METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTATION

VISHAL NAIR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MODULE 1 DEPT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
©vishalnair
KUTTIPURAM 1
Standards of Length Measurement

• Sometimes, distances have to be measured between two lines

sometimes between two surfaces, or a combination of line and
surface.
• Depending on this, there are three standards of length
measurements:
• 1. Line Standard.
• 2. End Standard
• 3. Wave Length Standard (Optical Standard).

©vishalnair 1
Line Standard:
• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance
between two lines, this is known as, obviously, line standard.
• Imperial Standard Yard and International Standard Meter are the line
standards both comes under primary standard of length
measurement.
• Measuring scale and tapes are also line standards and comes under
working standards of length measurement.
• This form of measurement is not very convenient to use.
• Measurement of length with scale is an example of line standard.

©vishalnair 2
End Standard:
• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance
between two surfaces or ends, this is referred as, obviously, end
standard.
• Slip gauges, end bars, micrometres etc. are comes in this category.
• This form of measurement is very convenient to use in tool-rooms,
laboratories, workshops etc.
• There are two basic forms of end standards
• (a). Slip gauges (gauge blocks)
• (b). Cylindrical end bars, (length bars)

©vishalnair 3
(a) Slip Gauges:
• Slip gauges are used for measurement up to 200 mm.
• These are more accurate than line standards.

©vishalnair 4
(b) Cylindrical End Bars:
• When dealing with accurate
dimensions that are larger than can be
conveniently assembled using slip
gauges, length bars are used.
• In the other words, a length bar has a
similar function to gauge blocks but on
a larger scale.
• The length bars are available in
different grades of accuracy and in
different sizes, ranging from 20 to 30
mm dia and up to 1 m length.
©vishalnair 5
3. Light Wave Length Standard (Optical Standard):

• Because of problems of variation in length of metallic standards such

as meter and yard wave length of light has been internationally
considered which defines the primary standard.
• The wavelength of monochromatic light (red radiation) from, Krypton
isotope 86 is used as a unit of length.
• The meter is equal to 1650,763.73 wavelengths of the red orange
radiation of Krypton isotope 86

©vishalnair 6
Measurement: Systems and Standards

• Systems of Measurement:
• There are two standard systems of linear measurement commonly
in practice:
• 1. English System:
• 2. Metric System:

©vishalnair 7
English System:

• Sometimes it is also known as British System of linear measurement.

This system is based on the “Imperial Standard Yard”.
• The yard in its current form was first setup in 1855 in England.
• One Yard is is equal to 36 inches.
• Now-a-days, English system is limited in use.

©vishalnair 8
Metric System
• This system is also known as international standard system.
• This system is based on the “International prototype meter”.
• The meter in its current form was setup in the year 1872 and is
maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in
France.
• One meter is defined as the distance between the two fine lines
engraved over upper surface of the web, when measured at a
temperature of 0°C.
• This system has been adopted in India.

©vishalnair 9
Standards of Measurement

• For practical and shop floor measurements, there is need of working

standards.
• For Example, micrometers, verniers, rules etc. are required for
measurement in workshop.
• These are calibrated from the slip gauges, and slip gauges would be
calibrated against the laser by the NPL (National Physical Laboratory).

©vishalnair 10
• Thus depending upon the degree of accuracy required for the work,
the standards are subdivided into following four categories or
grades:
• 1. Primary Standards (Reference Standards).
• 2. Secondary Standards (Calibration Standards).
• 3. Tertiary Standards (Inspection Standards).
• 4. Working Standards (Workshop Measuring Standards).

©vishalnair 11
Primary Standards
• The primary standard is also known as Master Standard,
and is preserved under the most careful conditions.
• These standards are not commonly in use.
• They are used only after long internals.
• They solely used for comparing the secondary standards.
• Sometimes it is also called Reference Standards.

©vishalnair 12
Secondary Standards (Calibration Standards)
• The secondary standard is more or less similar to the primary
standard.
• They are nearly close in accuracy with primary standards.
• The secondary standard is compared at regular intervals with primary
Standards and records their deviation.
• These Standards are distributed to a number of places where they are
kept under safe custody.
• They are used occasionally for comparing the tertiary standards.

