THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

Module 7.17: AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE

CAR 66 Level
Objective
Reference B1
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE 7.17 2
Aircraft taxiing / towing and associated safety precautions;
Aircraft jacking, chocking, securing and associated safety precautions;
Aircraft storage methods;
Refueling / defueling procedures;
De-icing / anti-icing procedures;
Electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic ground supplies
Effects of environmental conditions on aircraft handling and operation.

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7.17 AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE
AIRCRAFT TAXIING/TOWING AND ASSOCIATED
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS;
Taxiing Aircraft
As a general rule, only rated pilots and qualified airframe
and powerplant technicians are authorized to start, run up, and taxi
aircraft. All taxiing operations should be performed in accordance
with applicable local regulations. Figure below contains the
standard taxi light signals used by control towers to control and
expedite the taxiing of aircraft. The following section provides
detailed instructions on taxi signals and related taxi instructions.
The pilot cannot see obstructions close to the wheels or
under the wings, and has little idea of what is behind the aircraft.
Consequently, the pilot depends upon the taxi signalman for
directions. Figure below shows a taxi signalman indicating his
readiness to assume guidance of the aircraft by extending both
arms at full length above his head, palms facing each other.
The standard position for a signalman is slightly ahead of
and in line with the aircraft’s left wingtip. As the signalman faces
the aircraft, the nose of the aircraft is on the left. The signalman
must stay far enough ahead of the wingtip to remain in the pilot’s
field of vision. It is a good practice to perform a foolproof test to
be sure the pilot can see all signals.

Fig 17.1 Taxi Signals

Many ground accidents have occurred as a result of

improper technique in taxiing aircraft. Although the pilot is
ultimately responsible for the aircraft until the engine is stopped, a
taxi signalman can assist the pilot around the flight line. In some Fig 17.2
aircraft configurations, the pilot’s vision is obstructed while on the
ground.

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If the signalman can see the pilot’s eyes, the pilot can see
the signals. Figure above shows the standard aircraft taxiing
signals published in the FAA Aeronautical Information Manual
(AIM). It should be emphasized that there are other standard
signals, such as those published by the Armed Forces. In addition,
operation conditions in many areas may call for a modified set of
taxi signals. The signals shown in Figure 17.3 represent a
minimum number of the most commonly used signals. Whether
this set of signals or a modified set is used is not the most
important consideration, as long as each flight operational center
uses a suitable, agreed-upon set of signals.

The taxi signals to be used should be studied until the taxi

signalman can execute them clearly and precisely. The signals
must be given in such a way that the pilot cannot confuse their
meaning. Remember that the pilot receiving the signals is always
some distance away, and must often look out and down from a
difficult angle. Thus, the signalman’s hands should be kept well
separated, and signals should be over-exaggerated rather than risk
making indistinct signals. If there is any doubt about a signal, or if
the pilot does not appear to be following the signals, use the
“stop” sign and begin the series of signals again.
The signalman should always try to give the pilot an
indication of the approximate area in which the aircraft is to be
parked. The signalman should glance behind himself or herself
often when walking backward to prevent backing into a propeller
or tripping over a chock, fire bottle, tie down line, or other
Fig 17.3
obstruction.

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Taxi signals are usually given at night with the aid of
illuminated wands attached to flashlights. Night signals are made
in the same manner as day signals with the exception of the stop
signal. The stop signal used at night is the “emergence stop”
signal. This signal is made by crossing the wands to form a lighted
“X” above and in front of the head.

Towing of Aircraft
Movement of large aircraft on an airport and about the
flight line and hangar is usually accomplished by towing with a
tow tractor (sometimes called a “tug”). In the case of small
aircraft, some moving is accomplished by hand, by pushing on the
correct areas of the aircraft. Aircraft may also be taxied about the
flight line, but usually only by certain
qualified persons.
Towing aircraft can be a hazardous operation, causing
damage to the aircraft and injury to personnel, if done recklessly
or carelessly. The following paragraphs outline the general Fig 17.4
procedure for towing aircraft; however, specific instructions for
each model of aircraft are detailed in the manufacturer’s the aircraft, inspect all the engaging devices for damage or
maintenance instructions and should be followed in all instances. malfunction before moving the aircraft.
Before the aircraft to be towed is moved, a qualified Some tow bars are designed for towing various types of
person must be in the cockpit to operate the brakes in case the tow aircraft; however, other special types can be used on a particular
bar should fail or become unhooked. aircraft only. Such bars are usually designed and built by the
aircraft manufacturer.
When towing the aircraft, the towing vehicle speed must
The aircraft can then be stopped, preventing possible be reasonable, and all persons involved in the operation must be
damage. Some types of tow bars available for general use can be alert. When the aircraft is stopped, do not rely upon the brakes of
used for many types of towing operations. These bars are designed the towing vehicle alone to stop the aircraft. The person in the
with sufficient tensile strength pull most aircraft, but are not cockpit should coordinate the use of the aircraft brakes with those
intended to be subjected to torsional or twisting loads. Many have of the towing vehicle. A typical smaller aircraft tow tractor (or
small wheels that permit them to be drawn behind the towing tug) is shown in Figure 17.5.
vehicle going to or from an aircraft. When the bar is attached to

