[Question] Chapter 1

Welding processes and equipment

1.1 Welding processes
[Q1.1-1]
Welding has various advantages and disadvantages. Pick out three advantages and three disadvantages
of welding, compared with riveting.

[Q1.1-2]
Welding processes are classified into three categories; (a) fusion welding, (b) pressure welding,
(c) brazing and soldering. Classify the following welding process into the category of (a), (b) or (c).
Put a category mark (a), (b),or (c) for each welding process.

(1) Friction welding ( )

(2) Electron beam welding ( )
(3) Electro slag welding ( )
(4) Thermite (Almino-thermic) welding ( )
(5) Resistance spot welding ( )
(6) Induction brazing ( )
(7) MAG welding ( )
(8) High frequency resistance welding ( )
(9) Laser-arc hybrid welding ( )
(10) Upset welding ( )

1.2 Arc welding phenomena

[Q1.2-1]
Explain briefly by means of sketches the metal transfer mode in MAG welding.

[Q1.2-2]
In MAG arc welding at the range of high current､ the metal transfer mode is “globular” of large droplet when
CO2 is used as the shielding gas, while the mode is “spray” in 80%Ar+20%CO2 shielding.
Briefly explain the reason(s).

[Q1.2-3]
The wire melting rate, MR, is usually expressed as
MR = αI＋（βLI2）／S ―――― (1)
where I is the current, L is the wire extension or stick-out and
S is the cross-sectional area of the wire, α and β are constants.
Explain briefly the physical meanings of the expression (1).

[Q1.2-4]
Choose the correct one and circle its alphabet.

(a) “Cleaning action” by arc cannot be expected in AC-TIG welding of aluminum alloys.
(b) “Cleaning action” is expected at the polarity of electrode negative in DC-TIG arc welding.
(c) Arc voltage in plasma arc of transfer type is higher than that in TIG arc due to the “thermal pinch
effect” acting to arc plasma.
(d) “Arc force” does not depend on the arc current.
(e) “Arc stiffness” is a sort of the magnetic arc blow.

[Q1.2-5]
Explain briefly the technical term “cleaning action”.

[Q1.2-6]
Explain briefly the technical term “stiffness of arc”.

[Q1.2-7]
In what cases does magnetic arc blow tend to occur in arc welding of steel? Give two examples and
explain the cause by means of a sketch.

1
[Q1.2-8]
Give three countermeasures against “arc blow”.

1.3 Arc welding equipment

[Q1.3-1]
The following words or equations are concerned with AC welding power source.
Select each equation from [Word group B] and put its alphabet in parenthesis of each [Word of group A].

[Word group A]
(1) Rated primary input power ( )
(2) Reactance (inductive) ( )
(3) Power factor ( )
(3) Apparent power ( )
(4) Active power (Real power) ( )

[Word group B]
(a) [Voltage] × [Current]
(b) [Rated secondary current] × [No load voltage]
(c) [Angular frequency] × [Inductance]
(d) [Voltage]×[Current] × cosφ
(e) [Active power] ÷ [Apparent power]

[Q1.3-2]
Briefly explain the function of the reactance in an AC welding power source.

[Q1.3-3]
Explain the reason why a capacitance is put in power supply circuit in parallel to AC welding power source
with drooping external characteristics.

[Q1.3-4]
In AC Welding Power Sources, the drooping external characteristics are normally provided by means of the
movable iron core installed in the welding transformer. The welding current adjustment is made by taking
in or taking out the movable iron core.
Explain this principle, showing sketches of the welding transformer and its external characteristics

[Q1.3-5]
In MAG welding, the arc-length is maintained stably by the self-regulation of DC power source.
Explain briefly by means of a sketch the mechanism of self-regulation.

[Q1.3-6]
Explain the principle of the inverter controlled welding machine, and give two items of the advantage of the
inverter controlled machine compared with the conventional SCR-type welding machine.

[Q1.3-7]
Choose an appropriate one and circle its alphabet.
(1) AC welding power source for SMAW is a kind of the load with a low;
(a) power factor
(b) duty cycle
(c) thermal efficiency
(d) arc efficiency.
Therefore, in order to improve it, a;
(a) resistor
(b) reactor
(c) rectifier
(d) capacitor
is connected in parallel in the primary circuit of welding transformer.
(2) In MAG welding, a thin wire of small diameter is fed at a high constant speed by utilizing the;
(a) drooping characteristic
(b) thermal pinch effect
(c) self-regulation effect
(d) cleaning action.
2
 (3) In order to decrease the spattering in MAG welding with 100% CO2 gas-shielding, a technique of;
(a) pulsed current
(b) buried arc
(c) key-hole arc
(d) open arc
is applied at the range of high current.

