Erratum

There are several instances of a typographic error in

Figure 4.2 (page 79). The references to 'Y/Zr' in the
caption and 'Y/Zr' in labels on the diagram are
incorrectoThey should be 'Zr/Y' in all cases.

A/tered Vo/can;e Roeks

Aguideto descriptionand interpretation

CathrynGifkins
WalterHerrmann

RossLarge

~ Published by the Centre for Ore Deposit Research

~ ~
University ofTasmania, Australia
I
UTAS

Published by CODES
Centre for Ore Deposit Research,
University ofTasrnania,
Private Bag 79,
Hobart, Tasrnania, Australia 7001

An ARC Special Research Centre

@ Centre for Ore Deposit Research, 2005

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Gifkins, Cathryn.
Altered volcanic rocks : a guide to description and interpretation.

Bibliography.
Includes index.
ISBN 1 86295219 1.

l. Rocks, Igneous. 2. Hydromerrnal alteration. I.

Herrrnann, Walter, 1951-. 11.Large, Ross R. III.
University ofTasrnania. Centre for Ore Deposit Research.
Iv. Tide.

552.2

anotherPongratzProduction2005
Copyediting: Irn'press: clear cornrnunication
Index: Word Wise and Irn'press: clear cornrnunication
Printed in Australia by me Printing Authority ofTasrnania
 liii

CONTENTS

PREFACE o o o o o o o o""""""""""""""," o o o o"""" o VIl

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS o o o o o"""""""""""""," o o..""" o viii
INTRODUCTION o o""""""," o o. o o... o. o.""""""""," o ix

ALTERATlON
INSUBMARINE
VOLCANIC
SUCCESSIONS o o o """"""" o 1

1.1 Submarine volcanic successions o 1

Volcanic facies. oo """"" o """," o 1

Volcanic facies associations ooo o... oooooooo. oo o o ... 2

Evidence for submarine environment of emplacement 2 o o","

1.2 Alteration in submarine volcanic successions 2 o o o , o

Devitrification . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . o. oooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. . . ooo. o. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . o.. 4

Alteration processes o. o o ooooo o o."" 4
Characteristicsinherited from volcanic facies o o o o o o o 6
1.3 Geology of the Mount ReadVolcanics ooo. ooooo oo 7
Stratigraphy of the Mount Read Volcanics o o 9
Submarine facies associations and architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . oooo. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo10
Post-depositional alteration processes o.. o o o o o o o""""""""" o o o.. .11

Mineral deposits and prospects o o o..." .11

1.4 Geology of the Mount Windsor Subprovince o o o o .0 " o o o. o o o .12

Stratigraphy of the Seventy Mile Range Group . oooooooooo oo "" .12

Submarine facies associations and architecture o"""" o o .13

Post -depositional alteration processes oooo........ .........o...... o.14

Mineral deposits and prospects .. o. o o o o o o o o o""""""""," ooo , o... .14

2 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANICROCKS o o o o o""""""""" o o .15

2.1 Frequendy asked questions o o o... o oo o oo .15

~ 202 Alteration . . oooooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o. . . . . . . o. . . . . . . . 19

nomenclature

Mineral-based alteration nomenclature o o o.."" o. .19

I Compositional alteration nomenclature o o o o o o o o o o"," o .20

Generic alteration nomenclature o , o .20

Descriptive nomenclature - alteration facies o o o o .20

2.3 Alteraction facies - the recommended method ..........................................22

2.4 Alteration mineral assemblage o o o"""""""""""""""""""" o o .23

Tools for mineralogical determination o o o o o o.."""""" o o o .24

2.5 Alteration intensity. oo ooooo """," o. o o o o o o""""""" o o.. .25

Qualitative estimates of alteration intensity o O""" o o o o .25

Quantitative estimates of alteration intensity o o o. o o o .26

An integrated approach to alteration intensity o o o o o o o... .33

2.6 Alteration data sheets o o o o o o o .36

3 COMMON
ALTERATlON
TEXTURES
ANDZONATION
PATTERNS oo o o... .37

301 Alteration textures o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o.. .37

Replacement textures o o o o o o. o O" o o o o o .37

 iv I CONTENTS

Infill textures """oo"""""""""""""""oo""""""""'OO"OO"""""""'" .41

Dissolution textures """""""""""""""""""""""""""""'"'''''''''' .41
Static recrystallisation ... textures 52
Dynamic recrystallisationtextures """"""""""""""""""'oo"'oo"oo"""" .52
Deformation textures """""""""""""'oo 52 oo oo

3.2 Pseudotextures . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo.. . . . . . . . . . .54

Pseudoclastictextures """oo""""""""""""""""""""""""oo"""""'" .54
False polymictic texture oo .63
False matrix-supported texture """"""""""""""""""""""""'oo"oo"" .63
False coherent textures .63
3.3 Alteration distribution """"""""""""oo""""""""""""'oo"""'oo""" .63
3.4 Alteration zonation patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .64
Regional diagenetic zones """""""""""""""""""""""""'oo .64
Regional metamorphic zones 'oo""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'" .64
Regional, deep, semi-conformable altered zones """""""""""""""'"'''''''' .66
Local contact metamorphic or hydrothermally altered halos .66
Local hydrothermally altered halos around ore deposits .67
Vein and fracture altered halos """""""""""""""""""'oo""'oo""""'" .67
3.5 Overprinting relationships and timing of alteration .69
Method """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""oo"OO"""'" 70
Overprinting textures oo 70

