Energy Standards in Buildings May 2002 - Asmitha Dharkar PDF

ENERGY STANDARDS IN BUILDINGS
PROJECT SEMINAR REPORT
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

THE DEGREE OF MASTER’S IN BUILDING ENGINEERING & MANAGEMENT
SCHOOL OF PLANNING AND ARCHITECTURE
(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
ASMITA V. DHARKAR
DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENGINEERING AND MANANGEMENT

SCHOOL OF PLANNING & ARCHITECTURE
NEW DELHI – 110002
MAY 2002
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar entitled ‘ENERGY STANDARDS IN BUILDING’ submitted by
Miss Asmita V. Dharkar in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of the masters in building
engineering and management of the School Of Planning And Architecture (Deemed To Be
University) is a record carried out by her under my supervision and guidance. The matter embodied
in this seminar work has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma.
(Mr. Virendra K. Paul) (Dr. V.Thiruvengadam.)

Seminar guide H.O.D. of the dept. of
Assistant professor Building Engineering &
Dept. of Building Engineering and Management, Management, School of
School of Planning and Architecture, Planning & Architecture,
New Delhi. New Delhi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of the following persons for enabling her to
wish successfully complete & present her seminar.
Mr. Virendra K. Paul, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Building Engineering & Management, who
guided the work from the inception to the end.
Dr.V.Thiruvengadam, Professor and Head of the Dept. of Building Eng. & Management, for
constant encouragement & valuable suggestions during the study.
Mr. P. Krishnan, Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Building Engineering and Management, for his
extended suggestion during the reviews.
ASMITA V. DHARKAR
ENERGY STANDARDS IN BUILDINGS
CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgement
List of tables
List of figures
Abstract
Annexure 1
Annexure 2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1. GENERAL
1.2. AIM AND OBJECTIVES
1.3. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS
1.4. METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE STUDY

2.1 GENERAL
2.2 ENERGY STANDARDS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
2.2.1 ASHRAE ENERGY STANDARDS (90.2-1993) & (90A-1980)
2.2.2 HONG KONG ENERGY STANDARDS
2.2.3 PAKISTAN ENERGY STANDARDS
2.2.4 SINGAPORE ENERGY STANDARDS
2.2.5 PHILIPPINES ENERGY STANDARDS
2.3 STUDY OF PAPERS ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN BUILDING
2. 4 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW.
CHAPTER 3 DETERMINATION FOR ENERGY PERFORMANCE IN BUILDINGS.

3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 BUILDING ENVELOPE
3.2.1 WALL ELEMENT
3.2.2 GLAZED (WINDOWS)/ FENESTRATION
3.2.3 ROOFING /CEILING ELEMENT
3.2.3 DAY LIGHTING----DAY LIGHTING UTILIZATION
CHAPTER 4 ENERGY STANDARDS APPROACH

4.1 ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT STANDARDS
4.2 DAYLIGHT UTILIZATION STANDARDS
4.3 ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES
4.4 PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT GUIDELINES
4.5 OTTV CONCEPT
4.6 COMPARISON OF CODES
CHAPTER 5 APPLICATION OF ENERGY STANDARDS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

5.1 ASSESSMENT OF AN EXISTING BUILDING
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNEXURE 1
ABBREVATIONS
A area (all areas are ft')
Ad door area
Af area of fenestration
Af1 area of fenestration, wall
Af2 Area of fenestration. wall -2
Ai area of common wall
Afl opaque area of floor
Ao overall area
A ofl gross area of floor
Aor gross area of roof/ceiling assembly
Aow gross area of exterior walls (above and below grade for heating design, above grade
only for cooling design)
Ap amplitude, 0 F
Ar opaque roof/coiling area
Ask area of skylight

Aur gross area of exposed roof unheated space
Auw Area of exposed walls of unheated space
Aw opaque wall area
Aw1 opaque area of wall 1

Aw2 opaque area of wall 2
0
F degree Fahrenheit
M factor to modify U for thermal mass
OTTVr a overall thermal transfer value, roof, BTU/ft2 x h
OTTVw Overall thermal transfer value, walls, BTU/ft2 x h
R Thermal resistance, 1/ BTU/ft2 x h x °F
SCf shading coefficient of fenestration
SCsk shading coefficient of skylights
SFf solar factor for fenestration, BTU/ft2 x h
SFsk Solar factor for skylights. BTU/ft2 x h
ti temperature of heated space, 0 F
tm Mean air temperature. °F

t0 Outdoor design temperature, °F
tu Temperature of unheated space, °F
TC Thermal Capacitance
TDeq temperature differential equivalent °F
cooling design
TDeqr Temperature differential equivalent F, cooling design
TDeqw Temperature differential equivalent, walls.
o
F. cooling design
TDR temperature difference ratio, below-grade design
Tgs ground surface temperature, °F
U thermal transmittance (all thermal and gross thermal transmittance values are
BTU/ft2 x h x 0 F
Ud thermal transmittance of door area
Ue equivalent U-value, below-grade design
Uf thermal transmittance of fenestration area
Ut1 thermal transmittance of fenestration area wall 1
Uf2 thermal transmittance of fenestration area,

wall 2
Ufl transmittance of opaque floor area
Uflo thermal transmittance of floor
Ui thermal transmittance of common wall area
U0 average thermal transmittance

Uofl average thermal transmittance of floor area
Uow average thermal transmittance gross wall area
Ur thermal transmittance of opaque roof/ceiling area

Usk thermal transmittance of skylight in roof/ceiling area
Uur average thermal transmittance exposed roof of unheated space

Uuw average thermal transmittance exposed walls of unheated space
Uw thermal transmittance of opaque wall

Uw1 thermal transmittance of opaque are wall 1
Uw2 thermal transmittance of opaque are wall 2
Vo volume of air change ft3 /min
Δt temperature difference indoor-outdoor o F Seating calculation::

ΔT temperature difference, indoor-outdoor o F. cooling calculations
ΔTf temperature difference between exterior and interior design conditions, fenestration,
o
F
ΔT gs Temperature difference, below-grade design. o F
ΔT sk temperature difference between exterior and interior design conditions, skylight, o F
LIST OF TABLES.
Sr. no Table Description Page no.

Number
1. 2.1 Thermal conductivity of building 24
materials.
2. 2.2 Surface film resistance for walls & 25
roofs (Ri, Ro).
3. 2.3 Air space resistance for walls and 26
roofs.
4. 2.4 Absorbtivity for walls and roofs 27
surfaces.
5. 2.5 Equivalent temperature difference foe 28
walls
6. 2.6 External shading multiplier for 29
overhang projections to windows.
7. 2.7 External shading multiplier for side fin 30
projections to windows.
8. 2.8 Solar factor 31
9. 2.9 Equivalent temperature difference for 31
roofs.
10. 2.10 TDeq for walls & roofs 34
11. 2.11 OTTV equations & coefficients for 35
walls and roofs.
12. 2.12 Maximum OTTV allowed. 36
13. 2.13 Maximum overall thermal transfer 36
values.
14. 2.14 Solar factor for walls & roofs. 37
15. 2.15 Absorptance of various exterior 37
surfaces.
16. 2.16 Window orientation factor (OF) 38
17. 2.17 Shading coefficient for exterior 38
shading (SCE)
18. 2.18 Shading coefficient for interior 39
shading (SC1)
19. 2.19 Prescriptive standards 41
20. 2.20 Energy performance standards 42
21. 2.21 Room surface reflectance 45
22. 2.22 Thermal conductivity of Building 46
Materials
23. 2.23 Glass thermal transmittance values. 47
24. 2.24 Solar factor for various building 48
orientation
25. 2.25 Maximum thermal transmittance 48
values for roofs.
26. 2.26 Glass shading coefficient 49
27. 2.27 Percentage of solar radiation absorbed 49
by selected building Materials
28. 2.28 Summary of Building Envelope 60
29. 3.1 Thermal Performance of Walls 71

30. 3.2 Typical U-values of some 72
constructions
31. 3.3 Transmission Characteristics of 74
Window Glasses
32. 3.4 Typical U- Value For Window 75
Construction
33. 3.5 R – values of selected materials 76
34. 3.6 U – Values of uninsulated wall roof 77

system
35. 3.7 R – values of insulation types 78
36. 3.8 R – values & U – values for walls 78
37. 4.1 TDeq for ceilings /roofs 99
38. 4.2 Solar Factor for Wails and Roofs 100
W/m2 (Btu/h.ft2)
39. 4.3 Maximum Overall Thermal Transfer 101
Values
40. 5.1 The average temperatures in the major 104
cities of India
LIST OF FIGURES.
Sr. Figure Description Page no.
no number
1. 2.1 Uo walls – type “A” Buildings – heating. 11
2. 2.2 Uo roof/ceilings – type “A1” & “A2” 12
Buildings.
3. 2.3 R values. - Slab on grade. 13
4. 2.4 Uo floors over unheated spaces – all 14

Buildings.
5. 2.5 Temperature Difference (TDeq) walls. 15
6. 2.6 Overall Thermal Transfer Values (OTTVw) 16
walls – cooling type “B” Buildings.
7. 2.7 Solar factor (SF) Values 17
8. 2.8 TDEQR values. 18
9. 3.1 Minimizing the surface area to volume ratio 63
minimizes heat transfer.
10. 3.2 Different Plan forms have different perimeter 64

to area ratio.
11. 3.3 Solar Heat Gained Due To Orientation of 65
Buildings
12. 3.4 Thermal Performance of Wall 67
13. 3.5 Thermal Performance of Roof 68

14. 3.6 U ow1 walls heating & cooling criteria 79
15. 3.7 Overall Transfer Values for Walls- Cooling 80

Criteria OTTV w
16. 3.8 Temperature Differential Equivalent for 80
walls TD eqw1
17. 3.9 Solar Factor Values for Vertical Glass SF 81
18. 3.10 Temperature Differential Equivalents for 81
roof TD eqr
19. 3.11 Window Shades for Composite Zones 86
20. 3.12 Changing the Location of the Entry Openings 86
Effects the Air Flow Pattern in the Building
21. 3.13 An Overhang or an among increases Air 87
Velocity through a window below them.
22. 3.14 The Integration of Vegetation in the Building 87
to Minimize Heat Gain
23. 3.15 The Courtyard Atrium 88

24. 3.16 Light Shelves Devices & Forms 88
25. 3.17 Thumb Rules for Fenestration Configuration 89
26. 3.18 Solar Energy Transmissions through Heat – 89

Absorbing Double Glazing.
27. 3.19 Solar Energy Transmissions through Heat – 90
Absorbing Single Glazing vs. Clear glass.
28. 3.20 Effect of Reflecting Film Location on Heat 90
Transmission through Double Glazing
29. 4.1 Heat Transfer through Building Envelope 97
ANNEXURE 11
TERMINOLOGY & DEFINITIONS
The following definitions are stipulated for the purposes of this document:
ABMA : American Boiler Manufacturers Association

ANSI : American National Standards Institute
ARI : Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute
(U.S.)
ASHRAE : American Society of Heating Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
ASMB : American Society of Mechanical Engineers
Air changes p«r hour (ACH): Number of complete changes of interior air by outdoor air per hour.
Air Infiltration: The uncontrolled air exchange in a building due to air leakage through cracks
and interstices in any building element and around windows and. doors of a building, caused by
the pressured effects of wind and/or the effect of differences in the indoor and outdoor air density.
Absorptivity (a): It is a factor indicating the relative amount of radiation absorbed by a surface as
compared to an absorbing black body under the same conditions. Its value is dependent upon the
temperature of the source as also that of receiving surface.
British thermal unit (Btu): Approximately the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water by one Fahrenheit degree, at 60 F. International Steam Table Btu x 1.055 = kJ.
Building envelope: The elements of a building which enclose conditioned spaces through which
thermal energy may be transferred to or from the exterior or to or from unconditioned spaces
exempted by the provisions
Emissivity (e): It is the ratio of the heat emitted by a surface is compared .to that of an absolutely
black surface under similar conditions ovaries with the temperature of the emitting surfaces.
Energy: The capacity for doing work; taking a number of forms which may be transformed
from one into another, such as thermal (heat), mechanical (work), electrical, and chemical; in
SI units, measured in joules (J), where I joule = I watt-second; in customary units, measured in
kilowatt hours (kWh) or British thermal units (Btu).
Energy efficiency ratio (EER): The ratio of net equipment cooling capacity in Btu/h to total rate of
electric input in watts under designated operating conditions. When SI units are used this ratio
becomes equal to COP.
Fenestration: Any light-transmitting opening in a building wall or roof.
Overall thermal transmittance value ( OTTV): The maximum thermal transfer permissible into
the building through its walls or roof, due to solar heat gain and out- in- door temperature
difference.
Surface Coefficient (/)

It is the quantity heat transmitted by convection, conduction a radiation from unit area of the
surface when unit difference of temperature is maintained between the surface and the surrounding
medium. Its value depends upon many factors, such as orientation or position of the surface,
emissivity of the surface, temperature difference and air velocity.
Thermal conductance ( K):

Thermal conductance per unit area is the thermal transmission of a single layer structure
per unit area divided by the temperature difference Between the hot and cold faces, it is expressed
in W/(m2K).
Thermal conductance is a measure of the thermal transmission per unit area through the total
thickness of the structure under considerations. Thermal conductivity on the other hand refers to
unit thickness of a material. Further this term applies only to a single layer of material & not to a
composite insulation or to a structure made up of several layers of' materials.
Thermal Capacity (qst)
It is the amount of heat that will be absorbed by the material before the 'steady state' condition is
reached. It is the product of the mass of the material and specific heat.
qst = m.c
Where m and c are the mass and specific heat of the material.
Thermal Conductivity (K)
This is the quantity .of heat in the steady state conditions flowing unit time through a unit area of a
slab of uniform material of infinite extent and of unit thickness, when unit difference temperature is
established between its faces. Its unit is W /m 2 9 K
The thermal conductivity is a characteristic property of a material and. its value may vary with
a number of factors including density, porosity, moisture content, fiber diameter, pore size, type of
gas in the material, mean temperature and -outside- temperature-range
Thermal Damping (D)—

