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CAR 66 Level
Objective
Reference B1
MATERIAL HANDLING 7.14
• SHEET METAL 7.14.1 2
Marketing out and calculation of bend allowance;
Sheet metal working, including bending and forming;
Inspection of sheet metal work.
Moulds are made in a variety of materials including plaster and While the characteristics of the sand are important, the design of
ceramics but, by far, the mostwidely used are those of sand and themould must also meet certain standards, some of which are:
metal.
• The top and bottom halves of the mould ('cope' and
'drag'respectively), mustincorporate positive alignment
SAND-CASTING features.
The two basic types of sand-casting are: • The pattern must be shaped such that withdrawal from thesand
leaves a perfectimpression. Tapered (or 'drafted') faces are,
• Removable/re-usable pattern (usually wood or metal) therefore, better than perpendicularfaces.
• Disposable pattern (e.g. polystyrene which vaporise when the
metal is poured). • Suitable feed channels must be provided for the molten metal
to enter the mould andflow evenly through it. These channels
Although sand-casting is simple in principle, there are many vital are called the 'sprue' (vertical) and the'runners' (horizontal).
aspects of the technique,which are necessary to produce good
castings. • Strategically placed reservoirs (called ’risers') must be
incorporated to ensure properfilling of the mould as the metal
The sand must have adequate binding qualities and to achieve shrinks and begins to solidify. Typical steel shrinkageis
this, a small percentage of clayis added. It must also have suitable around 3%-4% and aluminium shrinkage, 6%-7%.
porosity characteristics to permit the escape of gas orsteam,
formed in the mould. There are also different requirements for • The incorporation of vents, where necessary, to permit the
steel and aluminium. escape of gas and steamwhen the molten metal contacts the
sand and disposable pattern when used.
The sand is graded by a sieve which ensures it is the correct grain
size. Its strength is controlledby the amount of bonding agent • Local 'chills’ are sometimes included in the mould, to
present. It must be able to resist the molten metal temperatures encourage more rapid, localsolidification of the metal.
without fusing or melting and have an adequate hardness.
Cavities and hollows within the casting can be made using 'cores',
The moisture content should be between 2% and 8% and is shaped sand negativeswhich are placed in the mould prior to
checked by weighing the sandbefore and after drying. casting.
After casting, the cores are broken up by rods or shot and The advantages of sand-casting are that it is a simple process,
removed from the casting. The metalfrom the sprue and risers, which does not requireelaborate equipment and is economical for
and any flash is cut from the rough casting. small batches. It is also suitable for most metals.
Various heat treatments may be applied to relieve stresses from The major shortcomings are that the process is not very rapid, it is
the initial cooling and to addhardness - in the case of steel or iron, not particularly accurate (dueto lack of sand rigidity) and it is not
by quenching in water or oil. The casting may be suitable for thin-wall sections.
furtherstrengthened by surface compression treatment like shot
peening that adds resistance to tensilecracking and smoothes the TYPICAL CASTING DEFECTS
rough surface. High quality or precision surfaces can be Casting defects vary to some extent, depending on the
producedby machining. castingprocess used, but the mostcommon ones are:
SHELL-MOULDING
Fig 7.14.1 When a sufficiently thick shell has been produced, the shell is
finally cured. The shells are joined together to form a mould
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF SAND-CASTING which is backed up by sand or steel shot in a moulding box. The
molten metal is then poured in. When cooled the shells are broken automation andcan achieve excellentdetail, super finish, low
away from the casting. porosity, and thin sections. Expensive equipment is necessary, but
veryhigh production rates are possible. Automatic ejection may
The advantages of shell-moulding over conventional sand- be usedand, on small components,100 units per minute is
castingare: notuncommon. Hollow castings cannot be made by this method.
a number of times.
4. When the investment coating is set, it is then heated to
allowthe wax to run out, andmolten metal is then poured into
the investment mould.
5. When cool the investment coating is then broken away
fromthe cast, metalliccomponent.
Forging not only shapes the metal, but also reduces grain size and
produces a controlled ofgrain flow. Both of these are
desirablefeatures for many engineering applications,
particularlyforhighly-stressed components, such as crankshafts
and especially ifthey are subject to amechanical fatigue
environment. Machining processes cut the metal and produce
discontinuousgrain flow, reducing fatigue strength.
Fig 7.14.3
HOT-PRESSING
Upsetting is, sometimes, called 'Heading' and usually involves If the rolling is done cold, it is aimed at improved surface quality,
locally heating of the end or endsof the rod material, immediately better accuracy, and increasedhardness/strength. Hot, dilute,
prior to forging. Poppet valves are formed in thisway, as areforged sulphuric acid is used to remove the hot scale from steelprior
bolts. Sometimes this process is done cold (in which case it is tocold rolling. The rolling process is also used to produce the clad
referred to as 'ColdHeading'), and some rivet heads are formed in (and unclad) sheets ofaluminium alloys.
this way.
Both hot and cold rolling will align the grains of the metal
producing a stronger crystallinestructure.
DRAWING
PRESSING/DEEP DRAWING
Fig 7.14.6
Fig 7.14.7
METAL SPINNING
EXTRUSION
Metal Spinning is a process by which circles of metal are shaped
The extrusion process forces hot metal through a shaped die, to
over mandrels (also calledforms) while mounted on a spinning
produce circular, rectangular, tubular, angular, and other more
lathe, by the application of levered force with various tools.It is
complex sections.
performed rotating at high speeds on a manual spinning latheor
performed by CNCcontrolled automated spinning machines. For
The process is similar to drawing, but extruding forces metal
thin gauge, soft metals, the tool can bemanipulated by hand,
froma heated billet, throughhardened dies by compression (like
while, for thicker gauge materials, a hydraulic actuator is used
toothpaste from a tube), whereas in drawing, it is achievedby
onapurpose-built machine.
tension. Malleability is an essential material property for
theextrusion process.
