THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

Module 07.15: WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING

Certification Statement

Sr. CAR 66 Level

Objective
No. Reference B1
WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND BONDING 7.15 2
a. Soldering methods; inspection of soldered joints
b. Welding and brazing methods; 2
Inspection of welded and brazed joints;
Bonding methods and inspection of bonded joints.

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SOLDERING
Soldering differs from welding in that it is done at considerably
lower temperatures so that the parent metals do not melt and fuse
together.
Instead, a fusible and, usually, non-ferrous alloy (with a lower
melting point) is applied between the heated metals of the joint,
such that the fusible alloy forms a metallic bond with the parent
metals and, on cooling, creates a solid joint.
STRUCTURAL SOLDERING
Soldering can be divided into two basic methods, one of which
uses higher temperature ranges than the other, but both of which
are conducted at temperatures below the melting points of the
parent metals of the intended joint.
The two basic methods of soldering are:
• HARD SOLDERING: Done at temperatures in excess
of450°C and which include the processes of Brazing and
Silver Soldering
• SOFT SOLDERING: Typically done at temperatures within
the range of 180°C to 400°C, which, consequently, create
joints of lower strength (but less expense) than those achieved
by the hard soldering methods. Low Temperature
Soldering(>50°C) may be used in specialist applications.
NOTE: As with welding, the hard soldering processes are,
normally, beyond the limit of the aircraft maintenance technician,
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so only brief consideration is given to them here, with more
attention being given to the soft soldering method.
HARD SOLDERING (BRAZING/SILVER SOLDERING)
The definition of joining two pieces of metal by brazing typically
meant using brass or bronze as the filler metal. However, that
definition has been expanded to include any metal joining process
in which the bonding material is a nonferrous metal or alloy with
a melting point higher than 800 °F, but lower than that of the
metals being joined.
Brazing requires less heat than welding and can be used to join
metals that may be damaged by high heat. However, because the
strength of a brazed joint is not as great as that of a welded joint,
brazing is not used for critical structural repairs on aircraft. Also,
any metal part that is subjected to a sustained high temperature
should not be brazed.
Brazing is applicable for joining a variety of metals, including
brass, copper, bronze and nickel alloys, cast iron, malleable iron,
wrought iron, galvanized iron and steel, carbon steel, and alloy
steels. Brazing can also be used to join dissimilar metals, such as
copper to steel or steel to cast iron. When metals are joined by
brazing, the base metal parts are not melted. The brazing metal
adheres to the base metal by molecular attraction and intergranular
penetration; it does not fuse and amalgamate with them..
In brazing, the edges of the pieces to be joined are usually beveled
as in welding steel. The surrounding surfaces must be cleaned of
dirt and rust. Parts to be brazed must be securely fastened together
to prevent any relative movement.
The strongest brazed joint is one in which the molten filler metal
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is drawn in by capillary action, requiring a close fit.
A brazing flux is necessary to obtain a good union between the
base metal and the filler metal. It destroys the oxides and floats
them to the surface, leaving a clean metal surface free from
oxidation. A brazing rod can be purchased with a flux coating
already applied, or any one of the numerous fluxes available on
the market for specific application may be used. Most fluxes
contain a mixture of borax and boric acid.
The base metal should be preheated slowly with a neutral soft
flame until it reaches the flowing temperature of the filler metal. If
a filler rod that is not precoated with flux is used, heat about 2
inches of the rod end with the torch to a dark purple color and dip
it into the flux. Enough flux adheres to the rod that it is
unnecessary to spread it over the surface of the metal. Apply the
flux-coated rod to the red-hot metal with a brushing motion, using
the side of the rod; the brass flows freely into the steel. Keep the
torch heat on the base metal to melt the filler rod. Do not melt the
rod with the torch. Continue to add the rod as the brazing
progresses, with a rhythmic dipping action so that the bead is built
to a uniform width and height. The job should be completed
rapidly and with the fewest possible passes of the rod and torch.
Notice that some metals are good conductors of heat and dissipate
the heat more rapidly away from the joint. Other metals are poor
conductors that tend to retain the heat and overheat readily.
Controlling the temperature of the base metal is extremely
important. The base metal must be hot enough for the brazing
filler to flow, but never overheated to the filler boiling point. This
causes the joint to be porous and brittle.
The key to even heating of the joint area is to watch the
appearance of the flux. The flux should change appearance
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uniformly when even heat is being applied. This is especially
important when joining two metals of different mass or
conductivity. The brazing rod melts when applied to the red-hot
base metal and runs into the joint by capillary attraction. (Note
that molten brazing filler metal tends to flow toward the area of
higher temperature.) In a torch heated assembly, the outer metal