It is given as:
D = (To - Ti) x 100
To
Where
To = outside temperature range, and
Ti == inside temperature range
It is expressed in percent.
Thermal damping or decreased temperature variation is a characteristic dependent on the thermal

resistance of the materials used in the structure.
Thermal Resistance (R)
It is reciprocal of thermal conductance. For a structure having plane parallel faces, thermal
resistance is equal to thickness (L) divided by thermal conductivity (K) as given below:
R= L
K
The unit of thermal resistance is m2K
W
Thermal Transmittance (U value): The coefficient of heat transmission (air to air). It is the time
rate of heat flow per unit area and unit temperature difference between the warm side and cold side
air films W/m2 C (Btu/ft2.h.F). The U value applies to combinations of different materials used in
series along the heat flow path, single materials and materials that comprise a building section,
cavity air spaces, and surface air films on both sides of a building element.
Thermal Transmittance, Overall (Uo value): The overall (average) heat transmission pf a gross
area of the exterior building envelope W/m 2 C (Btu/ft2.h.F). The Uo value applies to the combined
effect of the time rate of heat flows through the various parallel paths, such as windows, doors, and
opaque construction areas, comprising the gross area of one or more exterior building components,
such as walls, floor, or roof/ceiling.
Energy standards in building
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.i. GENERAL:
In the present scenario, the energy consumption in building is increasing rapidly due to
the new design concepts in building construction. Such as the use of the building
equipments---electrical, H.V.A.C etc. and also the minimum provision of openings in the
external façade of the building, preventing the admission of the day lighting.
All these elements consume maximum amount of energy utilisation so as to minimise the
energy consumption within the building. Various organisations have developed codes/
standards for different elements of the building such as walls, roofs, ceilings, floors,
windows etc. mentioning the standard values for these elements which are mentioned
above.
Hence to minimise the energy consumption in the building more amount of day lighting is
required by providing the maximum openings in the buildings.
As compared to the Indian context we are blindly following the architectural design
elements and configuration of the western countries which is ultimately resulting in the
large amount of energy consumption in the buildings. So by following the energy
standards prescribed by the organisations we can ultimately reduce the energy and heat
loss in the building.
NEED FOR ENEGY STANDARDS:

Features of the codes
• The standard codes are concerned with the aspects of the thermal performance of
new buildings also analysing the thermal insulation values for walls, windows,
ceilings, etc.
• The purpose of the codes is to provide the minimum requirement for the energy-
efficient design of residential and commercial buildings.
• The energy performance standard varies from country to country.
• An energy standard in building provides the standard codes and their values for
different elements of the buildings.
Building, as they are designed and used today, chip in to severe ecological problems
because of excessive consumption of energy & other natural resources. The close
association between energy use in buildings & environmental injure arises because
energy rigorous solutions sought to construct a building & gather its demands for heating,
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cooling, ventilation,& lighting causes rigorous reduction of precious environmental

assets.
However, buildings can be designed to meet the occupant’s need for thermal &
visual comfort at reduced levels of energy & resources consumption.
In extreme climatic conditions, one cannot achieve comfortable indoor conditions
by these design considerations alone. There are certain tested and established concepts,
which, if applied to a design in such climatic conditions, are able to largely satisfy the
thermal comfort criterion. These are classified as 1) passive heating concepts (direct gain
system, indirect gain system, etc.) & 2) passive cooling concepts (evaporative cooling,
ventilation, wind tower, earth- air tunnel, etc.)
Building energy standards:
The energy performance of the building as a whole, is dependent on a large number of
individual factors, and can be classified as:
• Environmental requirements
• Building fabric
• Energy consuming services
• User activity patterns.
Building ‘energy performance’ standards cannot be considered in isolation from building

‘environment’ standards. The energy performance of a building is not satisfactory if the
quality of its environment is poor. Therefore it is important that the criteria against which
environmental quality is measured are securely founded. The three main sets of criteria
are as:
Thermal comfort criteria
Ventilation criteria
Lighting criteria
The types of building energy performance standard can be broadly classified as
1. Prescriptive standards
2. performance standards
Prescriptive standards: The term prescriptive standards would be applied to any

standards that are related to one or other of the various components of the building.
1. exterior envelope
2. HVAC system & equipments
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3. service water heating

4. electrical distribution system
5. Lighting power budget determination procedure.
Performance standards:
This type of standard is concerned with the energy performance of the building as a
whole, as opposed to the individual parts. Many types of performance standard have been
considered, but prediction type & the monitored type, appear to have gain most
acceptance.
a Prediction performance standards for new buildings.
b Monitored performance standards for existing buildings.
c Energy consumption standards.
1. ii.Aim & objectives
• Main aim of the energy standard is to reduce the energy consumption in the
buildings.
• Also to balance the thermal transmittance, thermal resistance, surface resistance,
surface absorptivity within the building.
• Objective of the energy performance standard is to specify what the requirement
in terms of energy consumption is.
1. iii.Scope and limitations
Codes provides the minimum energy- efficient requirement for the design and
construction of
New buildings and their systems
New systems and equipments in the existing building.
• Standard / codes deals with the aspects of the thermal performance of the
new buildings.
• Thermal insulation values of walls, roofs & floors are specified.
• Other aspect of energy performance of the building from Irish standards
regulates the overall heat loss of a domestic building according to a
volume surface area ratio.
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METHODOLOGY
LITERATURE SURVEY
ENERGY CODES OF VARIOUS

COUNTRIES
SUMMARY OF ENERGY STANDARDS.
DETERMINATION OF ENERGY
PERFORMANCE IN BUILDING
(BUILDING ENVELOPE)
ENERGY STANDARD APPROACH
APPLICATION OF ENERGY STANDARDS

IN INDIAN CONTEXT
CONCLUSIONS
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ENERGY STANDARDS IN BUILDING
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE STUDY
2.1 General:
To understand the exercise, it is essential to know the various programmes, studies,
research topics carried out in the field. So as part of the study various papers, books,
standards were referred and detailed out in the work. The below mentioned references
helped to identify with the topic.
2.2 Energy standards of different countries.

This chapter deals with the energy standards/codes of different countries. It discusses
about the different methods of approach, process followed & data used to determine the
energy consumption in buildings.
2.2.1 ASHRAE energy standards (90.2-1993) & (90A-1980)
2.2.1.1 General approach
2.2.1.1.i Thermal performance requirements.

In general, ceilings with attics will have less thermal transmittance than ceilings
without attics. Above grade frame walls will have less thermal transmittance than
above grade concrete, masonry, or log walls with exterior & integral insulation will
transmit less energy than those with interior insulation.
2.2.1.1.ii Thermal considerations

In additions to the requirements, the proposed design should consider energy
conservation in determining the orientation of the building on its site; the geometric
shape of the building; the building aspects (ratio of length to width); the number of
stories for a given floor area requirement; the interior thermal mass of the building;
the exterior surface color; shading and reflection from adjacent structures,
surrounding surfaces & vegetation; wind direction & speed.
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2.2.1.2 Calculation procedures
2.2.1.2.i Thermal transmittance

The design thermal transmittance (U) of all above grade envelope components is the
variable used to specify the requirements & demonstrate compliance. All design u- values
are air – air, including interior & exterior air films.
The design U- value for an envelope component shall be calculated:
U= U1 x A1 / A
Where
U = thermal transmittance of the envelope component (Btu/h.ft2.0F)
A = area of the envelope component (ft2)
U1 = thermal transmittance of the individual component assemblies (Btu/h.ft2.0F)
A = area of the individual component assemblies (ft2).
2.2.1.2.ii Thermal conductance

The thermal conductance ( c) of all above grade envelope components is the variable
used to set the requirement & demonstrate compliance. All C- values are surface – to –
surface, excluding air films & the adjacent ground.
The C – value for the envelope component shall be calculated as:
C = C1 x A1 / A
Where
C = thermal conductance of the envelope component (Btu/h.ft2.0F)
A = area of the envelope component (ft2)
C1 = thermal conductance of the individual component assemblies (Btu/h.ft2.0F)
A = area of the individual component assemblies (ft2).
2.2.1.2.iii Overall thermal transmittance value (Uo):

The overall thermal transmittance (Uo) of the entire envelope is the variable used to set
the requirement & demonstrate compliance. The Uo shall be calculated as;
Uo = (Uceiling x Aceiling + Uwall x Awall + Ufen x Afen+ Udoor x Adoor+ Ufloor x Afloor) /
(Aceiling +Awall +Afen +A door +A floor)
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Where
Uo = overall thermal transmittance of the entire envelope (Btu/h.ft2.0F)
Uceiling x Aceiling = product of thermal transmittance of the ceiling envelope
component. (Btu/h.0F)
Uwall x Awall = product of thermal transmittance of the wall envelope component.
(Btu/h.0F)
Ufen x Afen = product of thermal transmittance of the fenestration envelope
component. (Btu/h.0F)
2.2.1.2.iv Uo values for walls, roofs/ceilings.

Energy Conservation in New Building Design
WALLS:
Any Building That Is Heated or Cooled Shall Have a combined thermal transmittance
value (Uo value) for the gross area of exterior walls.
Uo = (Uwall + Awall ) + (Ufen + Afen )+(Udoor + Adoor ) / Ao
Where
Uo = the average thermal transmittance of the gross wall area, W / m2 .o C (Btu/h.0F)
Ao = gross area of the exterior wall, m2 (ft2),
Uwall = thermal transmittance of al elements of the opaque wall area, W / m2 .o C
(Btu/h.0F)
Awall = opaque wall area, m2 (ft2),
Ufenes = thermal transmittance of window area, W / m2 .o C (Btu/h.0F)
Afenes = window area (including sash), m2 (ft2),
Udoor = thermal transmittance of door area, W / m2 .o C (Btu/h.0F)
Adoor = door area, m2 (ft2),
ROOF / CEILING
Any building that is heated / mechanically cooled shall have a combined thermal
transmittance value (Uo) for the gross area of the roof assembly.
Exception: roof / ceiling assemblies in which the finished interior surface is essentially
the underside of the roof deck such as a wooden cathedral ceiling , shall have a Uo value
not ot exceed 0.45 W/m2 .o C ( 0.08(Btu/ ft2 h.F).
Uo = (Uroof x Aroof ) + ( Uskylight x Askylight)/ Ao
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Where
Uroof = thermal transmittance of all elements of the opaque roof / ceiling area, W/ m2 .o C
(Btu/h.0F)
Aroof = opaque roof / ceiling area, m2 (ft2),
Uskylight = thermal transmittance of all skylight elements in the roof / ceiling assembly
Askylight = skylight area (including frame) m2 (ft2),
2.2.1.3 Supporting information/ data provided

2.2.1.3.i Standard Uo values for walls (residential building). [Generally
Applicable Data] refer table no:
2.2.1.3.ii Standard Uo values for roof/ceilings (residential Buildings). [Generally
Applicable Data] refer table no:
2.2.1.3.iii Standard R values for Slab on grade. [generally applicable data] refer table
no:
2.2.1.3.iv Uo floors over unheated spaces – all Buildings. [Generally Applicable
Data] refer table no:
2.2.1.3.v Temperature Difference (TDeq) walls. [specific data] refer table no:
2.2.1.3.vi Overall Thermal Transfer Values (OTTVw) walls – cooling type Buildings
[Specific data] refer table no.
2.2.1.3.vii Solar factor (SF) Values. [specific data]
2.2.1.3.viii TDEQR values.[specific data]
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2.2.2 Hong Kong Energy Standards

2.2.2.1.iPrinciple of control of overall thermal transfer value.
A consultancy study in 1991 found that if the envelope of a
building was constructed to a suitable overall thermal transfer value (OTTV),
electricity demand from air-conditioning and thus the emission of greenhouse
gases from power generation could be reduced. The Government's aim is to
establish a comprehensive building energy code to control the total energy
consumption of a building, of which OTTV controls would form a part. As a first
step, legislative control over OTTV has been introduced in the Building (Energy
Efficiency) Regulation.
For the design and planning of energy-efficient buildings, Government
developing a comprehensive energy code to cover interior alias lighting and air-
conditioning. Overall thermal transfer value (OTTV) is one aspect of energy
conservation.
2.2.2.1.ii Scope.
The provision in this Code applies to all hotels and commercial buildings as
defined in the Building (Energy Efficiency) Regulation. They aim at reducing
heat transfer through the building envelope and thus the electricity required for
air-conditioning.
The concept of OTTV is based on the assumption that the envelope of a building
is completely enclosed.
In the OTTV formulation, the following factors are not addressed or allowed for:
Internal shading devices, such as draperies and blinds.
(b) Solar reflection or shading from adjacent buildings.
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2.2.2.1.iii Definitions.
In this Code, It should also be noted that:
"Building tower" means that part of a building above the podium of the
building;
"Fenestration" means any glazed aperture in the building envelope;
"Light well" means a vertical shaft of open air enclosed on all sides by parts of a
building;
"Opaque" wall or roof means that solid part of the wall or roof which is not part
of the fenestration;
(a) If having a site coverage exceeding the permitted percentage site coverage, is
(i) within 15 m above ground level as permitted under Building
(Planning) Regulation 20(3); or
(ii) Within such height as is permitted by the Building Authority
by way of a modification of that regulation granted under section
42 of the Building Ordinance; and
(b) if having site coverage within the permitted percentage site
coverage, is within 15 m above ground level.
"Refuge floor" has the meaning assigned to it in the Code of Practice for Means
of Escape and means a protected floor that serves as a refuge for the occupants of
the building to assemble in case of fire.
Suitable OTTV
The external walls and roofs of a building should be designed and constructed to
have the following OTTV:
(a) In the case of a building tower; the OTTV should not exceed
35 W/m2; and
(b) in the case of a podium; the OTTV should not exceed 80
W/m2.
PROJECT SEMINAR
The maximum OTTV specified should apply to the overall building envelope, i.e.
all the external walls and roofs, as the case may be, in average and do not apply to
the individual wall or roof.

2.2.2.2.iPrinciples of OTTV calculations
All external walls and roofs of a building should be included in OTTV
calculations except -
(a) an external wall of a refuge floor;
(b) an external wall or roof of a car parking floor;
(c) an external wall of a light well having an area on plan not exceeding 21
m2;and
(d) any wall on any roof.
Party wall
An external wall of a building which is a party wall should be included in OTTV
calculations whether an adjoining building exists or not. Shading to the party wall
from adjoining buildings should not be considered in calculating the OTTV.
2.2.2.2.ii OTTV for external walls.

OTTV for External Walls
The OTTV of the external walls of a building tower or a podium, OTTVW, should
be calculated using the following formula:-
OTTV = (AW X UW X TDeq) + (AF X UF X ΔT) + (AF X SC X SF)
AO
2.2.2.2.iii OTTV for roofs.