The flat metal disc is clamped against the mandrel and a series of
sweeping motions thenevenly transforms the disc around
Extruding is normally restricted to aluminium alloys and copper
themandrel into the desired shape. The automated processis used
Fig 7.14.9
SINTERING
bushes etc.
Fig 7.14.10
SUPERPLASTIC FORMING MACHINING
These techniques have been well established for many years, and machine is a more sophisticated computer device. Eachmachine
most of the advances, untilrelatively recently, have been confined can be independently programmed and can store the
to tooling improvements which have permitted highermaterial programmesrequired to make avariety of parts.
removal rates. The early, high-carbon steel tools, have
beensuperseded by high-speed steels (tungsten/cobalt alloy Although the capital cost of NC/CNC machines is high, the
steels), cemented carbides and ceramics. following advantages make suchmachines technically desirable
and economically viable, where super-light, complex, high-tech,
However, the biggest single machining advance in modern times manufacture is concerned:
(especially with regard toaircraft manufacture) has been the
introduction of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines. • Complex shapes with integral features are possible
NCmilling, in particular, has revolutionised airframe manufacture. • The number of jigs and fixtures is reduced
• A reduction in manufacturing time
In the original NC machines the motion was controlled by a series • Adaptable to short runs
of numbers, either viapunched tape or magnetic tape. Instructions, • Greater accuracy and consistency
on the tape, were based on the Binary System (ora variant). • Program can be changed to accommodate modifications
The primary advantage of NC machining is the ability to Modern systems allow computer generated drawings (orComputer
accurately control the spindle, the toolor the work- Aided Design - CAD) to beproduced by CNC machines
piecemovements in three directions (x, y and z axes) (Computer Aided Manufacture - CAM) with
independently or littlehumanintervention. The CAD drawing may be generated in
simultaneously. Turret mounted tools with programmed thedesign office and downloaded onto theCAM machine from
toolchanges allow a high degree ofautomation. amainframe computer system. Such CAD-CAM operations are the
basis ofmost modern factories.
NC machines usually incorporate a feed-back system, which 'tells'
the control unit how muchactual movement is made, analysis is
then done and final compensation eliminates any error(i.e. the
motion ceases when the input and feed-back signals
agree).Electrical control of themachine servo-motors can control
movements as small as 0.0005 mm (0.00002 in).
Fig 7.14.13
Fig 7.14.14
Fig 7.14.15
CHEMICAL MILLING
Fig 7.14.15
By making the workpiece the anode of the dc electrical circuit, ELECTRO – DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
and pumping electrolyte underpressure through the gap between a
shaped cathode (also referred to as the tool) and theworkpiece, This process is sometimes called spark machining (or spark
electrolysis can be used to erode the material. erosion), because rather than using electrolysis, the technique
involves the removal of metal b y the energy (and heat) of
The tool is moved slowly towards the workpiece, by a ram, so that electrical sparks. The energy travels from the electrically negative
metal is progressivelyremoved from the workpiece, until the tool electrode, through a dielectric fluid and explosively strikes
desired shape is achieved. the electrically positive work-piece.
The ECM process is ideal for very hard metals, which are The intense heat of the strike, causes local particles of metal to
difficultto machine by conventionalmethods, and the finish instantaneously vaporize, without a molten metal phase (a process
achieved is good. High electric current is required, and the tool known as ‘sublimation’), though, away from the actual centre of
needs tobe a good conductor (copper or brass). It must also resist the explosion, molten fragments of metal are washed away, with
corrosionbecause the electrolyte isoften a salt solution. the vapour, by the dielectric fluid.
FIG 7.14.18
Diffusion bonding, however, is a misnomer. There is no
masstransfer of atoms across the jointinterface. Re-crystallization
Fig. 7.14.19
is not required to achieve high strength quality bonds. If
Titanium can be joined together as sheet metal laminates, or as
thesurfaces to be joined are clean and free of metallic oxides or
various combinations of sheet, plate, bar, or machined
other forms ofcontamination, andare brought together under high
parts.Tooling is required to hold the pieces together to form
heat andpressure, they will join together to form a solid statebond.
complexstructures made up from these elements. Large
Atomsin the joint, will lock together if they achieve interatomic
Titaniumstructures have been fabricated usingthese concepts for
spacing.Hightemperatures result in wide spacing as well as
the production B-1 Bomber and the Space Shuttle.
rapidmolecular activity. Both of these factors assist in achieving
high quality bonds.
Tooling was machined from stainless steel plate or bar
stock.Tooling may also be fabricatedfrom castings to achieve
Titanium is a metallic material that is ideally suited for this typeof
greater resistance to creep deformation under sustained
processing. Titanium is highlyreactive at elevatedtemperatures.
• All surfaces must be protected against damage by Repair or modification drawings must be studied to ensure there is
filings,swarf and vice jaws. no doubt about the data anddimensions provided. After
confirming that the correct metal (to the appropriate heat-
• To reduce the possibility of formation of cracks all edges must treatmentstandard) is being used, the technician can proceed
have a lengthwisedraw-file finish. withmarking out the pattern for the partwhich is being formed.
Once the marking out has been verified as being correct, the
forming of the final shape of thesheet metal component can be
achieved by the use of appropriate cutting and, if
necessary,bending tools.
Fig 7.14.23
Bench guillotines or shears are used for cutting smaller jobs and
employ a lever operatedmoving blade. Many are unguarded and
so must be used with caution. A safety pin is ofteninstalled to
Fig 7.14.22 prevent accidental operation.
