LIST OF CONTENTS

Section Contents Page Number

1 Summary and Objectives 2
2 Numerals and Numbers 3
3 Significant Places 3
4 Fraction Notation 4
5 Decimal Notation 5
6 Extended Fraction and Decimal Numbers 6
7 Percentage 6
8 Component Tolerance 7
9 Scientific Notation and the Base of 10 8
10 Scientific Notation and Extended Decimals 9
11 Multiplying and Dividing using Scientific Notation 10
12 Engineering Notation 11
13 Notation Summary & Comparison Table 12
14 Introduction to SI Units 13
15 SI Base and Extended Units of Measurement 14
16 SI Derived Units of Measurement 15
17 Table of Electrical Units 16
18 Examples of Scale with SI Units 17
19 Note on Calculator Use 17
20 Note on Computer Use 17
21 Calculation Short Cuts 18 V6
Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 1
This Section is to develop an understanding of Mathematical Scale and Units of
Measurement. It also covers the associated written notations to ensure correct
expression of measurements verbally, in writing and in arithmetic calculations.
This unit covers revision of basic arithmetic and maths skills that may not have been
used by a student for several years. These skills are necessary in engineering
practice in measurements and calculations on mechanical, electrical and electronic
designs. This is essential basic maths for City & Guilds and Edexcel BTECs.
Maths and electronics are inseparable. Calculations and measurements are involved
in every electronic project. Understanding these basic maths procedures and units of
measurement origins will make electronic calculations and instrument measurements
much easier and more enjoyable.
Mathematical notation is the way in which numbers are written, spoken and used in
calculations. A number can be written, spoken or used in a number of different ways.
Each of the notations, as the different ways of expressing numbers are called, has a
specific ‘use’. It is important to select the correct notation for each ‘use’ type.
Design and measurement are two important activities of Engineers. Both require a
good understanding and feel for scale and size. Practical experience in conjunction
with competent handling of numbers will make most aspects of engineering much
easier to grasp.
This Numbers, Scale, Notation & Units of Measurement module is intended to be read
and referred to regularly throughout the year.
There are seven Base Units of measurement - length, weight, time, current, light,
temperature and matter. There are two Extended Units of measurement - 2D angle
and 3D angle.
All other Units of Measurement such as velocity, density and Volts are derived from
these Base and Extended Units. A table is provided of many mechanical and
electrical derived units of measurement such as acceleration, power, electric charge
and magnetic flux.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 2

2 NUMERALS AND NUMBERS 3 SIGNIFICANT PLACES
An integer is a whole number from 1 to infinity (∞). The first digit on the right is called the ‘units’ digit. It is also referred to
Our numerals 0 to 9 originate from Arabic mathematics, which in as the ‘least significant digit’, being the one that represents the
turn came from India. There are ten such numerals which we smallest numerical value.
use to count to the base of 10. The second digit from the right is called the ‘tens’ digit. In the case of
The ten numerals being 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. the example below it is also referred to as the ‘third most significant
digit’.
It is widely accepted that we have ten numerals, and count to
the base of 10, because we have 10 fingers and thumbs, and The third digit from the right is called the ‘hundreds’ digit. In the case
these were our original counting machine. of the example below it is also referred to as the ‘second most
significant digit’.
Counting to the base of 10, number examples are:
The fourth digit from the right is called the ‘thousands’ digit. In the
17 which is 7+10 case of the example below it is also referred to as the ‘most
528 which is 8+20+500 significant digit’. It is the most significant digit in this example
3940 which is 0+40+900+3000 because, being 6,000, it is the largest part of the number. The
When we say ‘7’, for example, we are saying ‘seven’. number is made up from 6,000 + 300 + 20 + 9 = 6,329
In English language, we write ‘seven’.
‘Notation’ is the way we refer to number presentation: Hundreds Tens
7 is called the ‘numeral 7’ digit digit
seven is the English spoken and written word for 7 Units
Thousands digit
All of the above numbers are whole numbers greater than zero digit
called ‘integers’. Examples of valid integers are:
1234
1,234
+98765
+98,765
6,329
-1234 - 98,765 Least & fourth
Most & first significant digit
We sometimes use a comma ‘,’ as a marker guide every three Significant digit
digits starting from the right and counting every three digits to
the left. The ‘,’ is used to guide the eye; and has no Second Third
mathematical relevance. significant significant
digit digit

