Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Recognition of tuffs in the middle-upper Dingqinghu Fm., Lunpola Basin, T

central Tibetan Plateau: Constraints on stratigraphic age and implications
for paleoclimate
Ziqiang Maoa,b, Qingquan Mengc, , Xiaomin Fanga,b, , Tao Zhanga, Fuli Wua, Yibo Yanga,
⁎ ⁎⁎

Weilin Zhanga, Jinbo Zana, Mengqi Tana,b

a
CAS Center for Excellence in Tibetan Plateau Earth Sciences, Key Laboratory of Continental Collision and Plateau Uplift, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
c
School of Earth Sciences, Key Laboratory of Western China's Mineral Resources of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: The Lunpola Basin plays a key role in determining the elevation history of the central Tibetan Plateau, which is
Analcime closely related to uplift dynamics and paleoclimatic evolution. However, accurate age constraints on the basin
Zircon U-Pb dating stratigraphy reflecting tectonic, paleo-elevation and climate information have long been vigorously debated,
Early-middle Miocene mostly due to a lack of absolute age controls. Here, we found two altered tuff layers in the middle-upper
Climate
Dingqinghu Formation (Fm.) in the basin stratigraphic sequence. Detailed lithological, mineralogical and geo-
chemical analyses of the tuffs indicate that they came from trachyandesite and identify analcime as the typical
alteration mineral, suggesting primary deposition. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of the tuffs yields concordant
ages of 20.6 ± 0.1 Ma and 20.7 ± 0.1 Ma, indicating that the end of the Dingqinghu Fm., i.e., the Lunpola
stratigraphic sequence, and the uplift of the plateau to its current high elevations occurred much later than
previously estimated. The contemporaneous thick black oil shales in the Lunpola deep lake and biocoenosis
together suggest that the climate was humid and warm during this period.

1. Introduction
The uplift of the Tibetan Plateau has attracted widespread attention
due to the principal roles of the region in revealing the deformation
processes and dynamic mechanisms of the India and Asia collision and
plateau uplift (Rowley, 1996; Wang et al., 2008; Yin and Harrison,
2000), the triggering and intensification of Asian monsoons (e.g., Li
et al., 2014; Molnar et al., 1993, 2010), the drying of the Asian interior
(Liu and Dong, 2013; Manabe and Broccoli, 1990; Ruddiman and
Kutzbach, 1989), and even the forcing of Cenozoic global cooling (An
et al., 2001; Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992). However, the plateau ele-
vation history, particularly when and how the Tibetan Plateau reached
its present elevation, remains controversial (e.g., Deng and Ding, 2015;
Renner, 2016; Rowley and Currie, 2006; Spicer et al., 2003; Wang et al.,
2008, 2014), despite various hypotheses arguing dynamic mechanisms
of plateau uplift (Clark and Royden, 2000; England and Houseman,
1989; Molnar, 2005; Tapponnier et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2008; Yin
and Harrison, 2000).
The Lunpola Basin, located in the central Tibetan Plateau between
the Lhasa and Qiangtang Terranes (Fig. 1A), is a key site for con-
straining the uplift history and climate change on the plateau. The basin
has accumulated very thick Cenozoic fluviolacustrine sediments, i.e.,
the Niubao Formation (Fm.) and Dingqinghu Fm., recording detailed
information of uplift and climate change on the Tibetan Plateau (Deng
et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2015; Polissar et al., 2009; Rowley and Currie,
2006; Sun et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2014). However, the Cenozoic
stratigraphic ages are still ambiguous (He et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2014;
Xia, 1983) due to the lack of precise age controls (Ma et al., 2017). The
Niubao and Dingqinghu Fms. have long been assigned Eocene and
Oligocene ages, respectively, based on fossil charophyte and ostracod
evidence (Xia, 1982, 1986), even though some of these pollens and
ostracods suggest a long time range, i.e., from the Oligocene to the

Corresponding author.
⁎

Correspondence to: X. Fang, CAS Center for Excellence in Tibetan Plateau Earth Sciences, Key Laboratory of Continental Collision and Plateau Uplift, Institute of
⁎⁎

Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.

E-mail addresses: mengqq@lzu.edu.cn (Q. Meng), fangxm@itpcas.ac.cn (X. Fang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.03.040
Received 4 September 2018; Received in revised form 25 March 2019; Accepted 26 March 2019
Available online 27 March 2019
0031-0182/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Fig. 1. (A) Schematic tectonic map of the Tibetan Plateau showing the tectonic units and the location of the Lunpola Basin. The legend shows the locations of the
main Miocene volcanic rocks in the Lhasa terrane. AKS: Ayimaqin-Kunlun Suture; JJS: Jinsha Jiang Suture; BNS: Bangong-Nujiang Suture; IYZS: Indus-Yarlung
Zangbo Suture. (B) Digital elevation model (DEM) of the study region (see red box inset for the area in panel A) showing the basin extent and topography (white
curvilinear region) (modified from Sun et al., 2014). (C) Geologic map of the Lunpola Basin (see the blue box in panel B) illustrating the distribution of the Cenozoic
stratigraphy and the study section. The fossil mammal site information is from Deng et al. (2012). Wang-1 indicates the site of the Wang-1 core, as reported in Ma
et al. (2017). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Pliocene, for the formations (Wang et al., 1975; Xia, 1983). Recently,
bentonite, fossil mammals and tuffs in the basin sediments have shown
that the Niubao Fm. and Dingqinghu Fm. have ages from the Eocene to
the Oligocene and from the late Oligocene to the early Miocene, re-
spectively (Deng et al., 2012; He et al., 2012; Sun et al., 2014; Wen
et al., 2016). However, the precise ages of the middle and upper parts of
the Dingqinghu Fm. have not yet been determined. These sediments
record key information about the end of basin formation and the early
to probably middle Miocene climatic history in response to the plateau
uplift process and global climate change.
In this study, two layers of altered tuffs were found in the middle-
upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm. in the Lunpori section, central
Lunpola Basin (Fig. 1). We first used lithological, mineralogical and
geochemical methods to identify the tuffs, i.e., whether they were pri-
mary deposits and what was their potential source. Then, we employed
the LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating method to determine the precise

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Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Fig. 2. The synthesized general Cenozoic stratigraphic column in the Lunpola Basin (A) and the stratigraphy sequence and lithology of the middle-upper part of the
Dingqinghu Fm. in the Lunpori section (B). The field photographs C, D, and E are from the upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm., and F, G, H, I, and J are from the middle
part of the Dingqinghu Fm.