Guillotines normally have a facility to support large sheets,
guidesto ensure the sheet ispresented square to the blades,
adjustablestops so that uniform sizes can be cut and a
fingerguard/clamp to hold the material and prevent accidental
injury. Some also containan internallight to aid cut line sighting.
Fig 7.14.24
Snips are hand held cutters used for small and intricate work.They
are available in a variety ofsizes and shapes, each with its own
properties. Size is determined by overall length. Fig 7.14.25
Unlike the previously mentioned shear type cutters, saws remove
They should never be used to cut thick material, however material as part of theircutting action and leave a rougher edge
Universal Pattern or Aviation snipsare designed to cut heat treated which needs more filing than a guillotined edge. Theyalso have a
aluminium alloys and thin stainless steel. Straight snips areused to tendency to distort the edge of the metal.
cut straight lines and outside curves and Curved snips forinside
curves. UniversalPattern and Aviation snips are available in both Hacksaws are commonly used in all hangar and workshop
right and left hand versions and can be used forstraight and gently areasand pneumatically poweredsaws are sometimes used in
radiused cuts. Aviation snips have small teeth on thecutting edge. restricted spaces.
Sharpening should be done by grinding the flat edge of the Electrically powered Jigsaws (Sabre Saws) and Band saws
aresometimes used in workshopenvironments, however great
Fig 7.14.27
Where small amounts of material need to be removed, a hand file
is usually the best tool to use.However, where larger amounts of
material are involved or large jobs have to be trimmed,various
power tools can be used instead of hand files.
Second cut and/or smooth files (used with long, smooth strokes)
must be regularly cleaned witha file card to prevent the build up
of pinnings. Rubbing chalk on the file reduces the cut andusing it
'side on' when draw filing results in a very smooth finish.
SHEET METAL BENDING thickness. For thisreason all bends in sheet metal are in the form
of a curve, the radiusof which is determined by the material,
Practically all sheet metal components require forming or shaping condition and thickness ofthe sheet.
of some type. A skin panelmay require only a one dimensional
curve formed by rolling while a complex bracket may havebends, Bend radius tables can be found in the Structural Repair
folds and joggles in all three dimensions. These bends Manual(SRM) for each aircraft type.
willnormally be made against aformer such as a bend bar, a die or
a stake. BEND ALLOWANCE AND SETBACK
Initially we will consider simple two dimensional bends made When making a bend or fold in a sheet of metal, the bend
using bend bars or a bendingmachine. allowance must be calculated. Bendallowance is the length of
material required for the bend. This amount of metal must be
addedto the overall length of the layout pattern to assure adequate
metal for the bend.
Fig 7.14.29
If a right angle bend is to be made in a piece of paper, a sharp
corner can be formed, however if we try to do the same to a
pieceofsheet metal it will crack at the bend point. This is partly
due to themalleability of the material and partly due to its
Where:
R = The desired bend radius,
T = Thickness of the material, and
N = Number of degrees of bend.
To calculate the setback for a 90-degree bend, merely add the then substitute this value in the formula,
inside radius of the bend to thethickness of the sheet stock:
Setback = K(R + T).
The value for K varies with the number of degrees in the bend.
FOR EXAMPLE:
Setback = K (R + T)
Setback =1.7320 (0.125 + 0.032)
Setback = 0.272 inches
Fig 7.14.31
To calculate setback for angles larger or smaller than 90 degrees,
consult standard setbackcharts or K chart for a value called K, and
The brake or sight line is the mark on a flat sheet that is set even
with the nose of the radius barof the cornice brake and serves as
guide when bending. The brake line can be located bymeasuring
out one radius from the bend tangent line closest to the end that is
to be insertedunder the nose of the brake or against the radius
form block. The nose of the brake or radiusbar should falldirectly
over the brake or sight line as shown.
Fig 7.14.34
MAKING LAYOUTS
RELIEF HOLES
Fig 7.14.32 Wherever two bends intersect, material must be removed to make
room for the materialcontained in the flanges. Holes are therefore
drilled at the intersection. These holes, called reliefholes, prevent
strains from being set up at the intersection of the inside
bendtangent lines thatwould cause the metal to crack. Relief holes
also provide a neatly trimmed corner from whichexcess material
can be trimmed.
Fig. 7.14.33
Straight length AB =
Straight length CD =
Curved length BC =
Fig 7.14.35
The size of a relief hole varies with thickness of the material. Size
should be not less than 1/8inch diameter for aluminum alloy sheet
stock up to and including 0.064 inch thick, or 3/16 inchfor stock
ranging from 0.072 inch to 0.128 inch thickness. The
mostcommon method ofdetermining the diameter of a relief hole Fig 7.14.36
is to use the radius of bend for this dimension, providedit is not
less than the minimum allowance (1/8 inch). MATERIAL, FINISH.
DIMENSIO TOLERANCE. t
16 SWG LI63 FILED
NS IN 0.015
Relief holes must touch the intersection of the inside bend tangent INCHES
lines. To allow for possibleerror in bending, make the relief holes TITLE.SINGLEBENDBRA SCALE 1:1 DRAWINGNO.EUF
so they will extend 1/32 inch to 1/16 inch behind theinside end CKET 1Q00
tangent lines. It is good practice to use the intersection of
theselines as the centerfor the holes. The line on the inside of the EXERCISE 2
curve is cut at an angle toward the relief holes toallow for the
stretching of the inside flange. Using the bend allowance formula in these notes, and your
mathematical knowledge calculatethe total length of metal
EXERCISE 1 required for the bracket shown below.
Using the bend allowance chart in these notes, calculate the total
length of metal required forthe bracket shown below.
