CHP 1 Hypersonics

Advanced
Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics
Iain D. Boyd Graham V. Candler

Dept. Aerospace Eng. Dept. Aerospace Eng. & Mech.
University of Michigan University of Minnesota
Ann Arbor, MI Minneapolis, MN
Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics
1.1 Introduction
Outline (1)
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)

1.1 Introduction and Examples
Vehicle trajectories and properties
1.2 Hypersonic gas dynamic processes
Shock waves / boundary layers wakes
1.3 Fundamental equations of gas dynamics
Boltzmann / Euler / Navier-Stokes Equations

Outline (2)
1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)

1.4 Real gas effects:
Quantum mechanics + statistical mechanics
Perfect gas
Vibrational activation
Chemical reactions – nonequilibrium vs. equilibrium
Ionization, radiation
1.5 Shock wave analysis
Perfect gas
Iterative approach for equilibrium gas
1.6 Transport phenomena

Outline (3)
2. Hypersonic Aerodynamics: Pressure (1.0 hour)

2.1 Exact and approximate equilibrium gas solutions:
Stagnation points
Cones and wedges
2.2 Mach number independence
2.3 Newtonian and Modified Newtonian aerodynamics

Outline (4)
3. Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics: Heat Transfer

(2.0 hours)
3.1 Introduction:
role of aerodynamic heating
hypersonic boundary layers
3.2 Boundary layer equations, similarity transformation
3.3 Flat plate / wedge / cone solutions
3.4 Stagnation point solution and scaling
3.5 Laminar and turbulent boundary layers; transition
3.6 Wall catalysis

Outline (5)
4. Viscous Interactions (1.0 hour)

4.1 Leading edge interactions
4.2 Effect on high-altitude L/D; scaling for vehicles
4.3 Shock-BL interactions, shock-shock interactions
5. Thermal Protection Systems (1.5 hours)

5.1 Passive:
Re-radiative cooling, equilibrium wall boundary condition
Role of wall temperature, material properties
5.2 Ablative
Surface ablators
Pyrolyzing ablators

Outline (6)
6. Computational Analysis (2.0 hours)

6.1 Continuum CFD methods
Requirements for aeroheating predictions
Approaches for real gas effects
Current code capabilities
6.2 Non-continuum method - DSMC
7. Experimental Testing (1.0 hour)

7.1 Types of facilities:
Blow-down tunnels
Vitiated-air facilities
Impulse facilities
7.2 Overview of measurement techniques

Outline (7)
8. Aerothermodynamics of Hypersonic Vehicles

(1.5 hours)
Ballistic entry
Lifting capsule re-entry: Apollo
High-lift re-entry: Shuttle
Aerocapture / Aerobraking
Airbreathing scramjets

What is Hypersonic Flow?
• Working definition of hypersonic flow:

M = (U / a) >> 1
• Hypersonic aerothermodynamic phenomena:

– strong shock waves with high temperature
– not calorifically perfect (variable γ)
– chemical reactions
– significant surface heat flux
– several different types of vehicles:
• missiles, space planes, capsules, air-breathers

Hypersonic Examples:
I. Missiles
• Mission: high-speed delivery of explosives

• Aerodynamics: slender body with blunt nose
• Propulsion: rockets, ramjets
• Examples: AMRV, SCUD, Patriot, Hy-Fly
II. Space Planes
• Mission: orbital re-entry

• Aerodynamics: gliders with thermal protection
• Propulsion: none (except small control thrusters)
• Examples: Space Shuttle, Buran, Hermes
III. Air-breathing Systems
• Missions: launch, cruise, orbital re-entry

• Aerodynamics: slender with integrated engines
• Propulsion: ram/scram-jets, rockets, turbojets
• Examples: X-15, NASP, X-43, X-51
IV. Planetary Entry
• Missions: EDL, aero-braking, aero-capture