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 3

Numbers, or values, that are not ’whole’ or integer can be A ‘proper fraction’ is one where its value is less than one, which
expressed as: means the numerator is less than the denominator.
fractions or decimals
An ‘improper fraction’ is one where its value is greater than one,
Fractions derive from use in verbal conversation, and tend to be which means the numerator is greater than the denominator.
popular in expressions using the more simple fractions such as: Improper fractions can be converted to an integer with a proper
English spoken & written Fraction fraction.
one eighth ⅛
one quarter ¼
one third ⅓
three eighths ⅜
one half ½
five eighths ⅝
two thirds ⅔
three quarters ¾
seven eighths ⅞
Similar to the whole number integer presentation, fractions can be
written in numeric form or English language form.
More complex fractions become difficult to express verbally. They
are also increasingly difficult to use in calculations.
For example - four-hundred-and-seventy-nine six-hundred-and-
thirty-thirds (489/633) is cumbersome to say. In fact, fractions are
quite unusable in this form. The top number and bottom number of
a fraction are referred to as:
489 is numerator = 163
633 is denominator 211 The denominator gives the fraction its ‘name’ and is the number of
The value of a fraction is unchanged if we multiply or divide both equal parts into which the whole has been divided.
its numerator and denominator by the same amount. The numerator is the number of these equal parts that are to be
selected or taken.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 4

Simple fractions such as the table above are easy to use and say. places when the final answer is required to only two decimal places.
Decimal notation is easier to express linguistically compared to large This avoids inaccuracies in the final answer.
fractions. Decimals are much easier to use in calculations, in test Please note: Leading zeros are traditionally used (0.5) but not
equipment and calculators. mandatory (.5). The leading ‘0’ is used to ensure you do not miss the
Redrawing the above table with a decimal column added: decimal point. Rules are:
English spoken & written Fraction Decimal Following zeros (0.500) are generally dropped (0.5) unless in a
one eighth ⅛ 0.125 table of numbers or the working out in a problem
one quarter ¼ 0.25 Third digit is rounded up (0.667) if the fourth digit is over 5
one third ⅓ 0.333 Third digit remains (0.333) the same if the fourth digit is 5 or less
three eighths ⅜ 0.375 Adding a ½ and a ¼ equals ¾ - that is easy to perform mentally.
one half ½ 0.5 Adding ⅓ and ⅝ is (8+15) = 23 is more difficult to do mentally.
five eighths ⅝ 0.625 24 24
two thirds ⅔ 0.667
three quarters ¾ 0.75 It is difficult to use the fraction result, for example on a calculator or
seven eighths ⅞ 0.875 when using a tape measure or Digital MultiMeter.
Everyone should be able to recognise and remember this table since In decimals the same calculation is: 0.333 ⅓
these are common fractions and decimals, and are likely to come up +0.625 ⅝
regularly in tests and life. = 0.958
which was easy to work out
On the decimal notation some fractions have come out with one
decimal digit, some with two digits and some with three digits. The Further, this decimal number is easier to use within the metric
number of digits to the right of the decimal point is referred to as the measurements of length, time, volts, etc, and when using a
‘number of significant places’, for example: calculator.
0.5 one significant place In summary, in Engineering practice, when using a calculator or
0.25 two significant places performing written calculations:
0.625 three significant places fractions are a more difficult notation to work with
If you are doing calculations to three significant places, then for decimals are a convenient notation to use in practice and theory
example: 0.5 should be written as 0.500 In subtraction, multiplication and division decimals are easy using a
0.75 should be written as 0.750 calculator, but fractions are very difficult, if not impossible, using a
so that the reader knows you are working to three significant places. calculator.
It is normal, when performing a series of calculations during the
solving of a problem; to work everything out to three significant