Fig.7.14.37
SRM BEND RADIUS TABLE EXAMPLES
BEND BARS
PRACTICAL BENDING
• Where possible mark the sight line so that the shortest part of
the material is abovethe bend bars
• After marking out ensure that the material is the right way up,
i.e. that the sight line isabove the end from which the
calculation was made
• Always use a fine felt tip pen for development and sight lines.
FIG 7.14.39
FOLDING AND BENDING MACHINES
FIG 7.14.38 These are used to produce bends of small radii or sharp ‘sets in
TO FORM THE BEND: sheet metal. Examples areflanging and folding-up box section,
trunking etc.
The material should be squarely positioned in the bend bars with
the sight line level with the topof the bend bars. When positioned The machine is comprised of:
correctly the whole assembly is tightened and secured andthe
metal bent over the radius of the bend bar. Use a block • The bed; a flat machined surface upon which the work
ofhardwood between the hammerand the material to issupported.
preventdamage to the surface of the metal.
• The ‘yoke'; suspended above the bed and extends the
fulllength of it. This can beraised or lowered, and has attached
toits underside a steel bar which grips the workand also acts as
a former for the bend. This former is detachable and may be
replaced by others of varying sections to suit
workrequirements.
• The ‘bending beam’; pivoted along the front edge of the bend.
When swung up itforces up the ‘overhang’ of the work around
The two main types of machine are the ‘open end’ and the ‘closed
end’. The former allowsflanges of practically unlimited length to
be made, while the latter limits the length to that of the
yoke and beam.
FIG 7.14.40
Fig 7.14.42
Fig 7.14.43
ROLLING MACHINE
The two front rollers are in vertical alignment, the top one being
adjustable to accommodatedifferent thicknesses of material.
Theyare geared to each other and turned by means of ahandle.
Thebottom front roller usually has a swivel bearing which allows
thecomplete cylinderto be withdrawn from the machine. The
rollers may have wiring grooves of different radius atone end.
These are used for forming wired edges.
FIG 7.14.44
FORMING
Raising is a process used for forming deep shapes as the material curved surfaces. It is performed using hammers and stakes
is contracted and thickened.This is done by hammering over a withhighly polished surfaces.
stake, driving the material into the shape. The angle of thehammer
blows and point of contact are important. If the metal istrapped
between the hammerand the stake, it will become thin and no
shaping will take place.
FIG 7.14.49
PRESS WORK
should also be set to prevent the work being pinched by Specially trained and approved NDT personnel may use
thetooling. EddyCurrent, Ultrasonic orRadiographic procedures to detect
faults inaluminium alloy sheet metal work.
The work piece may require lubrication prior to forming,
especially if the flange has to be formedin several stages. The dies Dimensional accuracy must be checked by measuring
must be kept clean and any damage dressed out before themanufactured part. If possible, trialfitment should be carried
use.Pressure must be applied evenly to produce the desired outto ensure bends and angles are accurate.
flange.On completion the work must be inspected for cracks and
distortion. When the part has been inspected and proved to conform to
thedrawing requirements, it maythen be heat treated if required
andprotected with surface conversion, primer and paint
asapplicable.
BONDING PRACTICES
GENERAL
By contrast, bonded joints are more continuous and have potential strength and low weight, leading to a highly efficient structure.
advantages of strength-to-weight ratio, design flexibility, and
easeof fabrication. In fact, adhesive bonding has Other advantages offered by sandwich construction are
foundapplications invarious areas from high technology elimination of welding, high insulatingqualities, and design
industries, such asaeronautics, aerospace,electronics, and versatility. In its simplest form, this type of construction usually
automotive to traditionalindustries, such as construction, sports, consists oftwo thin outer face sheets of stiff, strong material (in
andpackaging. Theseapplications are in the form of single skin as this case, a composite) separated by athick, lightweight layer of
well as sandwichconfigurations. core material (e.g. foam, honeycomb, or corrugated).
Virtually all types of composites from sheet mouldingcompound The most common misconception in surface preparation isthat the
to prepregs can be used asskins with a wide range of polymeric, only requirement for a goodbond is a clean surface. Aclean
metallic, and ceramic materials used as corematerials. surface is a necessary condition for adhesion but it is
notasufficient condition for bond durability. Most structural
Most of the early work on adhesive joining of composites was adhesives work as a result of theformation of chemical
done in the 1970s and early1980s for the aerospace industry. bonds(mainly covalent, but some ionic and static attractive
There have been many analytical, finite element, and experimental bondsmayalso be present) between the adherend surface atoms
studies performed over the years. and the compounds constituting theadhesive. These chemical links
are the load transfer mechanism between the
Despite composite (single skin and sandwich) structureshaving adherends.Mostadhesive bond failures can be attributed to poor
gained substantial importancein many applications where the processes during fabrication, with lack ofquality
weight saving has become more and more important, a lack surfacepreparation being the most significant deficiency.
ofreliable material models still exists limiting in this way a more Typicalcomposite surfacetreatments include traditional
widespread application ofadhesively bonded joints of composite abrasion/solvent cleaning techniques for
structures in principal load-bearing structuralapplications. thermosetcomposites,whereas thermoplastic composites require
surface chemistry and surface topographicalchanges to ensure
EFFECT OF SURFACE PREPARATION strong and durable bond strength. For these composites the
primaryaim ofthe surface treatment is to increase the surface
The surfaces play an important role in the bonding process and energy of the adherend as much as possible.
are, perhaps, the most important process governing the quality of
an adhesive bond joint. Surface treatments decrease water contact angle, increase surface
tension, and as a resultincrease bond strength.