surfaces are slightly hotter than the interior joint surfaces. The
filler metal should be deposited directly adjacent to the joint.
Where possible, the heat should be applied to the assembly on the
side opposite to where the filler is applied because the filler
metal tends to flow toward the source of greater heat.
After the brazing is complete, the assembly or component must
be cleaned. Since most brazing fluxes are water soluble, a hot
water rinse (120 °F or hotter) and a wire brush remove the flux.
If the flux was overheated during the brazing process, it usually
turns green or black. In this case, the flux needs to be removed
with a mild acid solution recommended by the manufacturer of
the flux in use.
In general applications, workshops and small factories, a flame,
directed onto the joint area, is the source of heat. However, in the
more sophisticated applications, used in industry, heating for hard
soldering may be provided by:
• Gas, oil or electrically heated, closed furnace
• High-frequency (HF) induction coil.
Silver Soldering
The principle use of silver solder in aircraft work is in the
fabrication of high-pressure oxygen lines and other parts that must
withstand vibration and high temperatures. Silver solder is used
extensively to join copper and its alloys, nickel and silver, as well
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as various combinations of these metals and thin steel parts. Silver
soldering produces joints of higher strength than those produced
by other brazing processes. Flux must be used in all silver
soldering operations to ensure the base metal is chemically clean.
The flux removes the film of oxide from the base metal and
allows the silver solder to adhere to it.
All silver solder joints must be physically, as well as chemically,
clean. The joint must be free of dirt, grease, oil, and/or paint. After
removing the dirt, grease, etc., any oxide (rust and/or corrosion)
should be removed by grinding or filing the piece until bright
metal can be seen. During the soldering operation, the flux
continues to keep the oxide away from the metal and aid in the
flow of the solder.
The three recommended types of joint for silver soldering are lap,
flanged, and edge. With these, the metal is formed to furnish a
seam wider than the base metal thickness and provide the type of
joint that holds up under all types of loads.
The oxy-acetylene flame for silver soldering should be a soft
neutral or slightly reducing flame. That is, a flame with a slight
excess of acetylene. During both preheating and application of the
solder, the tip of the inner cone of the flame should be held about
1/2-inch from the work. The flame should be kept moving so that
the metal does not overheat.
When bot h part s of the base metal are at the correct
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temperature, the flux flows and solder can be applied directly
adjacent to the edge of the seam. It is necessary to simultaneously
direct the flame over the seam and keep it moving so that the base
metal remains at an even temperature.
Silver Soldering entails the use of a Tin/Silver or Cadmium/Silver
alloy with Indium, Antimony and Lead, as the joining metal and
(again depending on the alloy employed), can be done at
temperatures of between 650°C to 700°C. Brass, copper, monel
metal and stainless steel are typical metals on which silver
soldering processes can be used.
INSPECTION OF BRAZED JOINTS
In order to obtain the most successful brazed joints, close control
of all operations is essential. The design, manufacture and
cleaning of the component parts of the joint, the brazing alloy and
flux used, the heating process selected, the method of removing
flux residues and the application of any necessary heat treatment,
should all be' in accordance with proven methods and
substantiated by the manufacture and testing of sample joints.
Adequate control of the heating method is essential, particularly
for induction heating, resistance heating and furnace heating, and
staff should be competent to ensure that consistent results are
obtained. At specified intervals a completed assembly should be
selected and subjected to strength tests and sectioning to ensure
that the complete brazing operation remains satisfactory.
The following points should be checked when visually inspecting
a finished joint:-
(i) The joint and surrounding surfaces should be free from pitting,
corrosion, scale, flux residue and other evidence of bad
workmanship.
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(ii) The filler alloy must have penetrated throughout the joint. In
the case of pipe joints an examination should be made for In earlier times, the heat was provided by the application of an
excessive penetration which may partially obstruct the pipe bore. implement with a wooden handle and a smooth, flat, base or
(iii) Fillets of filler alloy should be smooth and continuous. ‘bit’(originally made of iron). The ‘iron’ was directly heated in a
(iv) The dimensions of the assembly should be in accordance with flame, then quickly cleaned, before being applied to the solder
the appropriate drawing. · joint, where the transference of its heat would facilitate the
melting of the filler metal. This process possibly needed repeating
A visual examination may sometimes be insufficient to establish several times (as the iron tended to lose its heat fairly
that the filler alloy has penetrated through the joint. In these cases, quickly)before a large task could be completed.
X-ray, ultrasonic or eddy current inspections may be required. In
some instances, brazed joints which have been found
unsatisfactory, may be re-brazed under suitably controlled
conditions. Care is necessary to prevent the buildup of an
excessive amount of filler alloys, particularly in the case pipe
joints.