4 GEOCHEMISTRY
OFALTEREOROCKS 73

4.1 Lithogeochemistry 73
Sampling and analytical methods 73
Closure in composition data . """"""oo""""" ...78
Chemostratigraphy . . . . . . oo.. . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Mass transfer techniquesoo oo .81
Rare-earth-element geochemistry related to alteration .87
4.2 Mineral chemistry .87
Principies .87
Applications .88
4.3 Stable isotopes """""""'"'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''OO''''''''oo''''''''' .92
Theoretical background . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .92
Isotopic applications in alteration studies 92

5 SEAFLOOR.
ANOBURIAL.RELATEO
ALTERATION .97

5.1 Alteration related to sea-floor processes and burial 97

Physical conditions .98
Definitions .98
5.2 Hydration """""""'OO"""oo""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" .98
v
Palagonite """""""""""'OO"""""""""""""""""""""oo""""""'" 99
Perli te . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100
5.3 Diagenesis(glassto zeolitefacies) oo,,,,,,,,,,,'' 102
Diagenetic minerals oo.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . oo. . . . .. . . .. 102
Diagenetic zones oo 105
Genesis of diagenetic minerals and zones . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . . . .. 108
5.4 Regional metamorphism (zeolite to amphibolite facies) 115
Transition from diagenesis to regional metamorphism . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . .. 115
Burial metamorphism oo oo oo 115
Burial metamorphic facies. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .. 115
Burial metamorphic zones '''''''''''''''''''''''''OO'''''''''''''''''''''''oo'oo''oo'''' 115
Zeolite facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116
Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. oo. oo. . oo.. 116
5.5 Diagenetic alteration in the Hokuroku Basin 118
Geological setting . . . . . . . oooo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . oo. . . .. 118
Alteration faciesand zones """"""""""'oo"""""""""'oo"".oooo 119
Genesis of altered zones """"""""""""""""""""""""""""oo"""" 120
Data sheets """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""OO"oo"'" 122
 CONTENTS Iv
5.6 Diagenetic alteration in the Mount Read Volcanics 128
Geological setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. 128
Alteration facies and zonation . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128
Genesis of alteration facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128
Data sheets 133

6 SYNVOLCANIC
INTRUSION.RELA
TEDALTERA
nON .... 139

6.1 The role of intrusions in generating hydrothermal systems 140

Subseafloorregionalhydrothermal systems , 140
6.2 Regional altered zones associated with intrusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
Recharge zones 141
Discharge zones 141
Deep, semi-conformable altered zones 142
Altered zones as parr of a regional hydrothermal system 147
6.3 Altered zones within intrusions 148
Deuteric alteration 148
Hydrothermal alteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148
6.4 Contact altered halos around intrusions 149
Contact altered zones 149
Genesis of contact altered zones 153
6.5 Contact altered zones associated with the Darwin Granite 154
Geological setting .
. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
Alteration facies and zonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155
Genesis of the alteration system 156
Data sheets """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""'" 157

7 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERA
TIONRELA
TEDTO
VHMSDEPOSITS 163

7.1 Common features ofVHMS deposits 163

7.2 Hydrothermal alteration halos associated with VHMS deposits 164
Footwall alteration pipes : 164
Stratabound altered footwall zones 166
Altered hanging wall zones 167
Chemical reactions and mass changes 168
Alteration box plot trends in altered footwall zones 169
The genesis of footwall alteration pipes 170
Significance of pyrophyllite and kaolinite in VHMS systems 174
Metamorphism of altered zones 174
7.3 The spectrum of volcanic-hosted deposits and associated alteration patterns 174
Hydrothermal alteration related to the spectrum of deposits 176
7.4 Comparisons between Archaean, Palaeozoic and Cainozoic VHMS
alteration systems 178
Australian Palaeozoic VHMS alteration halos 178
]apanese Cainozoic VHMS alteration halos 179
Canadian and Australian Archaean VHMS alteration halos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 179
Comparisons 180
7.5 Hellyer: a massive elongate polymetallic lens 181
Geological setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182
Alteration facies and zonation 182
Ore genesis . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
Data sheets 184
7.6 Rosebery: a polymetallic sheet-sryle deposit .. 194
Geological setting 194
Alteration facies and zonation .. 195
Genesis of the ore lenses and alteration system .. .. 195
Data sheets 196
7.7 Western Tharsis: a hybrid Cu-Au VHMS deposit 202
Geological setting . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 202
Alteration facies and zonation . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 202
vi I CONTENTS

Ore genesis ................................................................................. 203

Data sheets ................................................................................. 204
7.8 Henty: a volcanogenic gold deposit...................................................... 212
Geological setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Alteration facies and zonation............................................................ 212
Ore genesis ................................................................................. 213
Data sheets ................................................................................. 214
7.9 Thalanga: a polymetallic sheet-style deposit .......................................... 221
Geological setting ........................................................................ 221
Alteration facies and zonation............................................................ 222
Ore genesis ................................................................................. 222
Data sheets . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . 223
7.10 Highway-Reward: a pipe style Cu-Au VHMS deposit................................. 232
Geological setting ........................................................................ 232
Alteration facies and zonation............................................................ 232
Ore genesis ................................................................................. 232
Data sheets . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 233

8 FINDING
OREDEPOSITS
INALTERED
VOLCANIC
ROCKS 241

8.1 Principies of discriminating between diagenetic, hydrothermal

and metamorphic alteration facies. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 241
Diagenetic facies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 241
Metamorphic facies. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242
Hydrothermal alteration facies 242
8.2 Exploration vectors and proximity indicators ... 243
Mineral zonation 243
Major elemem lithogeochemistry 243
Alteration indices . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ... 244
Mass change vectors 245
Mineral chemistry vectors 245
Isotopic vectors 246