Appropriate pre-treatment can sometimes confer additional
properties to the surfaces. Surfacetreatments prior to A variety of surface treatments have been used with
theapplication of adhesives are recommended to variousdegrees of success to increasesurface tension, increase
achievemaximummechanical strength. Bond strength can surfaceroughness, change surface chemistry, and thereby
besignificantly improved by surface treating theadherends priorto increasebond strength and durability of polymer composite
bonding. The formation of a suitable surface chemistry isthe most adhesive joints:abrasion/solvent cleaning,grit blasting, peel-ply,
importantstep in the surface preparation processbecause the tear-ply, acid etching, corona discharge treatment, plasma
integrity of this surface directly influencesthe durability of the treatment, andlaser treatment. However, the recommended surface
adhesive bond. preparation for these composites is a lightaluminium oxide grit
blast in drynitrogen. The abrasion should just remove the surface
of theresin with- out exposing fibres. Since the epoxy surface Similar to plasma treatment, corona discharge uses ionization of
bonds well toother epoxies, nochemical modification is required. agas to effect surfacereactivity and roughness. Reactive
By increasing surface tension, increasing surface roughness,and groupssuch as carbonyls, hydroxyls, hydroperoxides,aldehydes,
changingsurface chemistry, a more intimate bond can be formed, ethersor esters are introduced to the surface. Corona discharge has
whichallows for increasein strength and durability. alimited shelf-life and requires parts to be assembled in a
limitedtime period. Corona discharge is commonlyused on
SURFACE PREPARATION METHODS polyolefinsubstrates. Both plasma and corona treatment require
aninvestment incapital equipment or outsourcing of treatment.
In order to enhance adhesion, materials designated as hard-to- Likeplasma exposure, corona treatment is mostfrequently used
bond require surface preparationprior to joining. onpolyolefin substrates bonded with cyanoacrylate or light-
Surfacepreparation methods for hard-to-bond plastics include curingacrylicadhesives. The treatment generates reactive groups
bothchemicaland physical treatments designed to increase thatserve as potential bonding sites for theadhesive, and results in
reactivityand roughness on the surface of thesubstrate. Common a significant enhancement of bond strength.
methodsinclude plasma or corona treatment, flame treatment,
chemicaletching or surface priming. Chemical treatment methods such as chromic acid etching are
often used on polyolefins andacetals. Like other surface treatment
Plasma treatment is used on a wide variety of substrates methods, chromic acid etching adds reactive species to
includingpolyolefins and polyester. Agas such as oxygen, argon, asurface.Because it can be hazardous, chemical treatment is used
helium or air is excited at low pressure, resulting in the on alimited basis to treat avariety of substrates prior to bonding
productionof freeradicals. The ions generated bombard the withcyanoacrylate and light-curing acrylic adhesives.Handling
substrate surface andform reactive groupsthat increase surface and storage of hazardous substances is one potential drawback
reactivity andwettability. One of the major drawbacks with ofchemicaltreatments. Surface changes are controlled by
plasma treatment is its potentially short shelf-life. Most substrates twovariables: the solvent selected and theoverall exposure time.
treated with plasmamust beassembled within a very short period
of time since thereactive surface is re-exposed to air andrapidly In flame treatment, various reactive groups such as
reverts back to itsnormal state. Plasma treatment is frequently hydroxyls,carbonyls and carboxyls areintroduced to bonding
used withcyanoacrylate,light-curing acrylic, and light-curing surfacesthrough an oxidation reaction when the substrate is
cyanoacrylateadhesive technologies. Since each plasmagas exposed toflame. In addition, flame treatment increases the
imparts differentcharacteristics onto a substrate, end-users should surface energy ofthe substrate surface, allowing for better wetting.
consult theiradhesiveand substrate suppliers to determine the Flame treatmentis commonly used on polyolefins and
optimum gas forthe materials used. polyacetals,and is most frequently used when bonding with
cyanoacrylate adhesives.
Fig 7.14.54
The single-lap joint is the most common joint used mainly due
toits simplicity and efficiency.
Fig 7.14.56
Various improved T-joints have been designed and
investigatedsome with focus on improvedstrength and others on
reducedweight. Also, T-joint connection can have foam fillets in
the formof a pad or two triangular inserts combined with
overlaminates.
ADHESIVE PROPERTIES
Fig 7.14.55
Joining of sandwich structures is a complex task. For example, ina Adhesives used in structural applications include: epoxies
sandwich T-joint, joining oftwo sandwich panels at right angleto (havinghigh strength andtemperature resistance), cyanoacrylates
each other with continuous fibre reinforcement at thecorners (fastbonding capability to plastic and rubber, but poorresistance
isconsiderably difficult. Continuous fibre-reinforcement tomoisture and temperature), anaerobics (suitable for
facilitatesefficient load transferbetween the two composite parts bondingcylindrical shapes),acrylics (versatile adhesives with
andincreases the joint strength substantially. The compositeT- capabilitiesof fast curing and tolerate dirtier and less
joint is being used extensively in the marine and aerospace preparedsurfaces),polyurethanes (good flexibility at low
industries. Atypical design of thistype of joint consists of panels temperatures and resistantto fatigue),silicones (excellent sealant
joined by fillet and overlaminates. for low stress applications,high degree of flexibility and very
high-temperature resistance),and high- temperature adhesives
(phenolics, polyimides, andbismaleimides).
ofadhesives. The increasedusage of high-temperature resin-matrix of compatible and equally heat stable adhesive systems.
systems for composite materials has necessitated thedevelopment
shear tests, compression, peel, durability tests, and dynamictests. adhesively bonded joint can affect, in turn, the
The typical test for strength characterization is lap shear test; for ultimatemechanicalperformance of the joint. These factors must
the fracture toughness, itis the double cantilever beam (DCB) test; beconsidered a critical factor in determining thelong-term
and for the assessment of the resistance to solvents,it is the wedge durability of adhesively bonded joints and need to be carefully
test. There are several test methods to measure the shearproperties identified and related tothe type of service the material will
of theadhesives, such as the notched beam shear method, the perceive. The main environmental factors in climatic expo-sure
notched plate shear method, torsion ofbulk material,butt torsion are temperatureand humidity. The prolonged exposure or even
(napkin ring or solid specimen), and the thick-adherend shear short-termexposure toelevated temperatures will often produce
testmethod (TAST). The TAST (ISO 11003-2:1993) is usually irreversible chemical and physical changes withinadhesives.
preferred for determining designparameters as the thick, rigid
adherends reduce (but do not eliminate) the peel stresses. As the temperature increases, the bond strength decreases.