Fig. 3. Photos showing the tuff layers of samples LPR 40.5 (A) and LPR 53.5 (B).

stratigraphic age of the middle-upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm. Fi-
nally, we discussed the implications of this study for the climate of the
central Tibetan Plateau.
2. Geological setting and stratigraphy
The Lunpola Basin is a large petroliferous basin on the Tibetan
Plateau (Fu et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2015; Wei et al., 2017). This basin is
situated along the southern margin of the Banggong-Nujiang suture belt
(BNS) stretching east-west between the Qiangtang Terrane and the
Lhasa Terrane (Fig. 1A). The basin has an elongate rhombic shape of
~200 km × 15–20 km (~3600 km2) and surface elevations of
~4500–4600 m above sea level (a.s.l.). The northern and southern sides
of the basin are bordered by the Dayu Shan (Mts.) and Chang Shan
(Mts.), respectively, which have elevations of ~4800–5200 m, and the
western border is connected to the Nima Basin (Fig. 1B). The modern
climate belongs to the semiarid and subcold monsoon climate category,
with a mean annual precipitation of 308 mm and a mean annual tem-
perature of −1 °C. The plants are mainly steppe vegetation. The
dominant mammals are steppe rodents, with a few Tibetan antelopes,

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Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Fig. 4. Photomicrographs of representative thin sections of tuff samples LPR 40.5 (A, B) and LPR 53.5 (C, D) under a cross- (A and C) and single (plane)- (B and D)
polarized light showing volcanic ash altering into analcime. Anal: Analcime; Qtz: Quartz; Fsp: Feldspar (albite or microcline); Phl: Phlogopite.

Table 1
XRD results (wt%) of samples LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 in the Lunpori section,
Lunpola Basin.
Sample Analcime Albite Microcline Phlogopite Quartz Natrojarosite
LPR-40.5 31 17 21 – 15 16
LPR-53.5 79 9 – 5 7
donkeys and yaks.
With the dextral slip of the BNS, the related right-lateral warp
caused NNE-SSW tensile stress in the area, which partitioned the de-
forming area to form the pull-apart Lunpola Basin (Ai et al., 1998; Lei
et al., 1996). The present basin consists of three tectonic units, namely,
the south thrust belt, the central depression zone and the north fold-
thrust belt (Lei et al., 1996; Wei et al., 2017), which form a general
basin-wide syncline structure. The dominant basin deformation is ex-
pressed as a series of sinistral transpressional faults and folds parallel to
the northern and southern margins of the basin (Ma et al., 1996)
(Fig. 1C). This expression suggests that the deformation occurred lar-
gely after basin deposition, suggesting a shift in the stress from local
tension to compression due to the change in the former dextral slip to
later sinistral thrusting (Ai et al., 1998).
The Cenozoic succession is > 4000 m thick in the central basin (Ma
et al., 1996; Xia, 1983). The Dingqinghu Fm. lies upon the Niubao Fm.
in conformity in the basin center and in parallel unconformity along the
basin margins (Luo et al., 1996). The Niubao Fm. is a sequence of
dominant fluvial facies in the basin margins and is exposed mostly to
the south of the Dayu Shan fault (Fig. 1C). The Niubao Fm. consists of
red sandstone, siltstone and mudstone intercalated with a few fine
conglomerates and marlites (Luo et al., 1996; Ma et al., 1996; Xia,
1983; Wei et al., 2017; Fig. 2A). The Dingqinghu Fm. is composed of
greenish, gray to deep gray siltstone, mudstone, marlites and oil shales
that contain abundant fossil fishes and insects and are intercalated with
–
some thin dull yellowish fine sandstone and light tuff beds (Xia, 1983;
Fig. 2B). The Dingqinghu Fm. is exposed between the Changshan fault
and Hongxingliang fault and is mostly covered by Quaternary sedi-
ments in the central depression zone (Fig. 1C).
The studied section (31°56′18.27″N, 89°48′3.62″E to
31°57′29.21″N, 89°48′41.93″E) is located at Lunpori in the central
Lunpola Basin (Fig. 1B, C), where the center of the basin-wide syncline
lies and > 658 m of strata belonging to the middle-upper part of the
Dingqinghu Fm. is well exposed. The Lunpori section consists mainly of
grayish to blackish mudstone, silty mudstone and oil shales intercalated
with a few siltstone and marlite beds. The exposed stratigraphy can be
generally divided into two parts according to lithology. The lower part
of the section (0–473 m) is predominantly composed of gray mudstone
and thick gray to blackish paper-like oil shales of the semideep to deep
lake facies. The upper part (473–658 m) of the section is characterized
by generally similar sediments with slightly lighter colors and some
reddish mudstone and yellowish siltstone/mudstone beds at the top of
the section (Fig. 2B), indicating a shallowing trend to shallow lake fa-
cies. Two thin light grayish tuff layers, named LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5,
can be found near the bottom of the section at levels of 40.5 m and
53.5 m, respectively (Fig. 2B).

