COMMON/SW/SWCH
COMMON/DISTAN/BP
NAMELIST/TNP/BD,BA
LOGICAL SWCH
I F (.'NOT. SUCH) GO TO 750
READ(5,710) (BD(I) ,1=1,11)
E E A D ( 5 , 7 1 0 ) (BA (I) ,1=1 ,11)
710 FORMAT (8F10. 1)
A=50.
SUM=0.0
DO 720 1=1,11
SUM=SUM + BD ( I )
720 CONTINUE
BP(1)=SUM
DO 730 1=2,11
BP (I) =BP ( 1 - 1 ) - B D (1-1)
730 CONTINUE
DO 740 1=1,11
AA ( I ) =BA (I) / B D ( I )
740 CONTINUE
WRITE (6,60) (BP (I) ,1=1,11) , (BD (I) ,1=1,11) , ( A A ( I ) ,1=1,11)
60 FORMAT(1X,11F8.2/)
WRITE (6,TNP) 183
S W C H=.FALSE.
750 CONTINUE
I F (ALENS. GT. BP (1) ) GO TO 900
IF(ALENS.IT.BP(1).ANE.AIENS.GE. (BP (2) +A))GO TO 999
755 CONTINUE
DO 760 J=2,10
I F (ALHNS.LT. (BP (J)+A) . ANE. ALENS. GE. (BP (J)-A) ) GO TO 780
I F (ALE NS. LT. (BP (J) -A) . ANE. ALENS. GE. (BP (J+1)+A) ) GO TO 790
760 CONTINUE
I F ( A L E N S . I T . ( B P ( 1 1 ) + A).AND.ALENS.GT.(BP(11)-A))GO TO 800
I F ( A L E N S . L T . (BP(11)-A))GO TO 900
780 AIRS=AA (J- 1) - (AA (J-1) - AA (J) ) * (BP (J) + A-ALENS) / (2. *A)
RETURN
790 AIRS = AA (J)
RETURN
800 AIRS=AA (10) - (AA (10) -AA (11) ) * (BP (11) + A-ALENS) / (2. *A)
RETURN
999 AIRS = AA(1)
RETURN
900 AIRS=0.0
RETURN
END
Q ***************************************
c *
C * PLOTTING SUBROUTINE
C *
Q ******************************************************************
SUBROUTINE PLATO (M)
DIMENSION TSD (100) ,T8E (100) ,TGD (100) ,DIST (100) , AIRD (1 00) , TCD (100)
DIMENSION RD (100) ,RBD (100) ,RVHD (100) ,RVCCD(100) ,RVMD (100)
DIMENSION WATD (100) ,C02B (100) /END (100) ,ROD (1 00) , SHD (100)
DIMENSION COD (100) ,HD (100) , RAID (100)
COMMON/PARAM1/RD,RBD,RVHD,RVCOD,RVMD,SHD
COMMCN/PAPAM2/WATD,CC2B,RND,RCD,COD,HD,RATD
COMMON/PARAM/TSD,TWD,TGE,TCD,DIST,AIRD
M=M- 1
RBD (1) = RED (2)
" SiiD (1) =SHD (2)
XMIN=0.0
YMIN=0.0
DX=5.0
DY=350.
DO 10 0=1,K
D I S T ( J ) = ( ( D I S T ( M ) - D I S T ( J ) ) / (DX*100.))+1.5
TSD (J) = ( (TSD (J) -YMIN) /DY) +2.0
TGD (J) = ( (TGD (J) -YMIN) /DY) +2.
TWD (J) = ( (TWD (J) - YMIN) /DY) +2. 0
SHD (J) = ( (SHD (J)-YMIN) /DY) +2.0
TCD (J) = ( (TCD (J) -YMIN) /DY) +2. 0
RD ( J ) = ( (RD(J) - 0.0) /20.) + 2.0
RBD (J) = ( (RBD (J) -0.) /3.) +2. 0
WAID(J)= ( (WATD (J) - 0 . 0 ) / 0 . 2) +2.0
C02D (J) = ( (C02D (J) -0.0)/0.2) +2.0
BSD (J)= ( (RND (J) -0.0) /0. 2) +2.0
ROD(J)= { (ROD (J) -0.0) /0. 2) +2.0
COD (J) = ( (COD (J) -0.0) /0. 2) +2. 0
HD (J) = ( (HD (J) - 0.0) /0. 2) + 2.0
AIRD (J) = AIR D (J) +2. 0
10 CONTINUE 184
CALL XAXIS
CALL A X I S ( 1 . 5 , 2 . 0 , ' TEMPERATURE {DEG C ) , 1 9 , 5 . , 9 0 . , Y M I N , D Y )
1
CALL SYMBCL(3.,6.,0.21,'SOLID TEMPERATURE P R O F I L E ' , 0 . , 2 5 )