Also,the moisture absorbed in apolymeric material can lead to a
The state of stress is predominantly shear, but there are wide range of effects, both reversible and irreversible,
peelstresses at the end of the overlap.However, the most widely includingplasticization, swelling, and degradation. At
used adhesive bond test specimen is the single-lap tension test. temperatures belowthe glass transition temperatureTg , polymer
Thefailure mode of the single-lap joint is rarely controlled by property reduction is reversible upon dehydration, whereas above
theshear strength of the adhesive butis largely the result of Tg , the matrixproperties are permanently degraded.
jointdeflections and rotations and induced peel stresses. Due to
therotation at the overlap, data from single overlap tension The presence of moisture in adhesive joints may not only
testspecimen cannot be used to obtainadhesive shear design data, weakenthe physical and chemicalproperties of the adhesive itself
but are often used for screening tests to compare several but also the interface between the adhesive and the substrate.
adhesivesystems and the effects of the environment on the
adhesiveproperties in the selection processof the adhesive. In the case of composite joints exposed to humid environments,
the mechanisms of degradationare quite different compared to
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS adhesively bonded metal joints. Unlike metals, the work
ofadhesion for composite to epoxy joints remains positive in
Adhesively bonded joints may be exposed to thepresence of water, thusdecreases the likelihood of
variousenvironmental conditions during theirservice life. As has interfacialfailure on ageing. Also, the composite adherend will
been shown, the performance of adhesive systems can be absorb water, which can affect the kinetics of water absorption
considerably into theadhesive.
deteriorated when exposed to harsh environments.
Theenvironmental factors that can affectthe properties of an Temperature and moisture can also influence the mechanical
properties of the composite matrixmaterial, and the interface The failure prediction of the composite bonded joints is
between fibres and matrix may be weakened in the presence stilldifficult because the failure strengthand mode are
ofmoisture. differentaccording to various bonding methods and parameters.
Primaryfailuremodes for composite sandwich structures are
FAILURE MODES buckling,local delamination, and fatigue/fracture.Buckling is one
of themost important failure modes for composite structures,
Failure modes are determined by the quality of the bond at each whichhave lowmodulus of elasticity. For all kinds of loading on
interface, specimen geometry,and loading. They must be skinsand joints between composite materials,local delamination is
characterized to gain a full understanding of the properties of one of the most severe failure modes since it can result in
theadhesive and the joint being investigated. catastrophic
failure for the global system structure.
In FRP composite adhesive joints, there are seven
typicalcharacterized modes of failure. Theyare: adhesive failure, Interlaminar shear strength and through-thickness normal strength
cohesive failure, thin-layer cohesive failure, fibre-tear must then be carefullydesigned to prevent composite structures
failure,light-fibre-tear failure, stock-break failure, or mixed from local delamination. The initiation of the variousfailuremodes
failure. Thetypical bonding parameters are surfaceconditions depends on the material properties of the constituents (facings,
(e.g.contamination, abrasion, and plasma treatment), fillet, adhesive, andcore), geometric dimensions, and type of loading.
bondlinethickness,surface ply angle, stacking sequence, There are various studies referred to failuremode of sandwich
environmentalconditions, and so on. structures bonded joints.
COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
suitableresin matrix and formed into the required shapes. of chopped strand mat, (i.e.glass fibres in a random, non- woven
state) but, where considerable strength is required, uni-directional
TYPES OF COMPOSITES glass cloth is used.
GLASS-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP) To provide all round strength, sheets of uni-directional cloth can
be laid up at 90° to each other,in a similar manner to the grain in
The first man-made fibre, glass can be spun into cloth and usedfor plywood. Sometimes such sheets are used as facings for
fire-proof curtains or (whenextremely pure glass is used),made aninternal honeycomb of plastic-impregnated paper, to give a
into fibres which are able to transmit light over longdistances. veryefficient structure in terms ofstrength, stiffness and weight.
The ultimate tensile strength of undamaged, very small The glass fibre sheet material can be supplied with cloth already
diameterglass fibres is extremely high, although the strength is impregnated with resin andpartially cured (‘Pre-preg’), in which
reduced significantly if the fibres are slightly damaged. case it is necessary to keep the material in
refrigeratedstorage.Resin curing is usually done at elevated
In its structural use it is often merely referred to as glass fibre temperatures (120°C-170°C), with the GRPcomponent in its
orfibreglass, when glass fibres (invarious forms) are mould and, often, underpressure, in an autoclave.
bondedtogether by appropriate resins.
The main reasons for using GRP are:
When moulded with resin, the resulting composite is, also,
ofconsiderably lower strength but,nevertheless, good • in instances where metal cannot be used (e.g. for radar domes
GRPstructures are stronger than mild steel and, on a simple or other non-electricalconducting applications)
strength-for-weight basis, can be comparable to high tensile steel • the ease and low cost of producing very complex shapes
if thefibre form and lay-up is nearoptimum. It is • to provide good strength/weight ratio
however,considerably less stiff than steel or even aluminium. • its ability to produce selected directional strength.