The OTTV of the roofs of a building tower or a podium, OTTVr, should be calculated
using the following formula:-
OTTV = (ARX UR X TDeq) + (AF X UF X ΔT) + (AF X SC X SF)

AO
2.2.2.2.iv Coefficient & parameters of OTTV
Thermal transmittance of opaque construction (U)
PROJECT SEMINAR
Opaque walls and roofs usually involve a composite of materials. The thermal
transmittance of an opaque wall or roof should be derived by the following
formula:
2.2.2.3 Supporting information provided.

2.2.2.3.i Thermal conductivity of building material. [generally applicable]
Refer table no:
The thermal conductivity of the building materials of walls and roofs should be
obtained from the table.
2.2.2.3.ii Surface film resistance for walls. [generally applicable]
Refer table no:
The surface film resistance for walls and roofs should be obtained from Table
2.2.2.3.iii Air space resistance for walls & roofs. [generally applicable]
Refer table no:
Air space resistance for walls and roofs (Ra) The air space resistance for walls
and roofs should be obtained from Table.
2.2.2.3.iv Absorbtivity. [generally applicable] refer table no:

Energy simulation studies for Hong Kong have shown that the external surface
and color of walls and roofs, and therefore their absorptivity, have a significant
effect on chiller energy used. This should be included in the heat gain calculation
as a multiplication constant to the equivalent temperature difference. The
absorptivity for wall and roof surfaces should be obtained from Table
2.2.2.3.v Equivalent temperature difference for walls ( TDeqw) [ specific data]

Refer table no:
Energy simulation studies for Hong Kong have indicated that thermal mass
affects the total heat flow through walls sufficiently to warrent its inclusion in the
formulation of an OTTV. The equivalent temperature difference for walls should
PROJECT SEMINAR
take into account the wall mass, density and orientation. Heavyweight
construction gives a better performance than lightweight construction because it
resists the passage of heat. The equivalent temperature difference for walls should
be obtained from Table
2.2.2.3.vi Shading coefficient of fenestration. [ specific data] refer table no:

The shading coefficient of fenestration is the ratio of the solar heat gain through a
particular type of glass under a specific set of conditions to the solar heat gain
through double strength sheet clear glass under the same conditions. Allowances
for Hong Kong's latitude and solar effects have been taken into account in the
solar factor and therefore the shading coefficient of glass published by glass
manufacturers in Hong Kong or overseas can be used without modification
provided that the calculations have been based on a normal angle of incidence.
2.2.2.3.vii External shading multiplier. [ specific data] refer table no:

Shading of windows is of paramount importance in reducing solar heat gain to the
building. This shading can be provided by projections over the window, at the
side of the window, or a combination of both. For the purpose of simplicity in
OTTV calculations this shading effect is taken into account as an external shading
multiplier which should be assessed as follows:
(a) Overhang projections to windows
The external shading multiplier for overhang projections to windows should be

obtained from Table according to the overhang projection factor (OPF) and the
orientation of the window. The OPF should be calculated as follows:
Notes: OPF values above 1.0 are considered to produce too great an error in
estimation.
ESM for South, East and West orientations are combined since the figures are
very similar.
(b) Side fin projections to windows.
The external shading multiplier for side fin projections to windows should be
obtained from Table according to the side fin projection factor (SPF) and the
orientation of the window. The
PROJECT SEMINAR
(a) Combination of overhang and side fin projections
For windows with both overhang and side fin projections each external shading
multiplier should be calculated separately as described in (a) and (b) and the
smaller of the two values obtained should be used as the external shading
multiplier in the OTTV calculations.
2.2.2.3.viii Solar factor. [ specific data] refer table no:

The solar factor for vertical surfaces at various orientations and that for horizontal
surfaces should be obtained from Table. The solar factors have been calculated
for the Hong Kong climate. Any slopping or angled wall or roof can be resolved
into vertical and horizontal components. The vertical components of the sloping
or angled wall or roof can be treated as a vertical surface with a solar factor at that
respective orientation; whereas the horizontal component can be treated as a
horizontalsurface.
2.2.2.3.ix Equivalent temperature difference for roofs ( TDeqr) [ specific data]

Refer table no:
The equivalent temperature difference for roofs should take into account the roof
mass and density and should be obtained from Table
2.2.3 Pakistan energy standards

For the purpose of meeting the requirements of this code, the building envelope
shall comply with both the conduction (Uo and R) requirements and the Overall
Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) requirements as set forth in this code.
2.2.3.1.iConduction requirements(Uo & R)

A roof assembly shall be considered as all components of the' roof/ceiling
envelope through which heat flows, thus creating a building transmission heat loss
or gain, where such assembly is exposed to outdoor air. The gross area of a roof
assembly consists of the total exterior surface of such assembly (except for return
PROJECT SEMINAR
air plenums, noted below), including skylights. Where return air ceiling plenums
are employed, the roof/ceiling assembly shall:
A. for thermal transmittance purposes, not include the ceiling proper nor the
plenum space as part of the assembly, and
B. for gross area purposes is based upon the interior face of the upper plenum
surface.
The gross area of exterior walls measured on the exterior surface consists of all
opaque wall areas (including foundation walls, between floor spandrels,
peripheral edges of floors, etc.), window areas (including sash), and door areas.
The design of buildings for energy conservation may increase the water vapor
pressure differentials between the interior and exterior environments.
2.2.3.1.ii Overall thermal transmittance value requirements.

The cooling design criterion for walls, floors and roof/ceilings is to be known as
the Overall Thermal
Transfer Value (OTTV). It is aimed at achieving the design of a building
envelope that adequately reduces heat gain by both conduction and solar radiation
in order to reduce the cooling load of the air conditioning system. The OTTV
concept is based on three basic methods of heat gains through the external
envelope of a building:
(a) Heat conduction through opaque walls, roof/ceiling and floors
(b) Heat conduction through windows and/or skylights
(c) Solar radiation through windows and/or skylights
The OTTV calculation shall be for all climate zones (shown in Appendix 1) of
Pakistan and shall not exceed 101 W/ m2 for walls, & 26.8 W/ m2 for roofs.

2.2.3.2.iUo values for roof/ceiling, walls.
Roofs / Ceiling
As an alternative, Equation I and Equation la can be used to determine acceptable
combinations of U-values for different sections of the gross roof area, including
PROJECT SEMINAR
skylights, hatch’s, etc. To meet this requirement, insulation materials may be

placed either above, below or within the roof deck.
Equation I
Uo = Ur1 x Ar1 + Ur2 x Ar2 -----------Urn x Arn

Ar1 +Ar2 + -------Arn
Where
Uo = overall thermal transmittance of the gross area of the roof (W/m2 C)
Ur1, Ur2 , Urn = thermal transmittance of different roof section. (W/m2 C)
Ar1 , Ar2 , Arn = area of different roof section (m2).
Walls
The gross wall area above grade shall have thermal, transmission value, Uo, not
exceed the values of 2.67 W/ m2. Equation shall be used to determine the
acceptable combinations to meet these requirements. There are no thermal
requirements for wall sections below grade.
Equation
Uo = Uw x Aw + Ug x Ag + Ud x Ad
Ao
Where
Uo = the overall thermal transmittance of the gross wall area (W/ m2 C)
Ao = gross area of the exterior surface (m2)
Aw = opaque wall area (m2)
Uw = the thermal transmittance of the component of the opaque wall area (W/ m2
C)
Ag = glazing area (m2)
Ug = the thermal transmittance of the glazing area (W/ m2 C)
Ad = door area (m2)
Ud = the thermal transmittance of the door area (W/ m2 C)
2.2.3.2.ii Equivalent temperature difference
PROJECT SEMINAR
Solar radiation on the building is a cyclic heat input. The outdoor air temperature
also varies during the 24 hr period in a day. The Equivalent Temperature
Difference (TDeq) concept shall be adopted so that the variable heat flow through
the envelope may be calculated using the steady heat flow equation:
q = Ax UQ x TDeq
The TDEq across the envelope takes into account the types of construction
(mass and density), degree of exposure, time of the day, location, and orientation
and design conditions. For simplicity in OTTV calculations, the TDEq of different
types of construction have been simplified and should be the values as follows:
TDeq for Walls:
TDeq (C) - 26.7- 0.0371 Wt Where Wt is in kg / m2
TDeq (F) - 48.0- 0.3257 Wt Where Wt is in lb/ft2

TDeq for ceiling/roof
U/TC (s-1) .360 .420 .480 .540 .600 .960 1.32 1.68 2.04 2.40
6.00
TDeq (C) 16.7 19.5 22.2 25.0 27.8 30.6 33.3 36.1 38.9 41.7
44.4
U/TC (hr-1) .006 .007 .008 .009 .010 .016 .022 .028 .034 .040
.100
TDeq (F) 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0
80.0
TC = specific heat x density x thickness

= (kJ/kgC) x (kg/ m3) x (m)/1000
U – Overall U-value of roof assembly

TC is calculated as the sum of the TC‘s for each layer in roof construction.

2.2.3.3.i TDeq for walls, roofs [specific data] refer table no:
2.2.3.3.ii OTTV coefficient for walls & roofs.[specific data] refer table no:
2.2.3.3.iii Maximum OTTV allowed.[specific data] refer table no:
2.2.3.3.iv Maximum overall thermal transfer value.[specific data] refer table no:
2.2.3.3.v Solar factor for walls & roofs [Generally Applicable Data] refer table no:
PROJECT SEMINAR
2.2.3.3.vi Absorptance of various exterior surfaces.[Generally Applicable Data] refer

table no:
2.2.3.3.vii Window orientation factor[Generally Applicable Data] refer table no:
2.2.3.3.viii Shading coefficient for Exterior Shading (SCE)[Generally Applicable Data
refer table no:
3.2.3.3.viii Shading coefficient for Interior Shading (SCI)[Generally Applicable Data]
refer table no:
2.2.4 Singapore energy standards

2.2.4.1.i Building energy simulation(BES)
Large commercial buildings that require air conditioning all year round are energy-
intensive. Air conditioning typically contributes more than half of the energy
consumption of a commercial building. As the building sector accounts for more
than one-third of the total electrical consumption in Singapore, it is imperative that
today's buildings be designed for energy efficient operation throughout its lifetime.
BUILDING ENERGY SIMULATION (BES)

The thermal interactions between a building and its environment are complex. To
account for the complexities of the energy transfer processes occurring between the
external environment and the building and among its various components and
systems, building energy simulation (BES) is adopted-as a standard technique. BES
is a necessary routine employed to analyze the energy performance of a building as
an integrated system.
Nowadays, BES is used in areas such as building design, operation, management
and air-conditioning system design. Some applications of BES [3] are highlighted
in the following sections:
1. Study of load profiles and energy usage patterns of building
2. Selection of building systems for better energy performance of building
3. Economic analysis
4. Calculation of energy budget of a building
5. Evaluation of energy saving options
PROJECT SEMINAR
6. Complying with building regulations, codes, and standards
2.2.4.1.ii Energy performance standards

The energy performance standard calculations adopted in BEST require the user to
specify two buildings, namely the design building and the prototype building. The
design building is the proposed building under study having the actual design
specifications and operating conditions.
This building may deviate from the prescriptive standards when its energy estimate
is being determined. On the other hand, the prototype building has the same design,
shape, size and usage of the proposed building, but meets all the requirements of the
prescriptive standards. This building is used to establish an annual energy
consumption budget for the building being designed.

Calculation of the envelope thermal transfer value (ETTV) and the roof
thermal transfer value (RTTV) for prescriptive standard compliance.
Estimation of the annual energy consumption of buildings
Estimation of the peak design loads for air-conditioning.; equipment sizing and
zone thermal comfort design.
Calculation of the building's lighting power allowance and receptacle power
density using user-defined design values
Prediction of effects of multi-parametric changes on the energy use of buildings
Selection of energy saving options to reduce annual energy consumption o f
buildings

2.2.4.3.i Prescriptive standards [Generally Applicable Data] Refer table no:
2.2.4.3.ii Energy performance standards[Generally Applicable Data] refer table no:
2.2.5 Philippines energy standards

2.2.5.1.i Scope
PROJECT SEMINAR
To encourage and promote the energy conserving design of buildings and their
services to reduce the use of energy with due regard to the cost effectiveness,
building function, and comfort, health, safety and productivity of the occupants.
To prescribe guidelines and minimum requirements for the energy conserving
design of new buildings and provide methods for determining compliance with the
same to make them always energy-efficient.
This section applies to air-conditioned buildings with a total cooling load of 175
kW or greater. The requirements and guidelines of this section cover external walls
(with and without day lighting), roofs (with and without skylights) and air leakage
through the building envelope.
2.2.5.1.ii Windows
Windows shall be designed to limit air leakage. The air infiltration rate shall not
exceed 2.8 m3/hr per linear meter of sash crack when tested under a pressure
differential of 75 Pa. Manufacturers shall provide documentation certifying
compliance with this criterion.
2.2.5.1.iii Swinging, revolving or sliding doors.

These types of doors shall be used at all entrances and they shall be designed to
limit air leakage. The air infiltration rate shall not exceed 61.2 m3/hr per linear
meter of door crack when tested under a pressure differential of 75 Pa.
Manufacturers shall provide documentation certifying compliance with this
criterion.
Air curtains may be used in very high volume entrances only when revolving or
self-closing
Sliding doors are not appropriate. Effective means of caulking and weather
stripping shall be used to seal all penetrations through the exterior surfaces of the
building.

2.2.5.2.i Exterior walls
The design criterion for building envelope, known as the Overall Thermal
Transfer Value (OTTV), shall be adopted. The 0TTV requirement which shall
apply only to air-conditioned buildings is aimed at achieving the energy
PROJECT SEMINAR
conserving design of building envelopes so as to minimize external heat gain and

thereby reduce the cooling load of the air conditioning system.
The Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) for the exterior walls of buildings
shall not exceed 48 W/m2 The OTTV for all walls of a building is the weighted
average of all OTTV's (OTTVi) computed for the individual walls.
The Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTVi) for each exterior wall section that
has a different orientation shall be determined using Equation 5.1.
OTTV = 12.65 A (I-WWR) U, + 3.35 (WWR) U + SF (WWR) SC

[Equation 5. la - Offices)
OTTV = 5.40 A (I -WWR) U~+1. 10 (WWR) U + SF (WWR) SC

[Equation 5. lb - Hotels]
Where:
A = Solar absorptance of the opaque wall.
Typical values are given in Table
WWR = Window-to-wall ratio for the orientation under consideration;
Uw = U-value of the opaque wall (W/ m2 °C).
Thermal conductivities of building materials are given in Table
U = U-value of window glass (w/m2 0 C).
Typical U-values of glass are given in Table
SF = Solar Factor (W/m2 )

The SF values for the different orientations are listed in Table
SC = Shading coefficient of window glass.