CALL SING ( D I S T , T S D , M, 1)
CALL PICT ( 1 2 . , 0 . , - 3 )
CALL XAXIS
CALL AXIS ( 1 . 5 , 2 . 0 , ' T E M P E R A T U R E (DEG C) • , 1 9 , 5 . , 9 0 . , Y M I N , D Y )
CALL SYMBOL ( 3 . , 6 . , 0 . 2 1 , ' G A S TEMPERATURE P f i O F I L £ ' , 0 . , 2 3 )
CALL S I N G ( D I S T , T G D , M , 1)
CALL S I N G ( D I S T , T C D , M , 1)
CALL PICT (12. , 0 . 0,-3)
CALL XAXIS
CALL
AXIS ( 1 . 5 , 2 . T E M P E R A T U R E (DEG C ) • , 1 9 , 5 . , 9 0 . , Y M I N , D Y )
CALL SYMBOL(3. , 6 . , 0 . 2 1 , ' W A L L TEMPERATURE PROFILE * , 0 . , 2 4 )
CALL SING (DIST,TWD,M,1)
CALL SING (DIST,SHD,M,1)
CALL P I C T ( 1 2 . , 0 . , - 3 )
CALL XAXIS
CALL
A X I S ( 1 . 5 , 2 . , 'AIR RATE (SCFM/CM) » , 1 8 , 5 . , 9 0 . , 0 . , 1 . 0)
CALL SING (DIST,AIRD,M,1)
CALL PLCT ( 1 2 . , 0 . , - 3 )
CALL XAXIS
CALL
AXIS(1.5,2.,»PERCENTAGE REDUCTION',20,5.,90.,0.,20.)
CALL SING (DIST,RD,M,1)
CALL PLCT ( 1 2 . , 0 . , - 3 )
CALL XAXIS
CALL AXIS ( 1 . 5 , 2 . , ' R A T E OF BOUDOURD REACTION (GM C / C . C M / S E C
1) ' , 4 0 , 5 . , 9 0 . , 0 . , 3 . )
CALL SING (DIST,RBD,M,1)
CALL PICT ( 1 2 . , 0 . , - 3 )
CALL XAXIS
CALL AXIS ( 1 . 5 , 2 . , ' P A R T I A L PRESSURES OF FREE BOARD GASES '
1 , 3 7 , 5 . , 9 0 . , 0 . , 0 . 2 )
CALL SING (DIST,END,M,1)
CALL SING (DIST,C02D,M,1)
CALL SING ( D I S T , C O D , M , 1)
CALL SING (DIST,8ATD,M,1)
CALL SING ( D I S T , R O D , M , 1)
CALL SING (DIST,HD,M,1)
CALL SYMBOL (DIST (50) , (WATD(50) +0.5) , 0 . 1 4 , ' H 2 0 • , 0 . , 3)
CALL S Y M B O L ( D I S I ( 3 5 ) , ( C 0 2 D ( 3 5 ) + 0 . 5) , 0 . 14 , • C O 2 • , 0 . , 3)
CALL SYMBOL (DIST ( 3 5 ) , (BHD ( 3 5 ) + 0 . 5) , 0 . 1 4 , » N 2 • , 0 . , 2 )
CALL SYMBOL (DIST (4 0 ) , ( R O D ( 4 0 ) + 0 . 5) , 0 . 1 4 , » 0 2 ' , 0 . , 2)
CALL SYMBOL (DIST (30) , (COD(30) +0.5) , 0 . 14 , • C O ' , 0 . , 2)
CALL SYMBOL (DIST (55) , (HD(55) + 0 . 5 ) , 0 . 1 4 , ' H 2 » , 0 . , 2 )
RETURN
END
C * SUBROUTINE FOR PLOTTING AXIS
SUBROUTINE XAXIS
IMPLICIT EEAL*8 (A-H,C-Z)
XMIN=0.0
DX=5.0
CALL A X I S ( 1 . 5 , 2 . 0 , ' D I S T A N C E FROM CHARGE END (METRES) » , - 3 3 , 8 . ,