A graphic example of GRP flexibility is the enormous deflection, The main disadvantage of glass fibre is that it lacks stiffness and,
which takes place in the poleduring a pole vault. As the glass as such, is not suitable forapplications subject to high structural
fibres are about a hundred times stronger than the resin, it is loadings.
obviously necessary to get as much fibre packed into themoulding
as possible. CERAMIC FIBRES
Made by firing clay or other non-metallic materials, ceramic and pressure to cure). Somespecialist items are made by a
fibres are a form of glass fibre, usedin high-temperature laborious, but ideal, process called ‘Filament Winding’, in which
applications. They can be used at temperatures up to 1650°C a carbon fibre string is wound over a former in the shape of the
andaresuited for use around engine and exhaust systems. Ceramic workpiece whilst bonded withresin.
fibres are heavy (and expensive)and are only used where no other
materials are suitable. Because of CRP's high stiffness modulus, it is also used
extensively to stiffen GRP oraluminium alloy structures.
CARBON-FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (CRP)
A material known as Carbon-Carbon (where the resin is also
CRP (also referred to as ‘Graphite’) is a composite material,which graphitised), is used for the rotorsand stators on brake units. It
was primarily developed toretain (or improve upon) the high offers a significant weight saving, as well as high efficiency,
strength-to-weight ratio characteristics exhibited by GRP, butwith duetothe fact that it dissipates the heat generated very quickly.
very much greater stiffness values.
Replacing 40% of an aluminium alloy structure by CRP would
Carbon fibres are very stiff and, when formed into a composite, result in a 40% saving in totalstructural weight and CRP is used
the Young's Modulus (‘E’) valuecan be higher than steel. CRP is on such items as the wings, horizontal (and vertical)
not only six times stiffer than GRP but is also over 50% stabilisers, forward fuselages and spoilers of many aircraft.
stronger. It also has twice the strength of high-strength aluminium
alloy and three times thestiffness. The use of composites, in the manufacture of helicopter rotor
blades, has led to significantincreases in their life and, in some
Carbon fibres are typically less than 0.01 mm (0.0004 in) cases, they may have an unlimited life span (subject todamage).
indiameter and are produced bysubjecting a fine thread of The modern blade is highly complex and may be comprised
asuitable nylon-type plastic to a very high temperature ofCRP, GRP, stainlesssteel, a honeycomb core and foam filling.
(todecompose the polymer), and driving off all of the elements ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (ARP)
withthe exception of carbon. Thecarbon thread is then stretched,
at white heat (2000°C-3000°C), to develop The aramid fibres are closely related to the nylon-type ofsynthetic
strength.Unfortunately, the process is complex and very costly. fibres and are well known fortheir superior toughness, strength-to-
weight characteristics and heat-resistance. Tyres,reinforced with
Nevertheless, where the high cost can be justified, CRP can offer aramid fibres are comparable to those reinforcedwith steel cords.
considerable weight savingsover conventional materials. CRP
components are generally made from ‘Pre-preg’ sheet (fibres Better known under its trade name - Kevlar - in cloth form, it is
impregnated with resin and a hardener, which only require heat asoft, yellow, organic fibre thatis extremely light, strong and
tough. Its great impact-resistance makes it useful in areas, tolerance composite parts is thecoefficient of thermal expansion
whichare liable to be struck by debris, as experienced in areas of all the related materials. As previously discussed, theprocess
aroundengine reverse-thrust buckets.Kevlar is used to typically involves the generation of or the use of externallyapplied
manufacturebullet-proof jackets and, also, as a reinforcement, in heat. The use ofmaterials with the same or similar coefficients of
aircraft fueltanks. expansion for moulds is preferred. If a mould isfabricated using
materials with coefficients of expansion differentthan those of the
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES FOR COMPOSITES compositematerials, adaptations for the different expansion rates
must be included in the mould design.
From previous discussions, it is clear that composite parts may be
fabricated into a variety ofconfigurations, depending upon the The first step in mould design, when using materials withdifferent
design needs determined by the aircraft engineer. Thefabrication coefficients of thermalexpansion is to determine how the finished-
may be accomplished by the use of moulds or dies. Since this text part dimensions change at the curing temperature.For example, a
deals primarilywith maintenance-related activities the discussion composite part that has a dimension of 10 in. at room temperature
is limited to fabrication techniques usingmoulds. mightmeasure 10 1/32 in. at the elevatedcuring temperature.
Therefore, for the part to be at the 10in. finished dimension at
Forming these configurations is accomplished by combining the room temperature, it must be 10 1/32 in. atcuring temperature.
fibres and matrix over a form,called a mould. A mould is a tool
that conforms to the desired shape of the finished product.Moulds The mould must also be at the expanded dimension at the elevated
may be either open or closed moulds. curing temperature.However, if the coefficient thermal expansion
of the mould material is different than that of thefinished part, the
Open moulds, often referred to as a bond form or lay-up tool dimensions of the mould will be different at room
allow easy access to thecomposite materials during thefabrication temperature.Continuing thepreceding example, the mould must
process and depend upon gravity and atmosphericpressure or have adimension of 10 1/32 in. at elevated temperature.When
externally applied pressure to mould the compositematerial cooled to room temperature the mould will have different
against the mould untilthe curing process is complete.Closed dimensions. Forexample,assume that the coefficient of thermal
moulds are designed in a matched male-femaleconfiguration. expansion for theme material was half that of the partmaterial.
Forcing the two mould halves together ensures thatthe composite The mould cooled to room temperature would measure 10 1/64 in.
material takesthe shape of the mould. Gravity from the weight on When the mould isfabricated, it is fabricated to the cool
the top mould half or externally appliedpressure may be used to dimension, which when heated to the elevated curingtemperature,
ensure the proper mating of the mould. would result in a mould dimension equal to the dimension of the
part at the curingtemperature.