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 5

6 EXTENDED FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 7 PERCENTAGE
An Extended Fraction is a number comprising an integer part and a
fraction part: Percentage is where a fraction or decimal number is expressed
4½ 33⅓ 95¾ 269⅝ as a number compared to 100, instead of 1. To calculate the
percentage, multiply the decimal by 100, and then follow the
An Extended Decimal is a number comprising an integer part and a answer with a % symbol:
decimal part:
4.5 33.33 95.75 269.625 0.333 is 33.3%
0.5 is 50%
In Engineering practice the Extended Decimals are easier to work 0.875 is 87.5%
with than Extended Fractions.
To express a fraction as a percentage:
Adding two Extended Decimals: 33.333
+269.625 first convert the fraction to a decimal
answer: +302.958 Second multiply by a hundred
This becomes 302.96 when rounded to two significant decimal
places.
Subtraction of one number from another is performed in a similar
way:
269.625
- 33.333
answer: 236.292
which becomes 236.29 when rounded to two significant decimal
places.
A calculator is easy to use in working out Extended Decimal
arithmetic such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 6

All electronic components are manufactured. The accuracy of manufacture is
far from perfect. Also, a component is likely to be cheaper to make if the
accuracy of manufacture is allowed to be wide.
The Buyer of Electronic Components will want to know how accurately the
components have been manufactured. As such, resistors, capacitors and
inductors are specified with a ‘preferred value’ accompanied by the tolerance.
10% tolerance, for example, indicates a 50 Ω resistor has a value between:
50-10% to 50+10%
normally written as:
50±10% using the ± symbol
Which becomes: 45 Ω to 55 Ω when calculated out
How exactly is this calculated out?
10% of a number is 0.1 times that number.
This is obtained by dividing 10% by 100 and removing the % symbol.
Then 50±10% becomes:
50-(0.1 x 50) to 50+(0.1 x50)
= 50-5 to 50+5
= 45 Ω to 55 Ω
Further examples are:
4700±10% = 4700-470 to 4700+470
= 4230 Ω to 5170 Ω
82,000±5% = 82,000-4,100 to 82,000+4,100
= 77,900 Ω to 86,100 Ω
330±2% = 330-6.6 to 330+6.6
= 323.4 Ω to 336.6 Ω

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 7

Scientific notation is the name given to a shorthand method of writing Example: 1 is written as 1 x 10-3 or just 10-3
down long or large numbers. This method is also called Exponent 1000
Notation. In English we say ‘one-thousandth’.
Example: 1 is written as 1 x 10-6 or just 10-6
Numbers ending with many zeros (‘0’) can be difficult to accurately 1000000
grasp, particularly if you are slightly dyslexic. In English we say ‘one-millionth’.
When written out in decimal form, the two examples above are:
Scientific Notation only applies to numbers counting to a base of 10. 0.001 and 0.000001
Example: 1,000 is written as 1 x 103 or just 103 Thus, a tenth is 1 which is 10-1 which is also 0.1
10
In English we say: ‘10 cubed’
or ‘one thousand’
or ’10 to the power of 3’
Example: 1,000,000 is written as 1 x 106 or just 106
In English we say: ‘10-to-the-sixth’
or ‘one million’
or ’10 to the power 6’
The ‘10’ part is called the ‘base’.
The little ‘6’ part is called the ‘index’, or ‘power’.
A positive superscript, as above, means the number is greater than 1.
A negative superscript means the number is less than 1, which
means it is a fraction. All of the significant digits will be to the right of
the decimal point.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 8

