Research Methodology Basics-Types of Research - Hypothesis - Question - Variables

Scientific RESEARCH
Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area

of inquiry that is acquired using “the scientific method”
Natural science is the science of naturally occurring objects or phenomena,
such as light, objects, matter, earth, celestial bodies, or the human body.
Natural sciences can be further
classified into physical sciences, earth sciences, life sciences, and others. Basic
Sciences or Pure Sciences
Social science is the science of people such as groups, firms, societies, or
economies, and their individual or collective behaviors. Social sciences can be
classified into disciplines such as psychology (the science of human behaviors),
sociology (the science of social groups), and economics (the science of firms,
markets, and economies).
Applied sciences, also called practical sciences, are sciences that apply
scientific knowledge from basic sciences in a physical environment. For
instance, engineering is an applied science that applies the laws of physics and
chemistry for practical applications such as building stronger bridges while
medicine is an applied science that applies the laws of biology for solving
human ailments.
Methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the

research problem. It a study of how research is done
scientifically. In methodology, the researcher states the
rationale and logic/ reasons for adopting particular steps of
inquiry such as research methods and techniques to answer a
research question.
A methodology describes the “general research strategy that
outlines the way in which research is to be undertaken” (An
Introduction to the Philosophy of Methodology, Howell 2013)
Methodology refers to the principles, procedures, and
practices that govern research.
METHODOLOGY , METHOD and TECHNIQUE
Methodology exhibits legitimization/ rationale for utilizing a
specific research method. “Methodology is the justification
for using a particular research method” deborahgabriel.com
Method is basically an exploration device or tool and
processes, a segment/component of research to
generate/obtain data such as interviews in a qualitative
research.
Techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in
performing research operations such as making observations,
recording data, techniques of processing data and the like.
Techniques are generated by methods in implementation
phase. So, while methods are more general, techniques are
more specific by nature.
Scientific Research:Essence and aims
 An investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the
light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or law. merriam-webster.com
 Research is « systematized investigation to gain new knowledge»
(Moser, 1985)
Steps in Scientific Research

Observation ; Problem statement; Hypothesis
formulation;
Definition of methods, including techniques applied;
Gathering of data; Analysis of data; & Conclusion
Criteria of Scientific Research
• Relies on evidence
• Use concepts
• Keeps objectivity
• Formulate generalization
• Ensures verifiability
• uses logical reasoning
Attitudes of the Scientific Researcher
1.Consistent thinking/ curiosity & wonder
2. Objective, dispassionate & honest
3. Patience and self-control
4. Skeptical Approach/ consider results critically
Process Penelitian TYPES
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Research OF RESEARCH  
1.Fundamental or pure/basic: “Gathering knowledge for
knowledge’s sake” to expand theory. Eg. Studies about human
behaviour to come out with generalizations
2. Applied : aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial / business organisation Eg.
Determine program taste
3. Descriptive : Descriptive research describes and reports
what is happening or has happened. It includes surveys,
fact-finding, comparative and correlational enquiries of
different kinds. In this method, the researcher has no control
over the variables. What? Eg. Determine program taste
4. Analytical research aims to understand phenomena by
discovering and measuring causal relations to make critical
evaluation. Why? Eg. Impact of war games on teenagers
© Metpenstat I - FPsiUI 7
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Research Process Penelitian  
5. Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and

graphs/ numerical form to test or confirm theories and
assumptions and establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Methods: Surveys, experimental research, observational
research, content analysis
6. Qualitative research is expressed in words/narrative form

and aims to gather in-depth insights into concepts, thoughts
or experiences.
Methods: Interviews, focus groups, case studies, discourse
analysis
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Quantitative data collection methods
•Surveys questionnaire: List of closed or multiple choice questions that
is distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
•Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and
manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
•Observations: Observing people in a natural environment where
variables can’t be controlled.
•Content analysis: Systematically recording the presence of certain
words or themes in a set of texts to analyze communication patterns.
Qualitative data collection methods
•Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
•Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to
gather opinions that can be used for further research.
•Case studies: In-depth study about a person, group, event or
organization.
•Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.
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1. Quantitative: It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount
2. Qualitative: “phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things).
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THE RESEARCH PROCESS
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The Research Process
 Research process consists of series of actions
or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
 During the research process, researcher
moves from a general idea to actual data
collection and interpretation of the result
 Along the way, the researcher is faced with a
series of decision about how to proceed 
each choice has advantages as well as
disadvantages
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Step 1: Find an idea for research study

involves 2 parts:
1. Selecting a general topic area  sources:
everyday experience, books, journal articles,
or class work
2. Reviewing the literature in that area to
know previous researches conducted and
find a specific research question or
hypothesis.
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The Research Question
A research question is an answerable inquiry into
relationship between two or more variables within a
specific concern or issue.
It is the initial step in a research project. The 'initial

step' means after you have an idea of what you want
to study, and have done preliminary reading, the
research question is the first active step in the
research project.
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Criteria for Research Question