REFERENCES 251
INDEX 271

PREFACE
Altered volcanic rocks is principally for hands-on geologists,
our fottunate colleagues who practise in mineral exploration
and mining geology, and the students who may in the future
play in those professional fields.
We began designing and writing this book in mid 2001
after struggling for several decades to come to terms with a
variery of alteration sryles in ancient submarine volcanic
successions. We realised that although a large number of
company and research geologists were working on similar
rocks there was no existing text to help guide us through the
complexiry of altered volcanic rocks. The so-called volcanic
rocks we deal with in ancient volcanic successions and around
ore deposits frequently bear liule resemblance to their fresh
counterparts, which are studied in undergraduate igneous
petrology and volcanology courses. Ir is rypically only with
long experience that geologists develop the confidence and
skills to be comfortable working with altered volcanic rocks,
to interpret the original volcanic facies, unravel complex
alteration histories and determine their significance in terms
of mineral deposit prospectiviry, particularly in ancient and
deformed successions.
The topic and content of the book were inspired by
problems that we have faced, and in many cases overcome,
while working on industry-related volcanic facies, alteration
geochemistry and economic geology research projects,
particularly in the Mount Read Volcanics. Many of the ideas
presented in this book come from the results of CODES
research projects, which have been run in collaboration
with industry partners and the Australian Research Council
(ARe) over the last 15 years. In particular, AMIRA-ARC
Linkage project P439 (Studies of VHMS-related alteration:
geochemical and mineralogical vectors to ore) provided an
I vii
enormous amount of data, case studies and expertise. Some
of the results of this project have previously been published as
a special issue in Economic Geology(Gemmell and Herrmann,
eds., A specialissuedevoted to alteration associatedwith volcanic-
hosted massive sulfide deposits, and its exploration significance,
August 2001, v. 96, no. 5).
We were encouraged by the wide acceptance and success
of the CODES publication by Jocelyn McPhie, Mark
Doyle and Rod Allen (1993) Vólcanic textures: a guide to the
interpretation o/ textures in volcanic rocks, which has been a
major factor in improving the description and interpretation
of volcanic facies over the last decade. The advance we have
made in Altered volcanic rocks is to integrate observations
and data on volcanic facies and textures with alteration
mineralogy and geochemistry at both regional and local scales
in order to provide a multidisciplinary method for the study
and discrimination of different alteration rypes: diagenetic,
metamorphic and hydrothermal alteration.
We hope that this book will help to equip geologists
working in altered and deformed successions with the skill
and confidence to interpret the original volcanic facies and
encourage the use of altered rocks as discriminants and
vectors in mineral eXploration. This book may not provide
all the answers, but if it gives readers the courage to tackle the
study of altered rocks, embrace the problems and pursue the
answers it will have been worthwhile.
Cathryn C. Gifkins
Wally Herrmann
Ross R. Large
 viii I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
While preparing this book, we were fortunate to have valuable
support, assistance and advice from many people.
We extend our sincere thanks ro those people whose
discussions and/or reviews of various chapters have helped
shape this book. Chapters were peer-reviewed by Stuart Bull,
David Cooke, Mark Doyle, Kim Denwer, Allan Galley, Bruce
Gemmell, Anthony Harris, Jocelyn McPhie, Andrew Rae,
Mike Solomon and Fernando Tornos. Valuable discussions
were also held with Ron Berry, Stuart Bull, Jocelyn McPhie,
Phil Robinson and Mike Solomon.
Although samples and phorographs used herein are
principally from the aurhors' collections, we also made use of
hand specimens and thin sections from the School of Earth
Sciences rock catalogue at the University of Tasmania, and
samples and phorographs from colleagues. Thank you ro those
people who contributed: Sharon Allen, Stuart Bull, Kate Bull,
Tim Callaghan, Cari Deyell, Bruce Gemmell, George Hudak,
Karin Orth and Jocelyn McPhie. We also thank Izzy von
Lichtan, Curator at the School of Earth Sciences, for her help
in finding and returning hundreds of catalogue samples.
t
I
I
i
Andrew McNeill very kindly provided a long projection
of the Rosebery ore lenses. Tim Callaghan assisted with core
specimens and whole-rock geochemical data from Mount
Julia. Jon Huntingron and Melissa Quigley at CSIRO
provided HyMap@ images of the Mount Lyell field.
We are infinitely grateful for the hard work of the
production team. Karin Orth and Simon Stephens helped with
sample preparation. Mike Blake and Karin Orth assisted with
photography. Rose Pongratz and Izzy von Lichtan prepared
the bibliography and checked references. June Pongratz
provided expert drafting, design and desktop publishing, and
was incredibly rolerant of the endless revisions. Final editing
was by lm'press: clear communication and indexing by Word
Wíse and lm'press:clear communication.
We also appreciate our families, friends and colleagues
who have been very understanding of our commitment ro
this project over the last three years. Thank you for your
support and patience.

