To solve

𝑘
𝜓 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝜓(𝑥)2 , where 𝑘 is a constant, ……(1)

it only suffices to solve

1
𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑦(𝑥)2 . ……(2)

1
For, if 𝑦(𝑥 ) satisfies (2), then 𝜓(𝑥 ) ≔ 𝑘 3 𝑦(𝑥 ) will satisfy (1).

Multiplying 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) to both sides of (2), we have

𝑦 ′ (𝑥)
𝑦 ′ (𝑥 )𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑦(𝑥)2 .

Integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥 , we have

𝑦 ′ (𝑥) d𝑥
∫ 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 )𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) d𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦(𝑥)2

d𝑦(𝑥)
∫ 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) d𝑦 ′ (𝑥) = ∫ 𝑦(𝑥)2

𝑦 ′ (𝑥)2 −1
= 𝑦(𝑥) + 𝐴 , where 𝐴 is an arbitrary constant
2

2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2
𝑦 ′ (𝑥 )2 = . ……(3)
𝑦(𝑥)

Note that since the L.H.S. is non-negative, we have three cases:

Case 1. If 𝐴 < 0 , then Case 2. If 𝐴 = 0 , then Case 3. If 𝐴 > 0 , then
1 1
0 < 𝑦 (𝑥 ) ≤ − 𝐴 . 𝑦 (𝑥 ) < 0 . 𝑦(𝑥 ) < 0 or 𝑦(𝑥 ) ≥ 𝐴 .

Any initial conditions which specify the values of 𝑦(𝑎) and 𝑦 ′ (𝑎) for some 𝑎 ∈ Dom(𝑦) can
determine the value of 𝐴.

From (3), for any 𝑥 such that 𝐴 𝑦(𝑥 ) ≠ 1 , we have

2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2
𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) = ±√
𝑦(𝑥)

𝑦(𝑥)
±1 = √2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) .

Integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥 , we have

𝑦(𝑥)
± ∫ 1 d𝑥 = ∫ √2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) d𝑥

𝑦(𝑥)
±𝑥 = ∫ √2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2 d𝑦(𝑥) . ……(4)

To evaluate the R.H.S., let

 𝑦(𝑥)
𝑢 = 𝑢(𝑥 ) = √2𝐴 𝑦(𝑥)−2 , ……(5)

2𝑢 2 d𝑦(𝑥) (2𝐴 𝑢 2 −1)∙2∙2𝑢𝑢 ′−2𝑢 2∙2𝐴∙2𝑢𝑢 ′ −4𝑢𝑢 ′

then 𝑦(𝑥 ) = , and then = = (2𝐴𝑢2 , so that it
2𝐴𝑢 2−1 d𝑥 (2𝐴𝑢 2−1)2 −1)2

−4𝑢𝑢 ′ 𝑢 2 d𝑢
= ∫ 𝑢 ∙ (2𝐴𝑢2 −1)2 d𝑥 = −4 ∫ (2𝐴𝑢2−1)2 = −4𝐼 . ……(6)

To proceed, we need the results of the following two exercises:

𝑣 2 d𝑣
Exercise 1. Evaluate ∫ (𝑣 2−1)2 .

Solution.
𝑣2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
Let (𝑣 2−1)2
= (𝑣+1)2 + (𝑣−1)2 + 𝑣+1 + 𝑣−1 for some constants 𝐴 , 𝐵 , 𝐶 and 𝐷 .

Then, 𝑣 2 = 𝐴(𝑣 − 1)2 + 𝐵(𝑣 + 1)2 + 𝐶 (𝑣 + 1)(𝑣 − 1)2 + 𝐷(𝑣 + 1)2 (𝑣 − 1) .

1
Putting 𝑣 = −1 , we have 1 = 4𝐴 , 𝐴 = 4 .

1
Putting 𝑣 = 1 , we have 1 = 4𝐵 , 𝐵 = 4 .

1 1
Then, 𝑣 2 = 4 (𝑣 − 1)2 + 4 (𝑣 + 1)2 + 𝐶 (𝑣 + 1)(𝑣 − 1)2 + 𝐷(𝑣 + 1)2 (𝑣 − 1)