SOFT SOLDERING

Soft Soldering involves the use of a Lead/Tin alloy (with traces of

Bismuth and Antimony added when required) as the filler metal,
which melts at temperatures between approximately 180°C to
330°C, depending on the composition of the alloy.
It was found that copper is a better heat conductor than iron, is
Environmentally friendly lead free solders are becoming
less prone to corrosion and is, therefore, easier to keep clean.
available. The lower temperature requirement, of the soft
Copper, consequently, became the metal most preferred for use as
soldering process, allows the use of indirect heat.
the soldering ‘bit’, though the implement retained its name of the
soldering ‘iron’. While needing re-heating less frequently, it
Nowadays soft soldering is most commonly associated with
remains necessary to regularly reheat the copper bit of the directly
electrical connections, providing a low resistance, but
heated soldering irons.
mechanically weak joint. However, it can also be used to produce
a fluid tight joint on sheet steel, tin plate and copper pipes, where
The advent of electrically heated (and thermostatically
strength is not a critical requirement. Food cans (tins) were
controlled)soldering irons has overcome the re-heating problem,
originally soldered together to seal them.
associated with directly heated irons, and consideration is given

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here only to the method of soft soldering with the use of
electrically (or indirectly) heated soldering irons.
Soldering is the process of joining two metals together by the use
of a solder alloy, and it’s one of the oldest known joining
techniques.
Today, in the field of electronics, soldering is far from the simple
task it once was. It is now more of a fine art, and one that requires
care, experience, and a knowledge of fundamentals.
The importance of high standards of workmanship cannot be
overemphasized, since faulty solder joints remain one of the major
causes of equipment failure. Soldering has become a critical skill.
The material contained in this handbook is designed to provide the
student with both the fundamental knowledge and practical skills
needed to perform the majority of high reliability soldering
operations encountered in today’s electronics.
It covers the fundamentals of solder action, the proper selection
and use of the soldering iron, and the accepted procedures for
soldering wires and components to single-sided, double-sided, and
multi-layer circuit boards.
A key concept is that of high reliability.
THE NATURE OF SOLDER
Solder used for electronics is a metal alloy, made by combining
tin and lead in different proportions. When the proportions are
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equal, the solder is known as fifty-fifty solder...fifty percent tin
and fifty percent lead. Similarly, sixty-forty solder would consist
of 60% tin and 40% lead. You can usually find these percentages
marked on the various types of solder available; sometimes only
the tin percentage is shown. The chemical symbol for tin is Sn,
thus Sn 63 indicates a solder which is 63% tin.
The striking fact about solder is its low melting point. Pure lead
has a melting point of 327°C; pure tin, a melting point of 232°C.
But when you combine them into a 60/40 solder, the melting point
drops to216°C. ... lower than either of the two metals alone.
Melting, generally does not take place at once. As illustrated in
below, 60/40 solder begins to melt at 183°C, but is not fully
melted until the temperature reaches 191°C. Between these two
temperatures, the solder exists in a plastic (or semi-liquid) state ...
some, but not all of it, has melted.
The plastic range of solder varies, depending upon the ratio of tin
to lead, as shown below. Various ratios of tin to lead are shown
across the top of this figure, with most ratios, melting begins at
183°C, but the full melting temperatures vary dramatically.
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A special case is Sn 63 which is an example of what is known as