INTRODUCTION
This book is abolit the processes and products of alteration
in submarine volcanic successions, although many of the
concepts presented here can be applied to altered volcanic
rocks from almost any environment. lts emphasis is on
hydrothermal alteration associated with volcanic hosted
massive sulfide (VHMS) deposits.
Few volcanic rocks in submarine settings are entirely
unaltered, and in hydrothermal environments all rocks
are altered to some degree. Recognising, describing and
interpreting altered volcanic rocks is not always easy, but
the results can have important implications for volcanology,
petrology and ore deposit studies, and can improve and
accelerate success in mineral exploration. Determining pre-
alteration characteristics and discriminating between primary
volcanic, magmatic and secondary alteration features requires
knowledge of the alteration processes and their products.
Valuable base-metal, gold and silver deposits exist
in a variety of modern and ancient submarine volcanic
successions. Many of these deposits are surrounded by, or
spatially related to, extensive altered zones that record the
passage of mineralising hydrothermal Huids and Huid-wall
rock reactions. Research into the textural, mineralogical and
compositional effects of alteration around VHMS deposits
has shown that they can be quantified and used as effective
exploration tools for discriminating deposit styles and guiding
exploration towards mineralised zones.
An introduction to alteration
Guilbert and Park (1986) defined alteration as any change in
the mineralogical composition of a rock brought about by
physical or chemical means, especially by the interaction with
hot or cold aqueous solutions or gases. Alteration typically
encompasses mineralogical changes and changes in the rock
texture and composition. Components of rocks, including
ore metals, can be dissolved, replaced or recrystallised. New
minerals may precipitate and isotopic ratios may change.
Porosity and permeability may be reduced or increased.
Primary volcanic textures are overprinted, and may be
destroyed and replaced by new 'false' textures, or enhanced.
The resulting altered rock is described as the 'alteration facies'
(e.g. Riverin and Hodgson, 1980).
I ix
Thus, alteration involves complex modification of a rock.
Furthermore, a rock may undergo several episodes of syn- to
post-depositional alteration, not all of which are related to
mineralising hydrothermal systems. Each alteration episode
is inHuenced by the existing texture and composition of the
rock, and may also overprint and modify that texture and
composition. As a result the characteristics of altered rocks
are highly variable. In ancient volcanic rocks it is a challenge
to determine host volcanic facies, unravel complex alteration
processes and interpret their significance in terms of mineral
prospectivity. That challenge is the focus of this book.
How the book is organised
Altered volcanicrockshas two main themes, which are organised
into eight chapters: (1) it describes the basic principIes behind
recognising and describing altered volcanic rocks; and (2) it
discusses the different alteration processes that are common
in submarine volcanic successions and their products.
Chapter 1 introduces the concepts of alteration in
submarine volcanic successions and summarises the main
alteration processes and volcanic facies. It outlines the regional
geology of two of the most productive Australian submarine
volcanic successions: the Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics
in western Tasmania and the Cambro-Ordovician Mount
Windsor Subprovince in Queensland. This book principally
employs examples from these two successions, and includes
descriptions of other ancient submarine volcanic successions
for comparison.
Chapter 2 discusses alteration nomenclature, mineralogy,
intensity and indices, and the principIes of alteration facies.
lt proposes an integrated multidisciplinary approach to
description and classification. The main elements of alteration
facies - mineral assemblage, intensity, texture, distribution,
zonation and timing - are described in Chapters 2 and 3.
Chapter 4 outlines geochemical methods used in alteration
studies and their applications. lt emphasises whole-rock
lithogeochemistry, mineral chemistry and stable isotope
analysis.
Chapter 5 concentrates on regional alteration styles
including hydration, diagenesis and metamorphism associated
with burial, Chapter 6 on intrusion-related alteration styles,
 x I INTRODUCTION
and Chapter 7 on hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation
associated with VHMS deposits. We present short case studies
for these different alteration styles, emphasising hydrothermal
alteration associated with a variety of VHMS deposits
induding Rosebery, Hellyer, Henty and Thalanga. These
case studíes incorporate pictoríal data sheets that present the
mineralogical, textural and compositional characteristics of
each of the main alteration facies. They combine volcanic
facies analysis and alteration mineral assemblages, textures,
intensity and geochemistry to interpret the features of
different alteration styles.
Chapter 8 oudines the methods for discríminating
between the products of mineral deposit-related hydrothermal
alteration and other alteration processes, and identifying
favourable altered zones for mineral exploratíon. Ir also
discusses geochemical vectors that may guide explorers
towards mineralised rock within these altered zones.
1.,
Significanceof alteredvolcanicrocksto mineral
exploration
Economíc geologists are particularly interested in alteration
because hydrothermal mineral deposits are commonly hosted
by altered rock. Hydrothermally altered zones around mineral
deposits provide much larger targets for mineral exploration
than the deposits themselves. The mineral assemblages,
and in some cases the chemical composition, of the altered
rocks may provide indications of the proximity of an ore
deposit, and thus vectors towards mineralised rock. In
addition, mineralogical, textural and compositional studies
of alteration facies can provide important constraints on
the timing, physical and chemical conditions, and origins
of hydrothermal systems and related mineralisation (Barnes,
1979). The texture and distribution of alteration facies can
also be used to infer changes in porosity, permeability and
fluid pathways in the host succession. The results of alteration
studies are commonly incorporated into ore deposit models
used in mineral exploratíon. Thus, the identihcation and
interpretation of alteration facies is, and should be, a routíne
part of exploration for hydrothermal mineral deposits.
 I 1