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Z. Mao, et al.
Fig. 5. XRD analyses of tuff samples LPR 40.5 (A) and LPR 53.5 (B). Anal: Analcime; Mcl: Microcline; Qtz: Quartz; Abt: Albite; Nat: Natrojarosite; Phl: Phlogopite.
3. Materials and methods
Two bulk tuff samples collected at 40.5 m and 53.5 m in the Lunpori
section were analyzed. Field observations show that the tuff layers are
silty and homogeneous/massive, have low density and no bedding and
are grayish-white and grayish-yellow in LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5, re-
spectively. The minerals are small, with grain sizes that are not visible
to the naked eye. The tuff layer at 40.5 m is 8 cm thick and has con-
formable contacts with the lower mudstone and upper silty mudstone
(Fig. 3A). The tuff layer at 53.5 m is 5 cm thick and within silty mud-
stone (Fig. 3B).
Mineralogical and geochemical analyses were applied to analyze the
bulk compositions of the tuffs, the types and contents of volcanic ma-
terials, and the depositional state (primary or reworked). The laser
ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)
zircon U-Pb dating method was used to determine the absolute ages of
the tuff layers.
3.1. Mineralogical analysis
To identify the minerals and occurrences of the tuff samples, thin
sections were made from the two block tuff samples and were observed
under a polarizing microscope. To acquire mineralogical composition
data, two bulk tuff samples were ground to < 200 mesh and analyzed
by X-ray diffraction (XRD) on a Rigaku D/MAX-2000 diffractometer via
Cu-Kα radiation with a tube voltage and current of 40 kV and 40 mA,
respectively, and a scanning speed of 10°/min from 3° to 70° 2θ at the
Micro Structure Analytical Laboratory, Peking University.
Scanning electricity microscopy (SEM) and the electronic differ-
ential system (EDS) were used to analyze the morphology and com-
positions of in situ minerals. The two samples were cut with flat sur-
faces, coated by a carbon layer for conductivity, and observed and
analyzed with a Japanese SEM JEOL-JSM-5610 LV at an acceleration
voltage of 20 kV, a focus distance of 18 mm and a beam spot of 38 nm in
diameter in the Chinese Academy of Geosciences, Beijing.
3.2. Element analysis
Before digestion of the bulk samples, 0.5 g of dried bulk sample
from each of the tuffs, i.e., LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5, was ground into fine
powder of < 200 mesh and placed in 15 ml polyethylene centrifuge
tubes; 10 ml of 1 M acetic acid was added to each tube to remove the
carbonate that might come from cement materials; then, the samples
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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56
were mixed with a vortex shaker and held at room temperature for 24 h,
with occasional oscillation. Finally, the solid residues were separated by
centrifugation and cleaned 3 times in ultrapure water. The residual
samples were oven-dried at 40 °C. Then, 20–30 mg of dry sample was
weighed to a Teflon tank, and 1 ml of nitric acid and 1 ml of hydro-
fluoric acid were added to the tank to dissolve the samples, which were
digested at 190 °C in an oven for 24 h to ensure complete dissolution
into the liquid. After cooling, the solution was dried on a hot plate at
150 °C. Subsequently, 2 ml of nitric acid and 3 ml of ultrapure water
were added to the residue and heated in an oven at 150 °C. Finally,
ultrapure water was used to dilute the solute samples by approximately
2000 times (Yang et al., 2016). The major elements and trace elements
of the samples were analyzed with ICP optical emission spectroscopy
(ICP-OES) and ICP-MS, respectively, at the Institute of Tibetan Plateau
Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Replicate analyses of samples
showed the relative standard deviations (RSDs) for all elements
were < 5% and predominantly < 2%.
3.3. Method for U-Pb dating
We selected nonmagnetic, heavy zircons by conventional magnetic
and density techniques from tuff samples LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5. Then,
30 zircon grains from each tuff sample were mounted in epoxy and
polished to expose half of the grains for analysis. All the zircon grains
were visualized in transmitted and reflected light photomicrographs to
avoid fractures and inclusions. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were
taken with SEM for examining the internal structures and targeting
spots for dating. Experiments analyzing the U-Th-Pb isotopes of zircons
were performed at the Key Laboratory of Western China's Mineral
Resources of Gansu Province, Lanzhou University, using an American
Agilent 7700ce LA-ICP-MS equipped with a 193 nm excimer laser ab-
lation system. The laser spot was 30 μm in diameter. U-Th-Pb ratios
were determined relative to Harvard zircon 91500, and U, Th, and Pb
concentrations were calibrated by using the NIST SRM 610 as an ex-
ternal standard. The detailed calibration process was similar to that
described by Yuan et al. (2010). Isotope ratios and concentrations were
calculated using the GLITTER (4.0) software. Ages older than 1000 Ma
were based on 207Pb/206Pb ratios, whereas ages younger than 1000 Ma
were based on 206Pb/238U ratios. Concordant ages (90–110%) were
obtained from most gains. Diagrams showing U-Pb concordia and
weight average histograms were drawn using Isoplot_Ver3.0 (Ludwig,
2003).
Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Fig. 6. SEM photomicrographs showing occurrences of volcanic glass and its alteration into analcime in tuff samples LPR 40.5 (A, B, and C) and LPR 53.5 (D, E, and
F). The yellow squares in these pictures show the EDS analysis sites. (A) Volcanic glass in sample LPR 40.5. (B) Euhedral analcime in sample LPR 40.5. (C) Phlogopite
in sample LPR 40.5. (D) Euhedral analcime (right) and phlogopite (left) in sample LPR 53.5. (E) Subhedral analcime (left) and phlogopite (right) in sample LPR 53.5.
(F) Subhedral to euhedral analcime assemblages in sample LPR 53.5. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

Table 2
Concentrations of major elements (wt%) and their ratios of the tuff samples LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5.
Sample TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O BaO K2O/Na2O Na2O/Al2O3 K2O/Al2O3 MgO/Al2O3 Fe2O3/Al2O3 TiO2/Al2O3 CIA

LPR 53.5 0.35 16.65 1.81 0.83 0.88 6.85 1.4 0.05 0.2 0.41 0.08 0.05 0.11 0.02 64.57
LPR 40.5 0.3 13.93 12.56 0.44 0.83 4.39 3 0.06 0.68 0.32 0.22 0.03 0.9 0.02 62.89

4. Results
4.1. Petrological and mineralogical characteristics of the tuffs
As shown by the polarizing microscope analysis, sample LPR 40.5
mainly consists of analcime, quartz, albite, microcline, and phlogopite
(Fig. 4A, B). The quartz, microcline and albite have sharp angles, and
most are < 0.5 mm in size; the phlogopite is distributed randomly
without orientation in the matrix. Most phlogopites curve and kink,
indicating that they have experienced slight postdiagenesis. The crystal
clastics of quartz, microcline, albite and phlogopite are packaged by
analcime, suggesting that the analcime was altered from the primary
matrix and wrapped these crystal clastics. The quantitative XRD ana-
lysis shows that the major minerals in sample LPR 40.5 are analcime
(31%), albite (17%), microcline (21%), quartz (15%) and natrojarosite
(16%) (Table 1; Fig. 5A). The main mineral in sample LPR 53.5 is
analcime (79%), and albite, quartz and phlogopite have contents of
only 9%, 7%, and 5%, respectively (Table 1; Figs. 4C, D, 5B). The few