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Fig 17.5
The attachment of the tow bar varies on different types of aircraft.
Aircraft equipped with tail wheels are generally towed forward by
attaching the tow bar to the main landing gear.
In most cases, it is permissible to tow the aircraft in
reverse by attaching the tow bar to the tailwheel axle.
Any time an aircraft equipped with a tailwheel is towed,
the tailwheel must be unlocked or the tailwheel locking
mechanism will be damaged or broken. Aircraft equipped with
tricycle landing gear are generally towed forward by attaching a
tow bar to the axle of the nosewheel. They may also be towed
forward or backward by attaching a towing bridle or specially
designed towing bar to the towing lugs on the main landing gear.
When an aircraft is towed in this manner, a steering bar is attached
to the nosewheel to steer the aircraft.
Towing and associated safety precautions
The following towing and parking procedures are typical
of one type of operation. They are examples, and not necessarily
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suited to every type of operation. Aircraft ground-handling
personnel should be thoroughly familiar with all procedures
pertaining to the types of aircraft being towed and local operation
standards governing ground handling of aircraft. Only competent
persons properly checked out should direct an aircraft towing
team.
1. The towing vehicle driver is responsible for operating the
vehicle in a safe manner and obeying emergency stop instructions
given by any team member.
2. The person in charge should assign team personnel as wing
walkers. A wing walker should be stationed at each wingtip in
such a position that he or she can ensure adequate clearance of
any obstruction in the path of the aircraft. A tail walker should be
assigned when sharp turns are to be made, or when the aircraft is
to be backed into position.
3. A qualified person should occupy the pilot’s seat of the towed
aircraft to observe and operate the brakes as required. When
necessary, another qualified person is stationed to watch and
maintain aircraft hydraulic system pressure.
4. The person in charge of the towing operation should verify that,
on aircraft with a steerable nosewheel, the locking scissors are set
to full swivel for towing. The locking device must be reset after
the tow bar has been removed from the aircraft. Persons stationed
in the aircraft should not attempt to steer or turn the nosewheel
when the tow bar is attached to the aircraft.
5. Under no circumstances should anyone be permitted to walk or
to ride between the nosewheel of an aircraft and the towing
vehicle, nor ride on the outside of a moving aircraft or on the
towing vehicle. In the interest of safety, no attempt to board or
leave a moving aircraft or towing vehicle should be permitted.
6. The towing speed of the aircraft should not exceed that of the
walking team members. The aircraft’s engines usually are not
operated when the aircraft is being towed into position.
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7. The aircraft brake system should be charged before each towing
operation. Aircraft with faulty brakes should be towed into
position only for repair of brake systems, and then only with
personnel standing by ready with chocks for emergency use.
Chocks must be immediately available in case of an emergency
throughout any towing operation.
8. To avoid possible personal injury and aircraft damage during
towing operations, entrance doors should be closed, ladders
retracted, and gear down locks installed.
9. Prior to towing any aircraft, check all tires and landing gear
struts for proper inflation. (Inflation of landing gear struts of
aircraft in overhaul and storage is excluded.)
10. When moving aircraft, do not start and stop suddenly. For
added safety, aircraft brakes must never be applied during towing
except in emergencies, and then only upon command by one of
the tow team members.
11. Aircraft should be parked in specified areas only. Generally,
the distance between rows of parked aircraft should be great
enough to allow immediate access of emergency vehicles in case
of fire, as well as free movement of equipment and materials.
12. Wheel chocks should be placed fore and aft of the main
landing gear of the parked aircraft.
13. Internal or external control locks (gust locks or blocks) should
be used while the aircraft is parked.
14. Prior to any movement of aircraft across runways or taxiways,
contact the airport control tower on the appropriate frequency for
clearance to proceed.
15. An aircraft should not be parked in a hangar without
immediately being statically grounded.
Aircraft jacking
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Jacking
An aircraft may have to be jacked up for a variety of
reasons, including servicing, weighing, changing wheels and
retraction tests and care is necessary to avoid damaging the
aircraft. Jacking points are provided in the wings and fuselage to
enable the whole aircraft to be lifted, and usually, at the nose and
main undercarriages to enable individual wheels to be changed.
Some aircraft require a jacking pad to be fitted to each jacking
point in the wings and fuselage and adapters to be fitted to the
jacks, while in other cases special stirrups or beams may be
required to lift individual axles.
Because of the position of the jacking points, the centre-
of-gravity of some aircraft may, although satisfactory for flight,
fall behind the main jacking points and thus be unsatisfactory for
jacking purposes. In these cases it may be necessary to add ballast
forward of the main jacking points to bring the centre-of-gravity
within limits specified in the relevant Maintenance Manual. In
addition, each jacking or steadying point may have a load limit
which, if exceeded, could result in structural damage. To avoid
exceeding the limiting load at the jacking points it is sometimes
necessary to fit hydraulic or electrical load cells to the jacks, while
ballast may have to be used to avoid exceeding the loading limit at
a steadying point.
Micro-switches fitted to the undercarriage legs and
operated by the extension or contraction of the shock absorbers,
are used to arm or disarm various electrical circuits on an aircraft.
If the aircraft is jacked up these circuits will operate as
required during flight, this may not be desirable. Therefore, these
circuits should be isolated by tripping the appropriate circuit-
breakers or by removing the associated fuses, as necessary.
As a safety precaution, light aircraft should normally be
jacked inside a hangar, but large aircraft may be jacked in the
open provided that they are headed into wind and that the surface
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is level and strong enough to support the weight of the aircraft at
the jacking points. A maximum safe wind speed for jacking is
generally specified in the relevant Maintenance Manual.
The following procedure will generally ensure the
satisfactory jacking of most aircraft, but account should also be
taken of any additional precautions or actions specified in the
Maintenance Manual for a particular aircraft. One person should
be located at each jacking position and a co- ordinator should
supervise the operation. On large aircraft the leveling station
should also be manned and all ground crew concerned should be
in communication with the co-ordinator, headphones being used
when necessary.
a) Check that the aircraft weight, fuel state and centre-of-gravity
are within the limits specified in the aircraft Maintenance Manual.
b) Head the aircraft into wind if it is to be jacked in the open,
chock the main wheels front and rear and release the brakes.
c) If jacking an aircraft in a restricted space, ensure that there is
adequate clearance above every part of the aircraft to allow for its
being raised and adequate access and lifting space for cranes or
other equipment which may be required.
d) Connect earthing cables to the earthing points on the aircraft. e)
Install the undercarriage ground locks.
f) Fit jacking pads to the aircraft jacking points and adapters to the
jacks as required. Load cells should also be fitted to the jacks at
positions where a maximum jacking load is specified.
NOTE: The capacity and extension of the jacks should be
adequate for the aircraft size and weight. The minimum
requirements will normally be stated in the relevant Maintenance
Manual.
g) Position the jacks at each jacking point and raise them until the
adapters are located centrally in the jacking pads. Care must be
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taken to ensure that the jacks are vertical and that the weight is
evenly distributed over the legs of each jack.
h) Remove the wheel chocks and slowly raise the aircraft,
maintaining it in a
horizontal attitude as nearly as possible, until the undercarriage
legs are fully extended and the wheels are a few inches off the
ground. As a safety measure the locking nuts on the jack rams
should be kept in close proximity to the jack shoulders as the
jacks are raised.
i) Tighten the jack ram locking nuts and place supports under the
outer wings and rear fuselage as indicated in the Maintenance
Manual. The positioning of these supports is most important, as
they are usually shaped to fit the undersurface of the wing or
fuselage and must be located at a strong point such as a rib or
frame; they are not intended to support the weight of an aircraft.
A 'bottle' jack and an adapter or special fitting are often
used when raising a single undercarriage or part of a bogie beam
for the purpose of changing a wheel. The remaining wheels should
be chocked front and rear to prevent aircraft movement, it may
also be specified that a tail support is located at the rear fuselage
jacking point when raising a nose undercarriage. The jack should
be raised only sufficiently to lift the unserviceable wheel a few
inches clear of the ground (lowering the tail support, when
applicable, as the jack is raised).
Before lowering an aircraft to the ground, all ground
equipment, work stands, supports, etc., should be moved clear of
the aircraft structure to prevent inadvertent damage, the wheels
should also be rotated by hand to check that the brakes are free.
The jacks should be lowered slowly in unison, by opening their