Values of SC are given in Table 5.7.
The Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) for the total wall area of the
building shall be determined using Equation 5.2. The OTTV is the weighted
average of the OTTVj's for each wall calculated using Equation 5. 1.
A1 (OTTV1) + A2(OTTV2) +.... + Ai (OTTVi)
Where:
PROJECT SEMINAR
Ai = Gross area of the ith exterior wall (m2).

The gross area includes the opaque wall surface and the window surface for the
wall being considered.
OTTV. = Overall thermal transfer value for the ith wall,

2.2.5.3.i Room surface reflectance [Generally Applicable Data] Refer table no:
2.2.5.3.ii Thermal conductivity of building materials [Generally Applicable Data]
Refer table no:
2.2.5.3.iii Glass thermal transmittance values [Generally Applicable Data] Refer table
no:
2.2.5.3.iv Solar factor for various building wall orientation[Generally Applicable Data]
Refer table no:
2.2.5.3.v Maximum thermal transmittance values for roofs [Generally Applicable
Data] Refer table no:
2.2.5.3.vi Glass shading coefficient [Generally Applicable Data] Refer table no:
2.2.5.3.vii Percentage of solar radiation absorbed by selected building Materials
[Generally Applicable Data] Refer table no:
2.3 Unpublished reports.

2.3.1 Gopisethi Sridhar.
2.3.1.1 General
2.3.1.1.i Energy crisis
Of all problems India has faced in its history, the energy problem is potentially the
most serious and disruptive. Virtually faced facet of our lives is affected by the
supply & cost of energy. These include: agriculture, commerce, environment,
housing, etc.
2.3.1.1.ii Energy conservation
With the help of our present day technology it has become possible to design
dwellings in any form& maintain any design conditions inside irrespective of the
outdoor environment. One of the main concerns of the energy conservation problem
is economic effectiveness. Energy conservation can mainly be done in three stages:
PROJECT SEMINAR
Architectural pre-design
Materials & construction
Design services
2.3.1.2 Energy Management & Auditing
2.3.1.2.i Consumption of energy in built environment
Energy consumption in built environment though confined mainly to the
operational phases can be controlled right from the design stage up till the
operational stage.
2.3.1.2.ii Measures of consumption
The various forms of energy i.e. electrical energy, light diesel oil, high speed diesel
oil, liquid petroleum gas, etc. are being used in different quantities for different
purposes. Hence their consumption is constantly measured and recorded.
2.3.1.2.iii Automation
Automation is a process where in the entire functions of the built environment can
be controlled through computerized method. E.g. microprocessor based and capable
of direct digital control
2.3.1.3 Overall thermal transfer value.
2.3.1.3.i OTTV formula for envelope
A design criterion for building envelope, known as the overall thermal transfer
value (OTTV) can be adopted. OTTV is applied only to air-conditioned building,
aimed at achieving the design of adequately insulated building envelope so as to cut
down external heat gain& to reduce cooling load. There are three basic elements of
heat gain through the external walls of a building:
Heat conduction through opaque walls,
Heat conduction through glass windows,
Solar radiation through glass windows
OTTV can be calculated as:
OTTV = (Aw x Uw x TDeq) + (Af x Uf x T) + Af x SC x SF) / Ao
2.3.1.3.ii Measured value for TDeq & solar factor
Equivalent temperature difference (TDeq) is the temperature difference which
results in the total heat flow through a structure as caused by the combined effects
of solar radiation & outdoor temperature.
q = Ax U x TDeq
PROJECT SEMINAR
For the purpose of simplicity in OTTV calculation, the TDeq of different types of
construction have been narrowed down of three values:
Wall construction – mass per unit area TDeq
Light 0 – 125 Kg/M2 15 0 K
Medium 126 – 195 Kg/M2 12 0 K
Heavy above 195 Kg/M2 10 0 K
SF = 130 x CF (W/ m2 ) CF is the correction factor. SF is the solar factor.
Walls at different orientation receive different amount of solar radiation, it is
necessary to compute OTTV of individual walls
2.3.1.3.iii OTTV analysis for buildings.
To calculate OTTV for the envelope of the whole building:
OTTV = Ao1 x OTTV1 + Ao2 x OTTV2 + ……….Aon x OTTVn
Ao1 + Ao2 + ……….Aon
2.3.2 Supreet Matharoo
2.3.2.1 General
2.3.2.1.i Function of climate modification.
External climate is referred to as local climate & internal volume is said to have
endoclimate.
2.3.2.1.ii Structural function.
The ability to resist loads of 2 kinds: dead load & dynamic load.
2.3.2.1.iii Performance criteria for the building enclosure.
The performance criteria is generally set out for building enclosure comprising of
material, parts, components, etc, which make the difference between the interior &
exterior environments. It forms a guideline to quantify the requirement for the
enclosures before detail design.
2.3.2.2 Design parameters depends upon the following:

Penetration & spread of sky component
Sill height
Room dimension
Surface reflectance
External obstructions
Transmittance of window element
2.3.2.2.i Orientation
PROJECT SEMINAR
Best orientation always reduces the strain on the envelope & gives efficient system.
The best orientation from a solar point of view requires that a building as a whole
should receive the maximum solar radiation in winter & minimum in summer.
2.3.2.2.ii Building form

Minimum exposed surface area generally achieves minimum fabric heat loss. The
overall U value of walls is higher than that of roof.
Walls contribute to the greatest surface area with highest U – value. Therefore for a
relationships the plan shape & & height are important.
The smaller the perimeter length, the smaller the area
Hence plan forms can be described in terms of the ratio of their sides called aspect
ratio.
2.3.2.2.iii Noise
2.3.2.2.iv Day lighting
2.3.2.2.v Thermal performance
2.3.2.2.vi Life cycle costing
2.3.2.3 Performance of building envelope.

2.3.2.3.i Consideration in building envelope
2.3.2.3.ii Prescriptive method
2.3.2.3.iii System performance method
2.3.2.3.iv Cost budget method
2.3.2.4 Design approach.
2.3.2.4.i Choice of enclosure
2.3.2.4.ii Windows
2.3.2.4.iii Thermal, moisture & structural movement
2.3.2.4.iv Control of water
2.3.3 Aparajit Bhattacharyya

2.3.3.1 General
2.3.3.1.i Energy standards in U.S.A, England, etc
PROJECT SEMINAR
2.3.3.1.ii Guidelines & regulations in energy management in

buildings
2.3.3.2 Parameters affecting design parameters
2.3.3.2.i Base load & variable load
2.3.3.2.ii Factors affecting conditioning system, lighting
Consumption, plumbing consumption, lift consumption, equipment consumption.
2.3.3.3 Energy appraisal technique
2.3.3.3.i Method of assessing day lighting
2.3.3.3.ii Artificial lighting design.
2.3.3.3.iii Thermal design
2.3.4 Vinayk Thorat.

2.3.4.1 General
2.3.4.1.i Energy audits
2.3.4.1.ii Role & approach
2.3.4.1.iii Energy system & their conservation aspects
2.3.4.2 System approach analysis

2.3.4.2.i HVAC system
2.3.4.2.ii Electrical equipment
2.3.4.2.iii Lighting system
2.3.4.3 Equipments used in energy audits
2.3.4.3.i Tools & equipment
2.3.4.3.ii Electrical current & voltage.
2.3.4.3.iii HVAC measurement
2.4 Books
2.4.1 Energy performance of buildings George Baird, doon, pool.

2.4.1.1 General
2.4.1.1.i Indexes of energy performance
2.4.1.1.ii Building energy performance standards-
international trends
PROJECT SEMINAR
2.4.1.1.iii Building energy standards

2.4.1.2 System energy concern.
2.4.1.2.i Prediction method.
2.4.1.2.ii Energy use in practice.
2.4.1.3 Energy management & analysis
2.4.1.3.i Energy management programme
2.4.1.3.ii Management method for groups of buildings.
2.4.2 Energy conservation standards Dubin & C.G.long.

2.4.2.1 General
2.4.2.1.i Energy utilization in buildings
2.4.2.2 Energy Management in New & Existing Buildings
2.4.2.2.i Energy management programme
2.4.2.2.ii Existing building case study.
2.4.3 Design and evaluation criteria for energy conservation in new Buildings ---------
--
National bureau of standards, Washington, D.C
2.4.3.1 General
2.4.3.1.i Energy development procedure
2.4.3.1.ii Application
2.4.3.1.iii Design criteria & evaluation
2.4.3.2 Exterior envelope requirement

2.4.3.2.i Thermal transmittance values.
2.4.3.2.ii HVAC system requirements
2.4.3.2.iii Lighting requirements
PROJECT SEMINAR
2.4.3.2.iv Energy requirement for building design
Table 2.1 Thermal Conductivity of Building Materials
PROJECT SEMINAR
Thermal Conductivity (k) W/m

Density kg/m3 o
Material C
Asphalt, mastic with 20%

2350 1.15
grit
Boards
a) cork 145 0.042
b) hardboard high density 1010 0.144
c) mineral fibre 265 0.053
d) plasterboard 950 0.16
Brick (common) 1900 0.95
Concrete
a) normal weight aggregate 2400 2.16
b) light weight aggregate 1300 0.44
c) flat roof tiles or slabs 2100 1.10
Glass 2500 1.05
Mosaic tile cladding 2500 1.50
Insulating materials
a) glass fiber mat or quilt 32 0.035
b) mineral wool felt 50 0.039
c) polystyrene expanded 25 0.034
d) polyurethane foam 30 0.026
Metals
a) aluminum alloy typical 2800 160
b) copper commercial 8900 200
c) steel, carbon 7800 50
Plaster/render
a) gypsum 1120 0.38
b) gypsum, sand aggregate 1570 0.53
c) cement/sand 1860 0.72
Screeding
a) cement sand 1860 0.72
b) terrazzo 2435 1.59
Stone
a) granite 2650 2.9
b) marble 2500 2.0
Table2.2 Surface film resistance for walls and roofs (Ri, Ro)
PROJECT SEMINAR
Surface film resistance

Type of surface
m2 oC/W
Surface film resistance for walls
1. Internal surface (Ri)
(a) Absorptivity (0.5 or above) 0.120
(b) Absorptivity (below 0.5) 0.299
0.044
2. External surface (Ro)
Surface film resistance for roofs

1. Internal surface (Ri)
a) Absorptivity (0.5 or above)
(i) Flat roof 0.162
(ii) Sloped roof 22.5o 0.148
iii) Sloped roof 45o 0.133
(b) Absorptivity
(below 0.5)
(i) Flat roof 0.801
(ii) Sloped roof 0.595
22.5o
iii) Sloped roof 45o 0.391
2. External surface 0.055
(Ro)
Table 2.2 Air Space Resistance for Walls and Roofs
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Air space resistance (Ra) m2oC/W

Type of air space 5 10 20 50 75 100
mm mm mm mm mm mm
Air space resistance for
walls
Vertical air space (heat

flows horizontally)
(a) Absorptivity (0.5

and above)
(b) Absorptivity (below 0.110 0.123 0.148 0.153 0.156 0.160
0.5) 0.250 0.359 0.578 0.589 0.597 0.606
Air space resistance for
roofs
Horizontal air space

(heat flows downward)
(a) Absorptivity (0.5

and above)
0.110 0.123 0.148 0.158 0.166 0.174
0.110 0.123 0.148 0.158 0.160 0.165
(i) horizontal air space
0.110 0.123 0.148 0.152 0.155 0.158
(ii) sloped air space
22.5o
(iii) sloped air space 45o
(b) Absorptivity (below
0.250 0.357 0.572 0.891 1.157 1.423
0.5)
0.250 0.357 0.571 0.768 0.931 1.095
(i) horizontal air space
0.250 0.357 0.570 0.644 0.706 0.768
(ii) sloped air space
o
22.5
(iii) sloped air space 45o
Table2.4 Absorptivity for Wall and Roof Surfaces
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Absorptivity Absorptivity
Material Paint
Black glass 1.0 Optical flat black paint 0.98

Black concrete 0.91 Flat black paint 0.95
Stafford blue brick 0.89 Black lacquer 0.92
Red brick 0.88 Dark grey paint 0.91
Bituminous felt 0.88 Dark blue lacquer 0.91
Blue grey slate 0.87 Black oil paint 0.90
Roofing, green 0.86 Dark olive drab paint 0.89
Azure blue or dark green
Brown concrete 0.85 0.88
lacquer
Asphalt pavement,
0.82 Dark brown paint 0.88
weathered
Wood, smooth 0.78 Dark blue-grey paint 0.88
Uncolored concrete 0.65 Medium brown paint 0.84
White marble 0.58 Medium light brown paint 0.80
White mosaic tiles 0.58 Brown or green lacquer 0.79
Light buff brick 0.55 Medium rust paint 0.78
Built-up roof, white 0.50 Light grey oil paint 0.75
Bituminous felt, aluminized 0.40 Red oil paint 0.74
Gravel 0.29 Medium dull green paint 0.59
White on galvanized iron 0.26 Medium orange paint 0.58

White glazed brick 0.25 Medium yellow paint 0.57
Polished aluminum reflector
0.12 Medium blue paint 0.51
sheet
Aluminized Mylar film 0.10 Medium Kelly green paint 0.51
Tinned surface 0.05 Light green paint 0.47
Aluminum paint 0.40
White semi-gloss paint 0.30
White gloss paint 0.25
Silver paint 0.25
White lacquer 0.21
Laboratory vapor deposited
0.02
coatings
Table.2.5 Equivalent Temperature Difference for Walls
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Density of wall construction