This combines the use of Scientific Notation with Extended Decimals. From above we had:
1,000 = 1 x 103
Now consider examples using Extended Decimal numbers:
1.2 = 1.2
15 = 15
180 = 180
1,250 = 1.25 x 103
47,000 = 47 x 103 or 4.7 x 104
820,000 = 820 x 103 or 8.2 x 105
5,600,000 = 5.6 x 106
These are typical value ranges for resistors, voltage and power.
In many ordinary maths calculations relating to, say, distance or weight:
4.7 x 104 8.2 x 105
would be acceptable, even preferable. But in electronics SI Units are expressed in
multiples or divisors of 1,000 which you will see in Section 12 on Engineering Notation.
That means the correct conversions to Extended Decimals will always have 10 3, 106, 109
etc. The index is always a multiple of 3.
Decimal numbers are followed with 10 to a negative index. The index is still kept to
multiples of 3.
0.15 = 150 x 10-3 but often left as 0.15
0.022 = 22 x 10-3
0.0082 = 8.2 x 10-3
0.000091 = 91 x 10-6
0.0000000033 = 3.3 x 10-9
These numbers are typical values for inductors, capacitors and current.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 9

Most calculations in electrical and electronic engineering require multiplying Extending this to integer and decimal numbers:
and dividing of numbers from trillionths to trillions. The calculated result has
to be accurate and to the correct scale. It can be quite difficult to ensure that 2470 = 2.47 x 103
the answer is not out by 1,000 for example. 39000 = 39 x 103
The procedure to use is: 815000 = 0.815 x 106
ensure they are expressed as a decimal number 0.063 = 63 x 10-3
and Scientific Notation 0.00146 = 1.46 x 10-3
ensure there are NO Engineering Notations mixed 0.000758 = 0.758 x 10-3 or 758 x 10-6
in (ie KW becomes 103 W)
do the calculations using Laws of Indices Rules below Multiplying examples:
When multiplying two numbers expressed in Scientific Notation (both to the 2470 x 815000 = 2.47 x 103 x 0.815 x 106
base of 10), you add their indices together, examples being: = 2.47 x 0.815 x 103+6
10-6 x 103 = 10-6+3 = 10-3 = 2.01 x 109
109 x 103 = 109+3 = 1012
39000 x 0.00146 = 39 x 103 x 1.46 x 10-3
10-6 x 10-9 = 10-6-9 = 10-15
= 39 x 1.46 x 103-3
When dividing one number in Scientific Notation by another (both to the base = 56.94 x 100
10), you subtract the index of the denominator from the index of the
= 56.94
numerator:
10-6 / 103 = 10-6-3 = 10-9 Dividing examples:
109 / 103 = 109-3 = 106
10-6 / 10-9 = 10-6+9 = 103 0.000758 / 2470 = 758 x 10-6 / 2.47 x 103
= 758 / 2.47 x 10-6-3
explaining in more detail:
= 306.9 x 10-9
10-6 numerator
103 denominator 815000 / 0.063 = 0.815 x 106 / 63 x 10-3
which is 10-6 / 103 = 10-9 = 0.815 / 63 x 10-6+3
= 0.0129 x 109
= 12.9 x 106

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 10

In Engineering Notation, when a number is increased or decreased by units of
1,000 it is given a name originating from the Greeks. The names, such as nano,
Kilo or Mega, are only used in this full format when speaking English. The names
start with a capital letter if greater than 1 and start with lower case letters if less
than 1.
Each name has a single letter or character symbol for use when appended to a
number. This is the short form, or abbreviated form of the Engineering notation.
When carrying out electronics calculations, it is important to note
how convenient it is to:
convert from Engineering Notation to Scientific Notation
do all the calculations in Scientific Notation
convert Scientific Notation back to Engineering Notation

Decimal Scientific Engineering Engineering

Note from the table above, the ‘R’ has not been used for 1.2, 15
full abbreviated or 180 as might be expected. The ‘R’ is generally not used
unless you are being ‘politically correct’, as may be the case in a
1.2 = 1.2 1.2 1.2
detailed specification with lists of components. The ‘R’ is used in
15 = 15 15 15
180 = 180 180 180
the BS1852 Letter Code System for marking resistor values.
1,250 = 1.25 x 103 1.25 Kilo 1.25 K
47,000 = 47 x 103 47 Kilo 47 K
820,000 = 820 x 103 820 Kilo 820 K
5,600,000 = 5.6 x 106 5.6 Mega 5.6 M
0.15 = 150 x 10-3 150 milli 150 m
0.022 = 22 x 10-3 22 milli 22 m
0.0082 = 8.2 x 10-3 8.2 milli 8.2 m
0.000091 = 91 x 10-6 91 micro 91 μ
0.0000000033 = 3.3 x 10-9 3.3 nano 3.3 n