pressure release valves, and, to guard against failure of a jack, the
locking nuts on the jack rams should be unscrewed while the jacks
are lowered and kept within 50 mm (2 in) of the jack heads. The
jacks should be fully lowered after the aircraft is resting on its
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wheels and the pressure release valves should be closed. Chocks
should then be placed in position, the jacks, jacking pads and
adapters should be removed from the aircraft and any electrical
circuits which were disarmed as a safety measure should be
reinstated.
NOTE: Undercarriage shock absorbers occasionally stick in the
extended position, care should, therefore, be taken not to leave
any equipment in a position beneath the aircraft where it could
cause damage, until it is certain that the shock absorbers have
compressed.
Levelling
For some purposes, such as rigging or weighing, an
aircraft must be levelled laterally and longitudinally and a number
of different methods may be employed.
Spirit Level
Many aircraft are levelled by use of a spirit level, which is placed
at jigged positions on the airframe structure. On light aircraft the
longitudinally level position is generally obtained by placing the
spirit level on two pegs or on the heads of two partially withdrawn
screws on the side of the fuselage and adjusting the jacks (or the
shock absorber extension or tyre pressures, if the aircraft is resting
on its wheels) until the spirit level is centred. The laterally level
position is obtained by placing the spirit level on the centre-
section spar boom (or other nominated position) and again
adjusting the jacks or tyre pressures until the level is centred. With
some large aircraft a spirit level may be used in conjunction with
special fittings, which are secured by locations in the centre
fuselage or in one of the wheel bays; these fittings must be
removed before flight and should have warning streamers
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attached. If adjustments have been necessary to level an aircraft
laterally, the longitudinal level should be re-checked.
NOTE: In cases where tyre pressures are adjusted to level the
aircraft, care must be taken not to over-inflate or to completely
deflate a tyre.
Plumb Bob
On many aircraft a plumb bob is used in conjunction with
a levelling plate. The plumb bob is suspended from a fixed
position in the cabin roof or upper part of a wheel bay and hangs
over a levelling plate, which may be a permanent fixture or a
separate fitting accurately located on the cabin floor or lower part
of the wheel bay. The levelling plate is marked with a zero
position and scales indicating the adjustments required about the
lateral and longitudinal axes to centre the plumb bob.
Chocking
There are safety precautions to be taken with Ground
Service Equipment: Safety of aircrafts on ground and equipment
deployed and moving around the aircrafts are of paramount
importance, in view of aviation safety. Even, there are threats to
safety of parked aircrafts and equipment due to bad weather for
which safety measures are precisely specified Foreign objects
pose very serious security hazard for aircrafts, personnel,
equipment and property. Precautions to be taken on and near an
aircraft: Aircrafts have specific dangerous areas that can cause
potential hazard, particularly around the intake and exhaust area.
Safety cones are positioned around a parked aircraft to
mark the danger zone. No one should approach an aircraft until
the Anti Collision lights are switched off. The aircraft wheels
should be chocked in order to Aircraft handling Safety precautions
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to be taken with Ground Service equipment (GSE) prevent the
movement of an aircraft before positioning the ground service
equipment.
Chocking of Aircraft
Chocks should be positioned on an aircraft according to
aircraft manufacturer recommendations.
Chocking of the aircraft main gear should be achieved by
positioning the chocks in the front and rear of the outboard tyres
using an approach path directly from the front and rear.
Placing of chocks on an arriving aircraft should be
performed after engine spool down, anti collision lights switched
off and clearance to approach the aircraft is given by the
authorized person.
Chocks when positioned should be parallel to the wheel
axle and only lightly touching the tyres.
In the event of high wind conditions additional
chocking/other measures should be taken to secure the aircraft.
Chocks should not be removed from the aircraft until
clearance is given by the authorized person.
After removal, the chocks should be removed to a
designated storage area.
Securing and associated safety precautions
Parking and Picketing
When an aircraft is out of service and in the open, it should
be secured against inadvertent movement and protected against
adverse weather conditions. The operations which are
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recommended in the relevant Maintenance Manual depend on the
type of aircraft, the length of time it will be out of service and the
prevailing or forecast weather conditions.
Between flights it is usually sufficient to apply the
parking brakes, lock the control surfaces and chock the wheels,
but in a strong wind light aircraft should be headed into wind.
Light aircraft without wheel brakes should be headed into wind
and their wheels should be chocked front and rear.
Flying controls on many aircraft are locked by movement
of a lever in the cockpit/cabin, which is connected to locking pins
at convenient positions in the control runs or at the control
surfaces. When this type of lock is not fitted, locking attachments
may have to be fitted to the control column and rudder pedals, but
a more positive method which is frequently used on older or
elementary aircraft, is the fitting of external control surface locks,
which prevent control surface movement and thus prevent strain
on the control system. All external locks should have suitable
streamers attached, to make it visually obvious that the locks are
fitted.
If an aircraft has to be parked overnight or for longer
periods in the open, then additional precautions should be taken to
guard against the effects of adverse weather. The undercarriage
ground locks should be fitted, all openings such as static vents,
engine intakes and cooling air intakes should be blanked to
prevent the ingress of dirt, birds, insects and precipitation and all
fittings such as pitot heads and incidence indicators should be
covered. When severe weather is expected it is recommended that
cockpit/cabin covers and wheel covers are also fitted.
Blanks and covers for all these components are specially
designed for the particular aircraft and if not visually obvious, are
fitted with streamers to guard against their being left in position
when the aircraft is prepared for service; servicing instructions
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should, however, include a pre-flight check to ensure that all
covers and locks have been removed.
Light aircraft should normally be tied down when parked
overnight or longer, but this is not usually necessary with large
aircraft unless particularly strong winds are expected.
Light aircraft are fitted with picketing rings (or positions
for the attachment of picketing rings) at the wings and tail and, on
some aircraft, adjacent to the main undercarriage legs. The aircraft
should be parked into wind and secured from the picketing points
to suitable anchorage points on the ground (heavy concrete blocks
or screw pickets).
Cable or nylon rope of adequate strength should be used if
possible, but if rope made from natural fibres is used, sufficient
slack must be left to allow for shrinkage in damp conditions.
Additional picketing from the undercarriage legs may be
recommended in strong wind conditions and, if so, care should be
taken not to damage any pipelines or equipment attached to the
legs or wheels.
Large aircraft only require picketing in very strong wind
conditions. The aircraft should be headed into wind, the parking
brakes should be applied (unless pre-loaded mainwheel chocks are
recommended) and cables should be attached from the aircraft
picketing points to prepared anchorages. In some cases the
picketing cables are special components and include a tension
meter which is used when applying a preload to the cable.
For helicopters, the rotor blades should be tethered
whenever possible, since even light gusting winds can cause
damage to blades which are free to flap. The collective pitch lever
should normally be locked in the fully fine position and the rotor
brake applied. Rotor head and blade covers should also be fitted if
the helicopter is parked overnight, if high winds are expected it
should be hangared or the rotor blades should be folded.
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On many helicopters the main rotor blades are tethered by
aligning one blade along the tail cone, locking the collective pitch
lever in fine pitch and applying the tip covers to each blade,
pulling them against the damper stops. Each blade may then be
lashed to its respective picketing point, but care must be taken not
to pull the blades down excessively; the relevant Maintenance
Manual will generally stipulate a maximum distance from the
normal drooped position which must not be exceeded. The tail
rotor is generally tethered by fitting the blade covers and securing
them to the associated picketing point or tail skid.
The method of folding the main rotor blades depends on
the method of attachment to the rotor head and on the position of
each blade; the procedure for a particular helicopter should,
therefore, be obtained from the relevant Maintenance Manual. In
the folded position the blade tips are generally secured by means
of support cradles, which are attached to the tail cone structure.
Aircraft storage methods
STORAGE OF AN AIRCRAFT
Aircraft engines and components will deteriorate rapidly
when stored unless adequate precautions are taken to protect them
from climatic conditions, damp, condensation and accumulation
of dust. The most suitable environment for storing complete
aircraft is cool, dry hanger with relative humidity of less than 60%
where the structure is protected from strong sun light, rapid
