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Social Justice in HRD: A Review of Literature

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Running head: SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 1

Social Justice in HRD: A Review of Literature

Jeremy Bohonos

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Copyright © 2016 Jeremy Bohonos

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 2

Abstract

This paper is a review of social justice literature published in the four Academy of Human

Resource Development journals between 2009 and 2015. The purpose is to identify articles that

have addressed historically marginalized groups in the workplace. This review of literature

defines historically marginalized groups as social groups that have been subjected to bias or

some other form of disadvantage based on their social location in society. From this literature

review of the four journals, marginalization of women in higher education, women in

international contexts, experiences of American black women, and marginalization of sexual

minorities were salient topics of marginalization across the four journals. Race and social justice

was found to be an under-represented in the AHRD journal literature, despite issues emerging

from race continuing to pervade the workplace. A definition of social justice human resource

development (SJHRD) will be introduced in this paper to emphasize the significance of this topic

and to further the work of social justice researchers and practitioners.

Keywords: Social Justice, Human Resource Development, Marginalization, Workplace

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 3

Social Justice in HRD: A Review of Literature

This paper will review the literature to explore ways that social justice themes have

been included in Academy of Human Resource Development (AHRD) journals and the extent to

which the experiences of historically marginalized groups has been acknowledged in social

justice themes. Historically marginalized groups in this paper will refer to social groups that have

been subjected to bias or some other form of disadvantage based on their social location in

society.

Social justice is “the conditions in society in which all members have the same basic

rights, security, opportunities, obligations, social benefits and the way in which human rights are

manifested in everyday lives of people at every level of society” (Ingram & Walters, 2007, p.

27). Social justice is “a moral obligation that reflects the highest standards by which individuals

within organizations should be treated” (Byrd, 2014, p. 520). According to Alfred and Chlup

(2010) social justice requires a critical lens to confront and expose the manifestations of

continued acts of bias, prejudice, and other societal forms of injustice against historically

marginalized groups. Social justice is therefore fundamental to the human experience and

consequently collective action is needed to effectively apply human resource development

(HRD) strategies that promote social justice outcomes (Alfred & Chlup, 2010; Byrd, 2014).

Significance, Need, and Research Questions

To better understand how HRD has supported social justice, it is important to understand

how the experiences of historically marginalized groups have been discussed in the literature.

Furthermore, the impact and effect of issues emerging from diversity is still scarce in HRD

literature (Alfred & Chlup, 2010). Finally, the experiences of historically marginalized groups

are made invisible when “masked within the discussions of the challenges in managing a diverse
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 4

workforces in terms of performance and bottom-line results” (Alfred & Chlup, 2010, p. 333; also

see Ross-Gordon & Brooks, 2004. This review of literature will highlight how social justice has

been addressed in selected HRD publications while identifying specific dimensions of social

justice that are still underexplored in HRD literature in general. To this end, the following

research questions are explored:

1. How many articles pertaining to social justice have been published in AHRD journals between

2009 and 2015?

2. How were historically marginalized groups represented in these articles?

3. What social justice topics are under-represented in these articles?

After reviewing the social justice related literature in the selected publications, a

comprehensive definition of social justice HRD (SJHRD) will be suggested to better serve and

unify the efforts of interested social justice practitioners and researchers.

Review of Literature

A database search was conducted to access Human Resources Development Quarterly

(HRDQ), Human Resource Development International (HRDI), Advances in Developing Human

Resources (ADHR), and Human Resources Development Review (HRDR) for articles published

between 2009 and 2015. These journals were selected because they support the Academy of

Human Resource Development (AHRD), a professional organization where a significant number

of human resource development researchers contribute their research. An initial full-text search

of each journal was conducted by first searching on keywords. Keywords used to search included

social justice, race, gender, diversity, various naming categories for historically marginalized

groups (e.g. African American, women, black), and naming categories for sexual minorities

(lesbian/bisexual/gay/transgender/queer also referred to as LBGTQ), and various combinations

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 5

of these terms. Handsearching was then used to examine the publications more closely for social

justice related content in the titles and abstracts or to identify specific marginalized groups.

Handsearching involves “scanning the content of journals, using the journal’s own search tool”

(Yawson, 2012, p. 61). A full list of search terms and results is contained in Table 1.