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Table 3 analcime is distributed randomly in the two tuff samples; this dis-
Characteristics of trace elements (ppb) of altered tuffs in the LPR section. tribution is different from that resulting from the hydrothermal al-
ppb LPR 53.5 LPR 40.5 teration of analcime, which often appears along the fractures of rocks or
in the gaps of interbeds (Qiu et al., 2014), confirming that the analcime
Ti 2,189,073 1,750,605 was altered from the tuff. The sharp-angled quartz and microcline in the
Rb 94,832 120,912
tuff samples indicate that the samples were not reworked after de-
Sr 230,281 480,305
La 11,133 17,227
position of the quartz and microcline. The subhedral and/or euhedral
Ce 23,325 32,959 analcime crystals indicate that they were not transported after forma-
Pr 2326 3074 tion. Combined with the above mineral assemblage, the homogeneous
Nd 8715 10,444 massive and tuffaceous texture indicates that the tuffs are primary de-
Sm 1573 1611
posits and have not been reworked.
Eu 348 402
Gd 1030 1044
Tb 129 129 4.2. Element characteristics of the tuffs
Dy 699 726
Ho 130 133
The element analysis indicates that LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 have
Er 387 411
Tm 56 61
similar major element compositions, e.g., Al2O3, TiO2, BaO, and CaO
Yb 384 438 but have different K2O, MgO, Fe2O3, and Na2O compositions (Table 2).
Lu 63 66 Sample LPR 40.5 has two times more K2O but less Na2O than sample
Ta 3572 3101 LPR 53.5. This difference is most likely due to the lower analcime
Hf 806 756
(NaAlSi2O6·H2O) and higher microcline (K[AlSi3O8]) contents in
Pb 30,215 62,256
Th 11,509 10,792 sample LPR 40.5 than in sample LPR 53.5, as identified by the XRD
U 3831 1933 analysis. LPR 40.5 is much richer in Fe2O3 than LPR 53.5, supporting
Y 3585 3791 the much higher natrojarosite (NaFe3(SO4)2(OH)6) concentration in
Zr 126,712 117,102 LPR 40.5.
Nb 3531 3770
Cs 15,305 10,404
Samples LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 display nearly the same trace ele-
Ba 496,003 567,730 ment compositions (Table 3; Fig. 7A, B). The rare earth elements (REEs)
Ratio in the tuff samples show that light REEs (LREEs) are enriched and heavy
Zr/Ti 0.06 0.07 REEs (HREEs) are depleted, which is similar to the patterns of volcanic
Hf/Ti 0.0016 0.0018
rocks on the southwest Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 1A) and different from the
Ta/Hf 0.23 0.24
Th/Hf 3.22 3.48 composition of the upper continental crust (UCC) (Fig. 7A). The in-
Nb/Y 0.98 0.99 compatible element compositions of the tuff samples exhibit a pattern
La/Y 3.11 4.54 similar to those of the volcanic rocks (Fig. 7B).

4.3. Chronology of zircon U-Pb ages

quartz, albite, and phlogopite crystal clastics scattered in the opaque
matrix and intergranular pores of the subhedral or euhedral analcime
indicate a tuffaceous texture before ash alteration.
The SEM confirms the occurrences of analcime, quartz, albite and
phlogopite in both samples (Fig. 6). In sample LPR 40.5, the analcime
crystals are subhedral or euhedral and in direct contact with albite or
microcline. Additionally, the residual glass in this sample is irregular
and smooth and exhibits flow structure (Fig. 6A). The EDS indicates
that the glass components are mainly silica and sodium, with some
potassium (Fig. 6A). This result is consistent with the mineral compo-
sitions that reflect high albite and analcime contents in the rock and
reveals that sodium ions promote the formation of analcime and albite.
Sample LPR 53.5 presents abundant analcime and little phlogopite
and quartz (Fig. 6D, E, F). The analcime crystals are subhedral or eu-
hedral and in close contact with phlogopite, which is kinked among the
analcime. The quartz is rare and distributed randomly and is sur-
rounded by analcime or opaque matrix. Some analcime grains show
complete crystal faces, indicating that there was enough space to pro-
duce analcime in situ. The EDS also shows high sodium and silica
contents (Fig. 6F).
The contact relationships and crystal morphology of the tuff mi-
crostructures demonstrate that the phlogopite, quartz, albite and mi-
crocline are the primary minerals and that the analcime and natrojar-
osite were altered from the volcanic materials that filled between the
mineral crystal clastics. The alkaline (sodium ions) and anoxic (semi-
deep to deep lake faces) environment promoted alteration of the vol-
canic glass and the matrix into analcime (Zhu et al., 2014). The
The analyzed zircons are colorless, transparent and euhedral. The
grain size is between 80 and 150 μm, and the ratios of length and width
are between 2 and 5. Most of the zircons have clear circular zoning in
the CL images (Fig. 8A), which reveals a magmatic origin. The youngest
age clusters (14 and 9 grains in LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5, respectively)
from LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 are used to acquire the most precise strata
age. The concordant ages of the youngest zircons are 20.6 ± 0.1 Ma
and 20.7 ± 0.1 Ma in LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5, respectively (Fig. 8B;
Table 4).
5. Discussion
5.1. The potential provenance of the tuff layers
The dating results for the tuff samples show that the volcano
erupted during the Miocene. Many Miocene volcanic rocks are found on
the Tibetan Plateau, especially in the Lhasa Terrane (Chung et al., 2003,
2005; Coulon et al., 1986; Miller et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2004),
which may have provided the provenance for the tuff layers. The
Miocene volcanic rocks from the Lhasa Terrane mainly include the
Bongba potassic volcanic rocks (~23–25 Ma), Shiquanhe trachyande-
site (~16–23.6 Ma), eastern Jarga (E Jarga) ultrapotassic volcanic rocks
(~18 Ma), Gegar calc-alkaline volcanic rocks (~16 Ma), Manasarowar
pyroclastic rocks (~17 Ma) and Zhabuye trachyandesite (~16 Ma)
(Miller et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2009) (Fig. 1A).
Because the element compositions of LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 are nearly
the same, these tuffs may have come from different episodes of the same