changes of temperatures atmospheric impurities of marine or
industrial origin and the corrosive effect of blown dust before
prolong storage contemplated. It is advisable where possible, to
remove all sound insulating and textile materials of a hygroscopic
nature, After storage special attention should be given to parts of
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structures which have remained in contact with material of
hygroscopic nature.
It should be also noted that damp wood will evolve acids
that can be harmful to adjacent metal even though the wood may
not be in direct contact with it.
A/C should be stored in dry clean condition, All drain and
vents should be clear and unobstructed and blank should be fitted
to intakes, and apertures in which condensation might occur,
colour indicated type silicagel may be used in enclosed space to
absorb atmospheric moisture.
Aircraft storage is divided into 2 Parts
1. Short Term Storage
2. Long Term Storage
Short Term Storage
Those aircraft which are likely to remain out of service or use for
not more than six months due to repair, modification or other
assignment Following procedure is followed for short term
storage
1. Fit landing gear locks
2. Remove attractive items, label them with A/C No. and store
separately under lock & key.
3. Fit cockpit covers, intake covers, static vent plugs, exhaust
covers and blank other ducts & openings
4. Liberally apply grease to those exposed portions of control
cables.
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5. OLEO legs, sliding portions of hydraulic jacks and exposed
portions of electrical jacks are to be coated with grease 6. Fit
external controle locks.
7. Accumulator stowages are to be treated with solution of Bi-
Corbonate of Soda, washed with clean water dried them with
sulfuric paints.
Long Term Storage of Aircraft
A/C is out of use for indefinite period (longer than six months)
due to major repair, modifications, withdrawal from service etc.
1. Fit landing gear locks
2. Thoroughly clean and dry out interior of aircraft remove all oil
& grease from fabrics, leather & wooden components.
3. External surfaces & Components of the aircraft are to be
thoroughly cleaned taking special care to remove oil and exhaust
deposits from fabric components.
4. External surfaces of metal components of Airframe if prone to
corrosion are to be cleaned and brushed with lenoline resin
protective for temporary rust prevention.
5. Coat all exposed controle cables Jack end etc with lenoline
resin all chain sprockets, bearings, oleo struts, sliding portions of
Hyd. Jacks etc are to be coated with low temperature grease.
6. Touch up scratches, or damages on surfaces with original paints
or dope
7. After all items have been removed Air Frame may be sealed, all
inspection panels, Hoods, window joints, controle surface hinges
and all apertures are to be sealed with fabrics
8. External & internal controle locks are to be fitted where metal
controle surfaces are left in Ci tu.
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9. Metal blade propellers are to be coated with corrosion inhibitors
10. Dingees if fitted are to be removed.
11. Fit covers on cockpit, intake, wheel, propeller (wooden), all
miscellaneous ducts are to be suitably blanked off.
12. Picket Aircraft properly if Aircraft is stored out of doors.
13. Colour indicator type of silica gel may be used in enclosed
spaces to absorb atmospheric moisture
Documentation
Make entry in the relevant documents, clearly stating the
type of storage, date, place and time and next due date, sign the
documents properly. Hang a card to the aircraft stating clearly no.
of Aircraft date of storage type of storage and next due date. With
a warning Aircraft under storage not to disturb
Refuelling/defuelling procedures;
Fuel Servicing Of Aircraft
Types of Fuel and Identification
Two types of aviation fuel in general use are aviation
gasoline, also known as AVGAS, and turbine fuel, also known as
JET A fuel.
Aviation gasoline (AVGAS) is used in reciprocating
engine aircraft. Currently, there are three grades of fuel in general
use: 80/87, 100/130, and 100LL (low lead). A fourth grade,
115/145, is in limited use in the large reciprocating-engine
aircraft. The two numbers indicate the lean mixture and rich
mixture octane rating numbers of the specific fuel. In other words,
with 80/87 aviation gasoline, the 80 is the lean mixture rating and
87 is the rich mixture rating number.
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To avoid confusing the types of AVGAS, it is generally
identified as grade 80, 100, 100LL, or 115. AVGAS can also be
identified by a color code. The color of the fuel should match the
color band on piping and fueling equipment.
Turbine fuel/jet fuel is used to power turbojet and turbo-
shaft engines. Three types of turbine fuel generally used in
civilian aviation are JET A and JET A-1, which are made from
kerosene and JET B, which is a blend of kerosene and aviation
gasoline. While jet fuel is identified by the color black on piping
and fueling equipment, the actual color of jet fuel can be clear or
straw colored.
Never mix AVGAS and turbine fuel. Adding jet fuel to
AVGAS will cause a decrease in the power developed by the
engine and could cause damage to the engine (through detonation)
and loss of life. Adding AVGAS to jet fuel, although allowed, can
cause lead deposits in the turbine engine and can lead to reduced
service life.
FIG 17.6
Contamination Control
Contamination is anything in the fuel that is not supposed
to be there. The types of contamination found in aviation fuel
include water, solids, and microbial growths.
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The control of contamination in aviation fuel is extremely
important, since contamination can lead to engine failure, or
stoppage and the loss of life. The best method of controlling
contamination is to prevent its introduction into the fuel system.
Some forms of contamination will still occur inside the fuel
system.
Either way, the filter, separators, and screens should
remove most of the contamination. Water in aviation fuels will
generally take two forms: dissolved (vapor) and free water. The
dissolved water is not a major problem until, as the temperature
lowers, it becomes free water. This then poses a problem if ice
crystals form, clogging filters and other small orifices.
Free water can appear as water slugs or entrained water.
Water slugs are concentrations of water. This is the water that is
drained after fueling an aircraft. Entrained water is suspended
water droplets. These droplets may not be visible to the eye, but
will give the fuel a cloudy look. The entrained water will settle out
in time.
Solid contaminants are insoluble in fuel. The more
common types are rust, dirt, sand, gasket material, lint, and
fragments of shop towels.
The close tolerances of fuel controls and other fuel-related
mechanisms can be damaged or blocked by particles as small as
one twentieth the diameter of a human hair.
Microbiological growths are a problem in jet fuel. There
are a number of varieties of micro-organisms that can live in the
free water in jet fuel. Some variations of these organisms are
airborne, others live in the soil. The aircraft fuel system becomes
susceptible to the introduction of these organisms each time the
aircraft is fueled.
Favorable conditions for the growth of micro-organisms in
the fuel are warm temperatures and the presence of iron oxide and
mineral salts in the water. The effects of micro-organisms are:
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO.
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• Formation of slime or sludge that can foul filters, separators, or
fuel controls.
• Emulsification of the fuel.
• Corrosive compounds that can attack the fuel tank’s structure. In
the case of a wet wing tank, the tank is made from the aircraft’s
structure. They can also have offensive odors. The best way to
prevent microbial growth is to keep the fuel dry.
Fueling Hazards
The volatility of aviation fuels creates a fire hazard that
has plagued aviators and aviation engine designers since the
beginning of powered flight. Volatility is the ability of a liquid to
change into a gas at a relatively low temperature. In its liquid
state, aviation fuel will not burn. It is, therefore, the vapors, or
gaseous state to which the liquid fuel changes that is not only
useful in powering the aircraft, but also a fire hazard.
Static electricity is a byproduct of one substance rubbing
against another. Fuel flowing through a fuel line causes a certain
amount of static electricity. The greatest static electricity concern
around aircraft is that during flight, the aircraft moving through
the air causes static electricity to build in the airframe. If that
static electricity is not dissipated prior to refueling, the static
electricity in the airframe will try to return to ground through the
fuel line from the servicing unit.
The spark caused by the static electricity can ignite any
vaporized fuel. Breathing the vapors from fuel can be harmful and
should be limited. Any fuel spilled on the clothing or skin must be
removed as soon as possible.
Fueling Procedures
The proper fueling of an aircraft is the responsibility of the
owner/operator. This does not, however, relieve the person doing
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the fueling of the responsibility to use the correct type of fuel and
safe fueling procedures.
There are two basic procedures when fueling an aircraft.
Smaller aircraft are fueled by the over-the-wing method. This
method uses the fuel hose to fill through fueling ports on the top
of the wing. The method used for larger aircraft is the single point
fueling system.
This type of fueling system uses receptacles in the bottom
leading edge of the wing, which is used to fill all the tanks from
this one point. This decreases the time it takes to refuel the
aircraft, limits contamination, and reduces the chance of static
electricity igniting the fuel. Most pressure fueling systems consist
of a pressure fueling hose and a panel of controls and gauges that
permit one person to fuel or defuel any or all fuel tanks of an
aircraft. Each tank can be filled to a predetermined level. These
procedures are illustrated in Figures 11-31 and 11-32.