Table 1

Number of articles identified by hand searching keywords and abstracts in AHRD journals
published between 2009-2015
ADHR HRDQ HRDR HRDI

Key Term Total Total Total Total

Diversity 23 5 8 6

Gender 15 1 4 15

Race 8 0 1 2

African 8 0 0 0
American

Black 4 0 0 0

Hispanic 1 1 0 0

LGBT/
LGBTQ 7 0 2 1

Gay 8 1 5 2

Women 24 0 4 19

Queer 4 1 0 0

Social 3 2 3 0
Justice

The results of the handsearching of titles and abstracts show that social justice and

discussions of historically marginalized groups is represented in varying degrees of significance

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 6

across AHRD journals. The growing interest in social justice further exemplifies the need for

conceptual development for SJHRD.

Discussion of Findings

The literature review of AHRD journals revealed that social justice is positioned in a

variety of ways in the four journals. ADHR and HRDI have been the most progressive in

representing discussions of women. HRDR has represented diversity in somewhat general terms,

but has not focused strongly on historically marginalized groups, other than some focus on

sexual orientation. The flagship journal HRDQ, appears to have been considerably less

progressive on these topics than the other journals.

The general social justice related themes that were extracted from the searched articles

can be categorized in three areas of marginalization: marginalization of women in higher

education, marginalization of women in international contexts, and marginalization of black

women in leadership. The marginalization of sexual minorities (lesbian, bisexual, gay,

transgender, and queer) is also briefly discussed. Another under-represented social justice topic

is marginalization based on race. Marginalization based on race is included in this review to

highlight the continued and pervasive nature of racism, an under-represented social justice topic.

Women and Leadership in Higher Education

The underrepresentation of women in leadership in higher education and the need for

leadership development and mentoring experiences was salient in the publications that

represented the marginalization of women. For example, Madsen (2012) edited a special issue of

ADHR that highlighted the lack of qualified women to move into key administrative positions in

higher education. The collection of articles in this special issue focused on the need for more

leadership development programs to prepare women to be placed in critical roles.

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 7

Baltodano, Carlson, Jackson, and Mitchell (2012) recognized how over half of the

college students in America are women, while less than a quarter of college presidents are

women. To close this gap, leadership programs are needed to “better prepare women for the

complexity of challenges faced by leaders of modern institutions of higher education” (p. 63). In

addition, a support system is needed to develop internal candidates that are moving into

administrative roles. Likewise, Bonebright, Cottledge and Lonnquist (2012) agreed on the “value

of collaborative relationships, the importance of emphasis on individual and system-level

leadership, and the need for ongoing assessment and evaluation of the climate for women

leaders” (p. 79) as critical components for the development of women leaders.

Leadership development programs like the Ohio State’s President and Provost’s

Leadership Institute (PPLI), utilizes multiple assessment, reading, workshops, and panel

discussions to better prepare the participants for leadership roles (Hornsby, Morrow-Jones, &

Ballam, 2012). This leadership development program was designed to “develop a pool of women

and underrepresented minority faculty who might move into leadership positions” (p. 97).

While marginalization prevents women from advancing because of their gender role,

additional barriers exist for women seeking advancement in Christian settings. Longman and

Lafreniere (2012) noted that a quarter of college presidents are nationwide are women. On the

other hand, within the 110 schools that are members of the Council for Christian Colleges &

Universities (CCCU), only 8 of these schools have women presidents.

Hertneky (2012) commented that the traditional imagery of the career ladder does not

reflect the realities experienced by women leaders in higher education. Rather, a model of career

development exists where women leaders must navigate complex non-linear paths. Most notable

is the absence of mentors for preparing women to assume high level positions such as university
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 8

or college president. Similarly, Tolar (2012) explored the mentorships for women highlighting

both the positive elements as well as the sometimes negative consequences. Positive aspects of

mentoring included assisting women to envision themselves in leadership positions, providing

advice on career choices, and offering inspiration. Negative aspects of mentoring included

dysfunctional relationships, contradictory advice, issues related to passing a mentor in the

organizational hierarchy, and difficulty in managing cross-gender mentoring relationships. Some

women who had not been mentored disclosed that not having a mentor produced greater

motivation to work harder in absence of support. Moreover, not feeling dependent on another,

and not being subjected to the authority of another were particularly inspiring.