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Fig. 7. (A) REE distribution patterns (normalized by chondrites) of the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from the Lhasa terrane (see Fig. 1A for locations). (B)
Incompatible element diagram of the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from the Lhasa terrane normalized by the primitive mantle values from Sun and
McDonough (1989). (C) Discrimination diagram of Th/Hf versus Ta/Hf (after Schandl and Gorton, 2002) for the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from the
Lhasa terrane (Miller et al., 1999; Williams et al., 2004; Zhao et al., 2009). (D) Zr/TiO2 versus Nb/Y discrimination diagram (after Winchester and Floyd, 1977) for
the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from the Lhasa terrane. (E) Nb/Y versus La/Y discrimination diagram for the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from
the Lhasa terrane. (F) Hf/Ti versus Zr/Ti discrimination diagram for the tuff samples and volcanic rock samples from the Lhasa terrane (Summa and Verosub, 1992).

51
Z. Mao, et al.
Fig. 8. (A) Cathodoluminescence (CL) images of some of the zircon grains chosen from the tuffs for dating. (B) Zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb isotope concordia plots in the
middle-upper Dingqinghu Fm., Lunpori section, Lunpola Basin.
volcanism. The identified ages of the tuffs are close to the Ar-Ar age
from the phlogopite in the Shiquanhe volcanic rocks (21.2 ± 0.6 Ma;
Williams et al., 2004), suggesting a possible homologous link.
Stable trace elements are immobile during weathering, alteration
and diagenesis. In particular, Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Ti and other high field
strength elements (HFSEs) or REEs are widely used to reconstruct the
structure and tectonic setting of magmatism (Gorton and Schandl,
2000; Pearce and Peate, 1995; Schandl and Gorton, 2002) and correlate
magmatic with pyroclastic rocks (Lowe et al., 2017). The Th/Hf versus
Ta/Hf diagram distinguishes the tectonic regimes of active continental
margins (ACMs) and within-plate volcanic zones (WPVZs) well
(Schandl and Gorton, 2002). This diagram shows that the tuff samples
(LPR 53.5 and LPR 40.5) and volcanic rocks from Gegar, Manasarowar,
Zhabuye, Shiquanhe and Bongba all plot in the ACM tectonic regime
(Fig. 7C). The Zr/TiO2 and Nb/Y ratios are indices of alkalinity, and
only the Zr/TiO2 ratio represents a differentiation index; the diagram of
Nb/Y versus Zr/TiO2 therefore reveals the volcanic magma series and
rock types (Winchester and Floyd, 1977). This plot suggests that the tuff
samples and all the volcanic rocks are located in the central area of
trachyandesite except for the Manasarowar and Zhabuye volcanic rocks
around the trachyandesite boundary (Fig. 7D). The Nb/Y versus La/Y
diagram, which can be used to separate the volcanic units (Harangi
et al., 2001), shows that the Gegar, Shiquanhe and E Jarga volcanic
rocks are similar to the tuff samples (Fig. 7E), and the Hf/Ti versus Zr/
Ti diagram, which can be used to correlate altered tephra with un-
altered tephra and to distinguish different altered tephra layers (Summa
and Verosub, 1992), indicates that the tuff samples nearly coincide with
the Gegar and Shiquanhe volcanic rocks (Fig. 7F). These discrimination
diagrams show that the tuff samples (~20.6 Ma) in this study are most
similar in composition to the Shiquanhe (~16–23.6 Ma) and Gegar
(~16 Ma) calc-alkaline volcanic rocks. Considering the very similar
spatial locations (both lie in the Lhasa Terrane) and tectonic setting
(ACM) of these rocks and nearly identical ages, we infer that the tuffs in
this study may have formed during the Shiquanhe volcanism in the
Lhasa Terrane at approximately 21 Ma. Notably, more detailed in-
vestigations are needed to confirm the source in future work.
52
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56
5.2. Constraints on the stratigraphic age of the middle-upper part of the
Dingqinghu Fm
The average ages of the youngest zircon clusters from the tuff
samples LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5 near the bottom of the Lunpori section
are 20.6 ± 0.1 Ma and 20.7 ± 0.1 Ma, respectively, which constrains
the deposition of the middle-upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm. within
the early-middle Miocene. The two youngest zircon ages provide the
best estimation of the stratigraphic age given the quick eruption and
deposition. In addition, the bentonite found in the Chebuli section and
the fossil mammals in and near the Lunpori section suggest that the
ages of the lower and upper parts of the Dingqinghu Fm. are
23.5 ± 0.2 Ma and 18–16 Ma, respectively (Figs. 1C, 2A, 9; Deng et al.,
2012; He et al., 2012), agreeing well with the age determination of the
middle-upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm. in this study. The average
sedimentation rate according to the Wang-1 core near the Lunpori
section (Fig. 1C) was 6–8 cm/ka from the Oligocene to the early Mio-
cene (Ma et al., 2017), similar to the rate of the well-dated Chebuli
section nearby (Sun et al., 2014). Using this sedimentation rate, the top
of the Lunpori section (658 m) was extrapolated to ~13 Ma, which
means that the Lunpola Basin received deposits continually until at
least the middle Miocene, much later than the previous view that the
elevation and climate of the central Tibetan Plateau have not experi-
enced significant changes since the late Eocene-Oligocene (Decelles
et al., 2007; Rowley and Currie, 2006; Wang et al., 2008).
5.3. The paleoenvironmental implications
The pollen samples from the lower Lunpori section reveal patterns
of a coniferous forest dominated by Pinuspollenites, Piceaepollenites and
Abiespollenites and mixed with scattered thermophilic species such as
Podocarpus, Tsuga and Carya, which are warm-humid species of typical
subtropical vegetation (Wu et al., unpublished; Fig. 9). These findings
indicate that the forest was a theropencedrymion dominated by con-
iferous vegetation, suggesting a humid and warm climate. This result is
consistent with the pollen data from zone I in the Chebuli section (Sun
et al., 2014).
 Table 4
Results from LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of LPR 40.5 and LPR 53.5.
Z. Mao, et al.