• clear: it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can
easily understand its purpose without needing additional
explanation.
• focused: it is narrow enough that it can be answered
thoroughly in the space the writing task allows.
• concise: it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
• complex: it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,”
but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and
sources prior to composition of an answer.
• arguable: its potential answers are open to debate rather
than accepted facts.
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Practice in research question formulation
(1)What effect does weather have on memory?
(2)Does exercise improve physical and mental
health?
(3)Does taking street drugs result in criminal
behavior?
Meaning: what type of weather/Exercise/age of
people/street drug/ criminal behaviour is being
studied?
Form: 2&3 are not complex; yes/no
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Unclear: How should social networking sites address the
harm they cause?
Clear: What action should social networking sites like

MySpace and Facebook take to protect users’ personal
information and privacy?
The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which
social networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites
might be causing. It also assumes that this “harm” is proven
and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace
and Facebook), the type of potential harm (privacy issues),
and who may be experiencing that harm (users). A strong
research question should never leave room for ambiguity or
interpretation.
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Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from
global warming?
Focused: What is the most significant effect of glacial
melting on the lives of penguins in Antarctica?
The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t
be adequately answered in a book-length piece, let alone a
standard college-level paper. The focused version narrows
down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial melting),
a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is
affected (penguins). It also requires the writer to take a stance
on which effect has the greatest impact on the affected
animal. When in doubt, make a research question as narrow
and focused as possible.
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What effect does social media have on people’s minds?
What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the

attention span of under-16s?
Example research problem
The teachers at school X do not have the skills to recognize or
properly guide gifted children in the classroom.
Example research question(s)
What practical techniques can teachers at school X use to
better identify and guide gifted children?
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Research
Formulation
question type
Descriptive
What are the characteristics of X?
research
Comparative
What are the differences and similarities between X and Y?
research
Correlational
What is the relationship between variable X and variable Y?
research
Exploratory
What are the main factors in X? What is the role of Y in Z?
research
Explanatory Does X have an effect on Y? What is the impact of Y on Z? What
research are the causes of X?
Evaluation What are the advantages and disadvantages of X? How well

research does Y work? How effective or desirable is Z?
How can X be achieved? What are the most effective strategies
Action research
to improve Y?
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Articulating hypothesis: What is a hypothesis?
A hypothesis is a It is a tentative answer to a research question about a
phenomenon, relationship or situation, which has not yet been tested
and validated.
In most cases, it specifies a relationship between two or more
variables.
Functions of a Hypothesis
It tells what aspects of the problem to focus on
It tells what data to collect or not to collect
It enhances objectivity in research
It may enable to add to the formulation of a theory
It may enable to conclude what true or what is false
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Characteristics of good research hypothesis:
Logical: establish a connection between your research and the research
result that have been obtained by others: learned/informed/educated #
random guess
Testable: It must be possible to observe and measure all variables
involved. It must involve real situations, events, and individuals; not
imagery or hypothetical events/situations.
Refutable/falsifiable: It must be possible to obtain results that are
contrary to the prediction. The hypothesis allows the potential for the
outcome to be different from the prediction.
Positive: hypothesis must make a positive statement about the existence
of something: existence of relationship, existence of a difference,
existence of treatment Alternate Hypothesis # Null Hypothesis.
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Null Hypotheses Versus Alternate Hypotheses
Null Hypothesis predicts that there will be no

relationship between the variables being studied
Alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will