[Q1.3-8]
Give the definition of “duty cycle” in welding power source, and give the formula for estimating the duty
cycle at other than the rated cycle.

[Q1.3-9]
There is an AC arc welding power source of rated secondary current of 300A at rated duty cycle of 40%.
Check the possibility of burning when this power source is used for welding with current of 200A at duty
cycle of 60%.

[Q1.3-10]
The power source of three-phase is generally used as the input power of a D.C. welding machine. There is
a three-phase D.C. welding machine of the rated input voltage: 200V, rated output: 300A and the rated
primary input: 21 kVA. Calculate the rated primary current of this machine.

[Q1.3-11]
The following sentences describe AC welding power sources and voltage reducing devices.
Choose a relevant one and circle its alphabet.
(1) In AC welding power sources without a voltage reducing device, the no-load voltage is about;
a. 25 [V]
b. 50 [V]
c. 80 [V]
d. 200 [V],
and the danger of electric shock in arc off time is;
a. higher than
b. same as
c. lower than
that in arc on time.
(2) According to JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard), the no-load voltage of a voltage reducing device is
specified as;
a. 0 [V]
b.10 [V]
c.25 [V]
d.50 [V]
or lower. The delay time is specified as;
a. 0.1 sec
b. 1.0 sec
c. 10 sec.
In Japan, a voltage reducing device is required to use at a;
a. confined space surrounded by metals
b. 1-m or higher place
c. space containing a much amount of fumes.

[Q1.3-12]
Describe the role of the voltage reducing device, combined with an AC welding power source. Then explain
briefly the principle of voltage reducing device.

3
1.4 Various welding processes
[Q1.4-1]
Arc welding processes are given in the column A in the following Table. The external characteristics of
power source and the wire feed system are given in the words group B and group C below.
Select and put a mark of the appropriate word in the column B and C respectively.
A. Welding processes B. Power source C. Wire feeding
system
SMAW (manual)
TIG welding (manual)
MAG welding (semi-automatic)
SAW with a thick wire (automatic)

[Group B: Power source] [Group C: Wire feeding system]

(a) Drooping characteristic, (1) Manually feeding or adjusting.
(b) Constant potential characteristic (2) Wire feeding at constant speed.
(3) Voltage feed-back control.

[Q1.4-2]
The following sentences describe the MAG welding process. Circle the number of the correct statement
and cross the number of the wrong statement.
(1) In MAG welding, a DC constant current type of power source is used with the polarity of DCEN.
(2) In MAG welding, the mode of metal transfer depends on the welding current and the shielding gas.
(3) The uses of high welding currents and speeds tend to cause the welding defects such as undercutting
and humping in MAG welding.
(4) In upward welding on an inclined base metal, the penetration is shallower than that in downward
welding.
(5) In MAG welding under the condition that the welding current and speed are fixed, the wire melting rate
increases and the penetration depth decreases with increase of the wire extension.

[Q1.4-3]
Give four advantages and four disadvantages of SAW, comparing with the SMAW.

[Q1.4-4]
Give three advantages of TIG welding.

[Q1.4-5]
Explain the reason(s) why AC power source is widely used for TIG welding of aluminum and its alloys.

[Q1.4-6]
A low frequency pulse current of 0.5Hz to 15Hz is occasionally used in TIG. Describe the advantage and
examples of practical application.

[Q1.4-7]
Pick out correct sentences from the followings. And circle its alphabet.
(1) A short arc of low voltage is more sensitive to arc blow than a long high voltage arc.
(2) Arc with AC power source is less sensitive to arc blow than that with DC power source.
(3) Copper backing is better than flux backing to prevent arc blow.
(4) It is recommended to use weld tab to prevent the arc blow at the edge of steel-plate.
(5) It is possible to prevent arc blow by using low hydrogen type electrode in the case of manual metal arc
welding.

[Q1.4-8]
Describe the difference between electroslag welding and electrogas welding. (2 items, at least)

[Q1.4-9]
Describe characteristics of an application of laser beam welding (LBW) comparing with electron beam
welding (EBW). (At least 4 items.)