Orientation less than 23-199 200-379 380-569 570 kg/m2
22 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 or greater
N 3.70 3.38 2.72 2.05 1.70
NNE 4.65 4.21 3.30 2.36 1.88
NE 5.60 5.03 3.86 2.67 2.05
ENE 6.55 5.86 4.44 2.98 2.23
E 7.50 6.68 5.01 3.28 2.40
ESE 7.05 6.26 4.65 3.00 2.15
SE 6.60 5.85 4.30 2.71 1.90
SSE 6.15 5.43 3.95 2.43 1.65
S 5.70 5.01 3.60 2.15 1.40
SSW 6.15 5.42 3.92 2.37 1.58
SW 6.60 5.82 4.23 2.59 1.75
WSW 6.55 5.87 4.29 2.73 1.93
W 6.50 5.79 4.35 2.86 2.10
WNW 5.80 5.19 3.94 2.66 2.00
NW 5.10 4.59 3.54 2.45 1.90
NNW 4.40 3.98 3.13 2.25 1.80
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Table 2.6 External Shading Multiplier for Overhang Projections to Windows
ESM
OPF
N NE/NW S/E/W SE/SW
0.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
0.05 0.975 0.969 0.962 0.962
0.10 0.951 0.939 0.926 0.926
0.15 0.928 0.909 0.890 0.890
0.20 0.905 0.880 0.856 0.856
0.25 0.883 0.853 0.823 0.823
0.30 0.861 0.826 0.790 0.790
0.35 0.840 0.800 0.759 0.759
0.40 0.820 0.774 0.729 0.729
0.45 0.800 0.750 0.700 0.700
0.50 0.781 0.726 0.672 0.672
0.55 0.762 0.704 0.645 0.645
0.60 0.744 0.682 0.620 0.620
0.65 0.726 0.661 0.595 0.595
0.70 0.710 0.641 0.572 0.572
0.75 0.693 0.621 0.549 0.549
0.80 0.678 0.603 0.528 0.528
0.85 0.663 0.585 0.507 0.507
0.90 0.648 0.568 0.488 0.488
0.95 0.634 0.552 0.470 0.470
1.00 0.621 0.537 0.453 0.453
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Table 2.7 External Shading Multiplier for Side fin Projections to Windows
ESM
SPF
N NE E SE S SW W NW
0.00 1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
0.05 0.955 0.964 0.974 0.968 0.962 0.968 0.968 0.964
0.10 0.911 0.929 0.948 0.937 0.925 0.936 0.947 0.929
0.15 0.859 0.896 0.923 0.906 0.890 0.906 0.922 0.895
0.20 0.828 0.863 0.898 0.877 0.855 0.879 0.897 0.863
0.25 0.789 0.832 0.875 0.848 0.822 0.848 0.873 0.831
0.30 0.751 0.801 0.852 0.821 0.790 0.820 0.850 0.800
0.35 0.714 0.772 0.829 0.794 0.759 0.793 0.828 0.771
0.40 0.679 0.743 0.807 0.768 0.729 0.767 0.806 0.742
0.45 0.645 0.716 0.786 0.743 0.700 0.743 0.785 0.715
0.50 0.613 0.690 0.766 0.719 0.673 0.719 0.765 0.689
0.55 0.582 0.664 0.746 0.696 0.646 0.696 0.746 0.664
0.60 0.553 0.640 0.727 0.674 0.621 0.674 0.727 0.640
0.65 0.525 0.617 0.709 0.653 0.596 0.653 0.709 0.617
0.70 0.499 0.595 0.691 0.632 0.573 0.633 0.692 0.595
0.75 0.473 0.574 0.674 0.613 0.551 0.613 0.675 0.574
0.80 0.450 0.554 0.658 0.594 0.531 0.595 0.660 0.555
0.85 0.428 0.535 0.642 0.577 0.511 0.578 0.645 0.536
0.90 0.407 0.517 0.627 0.560 0.493 0.561 0.630 0.519
0.95 0.388 0.500 0.613 0.544 0.475 0.546 0.617 0.502
1.00 0.370 0.484 0.599 0.529 0.459 0.531 0.604 0.487
1.05 0.354 0.470 0.586 0.515 0.444 0.518 0.592 0.473
1.10 0.339 0.456 0.574 0.502 0.430 0.505 0.581 0.460
1.15 0.325 0.444 0.562 0.490 0.417 0.494 0.570 0.448
1.20 0.313 0.432 0.551 0.478 0.406 0.483 0.560 0.437
1.25 0.302 0.422 0.541 0.468 0.395 0.473 0.551 0.427
1.30 0.293 0.412 0.531 0.458 0.386 0.464 0.543 0.418
1.35 0.286 0.404 0.522 0.450 0.377 0.456 0.535 0.410
1.40 0.279 0.396 0.514 0.442 0.370 0.449 0.528 0.404
1.45 0.274 0.390 0.506 0.435 0.364 0.443 0.522 0.398
1.50 0.271 0.385 0.499 0.429 0.359 0.438 0.517 0.394
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Table 2.8 Solar Factor
Orientation N NE E SE S SW W NW
SF for vertical
104 138 168 197 191 202 175 138
surface
Orientation NNE ENE ESE SSE SSW WSW WNW NNW
SF for vertical
121 153 183 194 197 189 157 121
surface
SF for horizontal
264
surface
Table 2.9 Equivalent Temperature Difference for Roofs
Density of roof less than 22 23-199 200-379 380-569 570 kg/m2

construction kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 kg/m2 or greater
TDEQr 18.60 16.88 13.37 9.75 7.90
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2.5 Summary of literature survey

ASHRAE:
For exterior doors – a maximum of 28 sq.ft (2.6m²) of exterior door per
dwelling can have a u- factor of 0.54 or less.
For vaulted ceilings- insulation level for ceilings that have limited attic/
rafter depth such as dormers, bay windows or similar architectural features
totaling no more than 150 sq.ft (13.9m²) in area per building may be
reduced to not less than R- 21. When reduced, the cavity shall be filled
(except for required ventilation spaces), on a 0.5 per m (dry cup) vapor
retarder.
Vaulted area, unless insulated to R- 38 may not exceed 50 percent of the
total heated space floor area.
Skylight area: the skylight area is a percentage of the heated space floor
area. Any glazing in the roof / ceiling assembly above the conditioned
space shall be considered a skylight.
Basement walls: The R- value for basement walls in detached one- & -
two- family dwellings is R-15.
Vaulted area, unless insulated to R- 38 may not exceed 50 percent of the
total heated space floor area.
Skylight area: the skylight area is a percentage of the heated space floor
area. Any glazing in the roof / ceiling assembly above the conditioned
space shall be considered a skylight.
Basement walls : for detached one- & two – family dwellings, basement
walls include wood, concrete or masonry walls that are below grade & do
not include those portions of such walls that extend more than 8” (203mm)
above grade. The R- value for basement walls in detached one- & - two-
family dwellings is R-15.
Hong Kong

In case of building tower, the OTTV should not exceed 35 W/ m2

In case of podium; the OTTV should not exceed 80 W/ m2
The maximum OTTV should apply to the overall building envelope, i.e. all the
external walls & roofs, as the case may be, in average & do not apply to
individual wall roof.
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building. This shading can be provided by projections over the window, at the
side of the window, or a combination of both.
Buildings should not have unenclosed doorways and entrances. For commercial
buildings where heavy traffic of people is anticipated, self- closing doors without
restrainers, revolving doors or other similar means of minimizing heat gain should
be employed. Careful attention should also be paid to the sealing of windows to
guard against leakage during service
PAKISTAN
• The difference in comfort temperature between summer and winter averages

about 7 degrees throughout the country; it is somewhat less in the more constant
conditions of the coastal area.
• Extreme cold discomfort (i.e. more than 50% of the time) seems to occur if
temperatures are allowed to fall is 5° or more below the comfort temperature, but
the presently accepted variation of 2° above or below will riot greatly increase
discomfort.
• In the summer, high humidity was perceived as increasing the hotness of the
environment so that humid conditions within the range experienced in the survey,
were found to be hotter than relatively dry conditions by the equivalent of 2°. The
onset of the monsoon was likely to have made subjects particularly sensitive to
increased humidity. In the winter the effect of humidity was difficult-to identify
reliably but there was some evidence that increased humidity resulted in an
increased sense of cold.
• The temperatures which people will Find comfortable in the summer are predicted
with reasonable accuracy from the equation:
Tc = 12.1 + 0.534T, (A)
Where T„ is defined as: ½ (monthly mean maximum + monthly mean minimum) for
the climatic zone concerned (20°C To 35°C).
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• The comfort temperatures in winter (8 o C To 20 0 C) in unheated or partly heated

buildings are about 2.4 o higher than that defined by equation A.
Comparing the comfort temperatures with outdoor temperature will allow
appropriate means to be proposed for passive or low-energy methods for indoor
temperature control.
• For buildings with heating or air conditioning, a variable indoor temperature is
recommended taking account of conditions outdoors, and guided by the
relationship
T, = 17.0+0.38 Tｻ (B)
• This should result in savings in the region of 20% in energy use by air
conditioning systems compared with present standards.
SINGAPORE:
The OTTV for the gross area of exterior wails shall not exceed 45W/m2.
Where the roof is provided with skylights or any other materials, which allows the
passage light through, the OTTV for the gross area of the roof shall not exceed
45W/m2
For any other type of roof, the average thermal transmittance of the gross area of
the roof shall not exceed 0.5 W/m2 0 K.
PHILLIPINES:
Solar heat gain through the roof can contribute a substantial amount to the cooling
load of an air-conditioned building. Hence, roofs should be provided with
adequate insulation in order to conserve energy.
All roofs shall be provided with insulation. Roofs shall not have a thermal
transmittance value greater than the values listed in Table 2.10
The uses of reflective coatings which are reasonably impervious to moisture
degradation are strongly recommended for roofs as top overlays.
The values may be exceeded by 50% if any one of the following applies:
The roof area is shaded from direct solar radiation by ventilated double
roof. External roof surface reflective treatments are used where the solar
reflectivity is equal to or greater than 0.7 and the treatment is free from algae
growth.
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CHAPTER 3
DETERMINATION FOR ENERGY PERFORMANCE IN
BUILDINGS
3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 BUILDING ENVELOPE
The BUILDING ENVELOPE comprises the outer elements of a building, including

the foundation, walls, roof, windows, doors, and floors. It concentrates on the
interaction between the components of the building envelope and on the effects on the
interior environment of a building.
The prime functions of the building envelope are to provide
• Shelter for occupants
• Strength and rigidity
• Stability and durability
• Control of heat, air, and moisture vapor flows
• Control of liquid water movement
• Indoor air quality control
• Fire resistance
• Cost-effectiveness
• Acoustical performance
• Aesthetic considerations
In buildings with a large ratio of volume to exterior surface area, the internal-heat
sources may be larger than gains or losses through the envelope. The effect of the
envelope becomes increasingly important as the ratio decreases. In single-family
dwellings, heat transfer through the envelope is the dominant factor in determining the
overall heating and cooling leads. However, local control (e.g., in business offices) may
depend on the ability of glazing to control heal gain or loss.
3.1.2 BUILDING FORM/SURFACE-TO-VOLUME RATIO:

The volume of space inside a building that needs to be heated or cooled and its
relationship with the area of the envelope enclosing the volume affect the thermal
performance of the building. This parameter, known as the S/V (surface-to-volume)
ratio, is determined by the building form. For any given building volume, the more
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compact the shapes, the less wasteful it is in gaining/losing heat. Hence, in hot and dry
regions and cold climates, buildings are compact in form with a low S/V ratio to reduce
heat gain and losses, respectively. Also, the building form determines the airflow
pattern around the building, directly affecting its ventilation. The depth of a building
also determines the requirements for artificial lighting—greater the depth, higher the
need for artificial lighting.
3.1.3 ORIENTATION:
Building orientation is a significant design consideration, mainly with regard to solar
radiation and wind. In predominantly cold regions, buildings should be oriented to
maximize solar gain; the reverse is advisable for hot regions. In regions where seasonal
changes are very pronounced, both the situations may arise periodically. For a cold
climate, an orientation slightly east of south is favored (especially 15 degrees east of
south), as this exposes the unit to more morning than afternoon sun and enables the
house to begin to heat during the day.
3.1.4 THERMAL INSULATION

Insulation is of great value when a building requires mechanical heating or cooling
insulation helps reduce the space-conditioning loads. Location of insulation and its
optimum thickness are important. In hot climates, insulation is placed on the outer face
(facing exterior) of the wall so that thermal mass of the wall is weakly coupled with the
external source and strongly coupled with the interior. Use of40-mm thick expanded
polystyrene insulation on walls and vermiculite concrete insulation on the roof has
brought down space-conditioning loads of the retreat building by about 15%.
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3.2 STUDY OF BUILDING ENVELOPE

The envelope usually consists of transparent elements (windows & opaque (solid)
elements, such as walls, roofs, floors & windows & also day lighting.
3.2.1 WALL ELEMENT

When the thermal performance of wall is specified in terms of U- value and time lag
value, the selection of the material & construction shall be followed. Transmittance or
U- values can be calculated for any composite construction. The basic necessary data
such as conductivities (k-value) of materials, resistance of cavities and surfaces is
required. Walls are a major part of the building envelope and receive large amounts of
solar radiation. The heat storage capacity and heat conduction property of walls are key
to meeting desired thermal comfort conditions. The wall thick-ness, material, and
finishes can be chosen based on the heating and cooling needs of the building.
Appropriate thermal insulation and air cavities in walls reduce heat transmission into
the building, which is the primary aim in a hot region.
3.2.2 LIGHT WEIGHT CONSTRUCTION

(Reference: 1999 Ashrae applications handbook).
The most common type of light weight wall construction is the wood frame wall. Most
houses built in the United States have exterior walls framed with wood studs, although
steel studs offer several advantages; for example, they are more dimensionally viable
and are truer than wood studs. Additionally Steel studs can be fabricated from recycled
material and are themselves recyclable. How-ever, these studs can create a significant
thermal bridge across the cavity insulation, reducing its thermal resistance by up to
50%. Exterior foam sheathing insulation can be used to augment the R-value of the
wall.
3.2.3 THERMAL PERFORMANCE (CMUS) CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS
For a single-family detached house, the average area-weighted R-value for the entire
wall was 88% of the R-value of the clear wall. The thermal bridges created by the webs
of CMUs dictate the maximum thermal efficiency that a CMU can attain. To reduce
thermal bridging, blocks containing only two webs instead of the usual three have been
used, and web thickness has been reduced by up to be 40% to 50 %.
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3.2.4 AIR CAVITIES