1 ALTERATION IN SUBMARINE VOLCANIC

SUCCESSIONS

This chapter describes submarine volcanic successions, by sedimentary processes. In addition, volcanic units may be
the common processes of alteration that occur in these emplaced into the succession as synvolcanic intrusions.
successions, and provides two examples of ancient submarine This section summarises the main volcanic facies that
volcanic successions, that have been variably altered and occur in submarine volcanic successions. For a more detailed
mineralised: the Mount Read Volcanics and the Mount discussion of submarine volcanism, volcanic textures, facies
Windsor Subprovince. and their interpretation, readers are referred to McPhie et al.
In submarine volcanic environments, the coincidence (1993) Volcanictextures:a guide to the interpretation oftextures
of magmatic fluids, heat and abundant seawater generates in volcanic rocks.
hydrothermal convection. As a consequence, submarine
volcanic successions may host important hydrothermal
mineral deposits, commonly referred to as volcanic-hosted Volcanicfacies
massivesulfide (VHMS) deposits.
VHMS deposits are a significant source of zinc, copper, For descriptive purposes, volcanic facies are divided into two
lead, silver and gold, and continue to be a target for base-metal main textural types: coherent and volcaniclastic. Coherent
exploration. They range in size from less than one million facies consist of solidified magma and are commonly
tonnes to over 200 million tonnes, and commonly contain characterised in volcanic rocks by aphyric (fine grained or
high metal grades. For example, the Hellyer deposit in western glassy) or porphyritic textures, where porphyritic refers to
Tasmania produced 16.2 Mt at 13.9% Zn, 7.1% Pb, 0.4% evenly distributed euhedral crystals (phenocrysts) in a fine-
Cu, 168 glt Ag and 2.5 glt Au in its nine years of operation. grained or glassy groundmass (McPhie et al., 1993).
VHMS deposits occur mainly in submarine rift environ- Volcaniclastic facies are those composed mainly of volcanic
ments particularly back arc and mid ocean rifts; however, particles (Fisher, 1961). Volcanic particles are crystals, crystal
they can occur in a variety of other submarine environments fragments, shards, pumice clasts, scoria clasts and dense
including continental rifts, oceanic basins or plateaux, and volcanic clasts, which may be produced by primary volcanic
arc-continent or continent-continent collision zones. They are (pyroclastic and autoclastic) or sedimentary (weathering and
one of the few classes of ore deposits that exist throughout the erosion) processes. Volcaniclastic facies include a spectrum
geological record from early Archaean to Recent. of facies: primary volcanic facies, syneruptive volcanic
facies generated by coeval eruptions and deposited from
sedimentary processes, and volcanogenic sedimentary facies
that show evidence of temporary storage and reworking prior
1.1 I SUBMARINE VOLCANIC to deposition (McPhie et al., 1993).
SUCCESSIONS Primary volcaniclasticfacies result from volcani~ processes
of clast formation, transport and deposition and include
Submarine volcanic successions are significantly different from hydroclastic, pyroclastic and autoclastic facies. Hydroclastic
subaerial volcanic successions, as the processes of eruption, facies is a general term for facies, typically comprising blocky
transport, emplacement, and post-emplacement alteration glassy particles, produced by magma-water interactions,
may be strongly affected by the presence of water. Typically, whether by explosive steam generation or by non-explosive
submarine volcanic successions comprise a wide variety of quench fragmentation of magma (Fisher and Schmincke,
coherent and volcaniclastic facies intercalated with mixed 1984; Hanson, 1991). Pyroclastic facies comprise volcanic
provenance and non-volcanic sedimentary facies (Fig. 1.1). particles (pyroclasts) that were generated by explosive
The volcanic facies may be derived from intrabasinal, extra- eruptions and deposited by primary volcanic processes, by
J
basinal or basin-margin eruptions in submarine or subaerial fallout, flow or surge. Autoclastic facies comprise volcanic
settings. Eruption styles may be effusive or explosive and the particles generated by in situ non-explosive fragmentation of
products may remain in situ or be redeposited or reworked lava or magma (autobrecciation and quench fragmentation).
 2 I CHAPTER
1
Autobrecciation occurs when the more viscous parts of a
moving lava respond in a brittle fashion to locally higher
strain rates, and fragment into blocky dasts (Fisher, 1960).
Quench fragmentation occurs in situ where hot lava or
magma comes into contact with water, ice or water-saturated
sediment (Rittmann, 1962; Pichler, 1965; Yamagishi, 1987).
The resuItingautodastic deposits - autobreccia,hyalodastite
or peperite - typically comprise dense blocky or splintery
dasts, but they may be pumiceous and have fluidal shapes
(Fisher, 1960; Pichler, 1965; Busby-Spera and White, 1987;
Gifkins et al., 2002).
Syneruptive volcaniclasticfacies are composed dominandy
of unmodified volcanic dasts that were fragmented by
volcanic process such as explosive eruptions, autobrecciation
or hydration, but were transported and deposited by
sedimentary processes (McPhie et al., 1993; McPhie and
Allen, 2003). They can occur direcdy from eruption when
dasts bypass initial deposition as primary deposits and are
delivered direcdy to sedimentary transport and deposition
systems, such as subaqueous eruption-fed water-supported
gravity currents or water-setded fall (e.g. White, 2000;
McPhie and Allen, 2003). They may also occur indirecdy
by rapid remobilisation and redeposition during or shordy
after the eruption (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Cas and
Wright, 1987; McPhie et al., 1993). Unconsolidated volcanic
debris may be remobilised by: the slumping and sliding of
gravitationally unstable rapidly accumulated dastic debris;
explosive eruptions; local uplift; syn-depositional faulting;
and extrusion and intrusion of magma.
Volcanogenicsedimentary facies (epidastic volcanic, Fisher,
1960) contain volcanic partides derived from the post-
eruptive erosion and reworking of pre-existing volcanic facies
and may indude a significant proportion of non-volcanic
partides (McPhie et al., 1993).
In submarine volcanic successions, volcanidastic facies are
dominated by in situ autodastic and syneruptive volcanidastic
facies where the partides were derived from either autodastic
fragmentation or explosive eruption. Most volcanic and non-
volcanic dastic deposits were emplaced by water-supported
density currents (i.e. high- and low-concentration turbidity
currents, debris flows and grain flows) and as fallout from
suspension in the water column.
Volcanic
faciesassociations
A facies association is a collection of facies that are spatially,
mineralogically, compositionally or texturally related, and
that may also be genetically related (Cas and Wright, 1987).
There are three common types of volcanic units represented
by facies associations in submarine volcanic successions
(Fig. 1.1): lavas, synvolcanic intrusions (cryptodomes, sills
and dykes) and syneruptive volcanidastic facies. Lavas and
synvolcanic intrusions comprise associations of coherent and
auto das tic facies. The syneruptive volcanidastic facies can be
divided into two principal categories, those dominated by
non- to poorly-vesicular blocky lava dasts and related to the
submarine emplacement of lavas and lava domes, and others
that contain abundant pumice or scoria dasts produced by
explosive eruptions. In addition, there is a wide variety of
volcanogenic sedimentary facies.
l
Evidence
forsubmarine
environment
of
emplacement
VHMS deposits occur in submarine volcanic successions,
thus exploration fornew deposits is restricted to submarine
successions. However, there are few volcanic or sedimentary
facies that unequivocally constrain the host depositional
environment.
A subaqueous setting (marine or lacustrine) may be
interpreted based on the presence of: water-supported mass-
flow deposited facies; hemi-pelagic, biogenic, biochemical
and chemical sedimentary facies; pillow lavas; and quench
fragmented volcanidastic facies. Also seawater-related dia-
genetic alteration facies (e.g. widespread albite alteration
facies) can suggest a submarine environment.
Without fossil evidence, differentiating between marine
and lacustrine settings is difficult as few facies are restricted
to either environment. Facies with tidal and wave tractional
structures, such as bimodal-bipolar ripples, are submarine,
whereas lacustrine settings may be indicated by the presence
of evaporites. Hummocky cross stratification is more common
in, although not restricted to, marine settings. Carbon-oxygen
isotope signatures of carbonates can be used to support marine
or lacustrine environments.
Although bedforms, sedimentary structures and some
sedimentary deposits help us to interpret a marine environ-
ment, they are of little help in constraining the water depth.
Water depth may be an important consideration for mineral
exploration as recent research suggests that Au-rich VHMS
deposits are restricted to shallow water environments (e.g.
Hannington et al., 1999; Hannington and Herzig, 2000;
Herzig et al., 2000). Shallow water environments are typically
dominated by the tractional processes of tidal and wave
action and result in characteristic sedimentary structures
and bedforms. In contrast, deep water environments, below
storm wave base, generally lack tractional currents: sediment
distribution and deposition mainly occurs through the
actions of turbidity currents, debris flows and the process
of suspension sedimentation. Water depth and depositional
setting may be more accurately constrained by the presence
of fossiliferous limestone or sedimentary facies that contain
marine fossils intercalated in the volcanic succession.
1.2 I ALTERATION
INSUBMARINE
VOLCANIC
SUCCESSIONS
Mter emplacement, volcanic facies are commonly subjected
to a variety of alteration processes (Fig. 1.2). Alteration occurs
when existing components become unstable under changing
physical and chemical conditions, and alter to more stable
minerals. Volcanic glass, which is the main component of
many volcanic facies, is a metastable solid with the structure
of a liquid (Carmichael, 1979). Ir is undercooled to the point
where extreme viscosity has prevented crystallisation. As a
result, volcanic glass readily devitrifies to minerals that are
more stable under surface conditions; generally day minerals,
zeolites, carbonates, feldspar, quartz and oxides (Carmichael,
1979; Henley and Ellis, 1983; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984;
 ALTERATIONIN SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS I 3