4
[Q1.4-10]
Explain briefly “projection welding”.

[Q1.4-11]
A narrow gap welding of a butt joint of very thick steel plates (more than 100mm for an example) can give a
good quality joint with high welding efficiency. Describe advantages and cautions in a narrow gap welding
with MAG welding, compared with the conventional MAG welding with V-groove.

[Q1.4-12]
Give two welding processes that have high deposition rate in overlaying.

1.5 Automatization of arc welding by welding robot

[Q1.5-1]
Give two (2) examples of sensors for an arc welding robot. Explain the function of each example.

[Q1.5-2]
The following descriptions are about the safety in welding work. Choose the correct one and encircle its
mark in the parentheses.
(1) The teaching work for the industry-use robots is mostly operated;
(a) within the working area
(b) outside the working area
(c) within and outside the working area.
With respect to the safety measures, it is obligated to equip a safety fence or enclosure;
(a) within the working area
(b) outside the working area
(c) within and outside the working area.
It is also obligated to equip safety devices such as a safety plug for the emergency stop of the robot
when the door of the fence is open.
(2) Fuel gases used in gas cutting and gas welding are explosive. The explosive limits of an admixture of
acetylene gas and air are;
(a) 2.5%
(b) 5.5%
(c) 25%
(d) 55 %
for the lower limit and;
(a) 50
(b) 75
(c) 100 %
for the upper limit.

(3) WES 9007 (Standard for Control of Welding Work Environment) specifies the permissible density of
welding fumes as;
(a) 15 mg/m3
(b) 3 mg/m3
(c) 0.5 mg/m3,
which is stricter than the world’s regulation level.

[Q1.5-3]
Describe briefly the methods of a teaching and playback system and an offline teaching system in arc
welding robotics.

[Q1.5-4]
Describe briefly a synergic control (cooperative work) of welding robots.

1.6 Cutting processes

[Q1.6-1]
5
Choose the correct word/phrase in the parentheses and circle its mark.
(1) Powder cutting is a kind of ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting ).
(2) ( a. Water jet cutting; b. Plasma cutting; c. Laser cutting; d. Gas cutting ) is a non-thermal cutting
process.
(3) ( a. Water jet cutting; b. Plasma cutting; c. Laser cutting; d. Gas cutting; ) is not used for cutting of
Aluminum alloys.
(4) ( a. Plasma jet cutting; b. Plasma arc cutting; c. Laser cutting; d. Gas cutting ) is most suitable for a
precise cutting of sheet metals.
(5) ( a. Water jet cutting; b. Plasma cutting; c. Laser cutting; d. Gas cutting ) is an application of arc
discharge.

[Q1.6-2]
Find one correct description among below, and circle its number.
(1) Stainless steels can be cut by ordinary oxygen-gas flame cutting method.
(2) Mild steel over 25 mm in thickness cannot be cut by gas flame cutting process.
(3) Water jet cutting can be applied to non metallic materials.
(4) W-electrode is used widely for the air plasma cutting process.
(5) In laser cutting of titanium alloys, CO2 is used as an assist gas.

[Q1.6-3]
Describe briefly the principle of gas cutting.

[Q1.6-4]
Why is the flame (oxy-fuel gas) cutting process difficult to apply to stainless steels and high alloy steels?

[Q1.6-5]
Describe briefly the principle of metal powder cutting.

[Q1.6-6]
The nozzle for gas cutting is classified into straight nozzle and divergent nozzle.
Explain the features of each nozzle.

[Q1.6-7]
Give three methods to control the deformation caused by gas cutting of steels.

[Q1.6-8]
Put the sequential number in the circle to show the order of the arrangement in which the three cutting
torches are simultaneously used for cutting out a "X" groove with a root face by gas cutting, giving the
reason in brief.
(b)
(a) (c)

Cut-off side

[Q1.6-9]
Choose the correct word/phrase in the parentheses and encircle its mark.
(1) In ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting; e. powder cutting ),
abrasive particles are used to improve the cutting capability.
(2) In ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting; e. powder cutting ), an
assist gas is used to improve the cutting capability.
(3) In ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting; e. powder cutting ),
iron powder is mixed into the cutting gas stream.
(4) In ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting; e. powder cutting ), the
divergent nozzle is used to improve cutting speeds.
6
 (5) In ( a. water jet cutting; b. plasma cutting; c. laser cutting; d. gas cutting; e. powder cutting ), a
nozzle for constricting the arc is used to improve the cutting capability.