Measured ratios Corrected ages (Ma)

207 207 206 208 238 207 207 206 208

Pb/206Pb 1δ Pb/235U 1δ Pb/238U 1δ Pb/232Th 1δ U/232Th Pb/206Pb 1δ Pb/235U 1δ Pb/238U 1δ Pb/232Th 1δ Concordant age 2δ

LPR 40.5-20 0.04478 0.00058 0.01829 0.00024 0.00314 0.00004 0.00088 0.00001 1.496048 −31 13 18.4 0.2 20.2 0.3 17.8 0.2 20.2 0.6
LPR 40.5-17 0.04848 0.00096 0.02202 0.00044 0.00317 0.00004 0.00091 0.00001 1.118534 123 25 22.1 0.4 20.4 0.3 18.4 0.2 20.4 0.6
LPR 40.5-19 0.03931 0.00046 0.02054 0.00025 0.00319 0.00003 0.00066 0.00001 3.285557 −330 13 20.6 0.2 20.5 0.2 13.3 0.2 20.5 0.4
LPR 40.5-26 0.04077 0.00055 0.02201 0.00032 0.00318 0.00004 0.0008 0.00001 1.247769 −246 15 22.1 0.3 20.5 0.3 16.2 0.2 20.5 0.6
LPR 40.5-29 0.04159 0.00124 0.02224 0.00067 0.0032 0.00004 0.00135 0.00005 15.30332 88 75 21.1 0.6 20.5 0.2 20.5 0.4 20.5 0.4
LPR 40.5-30 0.03474 0.00063 0.01827 0.00035 0.00319 0.00004 0.00152 0.00003 18.09306 −84 14 18.4 0.3 20.5 0.3 30.7 0.6 20.5 0.6
LPR 40.5-15 0.03734 0.00137 0.0224 0.00083 0.00318 0.00004 0.00101 0.00002 1.436832 −450 240 22.5 0.8 20.5 0.3 20.4 0.4 20.5 0.6
LPR 40.5-16 0.04458 0.00144 0.02258 0.00073 0.00321 0.00004 0.00048 0.00001 1.532415 −41 43 22.7 0.7 20.7 0.3 9.7 0.2 20.7 0.6
LPR 40.5-23 0.03991 0.00044 0.02136 0.00024 0.00321 0.00003 0.00052 0 1.65661 −295 12 21.5 0.2 20.7 0.2 10.5 – 20.7 0.4
LPR 40.5-28 0.04026 0.00112 0.02077 0.00058 0.00321 0.00004 0.00087 0.00001 2.538391 −275 42 20.9 0.6 20.7 0.3 17.6 0.2 20.7 0.6
LPR 40.5-9 0.04276 0.0005 0.02072 0.00025 0.00321 0.00004 0.00059 0 2.297303 −136 13 20.8 0.2 20.7 0.3 11.9 – 20.7 0.6
LPR 40.5-1 0.04462 0.00067 0.01969 0.0003 0.00322 0.00004 0.00077 0.00001 1.273982 −39 15 19.8 0.3 20.7 0.3 15.6 0.2 20.7 0.6
LPR 40.5-11 0.04092 0.00073 0.01903 0.00034 0.00321 0.00004 0.00129 0.00002 1.543632 −237 20 19.1 0.3 20.7 0.3 26.1 0.4 20.7 0.6
LPR 40.5-14 0.04184 0.0005 0.01908 0.00024 0.00323 0.00004 0.00077 0.00001 2.440779 −186 13 19.2 0.2 20.8 0.3 15.6 0.2 20.8 0.6
LPR 40.5-3 0.04698 0.00041 0.03085 0.00029 0.0044 0.00005 0.00089 0.00001 1.586685 48 12 30.9 0.3 28.3 0.3 18 0.2 28.3 0.6
LPR 40.5-6 0.0417 0.00046 0.03617 0.00043 0.00562 0.00006 0.00101 0.00001 0.931107 −194 12 36.1 0.4 36.1 0.4 20.4 0.2 36.1 0.8
LPR 40.5-12 0.04233 0.00029 0.04714 0.00037 0.00666 0.00007 0.00132 0.00001 2.662674 −159 11 46.8 0.4 42.8 0.4 26.7 0.2 42.8 0.8
LPR 40.5-4 0.04484 0.00091 0.04604 0.00096 0.00729 0.00008 0.00124 0.00002 1.98632 −28 22 45.7 0.9 46.8 0.5 25 0.4 46.8 1
LPR 40.5-24 0.04893 0.00047 0.05548 0.00057 0.00828 0.00009 0.00196 0.00002 0.606598 144 11 54.8 0.5 53.2 0.6 39.6 0.4 53.2 1.2
LPR 40.5-13 0.04055 0.00032 0.08039 0.00071 0.01149 0.00011 0.00221 0.00001 3.829886 −258 10 78.5 0.7 73.6 0.7 44.6 0.2 73.6 1.4
LPR 40.5-18 0.03928 0.00146 0.08881 0.00347 0.01435 0.00018 0.00364 0.00004 0.877556 −332 74 86 3 92 1 73.4 0.8 92.0 2
LPR 40.5-22 0.05172 0.00093 0.09372 0.00177 0.01456 0.00017 0.00356 0.00004 0.632282 273 23 91 2 93 1 71.8 0.8 93.0 2
LPR 40.5-25 0.04268 0.00046 0.08892 0.00103 0.01495 0.00016 0.00284 0.00002 0.965052 −140 12 86.5 1 96 1 57.3 0.4 96.0 2