10. ,XMIN,DX)
CALL PLCT ( 1 . 5 , 7 . 0 , 3 )
CALL PLCT ( 9 . 5 , 7 . 0 , 2 )
CALL P L C T ( 9 . 5 , 2 . 0 , 2 )
CALL P L C T ( 1 . 5 , 2 . 0 , 3 )
RETURN
185
END
C * SUBROUTINE TO CONVERT DOUBLE PRECISION TO SINGLE FOR PLOTTING
SUBROUTINE SING ( A X , A Y , H , N )
RSAL*8 AX (M) , AY (M)
DIMENSION SX (100) , SY (100)
DO 10 J=1,M
SX (J) =SNGL (AX (J) )
SY (J) = SNGL (AY (J) )
10 CONTINUE
CALL LINE ( S X , S Y , M , N )
RETURN
END
C SUBROUTINE TO CALCULATE HEAT OF REACTION AS A FUNCTION OF TEMP
SUBROUTINE H F U N C T ( A , I J , E , J K , C , K L , D , L M , T , R E A C )
IMPLICIT EEAL*8 (A-H,0-Z)
DIMENSION AX ( 3 0 ) , A Y (30) , A Z ( 3 0 )
COMM ON/REACT/HFOR.M (30)
COMMCN/CPST/AX,AY,AZ
T2=T+273.
T1=298.
TliRM 1= (D*AX (LM) +C*AX (KL) - A * A X (IJ) - B * A X (JK) )
TERM2 = (D*AY(LM) +C*AY ( K L ) - A * A Y ( I J ) - B * A Y ( J K ) )
TEflM3= ( D * A Z (IM) +C*AZ (KL) - A * A Z (IJ) - B * A Z (JK) )
H0= (D+HFORH (LM) +C*HFORM (KL) - A * HFORM (IJ) -B*HFORM (JK) )
BEAC =(T2-T1) *(TERM1+(TERM2*(T2 + T 1 ) / 2 . ) * ( 1 0 . * * (-3)) +
1 (TER83/ (T2*T1) ) * ( 1 0 . * * (5) ) ) +H0
RETURN
END
Q *********************************************************************
c
C CONVERTING GAS TEMPERATURES TG BARE THERMOCOUPLE VALUE
Q *****************************************
SUBROUTINE CORECT(TG ,TH,TC N)
CGMKON/HTCOEF/HCVGSC,HRGSC,HRWSC,HCWSC,HCVGWC,HRGWC,HCVWAC
ET=0.8
SIGMA=0. 1355D-11
TGK=TG+273.
TWK=TW+273.
TCO=TGK-20.
NOIT=10
N= 1
15 CONTINUE
TCOR=1.8*TCO
CALL EMIT (TCCR,EMT)
F X = ( ( S I G M A * ( ( 1 . + E T ) / 2 . ) * ( E M I S * T G K * * 4 - E M T * T C 0 * * 4 ) ) - (3IGM A* ET*
1 ( . T C O * * 4 - T W K * * 4 ) ) ) * (1./HCVGSC) +TGK-TCO
F D X = ( ( S I G M A * ( ( 1 . + E T ) / 2 . ) * ( - 4 . * E M T * T C O * * 3 ) ) - ( S I G M A * E T * (4.*TCO**3)
1))*( 1./HCVGSC)-1.
TCN=TCC-FX/FDX
IF (DABS (TCN-TCO) . L E . 5.) GO TO 99
TCO=TCN
I F ( N . G E . N C I T ) G O TO 200
•N=N+1
G O TO 15
99 CONTINUE
TCN=TCN-273.
RETURN
200 WRITE(6, 110)NOIT 1 8 6
110 FORMAT ( 1 X , ' N O OF ITERATIONS EXCEEDS',2X,12)