Prior to fueling, the person fueling should check the

following:
1. Ensure all aircraft electrical systems and electronic devices,
including radar, are turned off.
2. Do not carry anything in the shirt pockets. These items could
fall into the fuel tanks.

Fig 17.7

3. Ensure no flame-producing devices are carried by anyone

engaged in the fueling operation. A moment of carelessness could
cause an accident.
4. Ensure that the proper type and grade of fuel is used. Do not
mix AVGAS and JET fuel.

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5. Ensure that all the sumps have been drained.
6. Wear eye protection. Although generally not as critical as eye
protection, other forms of protection, such as rubber gloves and
aprons, can protect the
skin from the effects of spilled or splashed fuel.
7. Do not fuel aircraft if there is danger of other aircraft in the
vicinity blowing dirt in the direction of the aircraft being fueled.
Blown dirt, dust, or other contaminants can enter an open fuel
tank, contaminating the entire contents of the tank.
8. Do not fuel an aircraft when there is lightning within 5 miles.
9. Do not fuel an aircraft within 500 feet of operating ground
radar.
When using mobile fueling equipment:
1. Approach the aircraft with caution, positioning the fuel truck so
that if it is necessary to depart quickly, no backing will be needed.
2. Set the hand brake of the fuel truck, and chock the wheels to
prevent rolling.
3. Ground the aircraft and then ground the truck. Next, ground or
bond them together by running a connecting wire between the
aircraft and the fuel truck. This may be done by three separate
ground wires or by a “Y” cable from the fuel truck.
4. Ensure that the grounds are in contact with bare metal or are in
the proper grounding points on the aircraft. Do not use the engine
exhaust or propeller as grounding points. Damage to the propeller
can result, and there is no way of quickly ensuring a positive bond
between the engine and the airframe.
5. Ground the nozzle to the aircraft, then open the fuel tank.
6. Protect the wing and any other item on the aircraft from damage
caused by spilled fuel or careless handling of the nozzle, hose, or
grounding wires.
7. Check the fuel cap for proper installation and security before
leaving the aircraft.
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8. Remove the grounding wires in the reverse order. If the aircraft
is not going to be flown or moved soon, the aircraft ground wire
can be left attached.
When fueling from pits or cabinets, follow the same
procedures as when using a truck. Pits or cabinets are usually
designed with permanent grounding, eliminating the need to
ground the equipment. However, the aircraft still must be
grounded, and then the equipment must be grounded to the aircraft
as it was with mobile equipment.
Defueling
Defueling procedures differ with different types of aircraft.
Before defueling an aircraft, check the maintenance/service
manual for specific procedures and cautions.
Defueling can be accomplished by gravity defueling or by
pumping the fuel out of the tanks. When the gravity method is
used, it is necessary to have a method of collecting the fuel. When
the pumping method is used, care must be taken not to damage the
tanks, and the removed fuel should not be mixed with good fuel.
General precautions when defueling are:
• Ground the aircraft and defueling equipment.
• Turn off all electrical and electronic equipment.
• Have the correct type of fire extinguisher available.
• Wear eye protection.
De-icing/anti-icing procedures;
Ice Control Systems
Rain, snow, and ice are transportation’s longtime enemies.
Flying has added a new dimension, particularly with respect to
ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice can build rapidly on
airfoils and air inlets. On days when there is visible moisture in
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the air, ice can form on aircraft leading edge surfaces at altitudes An exception is carburetor icing, which can occur during
where freezing temperatures start. Water droplets in the air can be warm weather with no visible moisture present. Ice or frost
supercooled to below freezing without actually turning into ice forming on aircraft creates two basic hazards:
unless they are disturbed in some manner. This unusual 1. The resulting malformation of the airfoil that could decrease the
occurrence is partly due to the surface tension of the water droplet amount of lift.
not allowing the droplet to expand and freeze. However, when 2. The additional weight and unequal formation of the ice that
aircraft surfaces disturb these droplets, they immediately turn to could cause unbalancing of the aircraft, making it hard to control.
ice on the aircraft surfaces The two types of ice encountered Enough ice to cause an unsafe flight condition can form in a very
during flight are clear and rime. short period of time, thus some method of ice prevention or
Clear ice forms when the remaining liquid portion of the removal is necessary.
water drop flows out over the aircraft surface, gradually freezing
as a smooth sheet of solid ice. Formation occurs when droplets are Icing Effects
large, such as in rain or in cumuliform clouds. Clear ice is hard,
heavy, and tenacious. Its removal by deicing equipment is
especially difficult.
Rime ice forms when water drops are small, such as those
in stratified clouds or light drizzle. The liquid portion remaining
after initial impact freezes rapidly before the drop has time to
spread over the aircraft surface.
The small frozen droplets trap air giving the ice a white
appearance. Rime ice is lighter in weight than clear ice and its
weight is of little significance. However, its irregular shape and
rough surface decrease the effectiveness of the aerodynamic
efficiency of airfoils, reducing lift and increasing drag. Rime ice is
brittle and more easily removed than clear ice.
Mixed clear and rime icing can form rapidly when water
drops vary in size or when liquid drops intermingle with snow or
ice particles. Ice particles become imbedded in clear ice, building
a very rough accumulation sometimes in a mushroom shape on
leading edges. Ice may be expected to form whenever there is
visible moisture in the air and temperature is near or below
freezing. Fig 17.8 Icing Effects

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Ice buildup increases drag and reduces lift. It causes increased airspeed must be maintained to compensate for this
destructive vibration and hampers true instrument readings. increased stall speed. After touchdown with heavy ice
Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen. Fixed slots are accumulation, landing distances may be as much as twice the
filled and movable slots jammed. Radio reception is hampered normal distance due to the increased landing speeds. In this
and engine performance is affected. Ice, snow, and slush have a chapter, ice prevention and ice elimination using pneumatic
direct impact on the safety of flight. Not only because of degraded pressure, application of heat, and the application of fluid is
lift, reduced takeoff performance, and/or maneuverability of the discussed. The ice and rain protection systems used on aircraft
aircraft, but when chunks break off, they can also cause engine keep ice from forming on the following airplane components:
failures and structural damage.
Fuselage aft-mounted engines are particularly susceptible • Wing leading edges
to this foreign object damage (FOD) phenomenon. Wing mounted • Horizontal and vertical stabilizer leading edges
engines are not excluded however. Ice can be present on any part • Engine cowl leading edges
of the aircraft and, when it breaks off, there is some probability • Propellers
that it could go into an engine. The worst case is that ice on the • Propeller spinner
wing breaks off during takeoff due to the flexing of the wing and • Air data probes
goes directly into the engine, leading to surge, vibration, and • Flight deck windows
complete thrust loss. • Water and waste system lines and drains
Light snow that is loose on the wing surfaces and the • Antenna
fuselage can also cause engine damage leading to surge, vibration,
and thrust loss.
Whenever icing conditions are encountered, the
performance characteristics of the airplane deteriorate. Increased
aerodynamic drag increases fuel consumption, reducing the
airplane’s range and making it more difficult to maintain speed.
Decreased rate of climb must be anticipated, not only
because of the decrease in wing and empennage efficiency but
also because of the possible reduced efficiency of the propellers
and increase in gross weight.
Abrupt maneuvering and steep turns at low speeds must be
avoided because the airplane stalls at higher-than-published
speeds with ice accumulation. On final approach for landing,

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2. Heating by electrical elements
3. Breaking up ice formations, usually by inflatable boots
4. Chemical application
Equipment is designed for anti-icing or for deicing. Anti-
icing equipment is turned on before entering icing conditions and
is designed to prevent ice from forming.
A surface may be anti-iced by keeping it dry, by heating to
a temperature that evaporates water upon impingement, or by
heating the surface just enough to prevent freezing, maintaining it
running wet.
Deicing equipment is designed to remove ice after it
begins to accumulate typically on the wings and stabilizer leading
edges. Ice may be controlled on aircraft structure by the methods
described in Figure below.
Fig 17.9

Figure 17.9 gives an overview of ice and rain protection

systems installed in a large transport category aircraft. In modern
aircraft, many of these systems are automatically controlled by the
ice detection system and onboard computers.

Ice Detector System

Ice can be detected visually, but most modern aircraft have
one or more ice detector sensors that warn the flight crew of icing
conditions. An annunciator light comes on to alert the flight crew.
In some aircraft models, multiple ice detectors are used, and the
ice detection system automatically turns on the WAI systems
when icing is detected.
Wing and Horizontal and Vertical Stabilizer Anti-Icing
Systems
Ice Prevention
The wing leading edges, or leading edge slats, and
Several means to prevent or control ice formation are used
horizontal and vertical stabilizer leading edges of many aircraft
in aircraft today:
make and models have anti-icing systems installed to prevent the
1. Heating surfaces with hot air

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formation of ice on these components. The most common anti-
icing systems used are thermal pneumatic, thermal electric, and
chemical. Most general aviation (GA) aircraft equipped to fly in
icing conditions use pneumatic deicing boots, a chemical anti-ice
system. High-performance aircraft may have “weeping wings.”
Large transport-category aircraft are equipped with advanced
thermal pneumatic or thermal
electric anti-icing systems that are controlled automatically to
prevent the formation of ice.
bleed air into piccolo tubes for distribution along the leading edge.
Fresh ambient air is introduced into the wing leading edge by two
flush-mounted ram air scoops in each wing leading edge, one at
the wing root and one near the wingtip. The ejectors entrain
ambient air, reduce the temperature of the bleed air, and increase
the mass airflow in the piccolo tubes.