• Aerodynamics: very blunt, thick heat shield
• Propulsion: none (sometimes RCS)
• Examples: Apollo, MSL, CEV (Orion)
Hypersonic Vehicle
Historical Overview
• Flight vehicles:
– WAC Corporal missile (1949, M~8)
– Vostok I (1961, M~25)
– X-15 (1963-1967, M~7)
– Space Shuttle (1981-???, M~25)
– HyShot (2002, M~8)
– X43 (2004, M>7)
– Hy-CAUSE (2007)
• Recent programs without flight:
– NASP, Hermes, AFE, AOTV (1990)
– VentureStar-X33 (2000)
Some Current
Hypersonic Programs
Falcon (DARPA)
HyBoLT (NASA/ATK)
Orion
X51
(NASA)
(AFRL)

Hypersonic Tales of Woe
• Hypersonics produces unexpected phenomena
• X15 test flight with dummy scramjet installed:

– unexpected shock interactions generated
– burned holes in connection pylon
• First re-entry of Space Shuttle (STS-1):

– larger than expected nose-up pitch generated
– required near-maximum deflection of body flap
• Shock-shock interactions:
– heating amplified significantly
– leading edges, cowl lips,
engine flow paths

Re-entry Trajectories
• Trajectory equations for Earth centered system:

U"˙ L $ U 2' T, U L
= # & 1# ) cos(" )
g W % gR ( γ
T U˙ D
" = + sin(# ) D
W g W
W
• Ballistic missiles:
– mission: short flight, fast impact
– rocket launch, ballistic entry
– no thrust or lift during entry (T=0, L=0)
– fixed flight path at large angle (γ=const)

Re-entry Trajectories
• Space Shuttle:
– mission: orbital return
– rocket launch
– equilibrium glide entry
– no thrust, L/D~1, γ~0 (shallow entry)
• Air-breathing vehicle:
– missions: cruise, orbital return
– completely reusable
– powered take-off and entry
1 2
– constant 2 "U for engine efficiency

Flight Velocity

Stagnation Point Heating

Stagnation Point
Temperature

Deceleration Levels

1.2 Hypersonic Gas Dynamics
• Goal of hypersonic gas dynamics analysis:
– predict flow field around a hypersonic vehicle
– predict properties on vehicle surface (pressure,
shear stress, heat transfer)
– hence predict aerodynamic and thermal
performance of a vehicle
• Three main gas dynamic flow phenomena:
– shock waves
– boundary layers
– wakes

1.2.1 Shock Waves
• Formed when an object is placed in supersonic flow:

– Mach number M = U / a (a~330 m/s at STP)
– supersonic: M > 1
• A shock wave is an extremely thin layer of fluid across
which there are significant changes in properties:
– at STP, thickness ~ 10-7 m
– T, p, ρ all increase; M, U decrease
– variable-ρ = compressible; high-T=real gas
• Several different types:
– normal (strongest), oblique, bow

1.2.2 Boundary Layers
• Thin fluid layer formed next to vehicle surface:

– created by friction between gas and wall
• Boundary layer (BL) determines surface properties:
– pressure (nearly constant across BL)
– shear stress and heat transfer
– flow separation
• Different types with very different properties:
– laminar
– turbulent
– transition between the two
1.2.3 Wakes
• Region of flow in the rear of the vehicle:

– smaller influence on aerothermodynamics
• Often involves strong expansion processes:
– T, p, ρ all decrease; M, U increase
• Recompression:
– leads to increased heating on a capsule backshell
– base pressure effects on missiles
– flow may become turbulent
– complex vortex dynamics

1.3.1 Boltzmann Equation
• Consider gas flow at the molecular level:

– molecule has position x, velocity C
– enormous volume of information (at STP, there
is about 1026 air molecules per cubic meter)
– adopt a statistical approach
– velocity distribution function, VDF:
f(t, x, C) dx dC
– probability of finding a particle at time t, in
physical space element dx, and in velocity
space element dC

1d VDF’s

• VDF is affected by:

– particle transport across dx due to C
– particle transport across dC due to a
– scattering in/out of dC due to molecular collisions
• Leads to the Boltzmann Equation:
" (nf ) " (nf ) " (nf ) 2
"t
+ C#
"x
+a#
"C
= '' n { f (C') f (Z') $ f (C) f (Z)}g%d&dZ
– n=number density, a=acceleration (force), g=relative
velocity, σ=collision cross section, Ω=solid angle,
! C’=particle velocity after collision, Z=velocity of
particle with which C-particle collides