eutectic solder. This type of solder has no plastic range, and in the
case of Sn 63, fully melts and solidifies at 183°C.
THE MECHANICS OF SOLDERING
The heated bit of the soldering iron must, next, be ‘tinned’. This is
achieved by, firstly, ensuring that the bit is thoroughly cleaned
then dipping the bit in flux (if a separate flux is being used) and
applying solder to the bit until a thin film of solder completely
covers the working area of the soldering bit. It is important that
the tinning of the bit is done correctly, otherwise problems will be
experienced with the soldering operation.
Each surface of the prepared joint must also be carefully tinned in
a similar manner, so that a thin film of solder covers the total area
of the joint surfaces.
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A Oxide film on parent metal
B Flux solution above oxidised metal surface
C "Boiling flux solution removing oxide film
D are metal in contact with fused flux
E Liquid solder
F Tin reacting with base metal to form Inter-metallic
compound
G Solidifying solder
Care must be taken, when applying solder to the joint surfaces, to
ensure that it is as thin and as smooth as possible and that the heat
is maintained, to allow the inter-metallic compound between the
parent metal and the layer of solder to form.
This compound is an important factor and contributes greatly to
the strength of the joint, as it is, actually, stronger than the solder.
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When the two surfaces of the joint are correctly tinned, they are
placed together and the hot iron is applied to an outer surface of
the joint. The heat is transmitted through the metal and melts the
solder interfaces so that they fuse together and a typical soldered
lap joint of the metals is completed.
Note: Even when making electrical connections, using soft solder,
a type of lap joint must be made, since an end-to-end joint in wire
would be impracticable.
WETTING
To someone watching the soldering process for the first time it
looks like the solder simply sticks the metals together like some
hot metal glue. But what actually happens is far different.
As the hot solder comes into contact with the copper surface, a
metal solvent action takes place.
This solvent action is called wetting and forms the intermetallic
bond between the parts.
Wetting can only occur if the surface of the copper is free of
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contamination and from oxide film that forms when the metal is
exposed to air. Also, the solder and copper surface, need to have
reached the proper temperature.
Though a surface may look clean before soldering, there still may
be a thin film of oxide covering it. Then, when solder is applied, it
will act like a drop of water on an oily surface since the oxide
coating will prevent the solder from coming into contact with the
copper. No solvent action takes place, and the solder can be easily
scraped off. For a good solder bond, surface oxides must be
removed during the soldering process.
FLUX
Reliable soldered connections can only be accomplished with
truly cleaned surfaces. The use of solvents and abrasives to clean
the surfaces to be soldered is essential to achieve successful
soldered connections, but in almost all cases it is insufficient. This
is due to the extremely rapid rate at which oxides form on the
surface of heated metals, thus creating films which prevent proper
soldering. To overcome thin oxide films, it becomes necessary in
electronic soldering to utilize materials called fluxes which consist
of natural or synthetic resins and sometimes chemical additives
called activators.
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It is the function of the flux to remove oxides and keep them
removed during the soldering operation. It is the fluxing action of
removing oxides and carrying them away, as well as preventing
the reformation of new oxides that allows the solder to form the
desired intermetallic bond.