; ~~~ /fI
~j

--
D

--
r...,
Massivesulfideore
Fault-relatedbreceias
Sedimentaryfacies
L~ -:j Mudstone
andturbidites
Volcaniclasticfacies
~""Kj Felsie
autoclastie
facies

-
Dominantly
coherent
faciesassociations
~+1 Carbonate 1;:.':qJMafieautoclastie
facies

Mafielavaor sill E:23 Mixed-provenanee

facies D Felsiesyneruptivepumiee-riehfacies

Felsie
lavas,dome,cryoptodome
orsill D Felsie
syneruptive
facies
Sub-voleaniegranitoid Ir"""'""""Mafiesyneruptive
facies
~ '."1 Voleanogenie
sed,mentary
facies

FIGURE 1.1 I Faciesmodelof a submarinebasin in which a varietyof coherentand clastic volcanicfacies are intercalatedwith sedimentaryfacies, The volcanic
facies includeprimarycoherentand autoclasticfacies, syneruptiveand post-eruptivevolcaniclasticfacies derivedfrom submarineand subaerialeruptions.Manyof
the volcanicfacies associationsare laterallydiscontinuous.Commonfacies associationsrepresent(A) lavasand lava domescomposedof coherentand autoclastic
facies;(B) synvolcanicsills and cryptodomes;(C) syneruptivevolcaniclasticfacies derivedfrom explosiveand effusivesubmarineeruptions;(D) volcanogenic
sedimentaryor resedimentedvolcaniclasticfacies derivedfrom pre-existingdeposits;(E) syneruptivevolcaniclasticfacies derivedfrom subaerialexplosiveeruptions;
(F) mixedprovenancesedimentaryfacies;and (G) marinesedimentaryfacies.

n--.