Air cavities within walls or an attic space in the roof ceiling combination reduce the
solar heat gain factor, thereby reducing space-conditioning loads. The performance
improves if the void is ventilated. Heat is transmitted through the air cavity by
convection and radiation. A cavity represents a resistance, which is not proportional to
its thickness. For a thickness >20 mm, the resistance to heat flow remains nearly
constant. Ventilated air does not reduce radiative heat transfer from roof to ceiling. The
radiative component of heat transfer may be reduced by using low emissivity or high
reflective coating (e.g. aluminum foil) on either surface facing the cavity. With
aluminum foil attached to the top of ceiling, the resistance for downward heat flow
increases to about 0.7 m2k/W compared to 0.21 m2 k/W in the absence of the foil.
3.2.5 MOISTURE
Historically, the primary moisture control strategy for walls is to restrict moisture
entry. Another approach to envelope design is to provide walls that balance entry with
removal and that control accumulation and pressure differential.
For heating-dominated climates and for mixed climates with both significant heating
and significant cooling seasons, a vapor retarder at the interior surface is advisable.
Moisture originates from the interior of the building and migrates into the wall until it
reaches the interior vapor retarder, which is kept warm because it is inside the thermal
envelope. In cooling-dominated climates, exterior sheathing of impermeable rigid
insulation can act as a vapor diffusion retarder. Moisture outside the building moves
into the wall until it reaches the exterior vapor retarder. This is kept warm because it
is outside of the thermal envelope. As a general rule, to keep moisture condensation
accumulation to a minimum, this first condensing surface must be kept above the dew
point.
3.2.6 THERMAL TRANSMITTANCE U- VALUES FOR WALLS:

Heat is transferred through an element of a building, such as a wall, by a number of
mechanisms. Layers of different materials conduct heat at different rate. In any cavity
there is heat transfer by conduction and convection in the air and by Radiation effects.
At the inside and outside boundaries of the wall radiation and convection at the
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surface affect the rate of heat transfer. It is convenient to combine all these factors
into a single measurement describing the behavior of the complete structural element.
This measurement is called the overall thermal transmittance coefficient, ort/'value.
A U- VALUE is a measure of the overall rate at which heat is transmitted through a

particular thickness of wall, roof, or floor.
UNIT: W/m2 o C.
The coefficient, or U- value, is measured as the rate of heat flow in watts through I m2
of a structure when there is a temperature difference across the structure of I °C. The
lower the U-value the better the insulation. For example, a wall with a t/-value of 0.5
W/m2 °C loses heat at half the rate of a wall with a value of 1.0 W/m2 °C. So the cost
of replacing heat lost through the first wall will be half that of the second wall.
For different sections of walls & slabs different U – values & resistance is given in
Figure no.3.3
To determine the thermal transmittance value the following formulae can

applied: Refer Table No 3.1 & 3.3
UO = (Uwall x Awall )+ (Ufenestration x Afenestration ) + (Udoor x Adoor)
Ao
Where
Uwall = thermal transmittance of al elements of the opaque wall area, W / m2 .o C
(Btu/h.0F)
Awall = opaque wall area, m2 (ft2),
Ufenes = thermal transmittance of window area, W / m2 .o C (Btu/h.0F)
Afenes = window area (including sash), m2 (ft2),
Udoor = thermal transmittance of door area, W / m2 .o C (Btu/h.0F)
Adoor = door area, m2 (ft2),
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To determine the Overall Thermal Transfer Value the following formulae can
applied:
OTTV = [( Uw xAw xTDEQ) + ( Af xSFxSC) + (Uf xAf x ΔT)]

Ao
Table no 3.3 Typical U-values of some constructions
S.NO Element Composition U - value

(W/m2 °c)
1 Solid wall 215 mm Brick work, 15 mm 2.3
plaster
2 Cavity wall 102.5 mm Brick work, 50 mm 1.6
unventilated cavity,
3 Cavity wall 102.5 mm brickwork, 50 mm 0.96

unventilated cavity, 100 mm
aerated concrete block. 13 mm
Lightweight plaster.
4 Cavity wall 102.5 mm brickwork, 25 mm 0.58
unventilated cavity, 25 mm
polystyrene board, 100 mm
aerated concrete block. 13 mm
lightweight plaster,
3.2.2 GLAZED (WINDOWS)/ FENESTRATION:
3.2.2.1 Orientation
Building orientation is a significant design consideration, mainly with regard to solar

radiation and wind. In predominantly cold regions, buildings should be oriented to
maximize solar gain; the reverse is advisable for hot regions. In regions where
seasonal changes are very pronounced, both the situations may arise periodically. For
a cold climate, an orientation slightly east of south is favored (especially 15 degrees
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east of south), as this exposes the unit to more morning than afternoon sun and
enables the house to begin to heat during the day. Similarly, wind can be desirable or
undesirable. Quite often, a compromise is required between sun and wind
orientations. With careful design, shading and deflecting devices can be incorporated
to exclude the sun or redirect it into the building, just as wind can be diverted or
directed to the extent desired.
In hot dry climates the fenestration should be oriented north in cold climates
they should be facing south.
In humid climates they should be within 45 degrees of the perpendicular to the
direction of air flow. The inlet and outlet should not be in a straight line in order
to maximize air flow
3.2.2.2 Fenestration Controls

3.2.2.2.i Climatic Implication
Glazing, shades, light selves,-fly wire nets and the cross-sectional area of the
window can be important controls. They trap solar radiation, cut it off, increase
daylight level, keep out insects (in the process reducing air speed) and modify air
velocities. They are therefore able to affect and control heat gain, daylight and
ventilation.
Glazing, the most commonly used 'control' device, traps solar radiation. This
phenomenon is known as the Greenhouse Effect. It can be a major cause of heat gain,
desirable or undesirable. Shades, vertical and horizontal, control radiative heat gain.
The solar attitude and azimuth during the over heated period can be determined.
There from, the projection of the horizontal and vertical shades can he adjusted so as
to cut-off the sun. Similarly, it can be ensured that during under heated periods the
sun is allowed in. Light shelves are horizontal projections in a window. They can be
inside, outside or partly within and partly outside the glazing. With a reflective upper
surface it brings more light into the rear of a room. They can also function as
horizontal shades cutting off vertical sun. Fly wire nets are intended as control
devices for insect. However, they also reduce the air velocity indoors. They are
mentioned here not for the possibilities they create but for their indirect influence.
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3.2.2.2.ii Window cross-section.:
Variation in the Cross-sectional area in which a fluid flows varies the velocity
of the flow. Increasing the area decreases the speed and vice-versa. Air speeds can
thus be enhanced or reduced.
In Hot climates if glazed windows are used then they need to shaded from the
sun. Light shelves would be unnecessary. If the climate is consistently hot the
window sectioned can be increased towards the interior to decrease the air speed. In
cold climates extensive glazing are advisable. Shading of the window is undesirable.
Light shelves if needed would be very effective due to the low sun angle. Window
section should once again be such that air velocity is reduced.
In warm-humid climates window shades are not so much of an issue since
solar radiation is largely diffuse. Fly wire-nets are all the more necessary due to the
insect that thrive under these conditions. The major need that of increased ventilation
can be achieved by modifying the window section. In many cases though, we may be
dealing with a composite climate. We would then need to design shades that cut-off
sun in the summer but allows the sun in the under heated period. Further, the window
section should enhance air velocity while still acting as a shade. As shown below, this
could be achieved either by introducing a planter at the window silt or else by adding
smaller shades at the glazing.
Table 3.4 TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS OF WINDOW GLASSES
Type of glass Admitted excluded

Ordinary 6mm glass r = 74 74 -
a = 18 9 9
r=8 - 8
Total 100 83 17
6 mm heat absorbing r = 42 42 -
a = 53 26 27
r=5 - 5
100 68 32
Double: heat absorbing t = 37 37 -
outer ordinary inner a = 55 8 -
plane r=8 - 8
100 54 55
Single pane ceramic t = 26 26 -
coating a = 56 15 -
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r = 18 - 18
100 41 59
Double unit coating on t = 25 25 -
inside of outer pane a = 52 15 39
r = 23 - 23
100 38 62
Double unit gold t = 24 24 -
coating on inside of a = 36 4 32
outer pane r = 40 - 40
100 28 72
Table 3.5 TYPICAL U- VALUE FOR WINDOW CONSTRUCTION
Element Composition U-value (W/m2 oC)

Window Single glazing metal frame 5.7 W/m2 oC
Window Double glazing airspace, 20 2.8 W/m2 oC
mm metal frame
3.2.3 ROOFING /CEILING ELEMENT
3.2.3.1 Thermal performance
In pitched roof assemblies, the attic space is typically insulated with mineral fiber or
blankets, or cellulose fill insulation. The total thermal resistance of the ceiling,
insulation, attic space, and roof is the sum of the conduction resistance of the ceiling.
The roof resistance is generally negligible
The thermal performance of the insulation varies with its mean Temperature. In
winter conditions, the thermal resistance of the insulation increases; in summer
conditions, it decreases. In installing loose fill insulation, care must be taken to avoid
over blowing the material to densities below the intended design density for a given
R-value.
3.2.3.2 Moisture
In addition to moisture normally present in construction materials, moisture can be

trapped in the roof and ceiling assembly from rain during construction, leaks that
were not fixed before water entered the assembly, or reroofing over partially tom-off
roofs. Additional moisture can enter a structure having no insulation vapor retarder. If
porous insulation is used, water vapor can diffuse throughout the assembly. The
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amount of vapor may be insufficient to significantly affect the thermal conductivity of

the insulation, but it may add a significant latent heat load. Diurnal temperature
variations in the roof can cause water to evaporate, move as vapor through a porous
system, and condense. When conditions are right for this effect, the heat flow from
this factor alone can easily exceed normal conduction flows.
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3.2.3.3 Air Movement
Whether the roof is pitched, low-slope, or no-slope, a typical roof and ceiling
assembly is impervious to significant air movement through the ceiling itself. With
pitched roofs, the attic normally is ventilated by airflow from the edges of the
assembly, over the insulation, and out through continuous ridge vents or occasional
vents in the roof or gable ends of the attic. The ventilation may be by natural or
forced convection, but natural convection by a combination of continuous ridge vents
and continuous soffit vents seems most effective. A type of low- or no-slope roof
called a ventilated cold deck system has vents at the eaves and at intervals over the
roof to permit the circulation of dry outside air over the insulation. The effectiveness
of such vents ii uncertain in regions with a cold or a temperature but humid climate
(IEA 1994). An alternative is a non- ventilated cold deck system with a vapor retarder
on the ceiling consisting of staggered strips of polyethylene on the bottom and top
and exposed fabric between them. Vapor inside the building effect lively "sees" a
continuous layer of polyethylene because of the staggering. Condensed water wicks
through the exposed fabric on the top to the exposed fabric on the bottom and
evaporates to the inside
To determine the overall thermal transmittance value the following formulae

can applied:
Uo = [U roof x Aroof] + [ Uskylight x Askylight]

Ao
3.2.4 DAY LIGHTING----DAY LIGHTING UTILIZATION
This will cover the following issue.

Sources of light
Climate and light
The day light factor concept
Design variables
The design sky concept
Day light requirements
Day light protractors
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3.2.4.1 Sky components

Externally reflected components (ERC)
Internally reflected components (IRC)
3.2.4.2 Sources of light

The ultimate source of daylight is, of course, the sun, but the light arriving at the earth
from the sun may be partly diffused by the atmosphere and the locally prevailing
atmospheric conditions will determine how this light will reach a building. If we
consider a point inside a building, light may reach it from the sun the following ways
(Figure 91):
a. diffused or skylight, through a window or opening
b. externally reflected light (by the ground or other buildings), through the same
windows
c. internally reflected light from walls, ceiling or other internal surfaces
d. Direct sunlight, along a straight path from the sun, through a window to the given
point.
3.2.4.3 The daylight

3.2.4.3.i Factor concept:
Due to the variability of out-door lighting levels it is difficult (and perhaps
meaningless) to calculate interior photometric illumination terms. However, in a
given building, at a certain point, the ratio of illumination to the simultaneous out-
door illumination can be taken as constant. This constant ratio, expressed as a
percentage, is the daylight factor
(DF): E1 x 100%
E2
Where E1 = illumination indoors, at the point taken
E2 = illumination out-doors from an unobstructed sky hemisphere
The daylight factor concept is valid (the ratio remains constant) only under over- cast
sky conditions when there is no direct sunlight. Thus, according to 5.2.1 above, three
components will contribute to the daylight factor:
1 sky component (SC)
2 externally reflected component (ERC)
3 internally reflected component (IRC)
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Thus: DF = SC+ERC+IRC
3.2.4.3.ii Design variables

The magnitude of each of these components depends on the following design
variables:
a. SC the area of sky visible from the point considered and its average altitude angle
(i.e. the luminance of sky at that angle). Therefore window size and its position in to
point, thickness of window frame members, quality of glass and its cleanness, any
external obstructions
b. ERC the area of external surfaces visible from the point considered and the
reflectance of these surfaces
c. IRC - the size of room the ratio of wall etc. Surfaces in relation to window area the
reflectance of these indoor surfaces and
3.2.4.3.iii The design sky concept
When the daylight factor for a given point has been established, it can be converted
into an illumination value, if the out-door illumination is known.
3.2.4.4 DESIGN PARAMETERS:

3.2.4.4.i Penetration and spread of sky component:
Penetration is the maximum distance of a sky component contour along the normal to
the window wall. The breadth of a SC contour at half the penetration depth is the
measure of the area covered by that sky component, give penetration and lateral
spread of 1.5, 1.0 and 0.5 percent SC for several window dimensions. Generally
penetration is better with taller windows and spread is better with broader windows
A suitable sill height above the work plane will enable the broader windows to
provide A good distribution of light
External obstructions reduce the sky component reduced to zero beyond a certain
from the window
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3.2.4.4.ii Sill height:

The optimum sill level for good illumination as well as good ventilation should be
between the illumination work plane and the head level of a person.
3.2.4.4.iii Room Dimension
The dimension of a room (for ceiling height of 3.0 m) perpendicular to the window
wall should be less than 7.0 m for unilateral lighting from side windows. For a room
of more depth, windows on opposite walls are recommended.
Unilateral lighting from side windows will be unsatisfactory if the room depth
is more than two and a half times the height of the window top from the floor
level.
3.2.4.4.iv Surface Reflectance

The amount of internal and external reflected components is governed respectively by
the reflectance of internal surfaces of a room and external surfaces reflecting light
into the room.
3.2.4.4.v External Obstructions