Flux must melt at a temperature lower than solder so that it can do

its job prior to the soldering action. It will volatilize very rapidly;
thus it is mandatory that flux be melted to flow onto the
worksurface and not simply volatilized by the hot iron tip if it is to
provide the full benefit of fluxing action.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FLUXES
There are varieties of fluxes available for many purposes and
applications. For example, in soldering sheet metal, acid fluxes
Metal surfaces become more reactive to oxygen when they are
are used; brazing (which requires a much higher temperature for
heated and, as previously discussed, to prevent this oxidation,
melting than that required by tin/ lead alloys) uses a borax paste.
during the soldering process, a suitable flux is applied to the
Each of these fluxes removes oxides and, in many cases, serves
surfaces being joined.
additional purposes. The only fluxes allowed in electronic hand
soldering work are either the pure rosins or rosins combined with
The flux should possess certain characteristics in that it:
mild activators (RMA fluxes) to accelerate the rosin’s fluxing
capability. Acid fluxes or highly activated fluxes (RA fluxes)
• Forms a liquid film over the joint and excludes the gases in the
should never be used in electronic work. Various types of flux-
atmosphere
cored solder are now in common use. They provide a convenient
way to apply and control the amount of flux used at a joint. • Prevents any further oxidation during the heating cycle
• Assists in dissolving the oxide film on the metal surface and
the solder
• Is displaced from the joint by liquid filler metal.
• Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into two groups,
which are the:
• Active group: which are corrosive or acid fluxes
• Passive group: which are non-corrosive fluxes.

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The flux can be applied separately, or as a constituent within the
solder. Fluxes may take the form of a liquid, paste or solid, and
the application, for which they are being used, will govern the
type selected.
Active (corrosive) fluxes are used where conditions require a
rapidly working and highly active flux. The common active fluxes
are listed below.
WARNING: THESE FLUXES CAN CAUSE BURNS TO SKIN
AND CLOTHING. PROTECT THE EYES WITH GOGGLES
AND WEAR RUBBER GLOVES AND APRON WHEN USING
A CORROSIVE FLUX.
• ZINC CHLORIDE (ZnCI):
Commonly called ‘killed spirits’. This used on general sheet-
metal work and may be obtained commercially under its trade
name of ‘Baker’s Soldering Fluid’
• AMMONIUM CHLORIDE (NH4CI):
Commonly called sal ammoniac. This used, in block form, for
cleaning the face of the soldering bit before tinning, or in
powdered form, with Zinc Chloride, for tinning cast iron
• HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCI):
Used in the raw state for pickling the surfaces of the metal and
rendering them clean. As a flux it is extremely active and is
suitable for soldering zinc and galvanised mild steel
• PHOSPHORIC ACID:
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Used, primarily, on stainless steels.
NOTE:
Flux residues of acid fluxes remain active after soldering and will
cause corrosion unless removed by thorough cleansing, - first in a
weak solution of caustic soda - and then in water.
FLUX REMOVAL
It is essential that all flux residues be removed, since they can
present a corrosion hazard. The method of removal will be
determined by the type of flux used, but will entail the use of one,
or a combination of, the following:
• A solution of caustic soda
• A solution of sulphuric acid
• A supply of warm water
• Physical abrasion.
SOLDERING IRONS
In any kind of soldering, the primary requirement - beyond the
solder itself - is the use of heat. It can be applied in a number of
ways, but here we are concerned mainly with only one of them,
the conductive type of soldering iron.
Soldering irons come in a variety of sizes, shapes and wattage but
consist basically of three main elements: a resistance heating unit;
the heater block, which acts as a heat reservoir; and the tip, or bit,
for transferring heat to the work. In the basic iron, the input
voltage is fixed and constant, so the resulting tip temperature
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depends on the capacity of the heating unit, and on the mass of the
tip and block.
More elaborate irons may incorporate a way to vary the
temperature of the tip. With some types, the operator can increase
or decrease the voltage across the heater and consequently vary
the tip temperature level.
Still another variation is an iron that contains a temperature sensor
built within the block. The operator can set the desired
temperature and then, through a closed-loop feedback system, the
power to the resistance heater is turned off and on to maintain the
tip at the desired temperature.
APPLYING SOLDER AND THE SOLDERING IRON TIP
Before solder is applied, the surface temperature of the parts being
soldered must be elevated above the solder melting point. Never
melt the solder against the iron tip an allow it to flow onto a
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surface cooler than the solder melting temperature. Solder applied
to a cleaned, fluxed and properly heated surface will melt and
flow without direct contact with the heat source and provide a
smooth, even surface, filleting out to a thin edge Improper
soldering will exhibit a built-up, irregular appearance and poor
filleting. For good solder-joint strength, parts being soldered must
be held rigidly in place until the temperature decreases to solidify
the solder.
Selecting cored solder the proper diameter will aid in controlling
the amount of solder being applied to the join e.g., a small-gauge
solder for a small joint; large-gauge for a large joint.
SOLDERING PROCEDURE
These are basic steps of the soldering procedure for turret
terminals:
a. The iron is applied to the connection at a point of maximum
thermal mass, usually near the mid-point of the wire wrap.
b. A solder bridge is made between the iron tip and the work to
increase thermal linkage.
c. Solder is applied to a point opposite that at which the iron tip
contacts. The iron is withdrawn, using a forward wiping
motion as the tip is removed. This method forms a complete
circle of solder around the base of the terminal and the wire.
It makes the soldered connection stronger than the wire in some
instances.
NOTE: When soldering stranded wire some specifications may
require the use of an anti-wicking tool to prevent solder from
wicking up under the insulation.
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the joint will be unreliable. If there is more, the outline of the wire
Applying iron to Making a solder Removing iron tip may be hidden in the mound, and the true condition of the joint
point of max bridge to increase with a forward will not be apparent.
thermal mass the thermal Linkage wiping motion
Minimum Maximum
Preferred Joint
Acceptable Solder Acceptable Solder