Thermal Pneumatic Anti-icing

Thermal systems used for the purpose of preventing the

formation of ice or for deicing airfoil leading edges usually use
heated air ducted span wise along the inside of the leading edge of
the airfoil and distributed around its inner surface. These thermal
pneumatic anti-icing systems are used for wings, leading edge
slats, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, engine inlets, and more.
There are several sources of heated air, including hot air bled from
the turbine compressor, engine exhaust heat exchangers, and ram
air heated by a combustion heater.

Wing Anti-Ice (WAI) System Fig 17.10

Thermal wing anti-ice (WAI or TAI) systems for business
jet and large-transport category aircraft typically use hot air bled
from the engine compressor. Relatively large amounts of very hot The wing leading edge is constructed of two skin layers
air can be bled off the compressor, providing a satisfactory source separated by a narrow passageway. The air directed against the
of anti-icing heat. The hot air is routed through ducting, leading edge can only escape through the passageway, after which
manifolds, and valves to components that need to be anti-iced. it is vented overboard through a vent in the bottom of the wingtip.
Figure below shows a typical WAI system schematic for a
business jet. The bleed air is routed to each wing leading edge by
an ejector in each wing inboard area. The ejector discharges the

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When installing a section of duct, make certain that the
seal bears evenly against and is compressed by the adjacent joint’s
flange. When specified, the ducts should be pressure tested at the
pressure recommended by the manufacturer of the aircraft
concerned. Leak checks are made to detect defects in the duct that
would permit the escape of heated air. The rate of leakage at a
given pressure should not exceed that recommended in the aircraft
maintenance manual.
Air leaks can often be detected audibly and are sometimes
revealed by holes in the lagging or thermal insulation material.
Fig 17.11
However, if difficulty arises in locating leaks, a soap-and
water solution may be used. All ducting should be inspected for
security, general condition, or distortion. Lagging or
When the WAI switch is turned on, the pressure regulator
insulating blankets must be checked for security and must be free
is energized and the shutoff valve opens. When the wing leading
of flammable fluids, such as oil or hydraulic fluid.
edge temperature reaches approximately +140 °F, temperature
switches turn on the operation light above the switch. If the
Leading Edge Slat Anti-Ice System
temperature in the wing leading edge exceeds approximately +212
Aircraft that utilize leading edge slats often use bleed air
°F (outboard) or +350 °F (inboard), the red WING OV HT
from the engine compressor to prevent the formation of frost on
warning light on the annunciator panel illuminates.
these surfaces. On a modern transport category aircraft, the
The ducting of WAI systems usually consists of aluminum
pneumatic system supplies bleed air for this purpose. WAI valves
alloy, titanium, stainless steel, or molded fiberglass tubes. The
control the air flow from the pneumatic system to WAI ducts. The
tube, or duct, sections are attached to each other by bolted end
WAI ducts carry the air to the slats. Holes in the bottom of each
flanges or by band-type V-clamps. The ducting is lagged with a
slat let the air out. The airfoil and cowl ice protection system
fire-resistant, heat-insulating material, such as fiberglass.
(ACIPS) computer card controls the WAI valves, and pressure
In some installations, thin stainless steel expansion
sensors send duct air pressure data to the computer. The aircrew
bellows are used. Bellows are located at strategic positions to
can select an auto or manual mode with the WAI selector.
absorb any distortion or expansion of the ducting that may occur
In the auto mode, the system turns on when the ice
due to temperature variations.
detection system detects ice. The off and on positions are used for
The joined sections of ducting are hermetically sealed by
manual control of the WAI system. The WAI system is only used
sealing rings. These seals are fitted into annular recesses in the
in the air, except for ground tests. The weight on wheels system
duct joint faces.
and/or airspeed data disarms the system when the aircraft is on the
ground.