~ :-( ] jj
~)r
~

/fI

Diagenetiezone

FIGURE1.2 I Faciesmodelshowingthe distributionof differentstyles of alteredzonesin a submarinevolcanicsuccessionthat hostsVHMS deposits.See Figure

1.1legend for the patternsdenotingvolcanicand sedimentaryfacies.
4 I CHAPTER
1 ..

Friedman and Long, 1984; Cerling et al., 1985). Alteration
of volcanic glass involves not only devitrincation, but changes
in texture, composition, porosity and permeability, and may
simultaneously affect both the chemistry and circulation of
pore Huid in me volcanic succession (Noble, 1967; Dimroth
and Lichtblau, 1979; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Noh and
Boles, 1989; Torres et al., 1995).
Understanding alteration requires a range of skills that
include recognising alteration minerals, textures, paragenesis,
distribution, zonation, intensity, mineralogical and chemical
changes associated with alteration, pathways and mechanisms
for Huid migration, and Huid origino These characteristics are
related to the alteration processes and to the characteristics of
the host volcanic succession.
Devitrification
The cooling history of volcanic facies may involve primary
crystallisation and later devitrincation. Primary or high-
temperature crystallisation refers to crystallisation of magma
resulting in phenocrysts, microcrysts and microlites. In
contrast, devitrification refers to crystallisation of glass at low
temperatures (i.e. below the glass transition temperature:
Lofgren, 1971a). High-temperature devitrincation accom-
panying nrst cooling may produce spherulites, lithophysae
and micropoikilitic or snowHake texture (e.g. Lipman, 1965;
Anderson, 1969; Lofgren, 1971b; Bigger and Hanson,
1992; McArthur et al., 1998) and is not considered to be
alteration. Low-temperature devitrincation results in the
gradual conversion of glass to nne-grained granular crystalline
aggregates, which may happen over time as a result of
alteration during changing physical conditions or in response
to interaction with Huid. Devitrincation may be accompanied
by changes in whole-rock composition (Lipman, 1965;
Lofgren, 1971a; Friedman and Long, 1984).
the presence of Huid (seawater, magmatic Huid or a mixture of
both). There are gradations from isochemical metamorphism
to metasomatism with increasing compositional changes.
The different alteration processes, hydration, diagenesis,
metamorphism and local hydrothermal alteration, are all parr
of this continuum in submarine volcanic successions (Fig.
1.3).
The effects of each alteration process may be difficult
to distinguish. Hydrothermal alteration, diagenesis and
metamorphism can result in similar mineral assemblages
and textures. In addition, in many cases, different alteration
processes, such as diagenetic and hydrothermal alteration,
are contemporaneous and their products may be inseparable
(Iijima, 1974, 1978; Ohmoto, 1978; Reyes, 1990; Utada,
1991; Paradis et al., 1993).
In Chapters 5, 6, and 7 of this book, the common
alteration processes are grouped into those related to burial,
intrusions and VHMS deposits (Fig. 1.4). Thus, burial-
related alteration styles include hydration, diagenesis and
burial metamorphism. Alteration styles associated with
intrusions are hydrothermal alteration within intrusions,
contact metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration, and
regional hydrothermal alteration. Included below is a brief
introduction to each of the common alteration processes that
operate in submarine volcanic settings.
Hydration of volcanic glass
Hydration of glass involves the absorption of external
water into glass and modincation of the glass structure,
either during cooling or at ambient temperatures (Ross and
Smith, 1955; Friedman and Long, 1984). Hydration does
not directly produce new minerals, but can form perlitic
fractures or palagonite in basaltic glass and it can facilitate
subsequent alteration (see Chapter 5). Compositional changes

Alterationprocesses

Alteration may result from regional or local processes. Ir

can occur as a result of the interaction with hydrothermal r
e
Huid, as a result of changing physical (mainly temperature ,2
and pressure) conditions during burial, in association with '~:Q
c."
E;;:::
the emplacement of intrusions, or a combination of all these 0-0
ue
e'"
processes. Submarine volcanic facies, especially glassy facies, ---'"
Q)U
uO
are readily altered during hydration, diagenesis, hydrothermal e~
hydration
~t5 diagenesis
alteration, metamorphism and tectonic deformation. Q)O
:;:-'=
'Oe
Hydrothermal alteration is denned as the alteration of g>~
-- ;;:
rocks or minerals by the reaction of hydrothermal Huid UJ-
",Q)
metamorphism
Q).D
with pre-existing solid phases (Henley and Ellis, 1983): E
t; (contact and
regional)
Hydrothermal fluid is a hot aqueous solution or gas, with or
without demonstrable association with igneous processes.
.
Hydrothermal alteration usually results in signincant changes Increasing Iluid/rock ratio

in rock texture, mineralogy and composition.