[Q1.6-10]
Pick out three (3) items totally among the advantages and disadvantages of the plasma cutting process,
compared with the flame (oxy-fuel gas) cutting process.

[Q1.6-11]
Pick out two (2) advantages of the laser cutting process, compared with the flame (oxy-fuel gas) cutting
process.

[Q1.6-12]
Describe briefly the qualities of cut surface when the cutting speed in gas cutting is too fast or too low,
respectively.

7
 [Answer] Chapter 1
Welding processes and equipment
1.1 Welding processes
[Q1.1-1]
Choose three advantages and three disadvantages from the following answers.
[Advantages]
(1) Joint efficiency of welding is higher than that of riveting.
(2) Welding is excellent in water tightness, oil tightness and gas tightness.
(3) No limitation on the plate-thickness.
(4) Simplification of structure is easily achieved in welding.
(5) Manufacturing and construction costs are less in welding than in riveting.
(7) Welding causes less noise than riveting.
[Disadvantages]
(1) Welding deformation may occur.
(2) Residual stresses are inevitable in welding.
(3) Welding brings changes in the material quality, and may cause cracks in the weld metal or/and heat
affected zone.
(4) Testing and inspection is usually required for an important welded structure.
(5) Welding is treated as a "special process" which is required process control and certification or
qualification of welding personnel.

[Q1.1-2]
(1) b, (2) a, (3) a, (4) a, (5) b, (6) c, (7) a, (8) b, (9) a, (10) b

1.2 Arc welding phenomena

[Q1.2-1]
The wire electrode in MAG welding is
melted and deposited into the weld, i.e.
the molten metal on the tip of the wire
is transferred to the weld pool across Arcing Short-circuiting Arcing Short-circuiting Arcing
the arc. The welding process is
significantly affected by the metal (a) short-circuiting
transfer. The mode of metal transfer in
MAG/MIG welding is classified into
three types, (a) short-circuiting, (b)
globular and (c) spray.

(b) globular (c) spray

Three types of metal transfer mode in MAG/MIG welding

[Q1.2-2]
Since the arc in CO2 is constricted with higher potential gradient than that in 80%Ar+20%CO2, the arc
concentrates at the root of the droplet, so that the droplet is pushed upward by the arc force, and the
detachment of the droplet is disturbed.

[Q1.2-3]
The wire melting rate depends on the wire heating effects during welding, i.e. the arc heating effect
and the Joule’s heating effect.
The first term in the above equation means the arc heating and the second is for the Joule’s heating of the
wire, because the resistance of the wire is proportional to L/S.

[Q1.2-4]
(c)

[Q1.2-5]
In the arc welding with electrode positive, the cathode makes it possible to remove the oxide on the surface
of the work-piece．This action, called “cleaning action”, is very important on welding aluminum and
magnesium alloys because it removes the refractory oxide surface that disturbs the fusion welding of good
quality.
8
As the mechanism of the cleaning action, it is considered that the current density at the cathode is very high
and its concentrated energy destroys and vaporizes the oxide. Since the oxide on metal surface is a good
emission site of electron, the cathode spot wander around the oxide film. As the result, a clean metal
surface is formed after the arc.

[Q1.2-6]
The welding arc, of high current, is affected by its own magnetic field.
In the arc column, a gaseous flow, called “plasma stream”, is induced by the electro-magnetic force due to
the arc current. Consequently, the arc is stabilized by the plasma stream and is formed along the direction
in which the electrode points. This arc property is called as “arc stiffness”.

[Q1.2-7]
(1) Arc blow at the edge of steel plate.
Arc is blown by an unbalanced magnetic field around the arc. As shown in figure (a), since the magnetic
field is unsymmetrical at the edge of steel plate, arc is blown by unbalanced Lorentz force from the strong
field side to the weak field side.

Figure (a) Arc blow at the edge of steel plate [1]

(2) Arc blow caused by the earth-point (ground effect)

As shown in figure (b), the magnetic field around the arc is unbalanced, due to the location of the earth
point. Accordingly the arc is blown toward the outside of the main current path.