53
LPR 40.5-2 0.05309 0.00077 0.09717 0.00148 0.01493 0.00017 0.00413 0.00004 0.880396 333 16 94 1 96 1 83.3 0.8 96.0 2
LPR 40.5-10 0.04672 0.00084 0.10068 0.00189 0.01533 0.00018 0.00419 0.00005 0.896065 35 24 97 2 98 1 85 1 98.0 2
LPR 40.5-8 0.04656 0.00033 0.21887 0.00186 0.02885 0.00029 0.00558 0.00003 1.195166 27 11 201 2 183 2 112.5 0.6 183.0 4
LPR 40.5-21 0.03698 0.00025 0.20397 0.00166 0.03215 0.00032 0.00764 0.00004 5.1648 −473 218 188 1 204 2 153.8 0.8 204.0 4
LPR 40.5-5 0.04689 0.00038 0.33866 0.00308 0.0514 0.00056 0.01633 0.00012 8.565297 44 12 296 2 323 3 327 2 323.0 6
LPR 40.5-27 0.0557 0.00055 0.38054 0.00409 0.05218 0.00059 0.01319 0.00013 1.719753 440 11 327 3 328 4 265 3 328.0 8
LPR 40.5-7 0.0394 0.00022 0.37071 0.00257 0.0565 0.00055 0.01167 0.00005 3.038613 −325 11 320 2 354 3 234.5 1 354.0 6
LPR 53.5-8 0.25729 0.00271 0.16037 0.00191 0.00438 0.00005 0.00495 0.00005 1.56697 2 264 20 3 20.4 0.3 20 1 20.4 0.6
LPR 53.5-9 0.04285 0.00198 0.01903 0.00088 0.00319 0.00004 0.00129 0.00003 2.17364 −131 80 19.1 0.9 20.5 0.3 26.1 0.6 20.5 0.6
LPR 53.5-11 0.04399 0.00128 0.01959 0.00058 0.00321 0.00004 0.00093 0.00001 0.76537 −71 42 19.7 0.6 20.7 0.3 18.8 0.2 20.7 0.6
LPR 53.5-3 0.04510 0.00176 0.02053 0.00081 0.00321 0.00004 0.00098 0.00002 2.06080 −14 58 20.6 0.8 20.7 0.3 19.8 0.4 20.7 0.6
LPR 53.5-12 0.04858 0.00075 0.02245 0.00036 0.00322 0.00004 0.00089 0.00001 0.65487 128 18 22.5 0.4 20.7 0.3 18 0.2 20.7 0.6
LPR 53.5-14 0.04872 0.00272 0.02176 0.00122 0.00325 0.00004 0.00166 0.00002 0.94090 134 104 22 1 20.9 0.3 33.5 0.4 20.9 0.6
LPR 53.5-4 0.04483 0.00255 0.02017 0.00115 0.00324 0.00004 0.00196 0.00003 1.44940 −28 98 20 1 20.9 0.3 39.6 0.6 20.9 0.6
LPR 53.5-10 0.04659 0.00215 0.02205 0.00102 0.00324 0.00004 0.00105 0.00001 0.80995 28 76 22 1 20.9 0.3 21.2 0.2 20.9 0.6
LPR 53.5-1 0.03934 0.00140 0.01946 0.00070 0.00324 0.00004 0.00102 0.00001 0.75137 −328 63 19.6 0.7 20.9 0.3 20.6 0.2 20.9 0.6
LPR 53.5-15 0.04797 0.00253 0.02497 0.00132 0.00385 0.00005 0.00079 0.00002 0.57519 98 94 25 1 24.8 0.3 16 0.4 24.8 0.6
LPR 53.5-2 0.04968 0.00090 0.03145 0.00060 0.00465 0.00005 0.00195 0.00002 1.33764 180 25 31.4 0.6 29.9 0.3 39.4 0.4 29.9 0.6
LPR 53.5-7 0.04256 0.00182 0.03616 0.00164 0.00536 0.00014 0.00203 0.00005 1.74572 −147 57 36 2 34.5 0.9 41 1 34.5 1.8
LPR 53.5-16 0.09718 0.00100 0.10860 0.00130 0.00782 0.00009 0.00456 0.00006 2.04782 63 103 47 2 46.8 0.6 46.8 0.8 46.8 1.2
LPR 53.5-5 0.07330 0.04797 0.04796 0.03139 0.00777 0.00027 0.00182 0.00049 1.67474 1022 1179 48 30 50 2 37 10 50 4
LPR 53.5-18 0.03416 0.00136 0.04895 0.00221 0.00781 0.00019 0.00275 0.00006 1.74429 −108 42 49 2 50 1 56 1 50 2
LPR 53.5-13 0.04650 0.00143 0.07950 0.00252 0.01191 0.00014 0.00575 0.00010 2.06475 24 46 78 2 76.3 0.9 116 2 76.3 1.8
LPR 53.5-17 0.04883 0.00048 0.12253 0.00133 0.01715 0.00018 0.00423 0.00003 1.32941 140 12 117 1 110 1 85.3 0.6 110 2
LPR 53.5-6 0.05248 0.00093 0.12954 0.00246 0.01795 0.00021 0.00624 0.00009 1.90311 306 23 124 2 115 1 126 2 115 2
LPR 53.5-19 0.04701 0.00113 0.11897 0.00300 0.01857 0.00022 0.00673 0.00009 0.85017 50 37 114 3 119 1 136 2 119 2
LPR 53.5-20 0.06723 0.00415 0.17281 0.01186 0.02589 0.00074 0.01008 0.00029 1.53587 845 95 162 10 165 5 203 6 165 10
LPR 53.5-23 0.07171 0.01070 0.18089 0.02789 0.02600 0.00082 0.03300 0.00107 0.86226 978 272 169 24 165 5 656 21 165 10
LPR 53.5-22 0.05194 0.00069 0.23427 0.00355 0.03199 0.00035 0.01114 0.00011 1.63609 283 17 214 3 203 2 224 2 203 4
(continued on next page)
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56
Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Thick paper-like oil shales, fossil mammals (Plesiaceratherium sp.),

12

22

20
12
28
2δ

8
fresh water fossil fishes and fossil mega-plant (Koelreuteria bipinnata)
(Fig. 9) remains also suggest that the climate was humid and warm
Concordant age

243 during this period (Deng et al., 2012; Fu et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2018;
271
327
378
423
446
551
600
Wu et al., 2017). All these lines of evidence collectively show a forest
ecological landscape in the early-middle Miocene, that is, on the shaded
side of the basin and surrounding mountains, a coniferous forest with
Pinuspollenites, Piceaepollenites and Abiespollenites developed; shrubs
22
1δ