be a difference between the groups being studied.
(or a relationship between the variables being
studied)
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In a research study investigating the effects of a
newly developed medication on blood pressure
levels, the null hypothesis would predict that
there will be no difference in terms of blood
pressure levels between the group that receives
the medication (i.e., the experimental group) and
the group that does not receive the medication
(i.e., the control group). By contrast, the
alternate hypothesis would predict that there will
be a difference between the two groups with
respect to blood pressure levels.
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Research question Hypothesis Null hypothesis
What are the health Increasing apple consumption in Increasing apple consumption
benefits of eating an over-60s will result in decreasing in over-60s will have no effect
apple a day? frequency of doctor’s visits. on frequency of doctor’s visits.
Low-cost airlines are more likely Low-cost and premium airlines
Which airlines have
to have delays than premium are equally likely to have
the most delays?
airlines. delays.
Can flexible work Employees who have flexible
There is no relationship
arrangements working hours will report greater
between working hour
improve job job satisfaction than employees
flexibility and job satisfaction.
satisfaction? who work fixed hours.
What effect does
There is a negative correlation
daily use of social There is no relationship
between time spent on social
media have on the between social media use and
media and attention span in under-
attention span of attention span in under-16s.
16s.
under-16s?
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“A variable is a property that takes on different values”
“A variable is something that varies” in numerals or values
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The independent variable is the factor that is manipulated or
controlled by the researcher. One group exposed to the
psychotherapy and one group will not be exposed to
the psychotherapy. In this example, the independent variable
is the psychotherapy, because the researcher can control
whether the study participants are exposed to it and the
researcher is interested in examining the effects of the
psychotherapy on symptoms of anxiety. The group in which
the independent variable is present (i.e., that is exposed to
the psychotherapy) is referred to as the experimental group,
whereas the group in which the independent variable is not
present (i.e., that is not exposed to the psychotherapy) is
referred to as the control group
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“Researchers are interested in examining the effects of an
independent variable on something, and that something is
the dependent variable ( Isaac & Michael, 1997) .
The dependent variable is a measure of the effect (if any) of the
independent variable. If you get confused, think of the independent
variable as the “cause” and the dependent variable as the “effect.” To
assist you in this process, it may be helpful if you practice stating your
research question in the following manner:
“What are the effects of __________ on __________?” The ﬁrst blank
is the independent variable and the second blank is the dependent
variable. For example, we may ask the following research question:
“What are the effects of exercise on levels of body fat?” In this
example, “exercise” is the independent variable and “levels of body fat”
is the dependent variable. “Research as an examination of the effects
of one or more independent variables on one or more
dependent variables”.
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“A variable is a property that takes on different values”
“A variable is something that varies” in numerals or values
Inductive Reasoning
• Studying several individual cases and drawing a

generalization
• Used when facts are studied, truths are un-covered
• Induction involves observation and generalization
• Eg a few experimental farms are studied and
conclusion arrived
Deductive Reasoning
• Applying a general principle to a specific case

– All apples are fruits ( Major premises)
– All fruits grow on trees ( Minor premise)
– Therefore all apples grow on trees(conclusion)
• False premise can lead to fake results
– All sincere employees are sincere
– Mohan is a regular employee
– Hence Mohan is sincere
• Establishes a logical relationship
Correlation Vs Causation
Correlation can be confused with causation
Eg : No of fire engine and damage at a fire site
Eg : Divorce increases and crime increases have
correlation but no causation
Subjectivity VS. Bias
• Subjectivity in Research ‘conditioned’ by your
educational background, discipline, philosophy,
experience and skills.
• Bias is a deliberate and strong feeling in favour of or
against one group of people, or one side in an
argument, often not based on fair judgment
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Structuring Dissertation
of
Scientific Research
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A dissertation or thesis is a long piece of academic writing
based on original research, submitted as part of a doctoral,
master’s, or bachelor’s degree.
 Title page  Introduction

 Acknowledgements  Literature review/Theoretical framework
 Abstract  Methodology
 Table of Contents  Results
 List of Figures& Tables  Discussion
 List of Abbreviations  Conclusion
 Glossary  Reference list
 Appendices
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Title page
The very first page of your document contains your
dissertation’s title, your name, department, institution,
degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also
includes your student number, your supervisor’s name, and
the university’s logo. Many programs have strict
requirements for formatting the dissertation title page.
Acknowledgements section is usually optional, and gives