External components reduce the sky components but add to the external reflected
component. The external reflected component varies directly as the reflectance and
Illuminance of obstruction and also as the solid angle subtended by the obstruction at
the given point,
The obstructions at a distance of three times their height or more from
window façade Are not significant and may be ignored
Layout of buildings is significant in determining the daylight availability
inside.
3.2.4.4.vi Transmittance of window elements

Overall transmission of daylight through windows depends upon dirt collection on
Window panes, glazing material and shading devices. Average maintenance Factors
as a fraction of clean glass transmittance.
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3.2.4. 5 DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

Design are ready reckenors which can be used for arriving at window dimension to
provide a given daylight factor on the working plane in rooms of different floor areas
and depth up to 12m. These curves give expected daylight factor at the center and the
rear of the room for different locations of window on the shorter or longer wall of the
room.
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CHAPTER 4
ENERGY STANDARDS APPROACH
This will include

• Energy performance assessment standards
• Performance standards of building elements
• Day lighting utilization standards
• Energy consumption guidelines
• Data for energy standards applications
• Performance improvement guidelines
4.1 Energy performance assessment standards of ASHRAE :
4.1.1 Performance standards of building elements
To comply with this method the following process shall be followed:

Calculate an annual energy usage quantity , which may be verified and/or
modified by actual energy usage where possible
Calculate the annual energy usage quantity by the same methods and same
operating assumptions except that the building shall be considered to have
been modified to meet the minimum requirements.
If the quantity calculated in annual energy usage is equal to or less than that of
modified minimum requirements, and the applicable provisions of this
Standard with respect to maintenance and operation are satisfied, then the
building shall be considered as meeting the provisions of this Standard, or
If the quantity calculated by the actual energy usage is greater than that of
modified minimum requirements, then one of the following procedures shall
be used:
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Make significant improvements in the items, and

a. Recheck compliance, continuing to improve components until compliance
is reached, or:
b. Recompute actual energy usage, including the improvements implemented
in the items and apply provisions of maintenance & operations.
c. Apply the tests of 4.2.3, etc., for compliance.
Utilize nondepleting or waste, energy forms, and if such forms of energy

constitute over 30% of the .total energy calculated in annual energy usage
including all building energy, or if such forms of energy constitute over 50%
of the HVAC and service hot water energy calculated in annual energy usage
of the building, and the applicable provisions of maintenance and operation of
this Standard shall be met, then the building shall be considered as meeting
the provisions of this Standard.
Make significant changes in the energy use of the building by any acceptable
operating and/or building use modifications. Recompute the quantity of
annual energy usage and apply provisions of maintenance & operations or
improvements in the items as appropriate.
Use combinations of the above options, and compute the nonmutually

exclusive savings.
4.1.2 Daylight utilization standard
This verifies lighting requirements for the conservation of energy in both the interiors and
exteriors of existing high rise residential buildings.
The objective of this section is to set forth considerations for modification of lighting systems
to conserve energy in and around existing buildings.
To examine the building to determine the connected power used for lighting.
(Power is the connected lighting load and is represented by watts or kilo-
watts. Energy is power multiplied by hours used and is represented by
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kilowatt-hours.)
To calculate a lighting power budget for the existing building, or by using the
simplified IES UNIT POWER DENSITY PROCEDURE, EMS-6.
To compare connected lighting power in the existing building with the
lighting power budget computed for the building and to modify the existing
lighting system to comply if connected power exceeds the calculated power
limit.
To develop energy management program that will reduce lighting energy

when connected power is equal to or less than the power limit and still
maintain good lighting practice.
4.2 Standard approach in Hong Kong
4.2.1 General considerations:
o To meet the energy consumption within the building is based on the principle
of overall thermal transmittance value (OTTV).
o Designed and constructed in compliance with external walls, roofs having a

suitable overall thermal transfer value.
o Also to innovate & vary important envelope components such as type of

glazing, window size, and external shading to windows, wall color, & wall
type to meet the maximum OTTV criteria.
o Main aim was to reduce the solar heat gain by siting a building to avoid
extensive glazed facades with a southerly aspects or introducing shades to
window.
o Appropriate choice of windows with low thermal transmittance

characteristics will also minimize solar heat transmission.
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o Artificial lighting consumes electricity & creates heat. This increases the
cooling load of a building & in turn increases energy consumption. So effort
shall be made to provide as much natural lighting into the building as
possible.
o -------with glazing, the visible lighting transmittance should be acknowledged

in addition to its thermal transmittance properties; daylight can supplement
artificial lighting & consequently reduce the cooling load.
Other measures which include more extensive of energy – efficient building services
equipment & appliances, e.g. energy saving lamps, low loss luminaries, & high-
efficiency air – conditioning.
4.2.2 Provisions
It apply to all hotels & commercial buildings to reduce heat transfer through the
building envelope & thus electricity required for air – conditioning.
The concept of OTTV is based on the consumption that the envelope of the building
is completely enclosed.
In the OTTV formulation the following factors are not allowed for :
a) Internal shading devices, such as draperies & blinds.
b) Solar reflection or shading from adjacent buildings.
4.2.3 Energy Consumption Guidelines

In case of building tower, the OTTV should not exceed 35 W/ m2
In case of podium; the OTTV should not exceed 80 W/ m2
The maximum OTTV should apply to the overall building envelope, i.e. all the
external walls & roofs, as the case may be, in average & do not apply to individual
wall roof.
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building. This shading can be provided by projections over the window, at the side of
the window, or a combination of both.
Buildings should not have unenclosed doorways and entrances. For commercial
buildings where heavy traffic of people is anticipated, self- closing doors without
restrainers, revolving doors or other similar means of minimizing heat gain should be
employed. Careful attention should also be paid to the sealing of windows to guard
against leakage during services.
4.2.4 Data for Energy Standards Applications
• OTTV for External Walls

• OTTV for Roofs
• Calculation of Component Coefficients and Parameters of OTTV
• Thermal transmittance of opaque construction (U)
• Surface film resistance for walls and roofs (Ri, Ro)
• Thermal Conductivity of Building Materials
• Air Space Resistance for Walls and Roofs
• Absorptivity for Wall and Roof Surfaces
• Equivalent Temperature Difference for Walls
• External Shading Multiplier for Overhang Projections to
Windows
• External Shading Multiplier for Side fin Projections to
Windows
• SolarFactor
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4.3 OTTV CONCEPTS
4.3.1 GENERAL
4.3.1.1Energy and Environmental Concerns
• Global energy resources such as oil and coal are limited and diminishing.
• Power generation using fossil fuels produces many adverse effects to the
environment, for example, global warming, air pollution and climate change.
4.3.1.2 Energy Efficiency in Buildings
• Buildings represent a large portion of energy consumption (about 20-40% of total

energy consumption in a country).
• The potential for energy savings in buildings is significant.
Electricity is usually the most important form of energy use.
4.3.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF OTTV
Design of building envelopes will affect the energy requirements for cooling and heating.
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) is a control measure to cut down heat gain at
building envelope and to reduce cooling load of the building.
4.3.2.1 OTTV Concept
OTTV is a measure of the average heat gain into a building through the building
envelope and has three components:
o Heat conduction through opaque wall, Qwc

o Heat conduction through window glass, Qgc
o Solar radiation through window glass, Qgs
Heat transfer through building envelope
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• The heat transfer through the building envelope can be expressed as:
OTTV = Q/A
where Q = total heat transfer through envelope (W)

A = gross area of building envelpe (m2)
• For an individual wall, the OTTV can also be expressed as:
OTTVi = Qwc + Qgc = Qgs/Ai
where Qwc = heat conduction through opaque wall

Qgc = heat conduction through window glass
Qgs = solar radiation through window glass
OTTV Equations
• The general form of OTTV equation for external walls :
OTTVi = (Aw x Uw x Tdeq) + (Af x Uf x DT) + (Af x SC x SF)
where Aw, Af = wall and window area (m2); Ai = Aw + Af

Uw, Uf = U-values of wall and window (W/m2.K)
TDeq = equivalent temperature difference (oC)
DT = delta temperature (oC)
SC = shading coefficienct of window glass
SF = solar factor (W/m2)
• The parameters TDeq, DT, SF depend on the climate and building construction. The
OTTV of the whole external wall is given by the weighted average:
OTTV wall = Σ(OTTVi x Ai) / ΣAi
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• A simplified form using the window-to-wall ratio (WWR) can be used to express the
OTTV:
OTTVi = (1-WWR) x Uw x Tdeq x WWR x Uf x DT + WWR x SC x SF
• The OTTV for roof is similar to that for walls (roof replaces walls and skylights
replace window). But roof OTTV is simpler since skylights are not very often
contained in buildings.
4.3.3 OVERALL THERMAL TRANSFER VALUE (OTTV) REQUIREMENTS
The cooling design criterion for walls, floors and roof/ceilings is to be known as the
Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV). It is aimed at achieving the design of a building
envelope that adequately reduces heat gain by both conduction and solar radiation in order to
reduce the cooling load of the air conditioning system.
The OTTV concept is based on three basic methods of heat gains through the external
envelope of a building:
a) Heat conduction through opaque walls, roof/ceiling and floors
b) Heat conduction through windows and/or skylights
c) Solar radiation through windows and/or skylights
4.3.4 Equivalent Temperature Difference (TDeq):

Solar radiation on the building is a cyclic heat input. The outdoor air temperature also varies
during the 24 hr period in a day. The Equivalent Temperature Difference (TDeq) concept
shall be adopted so that the variable heat flow through the envelope may be calculated using
the steady heat flow equation:
q = A x Uo x TDeq
The TDEq across the envelope takes into account the types of construction (mass and
density), degree of exposure, and time of the day, location, and orientation and design
conditions.
For simplicity in OTTV calculations, the TDEq of different types of construction have
been simplified and should be the values as follows:
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TDeq for Walls:

TDeq (C) = 26.7 - 0.0371 Wt
Where Wt is in kg/m
TDeq (F) = 48.0 - 0.3257 Wt
Where Wt is in lb/ft2
Note: For weight of construction mass more than 489 Kg/m2 (100 lbs/ft2)
The value TDeq should be taken as 8C (14F)
TDeq for ceiling/roof. see Table below
Table 4.1
TDeq for ceilings /roofs:
U/TC(s-1) .360 .420 .480 .540 .600 .960 1.32 1.68 2.04 2.40 6.00
TDeq,(C) 16.7 19.5 22.2 25.0 27.8 30.6 33.3 36.1 38.9 41.7 44.4
U/TC(hr-1) .006 .007 .008 .009 .010 .016 .022 .028 .034 .040 .100
TDeq (F) 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0 60.0 65.0 70.0 75.0 80.0
TC = Specific heat x Density x Thickness
= (kJ/kg C) x (kg/m3) x (m)/1000

= (BTU/Lb F) x (lb/ft3) x (ft)
U = Overall U-value of roof assembly

TC (thermal capacitance) is calculated as the sum of the TC's for each layer in roof
construction
4.3.5 Solar Factor

The OTTV calculation requires a solar factor for glazing areas. The solar factor value for
vertical surfaces for Pakistan should be taken as specified in Table 3.2. For a given
orientation the solar factor may be taken from the following:
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Table 4.2
Solar Factor for Wails and Roofs W/m2 (Btu/h.ft2)
ORIENTATON
CLMATE NE E SE ROOF
ZONE * N NW W SW S
471
117 450 561 350 135
1 (150)
(37) (163) (178) (111) (43)
471
110 432 561 378 167
2 (150)
(35) (137) (178) (120) (53)
471
110 432 561 378 167
3 (150)
(35) (137) (178) (120) (53)
471
106 422 558 410 217
4 (150)
(33) (134) (177) (130) (69)
471
104 416 558 425 252
5 (150)
(33) (132) (177) (135) (80)
4.3.6 Overall Thermal Transfer Value

For the purposes of energy conservation, the maximum permissible OTTV shall be as per
Table for walls and ceilings/roofs.
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TABLE 4.3
Maximum Overall Thermal Transfer Values
ROOFS
WALLS
CLIMATE
w/m2 Btu/hr.ft2 W/m2 Btu/hr.ft2
ZONE
1 91 29 26.8 8.5
2 95 30 26.8 8.5
3 95 30 26.8 8.5
4 98 31 26.8 8.5
5 101 32 26.8 8.5
Where there is more than one type of material and/or fenestration the respective term or
terms shall be expanded into sub elements.
(Uw1 x Aw, x TDeql) + (Uw2 x Aw2 x TDeq2) + - -
The gross area of the exterior wall shall include all opaque wall areas, window areas and
door areas where such surfaces are exposed to outdoor air and enclose conditioned space.
The fenestration area shall be measured from extreme surfaces of window construction.
To calculate the OTTV of a roof, the following formula shall be used.
OTTVr = (Ur x Ar x TDeq) + (SFs, x As x SC) + (Us x As x T)

Ao
Where
OTTVr=Overall thermal transfer value for roofs (W/m) r
Ar = Opaque roof area (m2)
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Ur = Thermal transmittance of opaque roof area (W/m2 C)

TDeq = Equivalent temperature difference (C)
As = Skylight area
Us = =Thermal transmittance of skylight area (W/m2 C)
T = Temperature difference between exterior and interior design conditions (C) (refer to
Appendix II)
SC = =Shading coefficient of skylight
SF = Solar factor (W/m2). This shall be taken as 471 W/m2 or 150 Btu/hr.ft2 on horizontal
surface.
Ao = Gross area of ceiling/roof (m2) (that is, Ar + As)
The gross area Ao shall include all opaque roof area and skylight area where such surfaces
are exposed to outdoor air and enclose conditioned space. When more than one type of
material and/or skylight is used, the respective term or terms shall be expanded into sub
elements as:
(Uri x Arl x TDeql) + (U r2 x Ar2 x TDeq2) + - --
Walls at different orientations and roofs consisting of different sections facing different
orientations receive different amount of solar radiation. To calculate the OTTV for the
envelope of the whole building, it is necessary to compute first the OTTVs of individual
walls, and then the OTTV of the whole building is obtained by weighted average values as
follows:
OTTV = (OTTVw1 x .Aw1) + (OTTVw2 x .Aw2) +
Aw1 + Aw2 + __
Similarly for ceilings/roofs
OTTV = (OTTVr1 x .Ar1) + (OTTVr2 x .Ar2) +
Ar1 + Ar2 + __
The OTTV of walls should not be computed with that of roof. Each component should be
treated separately.
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4.3.7 OTTV FOR WINDOWS AND DOORS

The concept of OTTV is based on the assumption that the envelope of the building is
completely closed to minimize the infiltration of warm air exfiltration of cool air. Infiltration
and exfiltration contribute substantially to the building‘s heat gain as the warmer infiltrated
air must be cooled in order to maintain the desired comfort condition. As a basic
requirement, the building must not have unenclosed doorways, entrances etc. for commercial
building where heavy traffic of people lie anticipitated, self- closing doors should be
provided. To further minimize to exfiltration of cool air & infiltration of warm air through
leaky windows and doors, effective means of weather-stripping should also be incorporated.
Preferably, doors and windows should be designed to meet the following criteria when tested
under a pressure differential of 75 pa
Windows: leakage to limit to 2.77 m2 /h per meter of sash crash.