Figure (b) Arc blow caused by earth point [1]

[1] Lincoln Electric Co., Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 12TH Ed., 1973

[Q1.2-8]
Three from the followings,
(1) Application of a starting weld tab and a runoff weld tab,
(2) Application of an AC arc,
(3) Shortening of arc length,
(4) Tilt an electrode against a direction of arc blow, and
(5) Change a position of work-piece connection.

1.3 Arc welding equipment

[Q1.3-1]
(1) b, (2) c, (3) e, (4) a, (5) d

[Q1.3-2]
(1) To stabilize the welding current in spite of arc-length fluctuation in manual operation.
／To give a drooping output characteristics of AC power source.
(2) To make the AC arc stable by keeping the phase difference between the no-load voltage and welding
current.／To ensure the re-striking voltage at the polarity change of AC arc.
(3) To adjust the welding current by changing the reactance.
9
[Q1.3-3]
In AC welding power source, the i = iC +iL
drooping characteristics are generally
provided by adding a reactance in
e Condenser ic iL Welding
secondary circuit or in the form of a transformer
leakage transformer from viewpoint of
arc-stability. It means that the AC
e, i e
welding power source has a low power iL
i
factor ， and requires much more input
power (apparent power, VA) than the
active (real) power (W) consumed in the t
welding.
iC
To improve the power factor in the
welding circuit, a condenser is inserted in
parallel to welding transformer as shown
in the figure. The primary current in the power line is reduced by introducing the condenser because the
inductive current iL is cancelled out by the capacitive current iC, as shown in the figure. As the result of the
improvement of power factor, the facility of electric power supply and the power loss in the line are reduced.

[Q1.3-4]
The drooping characteristics in AC welding power source are generally realized by using a movable iron
core, installed in the welding transformer.
The welding current is adjusted by taking in or taking out the movable core. For example, as shown in Fig.1,
a third iron core M3 is inserted between the cores M1 and M2 of a normal transformer, so that when the load
current flows, the magnetic flux partially leaks and passes through the iron core M3, which then acts as a
series reactor.
Since the magnetic leakage flux, i.e. reactance becomes higher as M3 is inserted deeper into the main
transformer, the external characteristics of the power source changes and the output current (arc current)
becomes smaller, as shown in Fig.2.

Primary coil Secondary coil

Leakage flux: small
Output voltage

Electrode
M1 M2

Primary input
M3

Base
metal
Leakage flux: large

Movable core
Output current

Fig. 1 Movable iron core type Fig.2 External characteristic of power source

[Q1.3-5]
In MAG welding a power source of constant voltage type
and a wire feeding system of constant speed are used
under a high density welding current and a wire electrode
of small diameter.
The figure shows the relationship between
arc-characteristics and output-characteristics of power
source. When arc length fluctuates from L1 to L2 (L2＞L1),
the welding current changes markedly from I1 to I2(I2<I1)
and consequently the wire-melting rate decreases
remarkably.
As the wire feeding speed is constant, the arc length is
recovered quickly from L2 to L1. This is called as the
self-regulation in the constant voltage type of power
source.

10
[Q1.3-6]
The inverter controlled welding machine is based on the fact that transformer size is significantly reduced if
its operating frequency is increased.
In the machine, the primary AC input is rectified first and the DC voltage is converted to a high frequency
AC voltage by using an inverter. And the high frequency AC voltage is adjusted to suit the welding by using
a high frequency transformer. Then the transformer output is rectified again to supply the DC power for arc
welding.
The welding machine of inverter type, where the frequency of operation is between 5000 and 50000Hz, has
the following advantage, compared with the conventional machine of SCR type,
(1) Mechanical: compact and light.
(2) Electrical: high response and accurate control.

[Q1.3-7]
(1) a, d (2) c (3) b

[Q1.3-8]
[Definition]: The percentage of time during a specified test period that a power source or its accessories can
be operated without overheating (AWS A3.0:2001). ／In Japan and USA, the duty cycles are based on a
test interval of 10 minutes.

[Formula]: The following formula is given for the estimation.

Ta×Ia2 = Tr×Ir2
where,
Ta: the required rated duty cycle in percent, Ia: the maximum current at required duty cycle,
Tr : rated duty cycle in percent, Ir : rated current at rated duty cycle,

[Q1.3-9]
The maximum current: I at the duty cycle of 60% is given by
I 2×60 = 3002×40
I = 300×2/√6 = 245 [A]
The power source can be used up to 245[A] at the duty cycle of 60%, so the power source is safely used
without burning under the condition of 200 A and 60 % duty cycle.