RETURN
END
APPENDIX II
IMPORTANT DATA USED IN THE MODEL
Composition of Forestburg coal
Fixed Carbon 42%

Moisture 31%
Methane 4%
Ethane 0.6%
Carbon monoxide 6%
Hydrogen 1%
Nitrogen 0.6%
Ash 10%
Sulphur 0.3%
Carbon dioxide 4.0%
Propane 0.5%
Composition of Anthracite coal
Fixed carbon 74.6%

Water 7.4%
Methane 1.3%
Carbon monoxide 2%
Hydrogen 0.3%
Nitrogen 0.25%
Ash 12.4%
Sulphur 0.45%
Carbon dioxide 1.3%
187
188
Composition of Lignite coal
Fixed carbon 37%

Moisture 36%
Methane 3%
Ethane 0.3%
Carbon monoxide 5%
Hydrogen 1%
Nitrogen 0.6%
Ash 10%
Sulphur 0.3%
Carbondioxide 6.6%
Propane 0.2%
Composition of Griffith pellets
Hematite 95.5%
Mosi t u r e 1.4%
Gangue 3.1%
The same c o m p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n used f o r F a l c o n b r i d g e pellets
R e d u c i b i l i t y parameter f o r the oxide pellets
A p for Griffith pellets = 3.143 (10" ) 3
A p for Falconbridge pellets = 6.20 (IO ) - 3
The a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y E R f o r both p e l l e t s 7250 c a l / m o l
Carbon c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e bed M c = 0.253

Iron c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the bed 0.763
'Fe
C o m p o s i t i o n o f N a t u r a l Gas
Methane 96.3%
Ethane 3.2%
Propane 0.5%
Pilot kiln dimensions
L e n g t h = 35.0 m
Internal Diameter - 2.1 meters
I n n e r r e f r a c t o r y o f 23 cms t h i c k ( w i t h
t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 3.1 x 1 0 "
3
c a l / c m . s e c . °C )
O u t e r r e f r a c t o r y o f 5 cms t h i c k ( w i t h
t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 4.99 x 1 0_ l f
c a 1 / c m . s e c . °C )
Griffith kiln dimensions
L e n g t h - 125 metres
Internal Diameter - 6 metres
R e f r a c t o r y 23 cms t h i c k w i t h a t h e r m a l
c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 2.514 ( 1 0 " )
3
c a 1 / c m . s . °C
190
Specific Heat Data'
C p = x + yT (10- ) + z ( 1 0 )
3 + 5
T- 2
where C i s s p e c i f i c h e a t i n c a l / m o l , T, t e m p e r a t u r e i n °K a n d
p
x, y , z a r e c o e f f i c i e n t s
Substance X y z
Fe 0 2 3 23.49 18.6 • -3.5.5
Carbon ( g r ) 4.10 1 . 02 -2.10
Silica 13.38 3.68 -3.45
Al 0 2 3 2 7 . 38 3.08 -8.20
Sulphur 3.58 6.24 0.0
CaO 11.86 1 .08 -1 . 66
MgO 10.18 1 .74 -1 .48
Fe(r) 1 .84 4.66 0.0
FeO 12.38 1 .62 -0.38
CO 6.79 0.98 -0.11
C0 2 10.55 2.16 -2.04
0 2 7.16 1 .00 -0.4
N 2 6.66 1 .02 0.0
H 2 6.52 0.78 0.12
CH 4 5.65 11 .44 -0.46
CaC0 3 24.98 5.24 -6.20
MgC0 3 18.62 1 3.80 -4.16
FeaO,, 21 .88 48.2 0.0
H 0 2 1 5 . 70 5.40 0.0
H 0 2 ( 1 ) 18.03 0.0 0.0
H 2
°(g) 7.17 2.56 0.08
1 - From M e t a l l u r g i c a l T h e r m o c h e m i s t r y by K u b a s c h e w s k i
et a i . , 4 t h E d i t i o n .