3
3
4

3
6
6
8
lived on the sunny slopes; some aquatic plants grew around the lake;
Pb/232Th

and thermophilic species such as Podocarpus, Tsuga and Carya mixed

with Pinuspollenites grew and provided a habitat for forest mammals at
266
190
325
324
345
350
538
427

the foot of the hills (Wu et al., unpublished). This widespread forest,
208

together with the abundant fishes, charophytes and ostracods that

prevailed in the lake, provided plentiful organic materials to the lake to
11

10

14
1δ

3
6
4

form oil shale. The coniferous forest in the mountains may show that
Pb/238U

the elevation was relatively high but still much lower than the present
243
271
327
378
423
446
551
600

elevation; in particular, the presence of subtropical trees prevents a

206

high elevation estimation. This landscape was completely different

from the present subcold steppe landscape, which has no trees at basin
72

10

12
1δ

3
6
8

surface elevations of 4500–4600 m and on surrounding mountains with

elevations of 5000–6000 m.
Pb/235U

The south margin of the Lhasa Terrane was located at ~10–20°N at

252
297
343
389
442
485
586
612

the beginning of the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates at
207

55 ± 5 Ma and reached its modern position of ~29°N with the con-

Corrected ages (Ma)

tinuous collision (Chen et al., 2010; Lippert et al., 2014; Yi et al., 2011),
231
14
26
65

14
26
13
26
1δ

causing the Lhasa Terrane to enter the subtropical arid zone under the
subtropical high pressure. The tropical monsoon driven by the seasonal
Pb/206Pb

−330

migrations of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) might have

278

450

424
368
637
402
65

dominated the northern margin of the Indian Plate and the low lati-
207

tudes of SE Asia to the south of ~20°N in the Paleocene and Eocene

(Ding et al., 2017; Licht et al., 2014; Shukla et al., 2014; Spicer et al.,
Th

1.26456
1.58059
3.44486
1.72482
3.11868
2.37057
1.00377
1.38999
232

2016, 2017). However, the expansion of the Indian monsoon north-

U/

wards into the subtropical Tibetan Plateau lacks evidence and is thus
238

uncertain. Fossil mammals, fishes and plants (palms and golden rain
trees) and advanced organic geochemical paleoaltimetry collectively
0.00017
0.00016
0.00032
0.00110
0.00017
0.00032
0.00029
0.00038

demonstrate that the paleo-elevation of the Lunpola Basin was lower

1δ

than ~2500–3000 m (Deng et al., 2012; Jia et al., 2015; Jiang et al.,
2018; Su et al., 2019; Sun et al., 2014) and that the airflow from the
Th

0.01327
0.00942
0.02442
0.01615
0.01723
0.01745
0.02696
0.02137
232

Indian Ocean could penetrate into the central Tibetan Plateau in the
Pb/

late Oligocene (Deng et al., 2019), perhaps implying the climate was
208

warm but not as dry at that time. Our evidence here (oil shales, fresh
water fishes and pollens) and forest mammals of old type rhino (Ple-
0.00044
0.00103
0.00061
0.00182
0.00074
0.00169
0.00100
0.00231

siaceratherium sp.) (Deng et al., 2012) indicate that the Indian monsoon
1δ

prevailed in the Lunpola Basin in the central Tibetan Plateau at the

latest in the Miocene.
U

0.03840
0.04298
0.05319
0.06038
0.06785
0.07170
0.08923
0.09760
238
Pb/

6. Conclusions
206

1) The lithology, petrography, mineralogy and geochemistry of the

0.00382
0.00826
0.00707
0.10467
0.00730
0.01614
0.01022
0.02151

middle-upper part of the Dingqinghu Fm. in the 658-m Lunpori

1δ

section, Lunpola Basin, enabled the recognition of two tuff layers of

trachyandesite near the bottom of the section.
U

0.28145
0.33987
0.53431
0.46675
0.54508
0.61293
0.78090
0.82796
235

2) Laser U-Pb dating of zircon grains from the tuffs yielded ages of
Pb/

20.6 ± 0.1 Ma and 20.7 ± 0.1 Ma for the bottom part of Lunpori
207

section and an age estimate of ~13 Ma for the top of the section,
0.00061
0.00087
0.00080
0.00508
0.00062
0.00103
0.00067
0.00104

indicating that the strata were deposited continually until at least

the middle Miocene, much later than previous estimates indicating
1δ
Measured ratios

the Dingqinghu Fm. was deposited in the late Eocene to Oligocene.

Pb

3) The occurrences of abundant oil shales, pollen assemblages, fossil

0.05183
0.04732
0.07205
0.02896
0.05528
0.05393
0.06095
0.05476
206

mega-plants, mammals, fishes and microfossils in the Lunpori sec-

Pb/
Table 4 (continued)

tion revealed that the climate was humid and warm during the
207

deposition of the Dingqinghu Fm., which was distinct from the

53.5-21
53.5-24
53.5-25
53.5-26
53.5-27
53.5-30
53.5-29
53.5-28

current climate, indicating that the Indian monsoon already pre-

vailed in the central Tibetan Plateau in the Miocene.
LPR
LPR
LPR
LPR
LPR
LPR
LPR
LPR

54
Z. Mao, et al. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 525 (2019) 44–56

Fig. 9. Paleoclimatic evidence in the corresponding region of the Lunpori section. (A) Recovered biotope and habitat of rhinoceros fauna in the Miocene in the
Lunpola Basin (provided by Tao Deng). (B) The mammal fossil rhinoceros Plesiaceratherium sp. in the bottom of the upper Dingqinghu Fm. near the Lunpori section
(Deng et al., 2012). (C, D) Photos of the thick paper-like oil shales and the fresh water fossil fish in the middle Dingqinghu Fm. in and near the Lunpori section,
respectively. (E) Photomicrographs showing pollen at the bottom of the Lunpori section (1 and 2 are Podocarpus; 3 and 4 are Tsuga; 5 is Carya), which reveal a warm-
cool and humid climate (from Wu et al., unpublished). (F) Photo showing the fossil mega-plant Koelreuteria (Jiang et al., 2018).

Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the “Strategic Priority Research
Program” of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (grant no.
XDA20070201) and NSFC (grant no. 41620104002; 41877298). We
thank Shengli Yang, Chihao Chen, Lijie Yao and Ruohan Huang for their
assistance in the laboratory and field work and Xiaobai Ruan for dis-
cussions on the research.
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