Women in International Contexts

The articles reviewed were rich with research exploring the experiences of women

professionals in international contexts. Razvi and Roth (2010) examined non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) in India that serve low-income women when government is unable to

provide the types of services that these women need to grow and develop. Access to leadership

development programs that provide managerial competencies such as decision making and

strategy formulation is challenging to women in Saudi Arabia (Al-Ahmadi, 2011); Pakistan

(Alam, 2009); and Korea (Cseh, 2009). Women’s NGOs in Kuwait have sought greater equality

for women, garnering support at the national level for social change programs that will support

HRD education for women (Al-Kazi, 2011). In the absence of learning and development support

from their workplaces and driven by personal aspirations of leadership, women in the United

Arab Emirates have learned self-development initiatives in the form of networking, coaching,

and building upon their formal qualifications (Stalker & Mavin, 2011). Gender stereotyping is

another form of marginalization found to inhibit the development of women aspiring to

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 9

leadership roles in Russia and the former USSR ( Zavyalova & Kosheleva, 2010). Other research

has used comparative analysis to discover how women’s experiences vary across international

borders as well as to identify commonalities (Abalkhail & Allan, 2015; Claus, Callahan, &

Sandlin, 2013; Metcalfe, 2011; Rutledge, Al Shamsi, Bassioni, & Al Sheikh, 2011). The

growing emphasis on the marginalization of women in international contexts brings to light the

need for HRD to enlarge its scope and inclusiveness of social justice outcomes in contexts other

than the United States.

American Black Women’s Leadership Experiences

Byrd and Stanley’s (2009) special issue of ADHR spotlighted the experiences of

American black women leaders whose marginalized status is multiplied by the intersection of

gender with race and class. In this special issue, highlighting the effect of intersectionality was a

common objective. Intersectionality is the idea that the experiences of American black women

cannot be understood by examining single sociocultural factors (Bass, 2009; Byrd, 2009; Byrd &

Stanley, 2009; Jean-Marie, Williams, & Sherman, 2009; Lloyd-Jones, 2009). Rather, American

black women’s realities merge at the intersection of at least two loci of identity. To understand

this intersection, critical theories are needed to explain the experiences that are a result of their

realities. American black women “cannot be fully empowered unless intersecting oppressions

such as racism, sexism, and classism are eliminated” (Byrd & Stanley, 2009, p. 659). Socio-

cultural theories are needed that “move beyond a dominant positivist way of thinking and

embrace a multi-perspectival approach to theory and practice” (p. 661). These theoretical

developments will in turn strengthen HRD’s theoretical base for research, and also lead to a more

socially just HRD practice.

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 10

Bass (2009) used a qualitative multi-case study to explore American black women’s

views on leadership. An ethic of care was found to be a common approach to dealing with social

injustices experienced by marginalized American black women leaders. Fundamental to an ethic

of care is being compelled to take action against injustice and the marginalization of others, and

to stand up for rights of those who are victimized. The spiritual beliefs of American black

women is also motivational to exhibit care and concern for others, as does a heritage rooted in

mothering and the natural instinct to nurture.

American black women working in predominantly white organizations often face

disempowering experiences that counteract the role of being in a leadership capacity (Byrd,

2009). Disempowering experiences include those in which majority group members “use

privilege to circumvent, diminish, overrule, and control the actions” (p. 587) of others in the

workplace. These encounters are often subtle but they can diminish the effectiveness of an

American black woman leader. Furthermore, American black women report having to go above

and beyond the norm to demonstrate their competency and knowledge base before they would be

accepted by white colleagues. Being excluded from ‘good ole boy’ creates barriers for forming

networks that could be beneficial for advancement to leadership positions. Another form of

marginalization American black women experience is isolation or being the only person of color

in meetings and other events (Byrd, 2009). Despite having to overcome barriers to claim the

right to lead, American black women often use their leadership roles to advance social justice

and “create social change in society” (p. 602). Bringing these types of issues to light is important

because without an understanding of injustice in the workplace the “oppression of minority

groups” is (p. 602) is likely to continue.

SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 11

Minorities are often encouraged to believe that working hard and getting an education

will allow them to transcend socio-historical barriers. Lloyd-Jones (2009) challenged the

“ideology that education and hard work are combinations that necessarily equal success” (p.

606). Women of color face inequities that make achievement more difficult for them, even when

they work hard and pursue high levels of education. If education is not emancipatory, then there

are social justice implications of this false-promise. Resistance that American black women

leaders encounter include subordinates not feeling comfortable with having a black supervisor,

superiors who expected them to emulate leadership styles based on traditional white-male

patriarchy, and supervisors who undermined their decision making authority.

Faith plays a major role for American black women in struggling against social injustice

in their professional lives. According to Walker (2009), American black women’s “faith and

spirituality emerges from the quest for justice against the everyday injustices and inequalities

emerging from sociocultural realities such as race and gender” (p. 649). Furthermore, the

heritage of achievements amidst struggle handed down by past American black women leaders is

a source of inspiration to today’s American black women leaders.

LGBTQ in AHRD Journals

Schmidt, Githens, Rocco, and Kormanik (2012) and McFadden (2015) have made

considerable contributions to AHRD journals in the last six years in the discourse on

marginalization stemming from sexual minority status. Schmidt et al. examined 15 years’ worth

of literature from all four AHRD journals, the Academy of Human Resource Conference

Proceedings, as well as several adult education journals and conferences. Their general

conclusion is that the majority of the work done on LGBTQ issues is conceptual and more

empirical work is needed to understand the plight of this group. However, discrimination is still a
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 12

huge issue for LGBTQ workers (McFadden, 2015). Research with social justice outcomes is

critical to this understanding.

Race and Social Justice

Outside of the themed issue on American black women’s leadership experiences, race

and its impact on organizations and the individuals in the workplace has received minimal

exploration in the HRD literature. Alfred and Chlup (2010) bring this oversight to light in their

publication in ADHR that highlighted the importance of including discussions of race in HRD

higher education curriculum. The increase in racio-ethnic minorities within the United States and

other countries requires better preparation for graduates to enter a diverse workplace, which

means that racial issues should be substantively discussed within HRD graduate programs. In

HRD higher education curriculum “race as a dimension of diversity has remained invisible” (p.

333). Hence, critical race theory (CRT) is a useful framework to help guide future curriculum

development in HRD and to help explain the difference between race and diversity. In HRD,

diversity commonly refers to “efforts to address cultural and ethnic related differences in the

workplace,” (Byrd, 2007, p. 276); while race refers to a “concept that signifies and symbolizes

sociopolitical conflicts and interests in reference to different types of bodies” (Winant, 2004, p.

x). Space needs to be provided for discussion of race and racism in ways that confront privilege

and discrimination. These conversations, combined with discussions of other elements of

diversity, can ultimately improve the lives of marginalized organizational members.

Alfred and Chlup (2010) situated their discussion of race within the American context,

while acknowledging that in other regions understanding of difference is constructed differently

than they are in the United States. In the United States race has been used to “rationalize the

hierarchal arrangements of groups of people based on their phenotype” (p. 336). While
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 13

discussion of race often focuses on the experiences of minority group members, whiteness also

needs to be explored as it contributes greatly to the career and life trajectories of those who are

identified as white. The lack of discussion around whiteness also contributes to a belief among

white HRD scholars that race only effects people of color. This false assumption provides basis

for the belief that race is not important to their discourse, and perpetuates a system in which

white scholars control much of the knowledge production in HRD, allowing “their values and

concerns to take precedence” (Alfred & Chlup, 2010, p. 336) and dominate the published

research literature.

In order to disrupt the legacy of white control over HRD knowledge development, Alfred

and Chlup (2010) suggested CRT is used to frame discussions regarding race. The goals of CRT

are to “advance social justice by highlighting and eliminating social injustice in education, the

workplace, and society” (p. 339). These include the beliefs that: a) racism permeates American

society; b) majority group members typically only support the advances for marginalized groups

only when it advantages them; c) race is a social construction; and finally, d) liberal calls for

gradual change fail to acknowledge the depth to which racism contributes to marginalization.