The decimal notation is the normal way people write down numbers. For small
numbers such as 1.2 or 15 it is very concise. For very large or very small numbers
it becomes clumsy, such as 5,600,000 or 0.0000000033

Scientific notation is good for bringing a wide scale of numbers into a concise
manner ready for use in calculations. The engineering notation is also concise and
in a form that we can easily read and speak, but is not convenient for calculations.

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 11

Engineering practice deals in numbers across a very wide scale from
extremely small to extremely large. This is made possible and practical by the
use of electronic equipment such as Digital Multi Meters (DMM) and
Oscilloscopes (CRO) for measuring values. There is anything from five to 10
scales settings to accommodate the number range below.

Multiplication Factor Spoken Scientific Power Engineering Engineering

Decimal Numerals English of 10 Name Symbol

1,000,000,000,000 Trillion 1012 Tera T

1,000,000,000 Billion 109 Giga G
1,000,000 Million 106 Mega M
1,000 Thousand 103 Kilo K
1.0 One 100 None R
0.001 Thousandth 10-3 milli m
0.000001 Millionth 10-6 micro µ
0.000000001 Billionth 10-9 nano n
0.000000000001 Trillionth 10-12 pico p

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 12

When Noah built his ark his measurements were in Cubits - the
distance between his elbow and the tip of his outstretched fingers.
Other units used over the ages were Palm, Span and Stride.
These measurements were approximate, depending on the physical
size of the person. Equally, volumetric sizes varied - imagine buying
a ‘small pint’ of beer. Standard measurements were needed, and
these evolved in the more civilised countries and regions, but still
differed between these regions.
In England we used miles, furlongs, yards, feet and inches for
length, distance and area measurement. We used ounces, pounds,
stones and hundred weight for weight measurement. These
‘standards’ spread across the Commonwealth and the USA.
However, when it came to the basic maths for these weights and
measurements, they were a nightmare to work with.
The length of the yard was set by King Henry I. It was decreed to be
the distance from the point of his nose to the end of his thumb. This
is an arbitrary standard, and is typical of the origins of the ‘English
System’.
In Europe they created the metre with its variants of centimetre,
millimetre and kilometre for example. The variants were all multiples
or divisors of 10, so were extremely easy to work with
mathematically. The same was and is true for the gram, milligram,
kilogram, and so on. The metre and kilogram are the foundations of
the metric system.
An international body was set up last century to standardise on all
Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk
measurements issues covering distance, weight, time, electrical,
mechanical and so on. These units are now called SI Units. SI are
the first letters of the French ‘Systéme Internationale’, which is
headquartered in Paris.
On length and distance measurement the metre was adopted due
to its mathematical simplicity of being in multiples of 10. The
‘Imperial’ system as originated in the UK was far too difficult in
terms of the inter-relationships between e.g. inch, yard, mile,
furlong, hectare and acre.
The scientific community worldwide had always based its
measurements on the metric system, because in the 18 th and 19th
Centuries Global science was mostly European based. As a result
the electrical SI units developed from a metric base.
The electrical SI units are listed on the attached table ‘Units of
Measurement’ for Voltage, Current, Resistance, Capacitance,
Inductance, Power, Time, Energy and Charge. These are the most
common electrical measurement criteria, but there are many more
covering Electrostatics, Magnetism, Nuclear Energy and other
areas.
There are still some instances where we continue to use Imperial
measurements such as a ‘pound of potatoes’ or a ‘pint of beer’.
However, throughout the manufacturing and construction industries
we are now completely metric - by law!
Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 13
There are seven Base Units of measurement as Feature Quantity Unit Unit
shown in the table to the right. symbol Symbol
There are two Extended Units which relate to 2D
Base Units
angle and 3D angle measurement.
All other Units of Measurement can be derived from length l metre m
these nine Units. mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
The ‘quantity symbol’ column is the letter or symbol
we may use as an unknown variable in an equation, electric current I amp A
for example: velocity = l / t (length / time)
temperature t kelvin K
The ‘unit symbol’ column specifies the Units of luminous intensity I candela cd
measurement, for example 60 s is 60 seconds.
amount of substance mol mole mol
If we have a situation where something is measured
in seconds, but is an unknown variable, then: Extended Units
Time = t s
plane angle θ radian rad
solid angle W steradian sr