©vishalnair 13
Tertiary Standards (Inspection Standards)
• The Tertiary standard is the first standard to be used for reference
purpose in workshops and laboratories.
• They are used for comparing the working standards.
• These are not used as frequently and commonly as the working
standards but more frequency than secondary standards.
• Tertiary standards should also be maintained as a reference for
comparison at intervals for working standards.

©vishalnair 14
Working Standards (Workshop Measuring
Standards)
• The working standard is used for actual measurement in workshop or
laboratories by the workers.
• These standards should also be as accurate as possible to the tertiary
standard.
• But sometimes, lower grades of materials can be used for their
manufacturing to reduce cost.

©vishalnair 15
Elements of Measurements

• There are three main measuring elements required to measure for a

given component:
• 1. Linear Dimensions (Linear Measurements)
• 2. Angular Dimensions (Angular Measurements)
• 3. Non-Linear Functions

©vishalnair 16
Linear Dimensions (Linear Measurements)
• The measurements of linear dimensions are necessary and important in
engineering work.
• For Example, measurement of length with the help of linear measuring
instruments.
• Some linear (length) measuring instruments are:
• (i) Steel rule
• (ii) Vernier calliper
• (iii) Micrometre
• (iv) Depth Gauge
• (v) Vernier height gauge
• (vi) Dial gauge
• (vii) Slip gauges
• (viii) Limit gauges, and
• (ix) Comparators, etc.
©vishalnair 17
Angular Dimensions (Angular Measurements)
• The measurements of angular dimensions are frequently necessary in
engineering work. For example, measurement of angle, taper, inclination,
etc., with the help of angular measuring instruments.
• Some angular (angle) measuring instruments are:
•(i) Protector
•(ii) Bevel protector
•(iii) Combination set
•(iv) Sine bar
•(v) Angle gauges
•(vi) Clinometer
•(vii) Auto collimator
•(viii) Dividing head, etc.
•(ix) Taper plug and ring gauges, and
•(x) Precision balls and rollers. ©vishalnair 18
Non-Linear Functions:
• The measurement of non-linear functions includes concentricity,
flatness, roundness and surface texture etc.
• These functions are sometime very necessary to measure for proper
functioning of a machine component say shaft, pulley, bearings etc.

©vishalnair 19
What is Slip Gauges or Gauge Blocks?
• Slip Gauges are known as Gauge Blocks.
• They are Precise Measuring instruments.
• These Slip Gauges are universally accepted end Standard of length.
• Slip gauges are rectangular in shape made up of high-grade steels with very close
tolerances.
• The Working faces of any slip gauge will be made truly flat and parallel.
• The slip gauges will undergo Hardening to resist wear and tear.
• They will be further heated and cooled down successively to remove the
hardening stresses induced during the hardening Process.
• The Slip Gauges can be made up of Tungsten Carbide because of it is extremely
capable of hard and wear resistance.
• The size of the slip gauges is permanently marked on any of the measuring faces
of individual slip gauge.
©vishalnair 20
The Slip gauges come in a number of sizes. The sizes will be marked on
the measuring faces. See the Slip gauges Box

©vishalnair 21
Wringing of Slip Gauges
1. Before using slip gauges the faces should be cleaned
2. Slide the one slip gauge over the other(With 90° as shown in the Fig:
Pos2) with light pressure. This way we can expel the air between the slip
gauges faces.
3. Once placed the one gauge 90° to another gauge by using light pressure,
then rotate it by clockwise to make them in line as shown in below
figure. (fourth position)
4. This wringing will helps to achieve a dimension by summation of the
individual size of slip gauge. the need of clamping is also avoided.