• Equilibrium solution:
– no net change in VDF, f, requires LHS = RHS = 0
– RHS = 0 satisfied by
f (C) f (Z) = f (C') f (Z')
log[ f (C)] + log[ f (Z)] = log[ f (C')] + log[ f (Z')]
– !thus, log[f] is a linear combination of collision
invariants (mass, momentum, energy)
!
– leads to Maxwellian (equilibrium) VDF
# m &3 / 2 * m -
f (C)dC = % (
$ 2"kt '
exp )
,+ 2kT ( C1 )(u1 )
2
+ ( C 2 ) u 2 )
2
+ ( C 3 ) u 3 )
2
)
/.dC
! Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Very difficult to obtain solutions:

– seven-dimensional space
– non-linear collision integral on RHS
– expensive computations required
• Solution only required for strongly nonequilibrium flow:

– Knudsen number: Kn = λ / L
– at Kn < 0.01, f is close to Maxwellian
– for L=1 m, Kn~0.01 at h=90 km in atmosphere
– for small Kn, Boltzmann equation can be used to
derive sets of macroscopic transport equations

1.3.2 Method of Moments
• Take moments of Boltzmann Eq (Maxwell):

"n Q "n CQ
+ = # [Q]
"t "x
– Q=Q(C) is a particle property, e.g. momentum mC

– Δ[Q]=rate
! of change of Q due to collisions
– Q = " Qf (C)dC
• Assumptions for f, Q lead to sets of partial differential

! equations describing macroscopic flow

1.3.2 Euler Equations
• Assumptions:
– local thermodynamic equilibrium
– VDF’s are Maxwellian everywhere
– use Q=m, mC, 0.5mC2 for which Δ[Q]=0
– leads to 5 PDE’s: the Euler equations
"# "#u "#u "# CC "u
+ =0 + = 0 = # + #u $ %u + %p
"t "x "t "x "t
" 0.5 # C 2 " 0.5 # CC 2 3 "p 3

+ =0= + $ % pu + p$ % u
! "t ! "x 2 "t 2
– no viscosity, no thermal conductivity

!
1.3.3 Navier-Stokes Eqns.
• Chapman-Enskog distribution:
– VDF is small perturbation from equilibrium
f (C)dC = "(C) f M (C)dC
– where Γ(C)=1+F(Kn)=1+F(heat flux, shear stress)

!
• Navier-Stokes equations from transfer equation:
– same five relations as Euler Equations
– also: Q=mCiCj, mCiCjCk (15 further relations)
– replace heat flux tensor by heat flux vector
– derive and substitute linear transport relations

• Again, a set of five PDE’s:
" " " "
U+ F + G+ H = 0
"t "x "y "z
#"' % "u )
% % ' 2 '
" u + p # $
! %% "u %% '' xx ''
U = $ "v ( F =& "uv # $ xy *
% "w % ' "uw # $ xz '
% % ' '
%& "E %) '(( "E + p # $ xx ) u # $ xy v # $ xz w + qx '+
% "v ) % "w )
' ' ' '
' " uv # $ yx '' " uw # $
!' 2 ! '' zx ''
G=& "v + p # $ yy * H=& "vw # $ zy *
' "vw # $ yz ' ' "w 2 + p # $ zz '
' ' ' '
'(( "E + p # $ yy )v # $ yx v # $ yz w + qy '+ '(( "E + p # $ zz ) w # $ zx u # $ zyv + qz '+

! !
• Stress tensor modeled using Stokes’ hypothesis
for Newtonian fluid:
'#u 1 * $#u #v '
" xx = 2µ) $ % & u, " xy = " yx = µ& + )
(#x 3 + %#y #x (
– µ = viscosity coefficient
! • Heat flux vector modeled

! using Fourier’s Law:
$T
qx = "#
$x
– κ = coefficient of thermal conductivity
!
1.4 Real Gas Effects
• In low-speed flows, air is a perfect gas:

– simplified thermodynamics, no chemistry
• In most hypersonic flows, air is a real gas:
– mainly due to high temperatures
– complex thermodynamics, chemical reactions
• Requires us to consider:
– quantum+statistical mechanics
– vibrational activation, chemistry
– equilibrium and finite rate processes
– ionization and radiation