INSPECTING THE FINISHED JOINT

Inspection.
After the solder has solidified and cooled, the complete joint
Inspection of completed soldered connections should include the
should be cleaned with solvent to remove all flux and impurities
following:-
prior to inspection.
(i) joints should be clean, smooth, bright and free from sharp
projections, and the wire easily discernible through the solder.
The appearance of a preferred joint is shown in Fig below . It is
(ii) As far as can be detected visually, the joint should be filled
bright and shiny, with the solder feathered out smoothly,
with adhering solder.
indicating good wetting action along all the elements of the joint.
(iii) Insulation should be undamaged (i.e. not burned or affected
There are no pits or porosities on the surface of the solder, and no
by solvent).
evidence of any
(iv) There should be no pitting, corrosion, scale or other evidence
remaining pockets of flux.
of poor workmanship.
(v) Where electrical tests are specified, the results obtained should
The area on the side of the joint is known as a fillet, and on a good
be within the prescribed limits
solder joint the fillet is always slightly concave, with good
adherence of solder to both the wire and the terminal.
DE-SOLDERING
The diagram below also shows examples of joints having the
It may be necessary to remove wires from terminals during the
minimum and maximum amounts of solder acceptable. If there is
course of your work. This operation may be performed with a
less solder than the minimum shown, the mechanical strength of

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standard soldering iron.
The bit of iron should be clean. The bit is applied to the terminal
(preferably underneath) and when the solder becomes molten, the
wire should be carefully eased away.
b. Heat the connection until the solder becomes liquid. Do not
overheat.
c. Hold the tip of the solder removal gun very close to the melted
solder and press the release knob.
d. Repeat steps (a) to (c) until the solder is removed.

Particular care should be taken where a mechanical lock has been

achieved between wire end and terminal.

SOLDER REMOVAL GUNS

When soldered components are to be replaced, especially on

printed circuit boards, all solder is removed from the connection.
To this so a “Solder Removal Gun” can be used. The solder
removal gun consists of a pump type plunger in a sealed tube. The
plunger can be pushed down against a spring where a spring-
loaded release knob holds the plunger in the down position.
When the release knob is pressed, the plunger is free to move
upwards. When the plunger is released, suction is created at the
tip of the gun, sucking the heated solder into the gun.
BONDING

Adhesive bonding has been used on an ever-increasing scale and

particularly in the aerospace industry. Adhesives are used for
constructional tasks varying from aircraft fuselages, flight control
surfaces, to propellers and helicopter rotor blades.