©vishalnair 22
What is Surface Plate? Uses of Surface Plate
• In metrology, the Surface plate is used as a
measuring base or a datum surface for testing of
flatness of surfaces.
• Surface plate forms the basis of the measurement.
• Surface plates are widely used in where the
inspection is carried out.
• The surfaces plates are made up of Cast iron(C.I)
and heat treated for relieving internal stresses.
• the top face of the surface plate is designed as truly
flat.
• The back side of the surface plates is having ribs to
increase the structural rigidity to withstand the
heavy loads.
©vishalnair 23
Dial Indicators
• Indicators may be used to check the variation in tolerance during the
inspection process of a machined part, measure the deflection of a beam
or ring under laboratory conditions, as well as many other situations where
a small measurement needs to be registered or indicated.
• Dial indicators typically measure ranges from 0.25 mm to 300 mm (0.015in
to 12.0in), with graduations of 0.001 mm to 0.01 mm (metric) or
0.00005in to 0.001in
• Various names are used for indicators of different types and purposes,
including dial gauge, clock, probe indicator, pointer, test indicator, dial
test indicator, drop indicator, plunger indicator, and others.
• Many indicators have a dial display, in which a needle points to graduations
in a circular array around the dial. Such indicators, of which there are
several types, are often called dial indicators.
©vishalnair 24
Height gauge
• A height gauge is a measuring device
used for determining the height of
objects, and for marking of items to be
worked on.
• These measuring tools are used
in metalworking or metrology to either
set or measure vertical distances; the
pointer is sharpened to allow it to act
as a scriber and assist in marking
out work pieces.

©vishalnair 25
Vernier Caliper
• The Vernier Caliper is an extremely precise measuring instrument; it is
used to measure internal and external distances extremely accurately
– the error may be as little as 0.05 mm – depending on the make.
• The VERNIER is a small movable graduated scale for obtaining
fractional parts of subdivisions on a fixed main scale of any measuring
instrument.
• With a normal scale we may be able to measure down to 0.50 mm or
so, while with a Vernier scale the least count may be 0.10 mm.
• Usually Vernier calipers have both imperial (inches) and metric (mm)
scales.
• A Vernier scale on caliper may have a least count of 0.01 mm

©vishalnair 26
©vishalnair 27
What is a Comparator
• The comparator is a Precision Instrument, which is used to compare
the dimensions of the given component with the actual working
standard.
• The Comparator is an indirect type of precision measurement
because it will not measure the dimension, it will indicate the
difference in measurement between the given component and
working standard.

©vishalnair 28
Classification Of Comparators
• Mechanical Comparators
• Electrical Comparators
• Optical Comparators
• Pneumatics Comparators

©vishalnair 29
Mechanical Comparators
• There are four types of mechanical comparators available.
1. Dial Indicator
2. Johansson Mikrocator
3. Reed type Mechanical Comparator
4. Sigma Comparator

©vishalnair 30
Dial Indicator
• The Dial Indicator is used to measure the small measurements
accurately.
• There are two types of dial indicators.
1. Gear and Pinion type Dial Indicator
2. Lever Type Dial Indicator

©vishalnair 31
Johansson Mikrocator
• Johansson Mikrocator was first developed
by C.E Johansson so from then on words it
was named as Johansson Mikrocator.
• Instead of gears or rack and Pinion, it uses
a twisted strip to magnify the small linear
movement of the plunger to
Indicator(Pointer). So it can also be called
as Twisted strip Comparator.

©vishalnair 32
 Reed type Mechanical Comparator
• Reed is a Long supporting rod/Shaft. In Reed type
mechanical comparator we use a number of
Reeds to avoid frictional contacts.
• We use four reeds, two blocks, a pointer,
scale(dial) and a Plunger(Spindle).
• Out of four reeds, two were placed vertically(D)
and two placed horizontally to connect the two
blocks( A and B).
• Here ‘A’ block is fixed block, whereas ‘B’ block is
floating Block.
• Out of the two vertical reeds Left vertical is Fixed
and the right vertical is movable and connected to
the block ‘B’

©vishalnair 33
 Sigma Comparator
• This Sigma Comparator is also provided
with a frictional less linear movement as
like Reed Type Mechanical Comparator.
• The number of parts in sigma
comparator is more than the other
Mechanical comparators types.
• The Sigma comparator has the Plunger,
Knife Edge, Cross strip hinge, Slit
diaphragm, a pointer and some other
small components are also there.