From a theoretical perspective, Rocco, Bernier, and Bowman (2014) argued that

sociocultural theories like CRT needs to receive additional attention within HRD. However,

HRD research and theory can have negative consequences if not thoughtfully informed through

theoretical foundations that are designed to explain marginalized experiences. Theory has

sometimes served as a basis for the development of “policies and practices that create inequitable

situation at work and in society” (p. 458). Applying CRT to inform HRD research is one way to

avoid such pitfalls and introduces the reader to “the socially constructed categories of race, and

racism are endemic, permanent, and intersect with other forms of oppression such as gender and
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 14

class discrimination, ethnic and sexual minority oppression” (Rocco, Bernier, & Bowman p.

590). Furthermore, storytelling is a fundamental application of CRT. Storytelling is an important

way to contextualize people’s experiences and draw connections between their struggles and a

broader social justice mission.

Social Justice Human Resource Development

McLean and McLean’s (2001) well recognized and highly respected definition of HRD can

serve as a starting point for an exploration of social justice human resource development

(SJHRD). Their definition is as follows:

Human resource development is any process or activity that, either initially or over the
long term, has the potential to develop adults’ work-based knowledge, expertise,
productivity, and satisfaction, whether for personal or group/team gain, or for the benefit
of an organization, community, nation or, ultimately, the whole of humanity. (p. 322)

Building from McLean and McLean’s definition, a unifying definition of SJHRD can help to

focus passionate researchers on important contemporary social issues such as the marginalization

of social groups that need to be addressed in HRD. Slight alterations to this very broad definition

of HRD can shift attention to the key factors defining SJHRD. The following definition is

offered (changes to Mclean’s definition are italicized for emphasis):

Social justice human resources development is any process or activity that, either initially

or over the long term, has the potential to ally with disempowered individuals or groups

to develop adults’ work-based knowledge, expertise, productivity, and satisfaction

whether for under-represented or culturally marginalized groups, nations laboring under

the yoke of colonial or post-colonial burdens, peoples displaced or disinherited by war or

political intrigue, and ultimately the whole of humanity.

This conceptual definition of SJHRD is a beginning point for social justice research and theory

in HRD. This definition also supports Byrd and Chlup’s (2012) call for a social justice paradigm
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 15

in human resource development. A social justice paradigm refers to “research and theory-

building that promotes socially-just work environments as places that are inclusive and uphold a

culture of dignity and respect” (Byrd & Chlup, 2012, p. 55).

Conclusion and Suggestions for Future Research

From this review of literature, four directions for future research into SJHRD would

advance the field into new frontiers: a) conceptual and definitional development, b) reviews of

SJHRD literature as it appears in AHRD conference proceedings and HRD related journals not

formally affiliated with AHRD, c) primary research into underexplored areas, d) suggestions of

how SJHRD can be expanded to be inclusive of concerns that are not currently reflected

anywhere in our literature.

To address conceptual and definitional advances of SJHRD a definition was provided in

this paper for critical HRD scholars to consider. HRD scholars are further encouraged to debate

where SJHRD fits within broader themes of field. While this paper focused on the AHRD

journals, much could be learned from examining how SJHRD has been explored in AHRD

conference proceedings. A systems approach examining AHRD and its development of SJHRD

scholars would be beneficial. A framework for such a study could regard members as inputs,

conference proceedings as a process, and journal publications as outputs. Such an approach

would focus less on summarizing and synthesizing content from papers but rather take a broader

look at the development processes within AHRD.

Additionally a review that examines social justice themes in journals that are considered

HRD related could be useful in a few ways. First, it would expose readers to a broader sense of

what is published related to SJHRD. Second, it would provide a basis of comparison to see how
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 16

the AHRD journals compare in terms of how much and what kind of SJHRD content is being

published.

Perhaps most importantly, HRD scholars need to continue to do work in all areas of

SJHRD. Work that examines women’s leadership development as well as women’s international

experiences should be continued, as should the work supporting LGBT communities. Research

examining issues related to race and ethnicity, immigration, disability, veterans, and income

inequality should be expanded. Finally, HRD practitioners should look to incorporating new

themes that explore the marginalization of social groups into the SJHRD literature.
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN HRD 17

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