Temperature Engineers use Centigrade, Scientists use Kelvin

Each degree step is the same, but the starting point is different
Everyday temperatures are quoted in degrees Celsius
which has its 00C at the freezing point of water. Kelvin -2730C 00C 1000C
degrees have the same degree increments as Celsius,
but start at Absolute Zero, the lowest temperature 00K 2730K 3730K
possible, and when atomic matter stops moving.
absolute zero water freezing water boiling

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 14

Derived units are formed from Quantity
Feature Unit Unit Symbol Derived from
combinations of Base Units and symbol
Extended Units. Derived Units
Area A square metre m2 m2
Some important examples of
mechanical, electrical and Volume V cubic metre m3 m3
electronic units of measurement Density ρ kilogram /cubic metre Kg / m3 Kg / m3
are provided in the table on the Velocity v metre / second m/s m/s
right. 2
Acceleration a metre/sec/sec m/s m / s2
One can play with the expressions Force & Friction F Newton N kg m / s
to change a Derived Unit from one Pressure P Pascal Pa = N / m 2
Kg / m / s
set of Units to another set of Units,
for example: Energy E Joule J=Nm kg m2 / s
Power P Watt W=J/s=Nm/s kg m2 / s2
Volts = Watts W Electric Potential V Volts V=W/A kg m2 / s2 / A
Amps I
Resistance R Ohm Ω V/A
= Joules/sec J/s
Conductance G Sieman S=1/R A/V
Amps I
Resistivity σ Ohm metre Ωm Vm/A
= Joules J
Amps x seconds Is Electric Charge Q Coulomb C As
= Joules . J Capacitance C Farad F As/V
Coulombs C Magnetic Flux Φ Weber Wb Vs
Inductance L Henry H Vs/A
Also, Energy is Joules 2
= Volts x Amps x Sec Magnetic Flux Density B Tesla T = Wb / m V s / m2
= Watts x Sec Frequency f Hertz Hz /s
Luminous Flux L Lumen lm Cd sr
Illuminance Il lux Lx = lm / m2 Cd sr / m2

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 15

 trillionth billionth millionth thousandth units thousand million billion trillion
Electrical Unit of 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 1000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000,000,
Unit of Measure- 1,000,000,000,000 1,000,000,000 1,000,000 1,000 000
Measurement ment pico nano micro milli Kilo Mega Giga
100 Tera
10-12 10-9 10-6 10-3 103 106 109 1012
Voltage
Volt pV nV µV mV V KV MV GV TV
V
Current
Amp pA nA µA mA A KA MA GA TA
I
Resistance
Ohm pΩ nΩ µΩ mΩ Ω KΩ MΩ GΩ TΩ
R
Capacitance
Farad pF nF µF mF F KF
C
Inductance
Henry pH nH µH mH H KH
L
Power
Watt pW nW µW mW W KW MW GW TW
P
Time
Second ps ns µs ms s
T
Energy
Joule pJ nJ µJ mJ J KJ MJ GJ
E
Charge
Coulomb pC nC µC µC C KC MC
Q