©vishalnair 34
 Electrical comparators
• Electrical comparators convert the linear
movement of the plunger into electrical
signals and these signals further
calibrated with the help of Galvanometer
on to the graduated scale.
• In electrical comparator, we use a
Wheatstone bridge circuit to incorporate
the galvanometer.
• With the whetstone bridge circuit, we will
incorporate the galvanometer.
• An armature is supported on the thin
steel strip and is placed in between the
two coils A and B.
©vishalnair 35
optical comparator

• An optical comparator is one of the types of a

comparator which is made up of optical
means.
• In optical comparator, a light source and a
reflecting surface(Mirror) are used as the
optical means.
• An incident ray will hit the mirror and gets
reflected. And this ray will be projected on to
the scale.
• In the below picture an incident ray OA is
projected with an angle θ on the mirror and it
gets reflected with the same angle θ.
©vishalnair 36
Pneumatic Comparators or Pressure Comparators

• The instruments which are operated by the gas or air under pressure
are called as Pneumatic.
• In Pneumatic comparators, air is used as the magnification system.
• The Pneumatic Comparators are working based on the Bernoulli’s
Theory.
• The Bernoulli’s theory states that: The velocity of the fluid will be
increased with respect to increasing pressure.

©vishalnair 37
List of components in Pneumatic Comparators

a) Control Orifice (CO)

b) Measuring Orifice (MO)
c) Pressure Gauge
d) Pressure Regulator
e) Air Filter

©vishalnair 38
• The restricting surface is the measuring surface. So changing the
position of the work piece will affect the distance “L”. Simultaneously
this will change the pressure of the air coming from the measuring
orifice(MO).
• But The Control orifice(CO) will provide the air at a constant pressure
into the Intermediate chamber (Area between the Control orifice and
Measuring Orifice is known as the intermediate chamber).
• There is a Pressure gauge arranged to this intermediate chamber to
indicate the pressure change in the Intermediate chamber.
• This Pressure change will be occurred due to changing the “L” i.e
Distance between the Measuring then orifice and the restricting
surface.
• This pressure indicator reading will be calibrated as the change in the
size of measuring orifice. This is the measuring deviation from the
standard value.

©vishalnair 39
Vernier Bevel Protractor

• Vernier Bevel protractor is one of the angular measuring instrument

used for close tolerances.
• Vernier Bevel protractor is the simplest angular measuring device
which is having a Vernier Scale(Similar principle as the Vernier
Calliper) along with the acute angle attachment.

©vishalnair 40
Construction of Vernier Bevel Protractor

• Vernier Bevel protractor consist of the following components.

i. Main body
ii. Base plate stock
iii. Adjustable blade
iv. Circular Plate with graduated vernier scale divisions.
v. Acute angle attachment

©vishalnair 41
•The base plate(Stock) consisting of the Working edge will
be mounted on the Main body.
•And the Acute angle attachment is also mounted on the
main body.
•This acute angle attachment can be readily
attachable/detachable with the Locking Nut.
•A circular plate having a Vernier scale in it, also mounted
on the Main body frame.
•This circular plate is carrying an adjustable blade which
can travel along its length and locked at any position with
the help of the blade locking nut.
•The adjustable Blade one end is bevelled at angles 45°
and the other end is bevelled at 60°.
• This Main body frame itself having a graduated scale
called the main scale.
•The circular plate can rotate freely on the main body.
•There is a slow-motion device which helps to control the
rotation of the circular plate on the main body.
©vishalnair 42
Working Principle of Vernier Bevel Protractor

• As the Base Plate (Stock) acts as one of the working edges, and the
other working edge will be the blade which is held on the circular
plate. as you can see the some of the sample positions of the Vernier
bevel protractor in action.

©vishalnair 43
• This Adjustment Blade can be rotated along with the circular plate on
the main body.

©vishalnair 44
• Which means the vernier scale on the circular plate will be rotated on
the Main scale which is graduated on the Main body as shown in
below.

©vishalnair 45
• The Vernier scale has 12 divisions on each side of the centre zero. (It means
there are 24 divisions on the Vernier scale)
• The 12 divisions are denoted as 60 min on the Vernier scale (Like this 15,
30, 45, 60). That means 12 division = 60 minutes
• One division= 60/12 = 5 minutes.
• On the Main scale, the same portion is represented as 23° (12 divisions on
Vernier scale = 23° on the main scale )
• One division on the Vernier scale = 1.91666° = 1° 55′ (one degree 55
minutes).
• As similar to the vernier calliper working principle as Zero on the Vernier
scale moves on the main scale.
• While taking a measurement, The Zero line on the Vernier scale shows the
reading on the main scale, called main scale reading.
• At somewhere The divisions on the Vernier scale will coincide with the
divisions on the Main scale. this reading is noted as the Vernier scale
reading.
• With these values along with the least count of the Vernier bevel
protractor, we can calculate the Reading.
©vishalnair 46
Sine Bar
• Sine Bar is a Precision Angular measuring Instrument to measure
angles and to locate the work or Job piece at a required angle very
accurately to machining.