THE MECHANICS OF BONDING

To remove solder from a connection proceed as follows: The actual adhesive bond may be achieved in two ways:

a. Push the plunger to the down position • MECHANICAL:

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Cleavage Where two edges are
Here the adhesive penetrates into the surface and forms a pulled apart.
mechanical lock, by keying into the surface.

• CHEMICAL :

In this method of bonding, the adhesive is spread over the

surfaces to be joined and forms a chemical bond with the Peel Where one surface is
surface stripped back from
the other
In practice, most adhesives use both ways of bonding to form a
joint.

STRESSES ON A BONDED JOINT PROCEDURE FOR BONDING

Adhesive joints are liable to experience four main types of stress To achieve optimum bonding, performance, and life in service,
Joint stress is at a maximum when the adhesive is in shear. from adhesives and sealants, it is absolutely crucial to follow
Adhesives should not be used if significant stresses will be carefully planned processes and procedures and to pay the utmost
carried in tension or peel. Lap joints are the types more, generally attention to quality at every stage.
favoured, as the strength of the adhesive bond is proportional to
the area bonded. • Absolute cleanliness at all stages is essential. Surface
preparation of the component is also crucial. To ensure
Tensile Where the two consistent results on structural components, a purpose-built
surfaces are pulled ‘clean room’ is required, in order to reduce contamination to a
directly apart. minimum.
• Pressure and heat may be required. Sophisticated equipment is
required to produce pressure over the components in areas
where adhesives are applied. This will often entail vacuum
bags, pressurised curing ovens (autoclaves).
• Inspection of the bonded joint is difficult. Special inspection
Shear Where the two techniques and test pieces are necessary to check the integrity
surfaces tend to slide of the bond. Prior to preparing the mating surfaces for
across each other. ‘gluing’, it is necessary to carry out a ‘dry’ lay-up i.e. a trial

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assembly of all related parts to check and adjust the fit if
necessary. This procedure is essential, to enable the final
assembly ‘wet’ lay-up to proceed without delay, and without
the risk of generating swarf or of contaminating specially
prepared surfaces.
SURFACE PREPARATION
• Grease, oil, or other contaminants, must be removed by
suitable solvents.
• An optimum surface roughness must be produced.
• Once pre-treated, a surface must be protected from harmful
contamination until the bonding process is complete.
• Surfaces to be bonded are normally thoroughly
cleaned/degreased in a suitable solvent. This may be followed
by a chemical etch or light blasting treatment, followed by a
water wash and subsequent drying.
FINAL ASSEMBLY
The adhesive is applied (usually within a specified time, otherwise
re-processing may be necessary), and the assembly suitably
clamped, or put in a nylon vacuum bag, and heated in an
autoclave. The curing process then takes place under carefully
controlled temperature and pressure conditions.
NOTE: After commencing the final (wet) lay-up, curing of the
adhesive must be carried out within a specified time (usually 12
hours). If this period is exceeded by a few hours it is necessary to
increase the temperature and pressure levels during curing (and to
obtain an official ‘concession’ cover for this discrepancy).
If the permissible time between wet lay-up and curing is greatly
exceeded (e.g. a full shift or day), it will be necessary to dismantle
and not only re-commence the wet lay-up, but also to, possibly,
repeat some of the preliminary surface preparation treatments
(such as etching).
INSPECTION OF BONDED JOINTS
Simple non-structural bonded joints can be visually inspected for
fit and security. Audible sonic testing is used to test composite
material bonds for delimitation and/or disband. In composite and
structural bonding, manufacturers may specify NDT methods of
inspection such as ultrasound. Follow manufacturer's instruction
when inspecting bonded joints.

When cool, the component is inspected, visually for positioning

and for a satisfactory spew line. The glue-line thickness is also
checked, with a calibrated electronic probe, and specimen test
pieces are tested for shear and peel properties.

Following a satisfactory inspection, the component is finally given

appropriate corrosion protection (usually over-painting).

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