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WAI Valve
The WAI valve controls the flow of bleed air from the
pneumatic system to the WAI ducts. The valve is electrically
controlled and pneumatically actuated. The torque motor controls
operation of the valve. With no electrical power to the torque
motor, air pressure on one side of the actuator holds the valve
closed.
Electrical current through the torque motor allows air
pressure to open the valve. As the torque motor current increases,
the valve opening increases.
WAI Pressure Sensor
The WAI pressure sensor senses the air pressure in the
WAI duct after the WAI valve. The ACIPS system card uses the
pressure information to control the WAI system.
WAI Ducts
The WAI ducts move air from the pneumatic system
through the wing leading edge to the leading edge slats. Only
leading edge slat sections 3, 4, and 5 on the left wing and 10, 11,
and 12 on the right wing receive bleed air for WAI. Sections of
the WAI ducting are perforated. The holes allow air to flow into
the space inside the leading edge slats. The air leaves the slats
through holes in the bottom of each slat. Some WAI ducts have
connecting “T” ducts that telescope to direct air into the slats
while extended. The telescoping section attached to the slat on one
end, slides over the narrow diameter “T” section that is connected
into the WAI duct. A seal prevents any loss of air. This
arrangement allows warm air delivery to the slats while retracted,
in transit, and fully deployed.
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO.
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WAI Control System
Modern aircraft use several onboard computers to control
aircraft systems. The WAI system is controlled by the ACIPS
computer card. The ACIPS computer card controls both WAI
valves. The required positions of the WAI valves change as bleed
air temperature and altitude change. The left and right valves
operate at the same time to heat both wings equally. This keeps
the airplane aerodynamically stable in icing conditions. The WAI
pressure sensors supply feedback information to the WAI ACIPS
computer card for WAI valve control and position indication. If
either pressure sensor fails, the WAI ACIPS computer card sets
the related WAI valve to either fully open or fully closed. If either
valve fails closed, the WAI computer card keeps the other valve
closed.
There is one selector for the WAI system. The selector has
three positions: auto, on, and off. With the selector in auto and no
operational mode inhibits, the WAI ACIPS computer card sends a
signal to open the WAI valves when either ice detector detects ice.
The valves close after a 3-minute delay when the ice detector no
longer detects ice. The time delay prevents frequent on/off cycles
during intermittent icing conditions. With the selector on and no
operational mode inhibits, the WAI valves open. With the selector
off, the WAI valves close. The operational mode for the WAI
valves can be inhibited by many different sets of conditions.
Thermal Electric Anti-Icing
Electricity is used to heat various components on an
aircraft so that ice does not form. This type of anti-ice is typically
limited to small components due to high amperage draw. Effective
thermal electric anti-ice is used on most air data probes, such as
pitot tubes, static air ports, TAT and AOA probes, ice detectors,
and engine P2/T2 sensors. Water lines, waste water drains, and
some turboprop inlet cowls are also heated with electricity to
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prevent ice from forming. Transport category and high
performance aircraft use thermal electric anti-icing in windshields.
In devices that use thermal electric anti-ice, current flows through
an integral conductive element that produces heat.
The temperature of the component is elevated above the
freezing point of water so ice cannot form. Various schemes are
used, such as an internal coil wire, externally wrapped blankets or
tapes, as well as conductive films and heated gaskets. A basic
discussion of probe heat follows. Windshield heat and portable
water heat anti-ice are discussed later in this chapter. Propeller
deice boots, which also are used for anti ice, are also thermal
electric and discussed in this chapter.
Data probes that protrude into the ambient airstream are
particularly susceptible to ice formation in flight. A pitot tube, for
example, contains an internal electric element that is controlled by
a switch in the cockpit. Use caution checking the function of the
pitot heat when the aircraft is on the ground. The tube gets
extremely hot since it must keep ice from forming at altitude in
temperatures near -50 °F at speeds possibly over 500 miles per
hour. An ammeter or load meter in the circuit can be used as a
substitute to touching the probe, if so equipped.
Simple probe heat circuits exist on GA aircraft with a
switch and a circuit breaker to activate and protect the device.
Advanced aircraft may have more complex circuitry in
which control is by computer and flight condition of the aircraft is
considered before thermal electric heaters are activated
automatically.
The primary flight computer (PFC) supplies signals for the
air data card (ADC) to energize ground and air heat control relays
to activate probe heat. Information concerning speed of the
aircraft, whether it is in the air or on the ground, and if the engines
are running are factors considered by the ADC logic. Similar
control is use for other probe heaters.
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO.
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Chemical Anti-Icing
Chemical anti-icing is used in some aircraft to anti-ice the
leading edges of the wing, stabilizers, windshields, and propellers.
The wing and stabilizer systems are often called weeping wing
systems or are known by their trade name of TKS™ systems. Ice
protection is based upon the freezing
point depressant concept. An antifreeze solution is pumped from a
reservoir through a mesh screen embedded in the leading edges of
the wings and stabilizers. Activated by a switch in the cockpit, the
liquid flows over the wing and tail surfaces, preventing the
formation of ice as it flows.
The solution mixes with the supercooled water in the
cloud, depresses its freezing point, and allows the mixture to flow
off of the aircraft without freezing. The system is designed to anti-
ice, but it is also capable of deicing an aircraft as well. When ice
has accumulated on the leading edges, the antifreeze solution
chemically breaks down the bond between the ice and airframe.
This allows aerodynamic forces to carry the ice away. Thus, the
system clears the airframe of accumulated ice before transitioning
to anti-ice protection.
The TKS™ weeping wing system contains formed
titanium panels that are laser drilled with over 800 tiny holes
(.0025 inch diameter) per square inch. These are mated with non
perforated stainless steel rear panels and bonded to wing and
stabilizer leading edges. As fluid is delivered from a central
reservoir and pump, it seeps through the holes. Aerodynamic
forces cause the fluid to coat the upper and lower surfaces of the
airfoil. The glycol based fluid prevents ice from adhering to the
aircraft structure.
Some aircraft with weeping wing systems are certified to
fly into known icing conditions. Others use it as a hedge against
unexpected ice encountered in flight. The systems are basically
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the same. Reservoir capacity permits 1- 2 hours of operation.
TKSTM weeping wings are used primarily on reciprocating
aircraft that lack a supply of warm bleed air for the installation of
a thermal anti-ice system. However, the system is simple and
effective leading to its use on some turbine powered corporate
aircraft as well.
Wing and Stabilizer Deicing Systems
GA aircraft and turboprop commuter-type aircraft often
use a pneumatic deicing system to break off ice after it has formed
on the leading edge surfaces. The leading edges of the wings and
stabilizers have inflatable boots attached to them. The boots
expand when inflated by pneumatic pressure, which breaks away
ice accumulated on the boot. Most boots are inflated for 6 to 8
seconds. They are deflated by vacuum suction. The vacuum is
continuously applied to hold the boots tightly against the aircraft
while not in use.
Sources of Operating Air
The source of operating air for deice boot systems varies
with the type of powerplant installed on the aircraft. Reciprocating
engine aircraft typically use a dedicated engine-driven air pump
mounted on the accessory drive gear box of the engine. The
suction side of the pump is used to operate the gyroscopic
instruments installed on the aircraft. It is also used to hold the
deice boots tight to the aircraft when they are not inflated.
The pressure side of the pump supplies air to inflate the
deice boots, which breaks up ice that has formed on the wing and
stabilizer leading edges. The pump operates continuously. Valves,
regulators, and switches in the cockpit are used to control the flow
of source air to the system.
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Turbine Engine Bleed Air
The source of deice boot operating air on turbine engine
aircraft is typically bleed air from the engine compressor(s). A
relatively low volume of air on an intermittent basis is required to
operate the boots. This has little effect on engine power enabling
use of bleed air instead of adding a separate
engine-driven air pump. Valves controlled by switches in the
cockpit deliver air to the boots when requested.
Pneumatic Deice Boot System for GA Aircraft
GA aircraft, especially twin-engine models, are commonly
equipped with pneumatic deicer systems. Rubber boots are
attached with glue to the leading edges of the wings and
stabilizers. These boots have a series of inflatable tubes.
During operation, the tubes are inflated and deflated in an
alternating cycle. This inflation and deflation causes the ice to
crack and break off. The ice is then carried away by the airstream.
Boots used in GA aircraft typically inflate and deflate along the
length of the wing. In larger turbo prop aircraft, the boots are
installed in sections along the wing with the different sections
operating alternately and symmetrically about the fuselage. This is
done so that any disturbance to airflow caused by an inflated tube
is kept to a minimum by inflating only short sections on each
wing at a time.
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Fig 17.12
Electrical
Connection of Electrical Power
It is often necessary to connect an external electrical power
supply to an aircraft, either for engine starting purposes or to
permit operation of the aircraft systems and equipment. Certain
precautions must be observed when connecting the external
supply, to prevent damage to the aircraft electrical system.
Most light aircraft have direct current (d.c.) electrical
systems and although alternating current (a.c.) is provided for the
operation of certain equipment it is not usual for the aircraft to
have provision for the connection of a.c. external power. The
external power socket is, therefore, usually for the connection of a
d.c. supply, which may be provided solely by batteries or from a
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO.
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generator and battery set. The following actions should be taken
when connecting an external d.c. supply to a typical light aircraft:
a) Check the voltage and polarity of the ground supply.
b) Check that the external power plug and socket are clean, dry
and undamaged.
c) Check that the external supply and the aircraft battery master
switch are off and connect the external supply, ensuring that the
plug is fully home in the socket.
d) Switch on the external supply and the aircraft battery master
switch and carry out the servicing operations for which the
external power was required.
e) To disconnect the external supply, switch off the battery master
switch, switch off the external supply, disconnect the external
power plug and, if the aircraft electrical system is to be used (e.g.
after engine starting), switch the battery master switch on again.
Most large aircraft are provided with multi-pin plugs or
sockets, by means of which external d.c. or a.c. power may be
connected into the aircraft electrical system. The external supply
is usually provided by a towed or self-propelled unit, which has its
own power-driven generator and can provide d.c. power at various
voltages and a.c. power at a particular voltage, frequency and
phase rotation. Aircraft electrical systems vary considerably and
the checks which are necessary after connecting the external
power will vary between aircraft, but the following procedure is