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 16

 Normally the number notation above is used with a particular 19 NOTE ON CALCULATOR USE:
electrical unit giving an amount of volts, amps, ohms, farads, henrys,
Most calculators, even the simple ones below £5,
coulombs or watts.
have a ‘squares’ button and a ‘square root’ button.
Example: A resistor has a value of 4,700,000 ohms. They also have + (plus), - (minus), x (multiply),
Answer: It is written as 4.7MΩ, and in English we say ‘4.7 meg Ohms’. divide (/) and = (equals) buttons. In real life, this
makes calculating the above squares and square-
Example: A capacitor has a value of 68 trillionths of a Farad roots quite easy and accurate.
Answer: It is written as 68 pF, and in English we say ‘68 pico Farads’.
Many calculators have Scientific notation buttons,
Example: A lightning strike is measured at 250 million volts but their results are often wrong for some reason,
Answer: It is written as 250 MV, and in English we say ‘250 mega Volts’. for example 106 x 10-3 = 103 , but is given as 102.
Example: A radio aerial coil is 80 x 10-3 Henrys
20 NOTE ON COMPUTER USE:
Answer: It is written as 80 mH, and in English we say ’80 milli Henrys’.
Microsoft WORD software package supports
Example: The current through a circuit is 0.0000025 Amps Scientific Notation for square and square-root (102
Answer: It is written as 2.5 μA, and in English we say ’25 micro Amps’. and 10-2) and other superscript indices.
Example: An electric fire consumes 3 thousand Watts Fractions and equations can be more effectively
Answer: It is written as 3 KW, and in English we say ’3 Kilo Watts’. written in Word using an extra mini-add-in software
package called MathType from Design Science Inc.
Example: The charge held in a capacitor is 0.0000000055 Coulombs The basic version of this package is free and will
Answer: It is written as 5.5 nC, and in English we say ’5.5 nano Coulombs’. cover most C&G and Edexcel BTEC needs.
Example: What is the voltage across a 27 KΩ resistor with a 65 mA current
flowing through it?
Answer: Ohms Law V = IR = 27K x 65m = 27 x 103 x 65 x 10-3
= 27 x 65 x 103-3 = 1755 V
Example: What charge is transferred in 100 ms with a 22 μA current flowing?
Answer: Q = I x t = 22 μA x 100 ms = 22 x 10-6 x 100 x 10-3
= 22 x 100 x 10-6-3
= 2200 x 10-9
= 2.2 x 10-6
= 2.2 μC

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 17

Many simple electrical circuit calculations are based on Ohm’s Law: Further Note:

V=R V = IR I=V In every day electrical, telephone, control and electronic

I R situations the voltage range is generally between 3 V and
300 V, either DC or AC.
When you multiply 1 by 1, the answer is 1 100 x 10-0 =1
When you multiply 10 by 0.1, the answer is 1 101 x 10-1 =1 From Ohm’s Law: V = I x R
When you multiply 100 by 0.01, the answer is 1 102 x 10-2 =1 so if R is in the units / tens / hundreds range,
When you multiply 1000 by 0.001, the answer is 1 103 x 10-3 =1 I is likely to be units

In a similar way: KΩ x mA = V 103 x 10-3 = 1 if R is in the KΩ range, I is likely to be mA range

i.e. the ‘thousand’ Ohms and the ‘thousandth’ Amps if R is in the MΩ range, I is likely to be μA range
cancel each other out.
Example: 22 KΩ x 4.9 mA = 108 Volts
Example: 20 Volts = 5 mA
4 KΏ Example: 9.1 KΩ x 42.5 mA = 387 Volts

Example: 100 Volts = 5 KΩ Example: 4.7 MΩ x 2.5 μA = 11.75 Volts

20 mA
Example: 56 MΩ x 72 μA = 4 KV
Example: 2 KΩ x 12 mA = 24 Volts

Noting: Volts is often written as ‘Volts’,

sometimes abbreviated to ‘V’
mA is standard for milli Amps
KΩ is standard for thousand Ohms

Nick Brackenbury nb@nbuk.co.uk Electronics Notes January 2005 Page 18