1.4.1 Quantum Mechanics
• An atom / molecule has several energy modes:

– translation (due to 3D motion)
– rotation (gyration of atoms in a molecule)
– vibration (oscillation of atoms in a molecule)
– electronic (arrangement of electrons in orbits)
• Quantum mechanics provides energy states:
– solution of Schrodinger equation
– separate analysis for each energy mode
– each atom / molecule may only occupy certain
quantized energy states in each energy mode

• Translational energy:
h2
2 ( 1 3)
2 2 2
"t = n + n 2 + n
8mL
– h=Planck’s constant, L=dimension, m=mass
– n1, n2, n3 are translational quantum numbers
– Δεt ~10-38! J so continuum can be assumed
• Rotational energy (rigid rotor): "r = k# r $ J(J + 1)
– k=Boltzmann const, θr=char. temp. for rotation
– J=rotational quantum number
– for air, Δεr ~10-23 J so continuum OK
!
• Vibrational energy (harmonic oscillator):

"v = k# v $ v
– θv=characteristic temperature for vibration
– v=vibrational quantum number
– for air, Δεv ~10-20 J so quantum effects important
!
• Electronic energy:
– energy levels determined by spectroscopy
– each atom, molecule, ion has unique structure
– generally, for air species, electronic states only
excited in very high temperature flows
– hence, ground electronic state usually assumed
1.4.2 Statistical Mechanics
• Each atom / molecule has an enormous number of

possible energy levels:
– degenerate energy states for each energy level
• Large number of atoms/molecules in a gas:

– huge volume of information
• Statistical mechanics:
– distributions of particles across energy states
– macroscopic thermodynamics via
integration/summation of atomic/molecular
behavior

• Boltzmann energy distribution:

gi exp(#"i /kT )
f ("i ) =
$ g exp(#" /kT )
i i
– gi=degeneracy of energy level i

– summation in denominator is partition function, Q
!
• Overall partition function: Q = Qt " Qr " Qv " Qe
# 2"mkT & 3 / 2 Qr =
T (diatomic)
Qt = V % (
$ h '2 "r
!
1
Qv = Qe = g0 + g1 exp("#1 /T ) $ g0
1" exp("# v /T )
! !
!
!
• Internal energy (thermodynamics):

3RT e = RT R" v ee " 0
e = et + er + ev + ee et = r
ev =
2 exp(" v /T ) #1
• Specific heats:
! ! 2
!
! # "e & 3R ! * ) v /2T -
cv = % ( = + R + R, /
$ "T ' v 2 + sinh( ) v /2T) .
cp
c p = cv + R "=
cv
!
!
!
• Specific heats (non-reacting):

1.4.3 Perfect Gas
• Assumption often invoked in hypersonics:

– no vibrational activation, no chemistry
– cp, cv, γ are all constants
"R R
p = "RT e = c vT h = c pT cp = cv =
" #1 " #1
• For air:
! ! ! ! !7
7R 5R "=
cp = cv = 5
2 2
! ! !
1.4.4 Vibrational Activation
• At high temperatures (T>1,000K) air molecules

become vibrationally activated:
– equilibrium (infinite rate) results provided by
quantum mechanics + statistical mechanics
– finite rate activation modeled using
dev e*v (T) " ev
=
dt #v
– where e*v=equilibrium value at temperature T
– τv=vibrational relaxation time (Millikan & White)

1.4.5 Air Chemistry
• Analysis of Earth hypersonic vehicles at U<8km/s:

– 5-species air model sufficient: N2, O2, NO, N, O
• Reactions:
– Dissociation-recombination: N2 + M " N + N + M
O2 + M " O + O + M
NO + M " N + O + M
– Zeldovich exchange:
! N 2 + O " NO + N
!
! NO + O " O2 + N
!
!
Rate Processes
• For illustration, consider:

– 2-species: N2, N N2 + M " N + N + M
• Each reaction proceeds at a finite rate:
kf1 kf 2
N2 + N2 " N + N + N2 N2 + N " N + N + N
kb1 kb 2
!
• Forward rate coefficients measured experimentally, kf (T)
• Backward rate coefficients from equilibrium constant:
! !
k f "Qproducts
Ke = =
kb "Qreactants
partition functions Q from quantum+statistical mechanics
!
Rates of Change
• Net rate of change in concentration of a species:

– contributions from forward and backward directions
d[N 2 ]
= "k f 1[N 2 ][N 2 ] " k f 2 [N 2 ][N] + kb1[N][N][N 2 ] + k b 2 [N][N][N]
dt
• Chemical equilibrium:
– final state reached instantaneously
! – production of each species balanced by its destruction
– analytical solution for our system:
"2 m QN2
= exp(#% d /T)
1# " $V QN 2
– α=mass fraction, m=atom mass, ρ=density, V=volume,
θd=dissociation temperature
Infinite Rate of Reactions
• Chemical equilibrium:
– O2 dissociates before N2 (has lower θd)
– fewer atoms at high pressure (more recombination)

Finite Rate of Reactions
• Chemical nonequilibrium:
– equilibrium end state reached only after finite time
– in a flow field, this translates as finite distance

Nonequilibrium
• Impact of chemical nonequilibrium:

– chemical composition mainly affects energy of flow
• endothermic reactions consume energy
• catalysis: fraction of atoms reaching the vehicle
surface may recombine releasing heat
– scaling:
• nonequilibrium flow occurs at lower density
and/or smaller body length scales
#$U$ L #$ 1
small Re " large Kn " %
µ$ L &$ L
! !
Ionization
• Very high temperature reacting air (U>8km/s):
– N2, O2, NO, N, O, N2+, O2+, NO+, N+, O+, e-
• Reactions:
– dissociation-recombination:
N2 + M " N + N + M
– exchange:
N 2 + O " NO + N
– associative Ionization:
! N + N " N 2+ + e#
– direct Ionization:
! " + " "
N+e #N +e +e
!
!
Ionization
• Equilibrium solution (Saha) for [N, N+, e-] system:
"2 T 5/2
2
=C exp(#$ i /T)
1# " p
– φ=ion mole fraction,
– C=constant,
!
– p=pressure,
– θi=ionization
temperature

Ionization
• Significance:
– plasma causes communications blackout
– highly catalytic ions are source of heating

Radiation
• Another important process at high temperature:
– activation-deactivation: N + e" # N * + e"
– spontaneous emission: N * " N + h#

– analysis is complex, no closed form expressions
!
– research area, e.g. NEQAIR (NASA-ARC)
• Radiative heating!important at U>12km/s:
– e.g. stagnation point heating correlation (Martin)
q˙ rad " RNU 8.5 #1.6
– also proportional to shock layer thickness
– Stardust: radiation provides 10% of total heating
!
1.5 Post-Shock Conditions
• Perfect-gas shock relations:
• Density ratio asymptotes to:
• Pressure and temperature are quadratic in M
– Makes sense: energy is conserved

Post-Shock Conditions
• Post-Shock Temperature:
Temperatures rapidly
become huge!

• Variation of air internal energy with T:
10% departure from

calorically perfect gas
equation of state =
onset of hypersonic flow

• More fundamentally – 1D gas dynamics:
• Plus equations of state:

Thermally perfect,
calorically imperfect
General equilibrium
gas mixture
• No exact solutions
• Hypersonic limit:
Can solve for the

thermodynamic state
• Note that post-shock enthalpy and pressure only

depend on upstream conditions in hypersonic limit.

• Iterative solution to shock relations:
• Guess a value of ε = εi and iterate:
Use tables, NASA CEA, etc.