Swinging, revolving or sliding doors: leakage to limit to 61.2 m3 /h per linear meter of
door crack.
(Click here to see the table for comparison of energy standards of different countries)
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CHAPTER 5
APPLICATION OF ENERGY STANDARDS IN INDIAN CONTEXT
5.1 GENERAL
Amidst all the different types of climatic zones in India, the Himalayan range acts as a
meteorological barrier for the entire country shielding it from the icy cold winds of
Central Asia. Then we have the southern seas working in tandem with the Himalayan
range making the entire country experience the joy of monsoon rains.
India has 3 major seasons: summer, winter and monsoon. Summer months are generally
hot and humid in most parts of India. Summer is usually experienced between the months
of March to May. Winter months are pleasantly cool for most parts of India but severe in
the northern plains and the areas around the Himalayan range. Winter usually falls
between the months of mid November to early March. India experiences two monsoon
spells, the south-west monsoon from June to September and the north-west monsoon
from October to early December.
The average temperatures in the major cities of India are as depicted by the table below.
Table 5.1
City Jan - Mar Apr - Jun Jul - Sep Oct - Dec
Bombay / 19 - 23 ° C (Min) 25 - 27 ° C (Min) 25 - 26 ° C (Min) 21 - 25 ° C (Min)
Mumbai 29 - 31 ° C (Max) 32 - 33 ° C (Max) 30 - 32 ° C (Max) 31 - 32 ° C (Max)
14 - 22 ° C (Min) 25 - 27 ° C (Min) 26 - 27 ° C (Min) 14 - 24 ° C (Min)
Calcutta
27 - 34 ° C (Max) 34 - 36 ° C (Max) 32 - 33 ° C (Max) 27 - 32 ° C (Max)
Chennai / 20 - 24 ° C (Min) 26 - 28 ° C (Min) 25 - 26 ° C (Min) 21 - 25 ° C (Min)
Madras 29 - 33 ° C (Max) 35 - 37 ° C (Max) 34 - 35 ° C (Max) 28 - 34 ° C (Max)
7 - 15 ° C (Min) 21 - 29 ° C (Min) 25 - 27 ° C (Min) 8 - 19 ° C (Min)
New Delhi
21 - 30 ° C (Max) 36 - 41 ° C (Max) 34 - 35 ° C (Max) 23 - 33 ° C (Max)
India is so vast that the climatic conditions in the far north have little relation to that of
the extreme south. While the heat is building up to breaking point on the plains
India being a vast country, the climatic conditions vary from place to place. It is generally
very hot (Upto 42 Degrees Celsius) in summers (April to August) and very cold (upto 2
Degrees Celsius) in the winters (November to February) in Delhi.
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In Bombay, the temperature stays normally around 20 - 30 Degrees Celsius, but it stays
humid all year around. Madras, being in the southern part of India is very hot in summers
and comfortable in winters, with high humidity levels. Calcutta again is humid, being
next to the sea shore, with the temperature straying between 18 Degrees (winters) to 37
Degrees Celsius (summers).
The heat starts to build up on the northern plains of India from around February, and by
April or May it becomes unbearable. In central India, temperatures of 45 °C and above
are common place in the summer of 1994.
Delhi had temperatures approaching 50°C. It's dry and dusty and everything is seen
through a haze. Later in May, the first signs of the monsoon are seen - high humidity,
short rainstorms, violent electrical storms, and dust storms that turn day into night. The
hot and humid weather towards the end of the hot season is like a hammer blow; you feel
listless and tired and tempers are short.
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5.2 CASE STUDY:

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION, KHEL GAON
MARG, NEW DELHI.
5.2.1 General
NCDC is a government organization; a multistoried office block, centrally air
conditioned, on khel Gaon Marg, New Delhi. The building was constructed in 1978. The
architects of the project were Ar.kuldeep Singh and Raj Rewal.
5.2.2 Site:
The site is rectangular in shape, with access from khel Gaon Marg and another access
through a 60’00” wide road on the north side.
Total site area is one acre.
Total built up area of the building is 7245.00 sq.m
The office block is divided into 2 wings, the east and west wing with circulation and
services core in the center, the building is at stilt level, with eight floors and a basement
5.2.3 Orientation:
The building is oriented in east west direction. The north and south walls have no
openings. Openings are provided are on eastern and western walls. This causes a
considerable increase of heat load within the building.
5.2.4 Building envelope:

The building is a RCC frame structure, with 200 thick RCC exposed shear walls on the
northern and the southern sides. The entire building is in a steeped profile. Solar coated
glass films protect the interiors from excess heat (radiation of the sun). Dark colored
blinds are provided from the inside face. The roof top has brick bat coba finish.
5.2.5 Spaces:
Basement: substation, ac plant room, DG set room, store, AHU.
Stilted floor: plaza.
1st – 5th floor: open office floor with 3-4 executive rooms.
6th floor: library (west wing), computer room (east wing).
7th floor: conference center, MD’s room.
8th floor: dining area and play room.
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5.3 BUILDING ENVELOPE THERMAL TRANSMISSION STUDIES:
PROJECT: NCDC (office building)

Location: New Delhi lat.: 290 C
Heating, outdoor design temp.: Degrees days
Temp.of heated space:36.1 unheated space:
Temperature difference Δt temp. difference Δt:
Cooling,design temp. Outdoor: indoorTemp.diference:
Δt: 33
Assume 0.5 air changes
________________________________________________________________
Description of the project:

Size: 135’64” x 68’ x 91’
Floor: 4 ½ “concrete
Walls: brick masonry
Roofs: 4 ½ “concrete
AREAS
FLOOR: 135’x 68’ = 9180 sq.ft
WALLS: 850’ x 91’ =77350 sq.ft 850’x 10’ = 8500 sq.ft
ROOF: 135’64” x 68’ = 9180 sq.ft
________________________________________________________________________
PROJECT DESIGN CRITERIA
Heating Btu/ ft2 x h x F
Floor – Ufl = 0.08 OTTVw :34.6 Btu/ ft2 x h
Walls – Uw = 0.28 SF : 131.5 Btu/ ft2 x h
Roof – Ur = 0.06 TDeq : 230 F
OTTVf: 8.5 Btu/ ft2 x h
SFsk 138 Btu/ ft2 x h
TDeqr : 35 0 F
________________________________________________________________________
Project seminar
Envelope budget
Component: A X Uo X Δt Total
Floor 9180 0.08 33 = 24235.3
Wall 77350 0.28 82 = 21740
Roof 9180 .06 82 = 41165.6
Total = 87140.9
Other Design considerations

Because Uofl = 0.08 is impractical to attain, try Uofl = 0.16 (R4 insulation below
floor)
Absorb diference in wall = 0.5 x 10 x 135 x 68 / 60 = 765 cfm.
(ti = 72, t0 = -10 tqs = 20, Afl = 9180 Aw = 8500, Uw = .16
Tu = 72 (9180 x .16) + 20(8500 x .16) + 72(2.16 x 765)
Retain Uor = 0.06 for the roof.
________________________________________________________________________
The problem
Determine Uw2 & % glass for heating, and then check cooling.
Solution
1. calculate ΔT between heated space , based on 0.5 air changes/ hr
Volume of air: 0.5 x
Check cooling
For walls: Uw = 0.13, 20% glass,
For roof: OTTVr = Ur x Ar x Tdeq x Aor (since there is no skylight Ar = Aor)
0.064 x 35 = 2.24 Btu/ ft2 x h
Therefore design is o.k.
Project seminar
6.CHAPTER
CONCLUSION
It is suitable at this stage to attempt an assessment of the force of building energy

standards on the consumption of energy in buildings. The success of prescriptive
standards, which deal only with particular elements of the building fabric (typically,
thermal insulation properties) or the energy-consuming systems (ratings of appliances) is
not simple to assess. It seems clear that such standards are insufficient themselves to
ensure a significant reduction in energy consumption. Survey data available from the
domestic sector suggests that around 50% of the potential savings due to better insulation
may be achievable in practice, but even this evidence is unclear.
The common intend of the performance approach is to encourage the practice of
specifying materials, components, and systems in terms of what they are required to do,
rather than what they should be. The particular objective of an energy performance
standard is to specify what is required of the building, in terms of objective energy
consumption.
Although the principle appears to be a sound one and has won wide acclaim, putting it
into practice is not quite as simple as it might at first appear, especially when attempting
consider the building as a whole. Until there are adequate means, both for predicting
performance and for checking that the required standard has been achieved and
maintained, performance standards will be of little use. At this stage in their development
it is frequently found that our current knowledge is not adequate and that many of our
prediction techniques are not sufficiently accurate. This is certainly the case as far as
building energy performance standards are concerned. Much of the early work in this
direction has been devoted to the filling of knowledge gaps concerning the energy used
by existing buildings and the development and evaluation of methods for predicting
energy use.
The basis of this selection has been to allow a broad variety to be presented, based on size
of country, type of organization, current progress, and uniqueness of approach.
Project seminar
BIBLIOGRAPHY
UNPUBLISHED THESISI REPORTS:
1. ENERGY CONSUMPTION NORMS FOR OFFICES & RESIDENCES-----

APARAJIT BHATTACHARYYA JAN 1999
2. ASSESSMENT & EVALUATION OF BUILDING ENVELOPE. ---------------

----------- SUPREET MATHAROO MAY. 2001
3. ENERGY AUDIT TO DETERMINE CONNECTED LOAD IN OFFICE

BUIDINGS --------------------------VINAYAK THORAT MAY 1999
BOOKS:
1. ENERGY EFFICIENT BUILDINGS IN INDIA-------------------------------------
---------------------------- TERI (TATA ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE)
2. ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF BUILDINGS------------------------------------------------
---------------------------- GEORGE BAIRD,DONN
3. BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING---------------------------------------------
------------------------- DAVID V. CHADDERTON
4. BUILDING ENERGY CODE OF PAKISTAN--------
--------------------------GOVT. OF PAKISTAN. MAY 1990
5. CLIMATIC RESPONSIVE ENERGY EFFICIENT ARCHITECTURE-------
--------------------------------B. KRISHNA PASHIM TIWARI KUNAL JAIN.
6. THE THERMAL INSULATION OF BUILDINGS----------------------------------------
----------------------------- NASH, COMRIE, & OTHERS.
7. FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENT OF THE BUILDINGS----------------------------------
---------------------------------- SP 41
8. METHODS OF CALCULATION FOR ENERGY CONSUMPTION.
9. THE ENERGY DESIGN HANDBOOK---------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF ARCHITECTS
Project seminar

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ENERGY STANDARDS IN BUILDINGS

PROJECT SEMINAR REPORT

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING ENGINEERING AND MANANGEMENT

(Mr. Virendra K. Paul) (Dr. V.Thiruvengadam.)

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE STUDY

CHAPTER 3 DETERMINATION FOR ENERGY PERFORMANCE IN BUILDINGS.

CHAPTER 4 ENERGY STANDARDS APPROACH

CHAPTER 5 APPLICATION OF ENERGY STANDARDS IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Ar opaque roof/coiling area

Ask area of skylight

Aw1 opaque area of wall 1

tm Mean air temperature. °F

tu Temperature of unheated space, °F

Ut1 thermal transmittance of fenestration area wall 1

Uf2 thermal transmittance of fenestration area,

U0 average thermal transmittance

Uow average thermal transmittance gross wall area

Ur thermal transmittance of opaque roof/ceiling area

Uur average thermal transmittance exposed roof of unheated space

Uw thermal transmittance of opaque wall

Uw2 thermal transmittance of opaque are wall 2

Vo volume of air change ft3 /min

Δt temperature difference indoor-outdoor o F Seating calculation::

Sr. no Table Description Page no.

29. 3.1 Thermal Performance of Walls 71

34. 3.6 U – Values of uninsulated wall roof 77

4. 2.4 Uo floors over unheated spaces – all 14

10. 3.2 Different Plan forms have different perimeter 64

13. 3.5 Thermal Performance of Roof 68

15. 3.7 Overall Transfer Values for Walls- Cooling 80

23. 3.15 The Courtyard Atrium 88

25. 3.17 Thumb Rules for Fenestration Configuration 89

26. 3.18 Solar Energy Transmissions through Heat – 89

ABMA : American Boiler Manufacturers Association

Fenestration: Any light-transmitting opening in a building wall or roof.

Surface Coefficient (/)

Thermal conductance ( K):

Thermal Conductivity (K)

Thermal Damping (D)—

Thermal damping or decreased temperature variation is a characteristic dependent on the thermal

NEED FOR ENEGY STANDARDS:

cooling, ventilation,& lighting causes rigorous reduction of precious environmental

Building ‘energy performance’ standards cannot be considered in isolation from building

Prescriptive standards: The term prescriptive standards would be applied to any

3. service water heating

1. ii.Aim & objectives

1. iii.Scope and limitations

ENERGY CODES OF VARIOUS

SUMMARY OF ENERGY STANDARDS.

ENERGY STANDARD APPROACH

APPLICATION OF ENERGY STANDARDS

2.2 Energy standards of different countries.

2.2.1 ASHRAE energy standards (90.2-1993) & (90A-1980)

2.2.1.1 General approach

2.2.1.1.i Thermal performance requirements.

2.2.1.1.ii Thermal considerations

2.2.1.2 Calculation procedures

2.2.1.2.i Thermal transmittance

2.2.1.2.ii Thermal conductance

2.2.1.2.iii Overall thermal transmittance value (Uo):

2.2.1.2.iv Uo values for walls, roofs/ceilings.

2.2.1.3 Supporting information/ data provided