𝑣 2 +1
= + 𝐶 (𝑣 + 1)(𝑣 − 1)2 + 𝐷(𝑣 + 1)2 (𝑣 − 1)
2

𝑣 2−1
= 𝐶 (𝑣 + 1)(𝑣 − 1)2 + 𝐷(𝑣 + 1)2 (𝑣 − 1)
2

1
= 𝐶 (𝑣 − 1) + 𝐷 (𝑣 + 1) .
2

1 1
Putting 𝑣 = −1 , we have = −2𝐶 , 𝐶 = − 4 .
2

1 1
Putting 𝑣 = 1 , we have = 2𝐷, 𝐷 = .
2 4

𝑣 2 d𝑣 1 1 1 1
Thus, ∫ (𝑣 2−1)2 = ∫ (4(𝑣+1)2 + 4(𝑣−1)2 − 4(𝑣+1) + 4(𝑣−1)) d𝑣

1 1 1 1
= − 4(𝑣+1) − 4(𝑣−1) − 4 ln|𝑣 + 1| + 4 ln|𝑣 − 1| + 𝐾 ,

where 𝐾 is an arbitrary constant

𝑣 1 𝑣+1
= − 2(𝑣 2 −1) − 4 ln |𝑣−1| + 𝐾 .
 𝑤 2 d𝑤
Exercise 2. Evaluate ∫ (𝑤 2+1) 2 .

Solution.
𝑤2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
Let (𝑤 2+1) 2
= (𝑤+𝑖)2 + (𝑤−𝑖)2 + 𝑤+𝑖 + 𝑤−𝑖 for some constants 𝐴 , 𝐵 , 𝐶 and 𝐷 .

Then, 𝑤 2 = 𝐴(𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 𝐵(𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 + 𝐶 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )(𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 𝐷(𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 (𝑤 − 𝑖 ) .

1
Putting 𝑤 = −𝑖 , we have −1 = −4𝐴 , 𝐴 = 4 .

1
Putting 𝑤 = 𝑖 , we have −1 = −4𝐵 , 𝐵 = 4 .

1 1
Then, 𝑤 2 = 4 (𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 4 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 + 𝐶 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )(𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 𝐷 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 (𝑤 − 𝑖 )

𝑤 2 −1
= + 𝐶 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )(𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 𝐷 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 (𝑤 − 𝑖 )
2

𝑤 2+1
= 𝐶 (𝑤 + 𝑖 )(𝑤 − 𝑖 )2 + 𝐷(𝑤 + 𝑖 )2 (𝑤 − 𝑖 )
2

1
= 𝐶 (𝑤 − 𝑖 ) + 𝐷 (𝑤 + 𝑖 ) .
2

1 𝑖
Putting 𝑤 = −𝑖 , we have = −2𝑖𝐶 , 𝐶 = 4 .
2

1 𝑖
Putting 𝑤 = 𝑖 , we have = 2𝑖𝐷, 𝐷 = − .
2 4

𝑤 2 d𝑤 1 1 𝑖 𝑖
Thus, ∫ (𝑤 2+1)2 = ∫ (4(𝑤+𝑖)2 + 4(𝑤−𝑖)2 + 4(𝑤+𝑖) − 4(𝑤−𝑖)) d𝑤

1 1 1 d𝑤
= − 4(𝑤+𝑖) − 4(𝑤−𝑖) + 2 ∫ 𝑤 2+1

𝑤 1
= − 2(𝑤 2 +1) + 2 arctan 𝑤 + 𝐾 , where 𝐾 is an arbitrary constant.

We are now ready to evaluate 𝐼 in (6) for the three cases 𝐴 < 0 , 𝐴 = 0 and 𝐴 > 0 .
Case 1. If 𝐴 < 0 , then
𝑢 2 d𝑢 1 𝑤 2 d𝑤
𝐼 = ∫ (2𝐴𝑢2 −1)2 = √−8𝐴3 ∫ (𝑤 2 +1)2 (take 𝑤 = √−2𝐴𝑢)

1 𝑤 1
= √−8𝐴3 (− 2(𝑤 2+1) + 2 arctan 𝑤) + 𝐵 , where 𝐵 is an arbitrary constant

(using Ex. 2)
1 √−2𝐴𝑢 1
= √−8𝐴3 (2(2𝐴𝑢2 −1) + 2 arctan √−2𝐴𝑢) + 𝐵
 𝑦
√−2𝐴√2𝐴𝑦−2
1 𝑦
= ( 𝑦 + arctan (√−2𝐴√2𝐴𝑦−2)) + 𝐵 (by (5))
2√−8𝐴3 2𝐴∙ −1
2𝐴𝑦−2

1 𝐴𝑦
= (√𝐴𝑦(1 − 𝐴𝑦) + arctan √1−𝐴𝑦 ) + 𝐵 .
2√−8𝐴3

Hence,
−1 𝐴𝑦
±𝑥 = √−2𝐴3 (√𝐴𝑦(1 − 𝐴𝑦) + arctan √1−𝐴𝑦 ) − 4𝐵 .