space for you to thank everyone who helped you in writing
your dissertation. This might include your supervisors,
participants in your research, and friends or family who
supported you.
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Abstract
The abstract is a short summary of your dissertation, usually
about 150-300 words long. You should write it at the very
end, when you’ve completed the rest of the dissertation. In
the abstract, make sure to:
1. State the main topic and aims of your research
2. Describe the methods you used
3. Summarize the main results
4. State your conclusions
Glossary
If you have used a lot of highly specialized terms that will not
be familiar to your reader, it might be a good idea to include a
glossary. List the terms alphabetically and explain each term
with a brief description or definition.
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Introduction
The introduction should:
1.Establish your research topic, giving necessary background
information to contextualize your work.
2.Narrow down the focus and define the scope of the research
3.Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing
your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
4.State learly your research questions and objectives
5.Give an overview of your dissertation’s structure
By the end, the reader should understand the what, why and
how of your research.
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Literature review is conducted to gain a thorough understanding of
the academic work that already exists on your topic. This means:
•Collecting relevant sources (books and journal articles)
•Evaluating Critically and analyzing each source.
•Drawing connections between them (e.g. themes, patterns, conflicts,
gaps) to make an overall point.
•Developing a coherent structure, argument, and thus justification for
your own research to show how your research:
 Addresses a gap in the literature
 Takes a new theoretical or methodological approach to the topic
 Proposes a solution to an unresolved problem
 Advances a theoretical debate
 Builds on and strengthens existing knowledge with new data
The literature review often becomes the basis for a theoretical
framework, in which you define and analyze the key theories, concepts
and models that frame your research.
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Methodology chapter or section describes how you conducted
your research, allowing your reader to assess its validity. You
should generally include:
•The overall approach and type of research (e.g. qualitative,

quantitative, experimental, ethnographic)
•Defining and justification of methods of collecting data (e.g.
surveys, archives)
•where, when, and with whom the research took place
•Methods of analyzing data (statistical analysis, discourse analysis)
•Tools and materials used (computer programs, lab equipment)
•Discussion of obstacles you faced and how you overcame them
The aim is to accurately report what you did, as well as to convince

the reader that this was the best approach to answering your
research questions or objectives.
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Results Section reports outcomes relevant to research
questions, hypotheses, or topics.
The results section may include tables, graphs and charts
or figures which usefully visualize the results in a way
that adds value to your text.
In qualitative methods like in-depth interviews, the

presentation of the data will often be woven together
with discussion and analysis, while in quantitative and
experimental research, the results should be presented
separately before you discuss their meaning.
Full versions of your data (such as interview transcripts)

can be included as an appendix.
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Discussion Section interprets the results in detail,
discussing whether they met your expectations and how
well they fit with the framework that you built in earlier
chapters. If any of the results were unexpected, offer
explanations for why this might be. It’s a good idea to
consider alternative interpretations of your data and
discuss any limitations that might have influenced the
results.
The discussion should reference other scholarly work to
show how your results fit with existing knowledge. You
can also make recommendations for future research or
practical action.
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Conclusion refers to the final chapter, where you wrap

up your dissertation with a final reflection on what you
did and how you did it to answer the main research
question, leaving the reader with a clear understanding
of your central argument.
• It’s important to show how your findings contribute
to knowledge in the field and why your research
matters and its implications for society or field of
study. What have you added to what was already
known?
• It includes recommendations for further research or
practice.
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Reference list / bibliography includes full details of all
sources that you have cited in the paper.
APA (American Psychological Association) :
Jaafari, M. (2016). Gender representation in the Moroccan

EFL textbook discourse (1. Auflage, neue Ausgabe).
Saarbrücken: Noor Publishing.
Appendices contains documents you have used that do

not fit into the main body of your dissertation (such as
interview transcripts, survey questions or tables with
full figures) can be added as appendices.

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Scientific RESEARCH

Science refers to a systematic and organized body of knowledge in any area

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the

Steps in Scientific Research

5. Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and

6. Qualitative research is expressed in words/narrative form

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Step 1: Find an idea for research study

It is the initial step in a research project. The 'initial

Criteria for Research Question

Clear: What action should social networking sites like

What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the

Evaluation What are the advantages and disadvantages of X? How well

Null Hypothesis predicts that there will be no

Alternate hypothesis always predicts that there will

• Studying several individual cases and drawing a

• Applying a general principle to a specific case

 Title page  Introduction

Acknowledgements section is usually optional, and gives

•The overall approach and type of research (e.g. qualitative,

The aim is to accurately report what you did, as well as to convince

In qualitative methods like in-depth interviews, the

Full versions of your data (such as interview transcripts)

Conclusion refers to the final chapter, where you wrap

Jaafari, M. (2016). Gender representation in the Moroccan

Appendices contains documents you have used that do

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