©vishalnair 47
Working Principle of Sine Bar

• The principle of operation of sine bar is based on the trigonometry.

Sine θ = Opposite /Diagonal
Cos θ = Adjacent / Diagonal
Tan θ = Opposite / Adjacent

©vishalnair 48
• As you can see, one Roller is placed
on the surface plate and the other
one is placed at a height h with the
help of slip gauges.
• Where L is the distance between
the two setting rollers of the
Sinebar.
• From the above trigonometric
formulas Sine θ = Opposite
/Diagonal = h/L
• A special type of sine bar is sine
centre which is used for conical
objects having male and female
parts. It cannot measure the angle
more than 45 degrees ©vishalnair 49
 Autocollimator
• Auto collimator is an optical instrument used for the
measurement of small angular difference, change of
deflection, etc.
• For small angular measurements, an auto collimator
provides a very sensitive and accurate approach.
• It has a wide variety of applications including
precision alignment, detection of angular
movements, etc.

©vishalnair 50
• The reticle is an illuminated target with a cross-hair pattern, which is
positioned in the focal plane of an objective lens.
• A plane mirror perpendicular to the optical axis serves the purpose of
reflecting an image of the pattern back on to the observation point.
• A viewing system is required to observe the relative position of the
image of the cross-wires.
• This is done in most of the autocollimators by means of a simple
eyepiece. If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle q results in the
displacement of the image by an amount d, then, d = 2fq, where f is
the focal length of the objective lens.

©vishalnair 51
• The reticle is an illuminated target with a cross-hair pattern, which is
positioned in the focal plane of an objective lens.
• A plane mirror perpendicular to the optical axis serves the purpose of
reflecting an image of the pattern back on to the observation point.
• A viewing system is required to observe the relative position of the image
of the cross-wires.
• This is done in most of the autocollimators by means of a simple eyepiece.
• If rotation of the plane reflector by an angle q results in the displacement
of the image by an amount d, then, d = 2fq, where f is the focal length of
the objective lens.

©vishalnair 52
• It is clear from this relationship that the sensitivity of an autocollimator
depends on the focal length of the objective lens.
• The longer the focal length, the larger the linear displacement for a given
tilt of the plane reflector.
• However, the maximum reflector tilt that can be accommodated is
consequently reduced.
• Therefore, there is a trade-off between sensitivity and measuring range.
• The instrument is so sensitive that air currents between the optical path
and the target mirror can cause fluctuations in the readings obtained.
• This effect is more severe when the distance between the two increases.
• Therefore, an autocollimator is housed inside a sheet-metal or a PVC
plastic casing to ensure that air currents do not hamper measurement
accuracy.

©vishalnair 53
ANGLE DEKKOR
• An angle dekkor is a small variation of the autocollimator.
• This instrument is essentially used as a comparator and measures the
change in angular position of the reflector in two planes.
• It has an illuminated scale, which receives light directed through a
prism. The light beam carrying the image of the illuminated scale
passes through the collimating lens, as shown in Fig, and falls onto
the reflecting surface of the work piece.

©vishalnair 54
• After getting reflected from the work piece, it is refocused by the lens
in field view of the eyepiece.
• While doing so, the image of the illuminated scale would have
undergone a rotation of 90° with respect to the optical axis.
• Now, the light beam will pass through the datum scale fixed across
the path of the light beam, as shown in Fig.
• When viewed through the eyepiece, the reading on the illuminated
scale measures angular deviations from one axis at 90° to the optical
axis, and the reading on the fixed datum scale measures the deviation
about an axis mutually perpendicular to this.

©vishalnair 55
 Clinometer
• Clinometer An instrument for measuring the angle between an
inclined surface and the horizontal, using a pendulum or spirit
level and a calibrated circular scale.
• A clinometer may be incorporated into a magnetic compass, as a
‘compass clinometer’.
• Clinometers are used to measure the inclination of
bedding, cleavage, fault planes, etc.

©vishalnair 56
End of module 1
Vishal Nair
Assistant Professor- Mechanical
MESCE

©vishalnair 57