Case 2. If 𝐴 = 0 , then
𝑢 2 d𝑢 𝑢 1 𝑢+1
𝐼 = ∫ (𝑢2−1)2 = − 2(𝑢2−1) − 4 ln |𝑢−1| + 𝐵 , where 𝐵 is an arbitrary constant

(using Ex. 1)
−𝑦 −𝑦
√ √ +1
2 1 2
=− −𝑦 − 4 ln | −𝑦
|+𝐵 (by (5))
2( −1) √ −1
2 2

√−𝑦 1 √ −𝑦+ 2
= − 4 ln |√−𝑦− 2| + 𝐵 .
√2(𝑦+2) √ √

Hence,
√−8𝑦 √ −𝑦+ 2
±𝑥 = − + ln |√−𝑦− 2| − 4𝐵 .
𝑦+2 √ √

Case 3. If 𝐴 > 0 , then

𝑢 2 d𝑢 1 𝑣 2 d𝑣
𝐼 = ∫ (2𝐴𝑢2 −1)2 = √8𝐴3 ∫ (𝑣 2−1)2 (take 𝑣 = √2𝐴𝑢)

1 𝑣 1 𝑣+1
= √8𝐴3 (− 2(𝑣 2−1) − 4 ln |𝑣−1|) + 𝐵 , where 𝐵 is an arbitrary constant

(using Ex. 1)
1 √2𝐴𝑢 1 √2𝐴𝑢+1
= √8𝐴3 (− 2(2𝐴𝑢2 −1) − 4 ln | |) + 𝐵
√2𝐴𝑢−1

𝑦 𝑦
√2𝐴√2𝐴𝑦−2 √2𝐴√2𝐴𝑦−2+1
1 1
= √8𝐴3 (− 𝑦 − 4 ln | 𝑦
|) + 𝐵 (by (5))
2(2𝐴∙ −1) √2𝐴√2𝐴𝑦−2−1
2𝐴𝑦−2

𝐴𝑦
√𝐴𝑦−1+1
−1
= (2√𝐴𝑦(𝐴𝑦 − 1) + ln | |) + 𝐵
4√8𝐴3 𝐴𝑦
√𝐴𝑦−1−1

Hence,
𝐴𝑦
√𝐴𝑦−1+1
1
±𝑥 = √8𝐴3 (2√𝐴𝑦(𝐴𝑦 − 1) + ln | 𝐴𝑦
|) − 4𝐵 .
√𝐴𝑦−1−1
Second Order Non-linear Autonomous Differential Equations
1
𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 2 𝑓(𝑦 (𝑥)) , where 𝑓(𝑢) has a primitive function 𝐹 (𝑢)

1
𝑦 ′ (𝑥 )𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) = 2 𝑓(𝑦(𝑥 ))𝑦 ′ (𝑥)

1
∫ 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 )𝑦 ′′ (𝑥 ) d𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦 (𝑥))𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) d𝑥

1
∫ 𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) d𝑦 ′ (𝑥) = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑦 (𝑥 )) d𝑦(𝑥 )

𝑦 ′ (𝑥)2 1 𝐶1
= 2 𝐹(𝑦 (𝑥)) + , where 𝐶1 is an arbitrary constant
2 2

𝑦 ′ (𝑥 ) = ±√𝐹(𝑦 (𝑥)) + 𝐶1
𝑦 ′ (𝑥)
±1 =
√𝐹(𝑦(𝑥))+𝐶1

𝑦 ′(𝑥) d𝑥
± ∫ 1 d𝑥 = ∫
√𝐹(𝑦(𝑥))+𝐶1

d𝑦(𝑥)
±(𝑥 + 𝐶2 ) = ∫ , where 𝐶2 is an arbitrary constant
√𝐹(𝑦(𝑥))+𝐶1

1
= 𝐺𝐶1 (𝑦(𝑥)) , assuming has a primitive function 𝐺𝐶1 (𝑢)
√𝐹(𝑢)+𝐶1

𝑦(𝑥 ) = 𝐺𝐶1 −1 (±(𝑥 + 𝐶2 )) , where 𝐺𝐶1 −1 is an inverse branch of 𝐺𝐶1