[Q1.3-10]
For a three-phase power source, the following expressions of power are given:
3  Vl  I l ：apparent power (VA)
：active or real power (W)
P  3  Vl  I l cos
：reactive power (var)
Q  3  Vl  I l sin 
where Vl：line voltage (effective value), Il：line current (effective value).
According to the above expression, the rated primary current: Il is written

3  Vl  I l ＝21×103
I l＝ 21  10
3
＝60.7Ａ
1.73  200

[Q1.3-11]
(1) c, a (2) c, b, a

11
[Q1.3-12]
When an AC arc welding machine is no load, the voltage between the electrode and the work-piece is high.
The voltage is dangerous from the viewpoint of the electric shock.
The voltage reducing device protects a welding operator against the electric shock by lowering the voltage
between the electrode and work-piece. According to JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard), the voltage is kept
to be lower than 25V when the arc is off.
The principle of the voltage reducing device is as follows:
When the arc is off, a safety voltage not less than 25 volt is supplied to the secondary (output) circuit of
welding transformer by the transformer of voltage reducing device as shown in the figure.

controller

transformer for voltage reducing

S2

current
transformer

S1
200Ｖ secondary
primary

welding transformer
Figure Voltage reducing device

At the arc start, the electrode is contacted to the work-piece, and the short-circuiting current, supplied by the
voltage reducing device, is detected by the device and the main circuit of the power source is switched on to
give the voltage for the arc-ignition.

1.4 Various welding processes

[Q1.4-1]
A. Welding processes B. Power source C. Wire feeding system
SMAW (manual) a 1
TIG welding (manual) a 1
MAG welding (semi-automatic) b 2
SAW with a thick wire (automatic) a 3

[Q1.4-2]
○ (2) (3) (5) × (1) (4)

[Q1.4-3]
Choose four items each from the advantages and disadvantages given below.
[Advantages]
1. High deposition rate and high efficiency.
2. Deep penetration due to high current and current density.
3. Welding of uniform quality is possible.
4. Beautiful bead appearance.
5. There is no need filter glasses (goggles).
6. Very few fumes generation.

12
[Disadvantages]
1. Equipment is large and complex, and hence gives inconveniences in transportation.
2. Not suitable for the welding of complicated work (not suitable when unit weld line is short ).
3. Limited to flat, horizontal fillet and horizontal position welding.
4. Need for edge preparation of high accuracy.
5. Low notch toughness in weld and HAZ due to the high heat input.

[Q1.4-4]
Three from the followings,
1) Welds are of high quality, because the arc and molten pool are shielded by inert gases.
2) All-positional welding is possible.
3) Application to nearly all metals and alloys.
4) No spatter (and less slag)
5) Easy to observe the arc and molten pool.
6) Easy to make root pass welding with fine back-bead.
7) Because of cleaning action, the welding of aluminum alloy is easy. (DCEP or AC)

[Q1.4-5]
The surface of aluminum alloy is covered with oxide film. Unless the film is removed, it is difficult to weld
smoothly aluminum alloys.
The cleaning action by arc cathode is useful to remove the oxide film. The action is expected at the polarity
of DCEP or AC. However, the current capacity of electrode is low at the polarity of DCEP, where
W-electrode is easily overheated by the anode heat. As a result, the penetration in DCEP-TIG arc is poor
and insufficient, i.e. the application of DCEP-TIG is limited.
On the other hand, the current capacity is relatively high in AC-TIG and its penetration is better than that in
DCEP-TIG. Accordingly, AC power source is widely used for TIG welding of aluminum and its alloys.

[Q1.4-6]
Arc welding with periodically controlled current is called as a pulsed arc welding. An effect of pulsation
depends on a ratio of peak current and base current, and pulse frequency.
A low frequency pulse current of 0.5 to 15Hz can keep a penetration of weld bead enough deep during peak
current period, and a weld pool to solidify during base current period so that pulsed TIG is effective to
protect weld bead from burn through. As a result, the pulsed TIG is applied to vertical up welding, overhead
welding, welding of different thickness joint, welding of thin sheets, and uranami welding (backing bead).

[Q1.4-7]
(2) (4)

[Q1.4-8]
Deference between ESW and EGW are followings:
(1) Heat source: Joule’s (resistive) heating for ESW, and arc heating for EGW
(2) Shielding of molten metal: molten slag for ESW and gas for EGW
(3) Shape of groove: generally I groove for ESW and V groove for EGW
(4) Limitation of joint thickness: ESW can be applied to thick plates by multiple electrodes, but EGW
cannot be applied in multiple electrodes.