Equilibrium Air
Temperature (K) Z = Compressibility

• Example: M = 12 at 30 km altitude:
Imperfect Perfect

• Perfect-gas vs. equilibrium post-shock conditions:
Difference is due to
energy storage in
internal energy
modes + chemistry

• Post-shock pressure has weak dependence on non-

ideal gas effects (just through (1- ε))
• Post-shock temperature and density have strong Mach
number (free-stream speed) dependence
– Density ratio > (γ + 1)/(γ - 1) = 6
– Temperature decreases significantly
• Concept of γ no longer has much meaning; if:
• Matlab code:
ftp://ftp.aem.umn.edu/users/candler/HEI/mollier.m

1.6 Transport Phenomena
• Generated by gradients in flow properties:

– diffusion (Fick’s Law):
dCA
J A = "#DAB
DAB=diffusion coefficient dy
du
– viscosity (Newtonian fluid): " =µ
dy
µ = viscosity coefficient
!
dT
– thermal conduction (Fourier’s Law): q = "#
κ = thermal conductivity
dy
! coefficient
!
Diffusion
• Affects continuity and energy equations

• Influences transport of species to surface
• Coefficient evaluation:
3 #mi kT
– for simple gas (self diffusion) Dii =
8 " #$(1,1)
ii
– for gas mixture kT (mi + m j )kT 1

Dij "
p mi m j #$(1,1)
ij
(1,1) !
– " ij
are diffusion collision integrals
– averaged binary coefficient

! D1m often used

Diffusion
Depends on temperature, pressure, species

Viscosity
• Affects momentum and energy equations

• Influences surface shear stress
• Coefficient evaluation:
5 "mi kT
– for simple gas µi =
16 "#(2,2)
ii
– various mixing rules µ = µ("(1,1)

ij ,"(2,2)
ij )
(2,2) !
–" ij
are viscosity collision integrals
!

Viscosity
1.5
#6 T
Sutherland law µ = 1.458 "10
• T + 110.4 kg/m/s
air
– depends on pressure at high T due to chemistry

Thermal Conductivity
• Affects energy equations

• Influences surface convective heat flux
• Coefficient evaluation: 5 #mi kT 1 % 9 (
– for simple gas (Eucken) " i = 16 #$(2,2) M '&c v + 4 Ru *)
ii i
– various mixing rules " = " (#(1,1)

ij ,#(2,2)
ij )
!
– "(2,2)
ij
are again viscosity collision integrals
– curve fits for collision
! integrals from the literature

Thermal Conductivity
1.5
$3 T
• Sutherland law " air = 1.993 #10 W/m/K
T + 112
– complex behavior due to chemistry

Prandtl Number
• Often used to evaluate thermal conductivity:

c pµ
Pr =
"
• Eucken’s relation:
4"
Pr =
9" # 5
!
– monatomic gas: Pr=0.67
– diatomic gas (γ=1.4): Pr=0.737
!

Prandtl Number
• Real gas:
– again, complex behavior due to chemistry

CHP 1 Hypersonics

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

CHP 1 Hypersonics

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Advanced

Iain D. Boyd Graham V. Candler

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

1. Hypersonic Gas Dynamics (4.0 hours)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

2. Hypersonic Aerodynamics: Pressure (1.0 hour)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

3. Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics: Heat Transfer

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

4. Viscous Interactions (1.0 hour)

5. Thermal Protection Systems (1.5 hours)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

6. Computational Analysis (2.0 hours)

7. Experimental Testing (1.0 hour)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

8. Aerothermodynamics of Hypersonic Vehicles

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Working definition of hypersonic flow:

• Hypersonic aerothermodynamic phenomena:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Mission: high-speed delivery of explosives

• Mission: orbital re-entry

• Missions: launch, cruise, orbital re-entry

• Missions: EDL, aero-braking, aero-capture

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Hypersonics produces unexpected phenomena

• X15 test flight with dummy scramjet installed:

• First re-entry of Space Shuttle (STS-1):

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Trajectory equations for Earth centered system:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Formed when an object is placed in supersonic flow:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Thin fluid layer formed next to vehicle surface:

• Region of flow in the rear of the vehicle:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Consider gas flow at the molecular level:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• VDF is affected by:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

! Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Very difficult to obtain solutions:

• Solution only required for strongly nonequilibrium flow:

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

• Take moments of Boltzmann Eq (Maxwell):

– Q=Q(C) is a particle property, e.g. momentum mC

• Assumptions for f, Q lead to sets of partial differential

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

" 0.5 # C 2 " 0.5 # CC 2 3 "p 3

– no viscosity, no thermal conductivity

– where Γ(C)=1+F(Kn)=1+F(heat flux, shear stress)

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

Hypersonic Educational Initiative

! • Heat flux vector modeled