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MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE SL/RN DIRECT

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

We a c c e p t this thesis as conforming to the

(c) V. Venkateswaran, 1976

an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that

I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis

for scholarly purposes may be g r a n t e d by the Head of my Department or

by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication

of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my

The University of British Columbia

A mathematical model has been developed to predict

2.2.5 Heat B a l a n c e on Wall 3 3

2 Schematic diagram of the s o l i d s temperature

4 A i r profile for a typical run. 43

6 Rate o f moisture e v o l u t i o n from F o r e s t b u r g

7(a) Cross-section of the kiln showing the

7(b) C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f the k i l n showing the area

11 Flow s h e e t of the computer program 66

13 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using Forestburg

18 Boudouard r e a c t i o n r a t e f o r the k i l n run

19 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the k i l n run

20 Interior view of the p i l o t SL/RN k i l n taken

21 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using lignite

25 Reduction p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using

26 F r e e b o a r d gas c o m p o s i t i o n f o r the k i l n run

27 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g

3D A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using F o r e s t b u r g

36 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run u s i n g Forestburg

39 A i r p r o f i l e f o r the k i l n run using Forestburg

46 Inner wall temperature p r o f i l e f o r the

50 Solid temperature p r o f i l e f o r the G r i f f i t h

1 Reactivity Parameter for Different

2 T y p i c a l Data f o r the A i r Blown i n t o a

3 Heat Transfer Coefficients i n the L i t e r a t u r e . ... 53

I would l i k e to s i n c e r e l y thank my r e s e a r c h super-

The SL/RN p r o c e s s i s one o f a number o f d i r e c t

(i) Technological feasibility: Several direct

(i i ) Decreasing supply of coking coal: I t i s pre-

respect that p a r t i a l l y reduced iron oxide from a d i r e c t reduc-

(iii) Advantage of scale: I ti s well known that

Although the d i r e c t r e d u c t i o n - e l e c t r i c a r c furnace

(i v) Improvement in e l e c t r i c arc furnace operation:

Industrial t e s t s have shown t h a t t h e f e e d i n g o f sponge iron

i n t o an e l e c t r i c a r c f u r n a c e has a d v a n t a g e s over scrap iron

The SL/RN p r o c e s s i s emerging as one o f t h e s t r o n g

because of i t s a b i l i t y to use s o l i d r e d u c t a n t such as low

Fig. 1. S c h e m a t i c d i a g r a m o f the SL/RN process.

Shell burners are p o s i t i o n e d along the l e n g t h of the kiln

Looking at the process i n more d e t a i l the k i l n con-

This division i s more o b v i o u s from F i g . 2 where a s c h e m a t i c

(i) Removal of moisture present in

(iv) P r e - r e d u c t i o n with hydrogen (in

(v) Combustion in the free board.

The l e n g t h o f t h e p r e h e a t zone i s u s u a l l y about 40 t o 5 0 %

s t a b i l i s e s depends o n a number o f f a c t o r s , the most important

An important point t o note i s that

3. Low caking tendency

5. High ash fusion temperature

The maximum t e m p e r a t u r e a t which t h e k i l n c a n be o p e r a t e d i s

1 .2 Other D i r e c t Reduction Processes

Although a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number o f d i r e c t reduc-

HyL Process: T h i s p r o c e s s has been in operation

gas i n the presence o fa c a t a l y s t . The reduction is carried