[Q1.4-9]
Characteristics of laser beam welding (LBW) are followings:
(1) Possibility of welding in air because of little attenuation of light in the air.
(2) No deviation of light even in magnetic field.
(3) Possibility of welding in multiple places because of a conveyance of light by mirrors and through an
optical fiber.
(4) Variation of weld penetration because of a dependency of laser absorption coefficient on metal and its
surface condition (lower absorption coefficient for highly conductive metal like aluminum).
(5) Decrement of penetration by the plasma formed from evaporated metal vapor and shielding gas.
(6) Superiority in a high speed welding of thin sheets and limitation in a thickness of weld joint.
(7) Possibility of a welding of non metallic material other than metal.

13
[Q1.4-10]
Projection welding is a type of resistance welding. Projection is formed on one of sheets that are to be
welded. Lapped sheets are put between flat electrodes. The electrodes press the sheets, and welding
current is applied to. Pressure and the current are concentrated on the projection, and spot welding is
completed by resistance heating. A welding with multiple spots is possible if projections are formed.

[Q1.4-11]
Advantages:
(1) To reduce welding time.
(2) To reduce welding consumables.
(3) To reduce welding deformation.
(4) To improve notch toughness.
Cautions:
(1) Smooth faces of a groove and a strict dimension of the groove must be kept.
(2) High precision tracking is necessary to keep a welding path.
(3) A gas shielding around an arc must be ensured.

[Q1.4-12]
Two from the followings,
(1) Submerged arc welding (SAW), especially with a band electrode,
(2) Plasma arc welding, especially a hot wire technique,
(3) Electroslag welding.

1.5 Automatization of arc welding by welding robot

[Q1.5-1]
[Wire touch sensor]
Wire touch sensor is also called as an electrode touch sensor and a wire earth sensor. A variation of
current or voltage is detected, and a space position of the wire (electrode) tip is analyzed from the
position of the welding robot when the tip of wire touches a base metal. Repeating a touch maneuver for
several point of the base metal, a position of the groove, edges and welding paths is calculated with
observed points.
[Arc sensor]
In an arc welding with a consumable electrode, welding current or arc voltage changes when a height of
welding torch changes. An arc sensor detects a welding path with the change of welding current (or arc
voltage) during a torch weaving. A variation pattern of welding current can show a position of joint root
when a torch is weaved and/or rotated. By detecting the joint root, the robot can automatically follow the
welding path.
[Optical sensor]
Optical sensor is used to track a welding path or to control a welding condition dynamically. Laser slit
image cutting method and direct observation through a CCD camera method are used.
In the laser slit image cutting method, a slit image deformed at an edge of groove, so that a position of
groove and dimensions can be obtained through an image processing. The arc position and a welding
condition can be controlled with the obtained data.
Visual sensor, direct observation through a CCD camera method, directly observes an arc and a weld
pool and the obtained visual data are directly analyzed to control the arc and a welding condition.

[Q1.5-2]
(1) a, b (2) a, c (3) b

[Q1.5-3]
(1) Teaching and playback system.
Teaching is to set maneuvers into an arc welding robot beforehand. In teaching and playback system,
the robot is directory moved to follow a welding sequence without an arc, and repeats the sequence at
the welding. During a teaching, the robot cannot be used for a welding, so that an arc time is reduced
much. But this system is easy to introduce.
(2) Offline teaching system.
A maneuver of welding robot is simulated on a CRT of computer and the welding procedure sequence is
programmed in the computer. The programmed welding sequence is conveyed by a disc or transmitted
through information conduit to the robot. The robot strictly follows the welding sequence. Therefore, an
arc time by the robot is increased much. The welding sequence contains positional information that CAD
data gives, and welding information that a data base for welding condition gives.
14
[Q1.5-4]
In arc welding, easiness of weld bead formation depends heavily on a welding position. Welding
condition, therefore, must be adjusted at a change of welding position. At a welding of a joint of pipes like
a TKY, for example, as welding position changes continuously, welding condition must be adjusted in
fine steps. And a number of passes to finish may depend on the position.
In case of a welding joint like above example, when one welding robot carries a welding torch and
another robot holds a workpiece, a welding point of the groove can be set to nearly same welding
position, and at the same moment the welding torch is moved to a suitable point. This synergic
movement of two robot makes a stable welding possible under almost same welding position.