applicable in most cases:
a) Check that the external supply is compatible with the aircraft
system (i.e. it has the same voltage, frequency and phase rotation
as the aircraft system) and is switched off.
b) Check that the external plug and socket are clean, dry and
undamaged.
c) Connect the external plug/socket, ensuring that it is fully mated
and secure and switch on the external power supply.
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d) Check the voltage and frequency of the external supply on the
aircraft electrical system instruments and perform the operations
specified in the relevant Maintenance Manual to engage the
external supply with the aircraft a.c. system.
e) To disconnect the external supply, disengage it from the aircraft
a.c. system, switch off the external power at source and remove
the external power plug/socket.
Pneumatic ground supplies
Connection of Compressed Gases
Any component containing compressed gas must be handled and
serviced carefully, because the sudden release of gas under
pressure could have disastrous consequences. Oxygen systems
present an additional hazard in that oil and grease are prone to
spontaneous combustion in the presence of undiluted oxygen.
The gas pressure required in some components varies
according to the ambient temperature and in order to ensure that
the correct working pressure is maintained, the relationship
between temperature and pressure is generally presented in the
form of a graph, both in the Maintenance Manual and on a placard
adjacent to the charging point. In the case of tyres and shock
absorbers on large aircraft the required gas pressures may vary
according to the aircraft weight and centre-of-gravity position, the
requirements for a particular aircraft should be obtained from the
relevant Maintenance Manual.
Since the rapid compression of a gas produces heat it will
affect the gas pressure in a component; heat will be minimized by
charging slowly. The sudden release of a compressed gas will
have the reverse effect, i.e. lowering its temperature and this is
particularly important when deflating a tyre, as ice may form and
block the valve, giving the impression that the tyre is fully
deflated when in fact it is still partially inflated. Prior to working
CATEGORY MODULE REVISION NO.
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on any unit from which compressed gas has been exhausted, the
charging valve or valve case should be completely removed.
Charging Valves
The valves fitted to components which are charged with
gas may be of two types. One is a needle-type valve which opens
and closes automatically, the other is a poppet-type valve on
which the swivel-nut has to be unscrewed one full turn to release
the valve stem . A valve cap should always be fitted to prevent the
entry of dirt and moisture and should be removed only when it is
necessary to charge the component or to release gas pressure. On
no account should the valve body be unscrewed while the
component is pressurised, since this could result in the valve
blowing out and causing damage or injury.
Charging Rigs
A compressed-gas charging rig is generally a self-propelled or
towed trolley, on which are mounted one or more high-pressure
gas cylinders, a flexible supply hose, a supply shut-off valve and
pressure gauges showing storage cylinder pressure and supply
hose pressure. Some rigs are also fitted with a pressure regulator,
by means of which the supply pressure may be limited to the
maximum required in the component, this type of rig is used when
the aircraft system does not have its own supply shut-off valve
and pressure gauges.
Charging
Charging a component with compressed gas should be
carried out carefully and the following precautions should be
observed:
a) The pressure to which the component is to be charged should
be checked
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according to the ambient temperature, or weight and centre-of-
gravity of the
aircraft, as appropriate.
b) The supply connection should be clean, dry and free from oil or
grease; any contamination should be wiped off with a lint-free
cloth moistened in a solvent such as methylated spirits.
c) The aircraft system should be charged very slowly, so as to
minimize the rise in temperature.
d) When the required pressure is reached, the shut-off valve
should be closed and the system pressure allowed to stabilise. The
pressure should then be checked and adjusted as necessary.
e) The supply hose should not be disconnected unless the shut-off
valve and the charging valves are closed, because of the dangers
associated with rapid
decompression. On some rigs provision is also made for relieving
pressure from the supply hose before disconnection.
f) Blanking caps should be fitted to the charging valve and supply
hose as soon as they are disconnected.
g) When charging oxygen systems, adequate and properly manned
fire-fighting equipment should be positioned and, if illumination
is required, explosion-proof lamps and hand torches should be
used.
Hydraulic
Replenishment of Liquids
On modern aircraft, replenishment of engine oil, hydraulic
fluid, de-icing fluid, water and other systems containing liquids, is
achieved by the use of servicing trolleys which are specially
designed for the task and are connected into the system by quick
release couplings; alternatively, and with older aircraft, these
systems may be replenished by removing the tank filler cap and
pouring in the required liquid.
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Whichever method is used, the utmost care should be
taken to ensure that only the approved liquids are used and that no
foreign matter is allowed to enter the system. Servicing trolleys
should be inspected regularly for cleanliness and their delivery
pipes should be capped when not in use; all utensils should be
kept scrupulously clean and should, preferably, be retained for use
with one particular liquid.
The quantity of liquid in a system may be indicated by a
sight glass, by use of a dipstick, by its visible level in a filter fitted
in the filler opening, or, in some cases, by means of a contents
gauge, the transmitter unit for which is mounted in the tank.
When required, the system should be replenished to the
'full' level; no system should be overfilled, as this could affect
system operation.
Precautions applicable to the replenishment of systems
containing liquid are outlined in paragraphs a) to d) below:
a) Some systems are pressurised in normal use and this pressure
should be released before replenishing with liquid.
b) When replenishing a hydraulic system, it may be necessary to
pre-set the hydraulic services to specified positions to prevent
overfilling.
c) Some liquids, such as methanol, synthetic lubricating oils and
hydraulic fluid, may be harmful or even toxic if their vapours are
breathed in or if they come into contact with the skin or eyes.
Particular note should be taken of any warnings of dangers to
health which may be contained in the relevant Maintenance
Manuals and the recommended procedures for the handling of
these liquids should be observed.
d) The liquids mentioned in paragraph c) may also have an
adverse effect on
paintwork, adhesives and sealant and thus inhibit corrosion
prevention schemes. Care should be taken not to spill any of these
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liquids, but if a spillage does occur, immediate steps should be
taken to mop it up and clean the affected area.
Effects of environmental conditions on aircraft handling and
operation.
Cleaning
Cleaning an aircraft improves its appearance and
aerodynamic qualities, helps to prevent corrosion and facilitates
the detection of fluid leakage. It is, therefore, often included in the
servicing schedule.
Exterior Surfaces
Before washing down the exterior surfaces of an aircraft,
all doors and windows should be closed, all apertures such as air
intakes, engine exhausts, fuel jettison pipes, static vents and vent
pipes should be blanked, covers should be fitted to pitot heads and
sensor vanes. Transparencies should be covered to prevent
contamination by cleaning fluids.
The structure should be washed down using a cleaning
agent recommended by the aircraft manufacturer and mixed
according to the instructions provided, caked mud or other foreign
matter being removed with lint-free cloth soaked in the cleaning
agent. The wash should be followed by swabbing with clean water
and care should be taken to prevent cleaning fluid or water
becoming trapped in parts of the structure where corrosion and
seizure of mechanisms could result. The aircraft should be
thoroughly dried after washing and rinsing. It is usually
recommended that lubrication should be carried out, particularly if
pressure hoses have been used.
a) If it is necessary to remove concentrations of oil or grease, a
cloth moistened in solvent should be used, but chlorinated
solvents should be avoided since they may be toxic. The minimum
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quantity of solvent should be applied, since prolonged saturation
of parts may have an adverse effect upon adhesives and jointing
compounds. When solvents are used, adequate fire-fighting
equipment should be available.
Internal Structure
Internal structure is generally cleaned with a vacuum
cleaner, but a cleaning agent and water may be used when
necessary. Only a small area should be washed, rinsed and dried at
a time, so as to prevent flooding of the structure and trapping of
fluids in inaccessible places. Clean lint-free cloths should be used
for all operations and the structure should be finally dried by
circulating warm air.
Engines
An engine and its compartment should be cleaned by
spraying or brushing with solvent or degreasing fluid, after first
blanking all vents and apertures in such components as the
magnetos and alternator. This solvent should be left on for five to
ten minutes, then the engine should be washed with clean solvent
and allowed to dry.
All controls, hinges, etc., should be lubricated after
cleaning and the engine should not be operated until all solvent
has evaporated or otherwise been removed.
Upholstery
Soiled carpets and seats may usually be cleaned by means
of a vacuum cleaner and an approved non-flammable air-drying
type cleaner or foam-type upholstery cleaner. The manufacturer’s
instructions for the use of these materials should be carefully
followed, soaking or harsh rubbing should be avoided.
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Cold Weather Operations
Particular care is essential in the operation of aircraft when
temperatures are likely to fall below freezing point at ground
level. When snow or ice is present towing and taxying should be
carried out with extreme caution and aircraft movements should
be kept to a minimum; parking areas should, if possible, be
cleared of snow and ice, so as to prevent aircraft tyres from
freezing to the ground.
If sand or grit is used to increase the tractive effort of
tractors or assist the braking of aircraft, care should be taken to
prevent these materials being drawn into operating engines;
taxiways and hard standings should be swept to remove any sand
or grit after the snow and ice have melted.
Before Flight
All external surfaces must be free of snow, frost or ice
before an aircraft takes off and de-icing operations should be
carried out as necessary. Particular care is necessary when an
aircraft has been removed from a heated hangar into falling snow
since the snow will melt on the warm aircraft then re-freeze as it
cools down, forming a thin layer of ice which may not be easily
visible. Water systems should be filled with warm water and all
covers should be kept in place until as near to departure time as
possible.

After Flight
When parking an aircraft, all covers, plugs and ground
locks should be fitted as soon as possible. If the airframe is wet or
affected by snow or ice, the surface under the covers should be
given a light coating of anti-freeze liquid; anti-freeze liquid should
not, however, be applied to the windows, since it has an adverse
effect on plastics materials. Engine covers should be fitted as soon
as the engine has cooled sufficiently, but in the case of turbine
engines an inspection should be made for the presence of ice in
the air intake, since this could melt while the engine is hot, drain
to the lowest part of the compressor and subsequently re-freeze
when the engine cools, locking the lower compressor blades in
ice. If ice is present it should be allowed to melt, then removed
before finally fitting the covers. Drain valves in the fuel and
pitot/static systems should be opened to remove any accumulation
of water. Domestic water, toilet systems and water injection tanks
should be drained or treated with antifreeze liquid as appropriate.

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