One important consideration in the design of moulds for close-
The diagram below illustrates the proper relationship between the isfabricated.
coefficients of expansion ofthe mould material and the part
material. The proper relationship between the In low-volume production processes and repairs, a vacuum bag,
coefficientsexpansion of the part and mould materials depends which is a plastic bagsurrounding the part from which air has been
upon theconfiguration of the finished part.For example, if the part evacuated, and a separate heat source may beused. Common heat
is U channel and the mould form is the inside the channel, sources include controlled ovens, portable “hot bonders,”
thecoefficient of thermal expansion for the mould material must andheatblankets.
greater than that of the partmaterial. If this were not true, the
mould would not reduce dimensionally enough to allow thepart to Compensating for the different coefficients of thermal expansion
contract to the proper finished dimension, causing interference of mould and part materials are bonded in close proximity to each
between the mould andthe part. However, if the mould is the other. The strength of the lay-up depends on the volume of
outside the ‘U’ channel, the coefficient of thermalexpansion for thefibres and their orientation.
the mould material must be less than that of the part material or
interference willagain develop as the part and mould are cooled to High volume and critical composite structures are often heated
room temperature. using an autoclave, which is anoven that heats the material while
it is under pressure.
WARP-ORIENTATION TECHNIQUES
Kevlar and fibreglass are highly fibrous materials, and using adrill
that is diamond-dust coatedwill only aggravate the situation. The
fibres will grab at the drill bit and pull the diamond from the
base metal or fill the voids in the dust pattern with material. These
Fig 7.14.59
composite materials shouldbe drilled with a specially ground drill
bit that causes the material to be sheared during thedrilling
process. This point will also reduce the fuzziness of the drill hole
typically found afterdrilling.
FIG 7.14.61
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS FOR COMPOSITE
MATERIAL HANDLING
The specific inspection method used for a composite structure An ultrasonic tester can be used to transmit a sound wave signal
varies with the compositematerial used and the using into a solid laminate panel.The sensors of the analyzer send and
organization’s experience with inspection methods. receive the sound signal and evaluate the speed at whichit moves
through the structure. The analyzer then displays the signal
Acoustic emission, holography, ultrasonics, X rays, timeon a cathode-raytube. A trained operator can evaluate the
thermography, and ring tests are some ofthe non-destructive display and determine the location, depth, and extentof voids,
inspection (NDI) techniques currently in use. The information delaminations, occlusions (debris), resin richness or starvation,
presentedhere is a summary of the methods commonly used. and other damage asthe sending/receiving probe is positioned on
However, the aviation maintenancetechnician should always different parts of the structure. A couplant or thincoating of
consult the manufacturer’s maintenance manual for specific petroleum jelly, oil, or water is used between the sending unit and
testingand repair procedures as they apply to a particular aircraft. the materialsurface as a sound-transmission medium. Thecouplant
A ring test can be used to detect voids (no matrix between provides an airtight bond between thematerial being tested and the
thefibres and delaminations (separations) between the layers. A signal pickup device.
1oz hammer, a coin, or other lightweight metal-tappingdevice is
used to tap on the bonded areas. If the bonding is intact, the Radiology can be accomplished using X-ray signals. These can
tapping gives a solid“ring.” If there is a void or delamination beused to locate moisture andcorrosion in honeycomb,
under the surface, the tapping results in a dull sound. Ifa delaminations, and separations of the core from the skin. The use
separation is located, the extent of the separation has to be ofradiology is a complex operation that requires the services of
evaluated by other inspectionmethods to be assured that there specially trained technicians to operate the equipment andinterpret
really is a problem. the exposed films.
When performing the ring test, the sound may change due to a Acoustic emission monitoring is used to detect corrosion and
transition to a different internalstructure, the technician striking disbonding of the adhesive bond.This system also relies on the
the part at a slightly different angle, and/or pressure. Variations transmission of sound waves through a material. This
in the sound during the ring test may be caused by factors other inspectionmethod employs a very sensitive microphone and
than internal damage. This testis quite quick but “unscientific” amplifier. The microphone is placed on thesurface of a bonded
and is more a cause for continued inspection using structure. If active corrosion is present the noise associated with
othertechniques than a true indication of component failure. An thebubbles generated by the corrosion activity can be detected as
example of a change in internalconfiguration that would change a hissing sound. If the panelbeing inspected is heated to about
150°F (82°C) disbonding of the adhesive will be indicated bya amoisture meter is impractical, X-ray methods may be helpful
crackling sound. inassessing moisture quantity.
DAMAGE ASSESSMENT
MOISTURE DAMAGE Delamination, the separation of plies from each other or from the
core, may be caused bymoisture absorption or impact damage and
Any damage to the surface of a composite laminate or honeycomb when either is known to exist, the area surroundingthe visible
core will allow moisture toenter the structure and cause damage. damage should be checked to ensure the structuralintegrity of the
Once moisture has entered, the repeated cycle offreezing and laminations. Thiscan be determined by tapping the skin with a
thawing during flight operations will progressively destroy small metallic object such as a coin. This shouldproduce a live
thebonded structurefrom the inside, thus extending the damage resonant tone if the bonding is sound, but ifdelamination has
over a wide area. When it is suspected thatmoisture has entered occurred, a flat,dead response will beobtained.
the structure through a skin puncture, in investigation should
becarriedout to check the extent of the moisture absorption. On
glass fibre components such asradomes, a moisture meter is
recommended for detecting water ingress. Where the use of
• VIBRATION METHODS
• THERMAL IMAGING