1.6 Cutting processes

[Q1.6-1]
(1) d, (2) a, (3) d, (4) c, (5) b

[Q1.6-2]
(3)

[Q1.6-3]
Gas cutting is a cutting method that uses the heat of oxidation. Steel is usually cut with a gas cutting. High
purity oxygen is supplied to a cutting part, and steel is melted by the oxidation heat. The molten material is
blown out by a high speed cutting gas to form a kerf.
At cutting, the starting point is heated up to a burning temperature around 900°C with a preheating flame,
and then a cutting oxygen is blown out to start cutting. Cutting follows with continuing oxidation reaction
described below. In principle, cutting can be maintained without the preheating flame.

[Q1.6-4]
As the percentage of alloying elements increase, the oxy-fuel gas cutting becomes less-effective.
Oxides of the alloy element, such as Cr and Al, have higher melting points than those of iron oxides and are
refractory.
On the other hand, oxides of iron have melting points lower than the melting point of iron, so the
oxides become fluid and are easily removed from the cutting zone as the molten slag.
Unlike iron oxides, some alloy’s oxides are not removed easily and disturb the chemical reaction in the
cutting zone.

[Q1.6-5]
(Metal) Powder cutting is applied to materials that cannot be cut with gas cutting. The chemical reaction of
oxygen is aided by adding metal powders or fluxes to the cutting oxygen stream.
Iron powder addition is usual. Fine iron powder or iron powder with aluminum powder is continuously
supplied with a dry compressed air or nitrogen. The fine powder is burned in the preheating flame and
cutting oxygen stream. The reaction raises the temperature of cutting zone and increases the fluidity of
oxides, makes it possible to cut the materials.

15
[Q1.6-6]
In order to improve the gas cutting speed and the quality of cut-surface, a high purity and high speed
oxygen (99.5% or higher) jet is necessary.
The straight nozzle, as shown in the figure, has a simple shape but is not applicable to high-speed cutting
because the velocity of gas flow cannot be increased much. Nevertheless, this type of nozzle offers easier
maintenance, control, and handling, and it is widely used for manual cutting and for thin plate cutting.
By using the divergent nozzle, the stream of gas can flow expanding towards the exit of the nozzle; hence
the velocity of oxygen gas flow can be increased up to a supersonic speed; this type of nozzle is applied to
a high-speed automatic cutting. It shall be noted that the oxygen pressure depends on the shape of the
nozzle, and the selection of nozzle as well as the control of oxygen pressure is important.

(a) Straight nozzle (b) Divergent nozzle

Cutting nozzles in oxy-fuel gas cutting

[Q1.6-7]
Three from the followings,
1) Adoption of simultaneous (left and right) cutting method.
2) Heating of the part of symmetry of the cutting line (the opposite side in the case of single-side cutting.
3) Water-cooling of the cutting line just after the cutting.
4) Restraint by jig.
5) Adoption of the method so that the work-piece itself is acts as a restraint.

[Q1.6-8]
Reason; In the gas cutting, any discontinuity on the surface of the work-piece disturbs the cutting process,
i.e. a flatness of the surface is important to keep stably the chemical reaction of oxygen with the base metal.
The sequence is shown in the figure as (1), (2) and (3).

[Q1.6-9]
(1) a, (2) c, (3) e, (4) d, (5) b

[Q1.6-10]
Three items from the followings;
(1) Applicable to the metals other than ferrous metals.
(2) High cutting speed for a thin plate.
(3) For a thick plate, the cutting speed is low or limited.
(4) Investment and maintenance costs are expensive.
(5) Environment in working area is inferior (in noise, arc light, fume, NOx etc.)

16
[Q1.6-11]
Three items from the followings;
(1) Applicable to the materials other than ferrous metals.
(2) High accuracy cutting.
(3) Less cutting deformation and narrow HAZ (heat affected zone).
(4) For a thin plate, the cutting speed is high.

[Q1.6-12]
[Too fast cutting speed]
The drag becomes large, causing the upper and lower edges to get rounded. Particularly, the area below
the upper edge becomes concave.
[Too slow cutting speed]
The surface becomes excessively hot, causing the upper edge to get rounded and lower edge to become
irregular (uneven). The slag adhesion is severe.

17