Alteration is eimer metasomatic or isochemical. Meta- FIGURE 1.3 I This cartoondepictsthe continuumbetweenisochemical
somatism involves changes in mineralogy, texture and and hydrothermalalterationand showsthe alterationprocessescommonin
submarinevolcanicsuccessions-They are positionedbasedon the relative
composition, whereas isochemical alteration (or meta-
degrees01chemicalexchangetor each process-
morphism) involves mineralogical and textural changes
only. In submarine' volcanic successions, almost all alteration
involves some degree of metasomatism, which is facilitated by
'"
ALTERATIONIN SUBMARINEVOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS I 5

accompanying hydration indude gains in H2O, and minor
losses in silica and alkalis (Noble, 1967; Friedman and Long,
1984; Mungall and Martin, 1994).
Diagenesis
Diagenesis encompasses the changes that occur in response
to changing temperature and pressure during burial.
During diagenesis of volcanic facies, significant textural and
~
mineralogical changes can be produced by precipitation of
cement, dissolution and replacement of original components,
especially glass, and compaction (Fisher and Schmincke,
1984; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992; Torres et al., 1995). In
theory, diagenesis in submarine volcanic successions is a
metasomatic process involving minor chemical exchange
between the host facies and trapped modified seawater at low
temperatures «250°C). Transitions between diagenesis and
metamorphism, and diagenesis and hydrothermal alteration
have not been rigorously defined and are discussed in Sections
5.4 and 6.2.
j
Regional metamorphism
! et al., 1975; Riverin and Hodgson, 1980; Green et al., 1983;
Regional metamorphism involves pervasive, mainly iso-
chemical, mineralogical and textural changes in response to
increasing pressure and temperature (Yardley, 1989). During
.; metamorphism, H20 and CO2-bearing Huids are generated
by dehydration and decatbonation reactions (Rose and Burt,
1979).
Contact alteration associated with intrusions
; Contact alteratíon refers to the changes caused by the rise in
temperature of the host rack immediately surrounding an
intrusion, which may be accompanied by the circulation of
heated pote Huids around and within the intrusion. Contact
alteration can be isochemical (i.e. contact metamorphism)
or metasomatic (i.e. hydrothermal alteration). Contact
metamorphism rypically results in recrystallisation of existing
minerals or components and minor remobilisation of elements
(Yardley, 1989). The effects of hydrothermal alteration
may indude major changes in texture, mineral assemblage
and whole-rock composition on a scale of centimetres to
kilometres.
Hydrothermal alteration related to VHMS deposits
Two sryles of hydrothermal alteration are commonly related
to VHMS mineralisation: (1) local alteration halos around
ore deposits; and (2) regional hydrothermally altered zones.
Regional hydrothermally altered zones are commonly spatially
and genetically associated with large intrusions and hence
in this book are discussed in Chapter 6 - intrusion-related
alteration sryles.
Local hydrothermally altered halo s around VHMS
deposits result from the reaction between the host facies and
the mineralising hydrothermal Huid (Sangster, 1972; Franklin
Urabe et al., 1983). These altered halos are commonly zoned,
reHecting changes in the composition, pH and temperature
of the hydrothermal Huid with time, or the extent of reaction
with the host facies (Rose and Burt, 1979; Lydon and Galley,
1986; Schardt et al., 2001).
The nature ofalteredhalos around VHMS deposits depends
on the host volcanic facies, host-rock composition, timing of
the hydrothermal alteration relative to the emplacement or
deposition of facies, structures, Huid pathways, distribution
pattern of the ore, and chemical and physical conditions of the
hydrothermal Huid (Large, 1992). Thus altered halos around
VHMS deposits exhibit a wide variery of geometries, sizes,

J
CONTEXT ALTERATION
PROCESS ALTERED
ZONE
Glassyfacies - Hydration
,
... Diagenesis Diagenetic
zone
Regional
stratigraphy ~ Surialmetamorphism Metamorphic
zone
~ Regionalmetamorphism Metamorphic
zone
-"" Tectonic
fabrics Syntectonic alteration-
hydrothermal Hydrothermally
alteredzone
Contact altertion
hydrothermal
Contactmetamorphism- ~ Contactalteredzone

...i
Intrusion
Localhydrothermalalteration
Deutericalteration -
---=. Alteredzoneswithinintrusion

Rechargezone
¡

VHMSoredeposit
Regionalhydrothermalalteration

~ Deep,semi-conformablealteredzone
Dischargezone
Alteredfootwallzone
Localhydrothermal
alteration-<::::::
Alteredhanging-wall
zone

FIGURE1.4 I Commonalterationprocessesand their products.

6 I CHAPTER
1
alteration mineral assemblages, intensities, compositions, and
zones (Chapter 7).
Thick, extensive (up to 20 km), pervasive sub-horizontal
semi-conformable altered zones, referred to as regional
hydrothermal alteration zones or deep semi-conformable
alteration zones (Section 6.2), have been recognised in some
volcanic successions hosting VHMS deposits (Gibson et al.,
1983; Galley, 1993). Many of these regional hydrothermally
altered zones are spatially associated with, and possibly
genetically related to, intrusions (Galley, 1993; Brauhart et
al., 1998). They are interpreted to result from large-scale
convection of seawater through permeable volcanic successions
at elevated geothermal gradients (Spooner and Fyfe, 1973;
Munha and Kerrich, 1980; Baker, 1985). Reactions between
the volcanic successions and modified seawater have involved
Na-, Si-, Ca-Fe-, K-, or Mg-metasomatism, and the leaching
of ore-forming metals (Munha and Kerrich, 1980; Gibson et
al., 1983; Baker, 1985; Galley, 1993).
Syntectonic hydrothermal alteration
Hydrothermal alteration can also be synchronous with
tectonic deformation: syntectonic hydrothermal alteration. In
this case, the hydrothermal fluid may be modified seawater,
magmatic water or volatiles released during metamorphism,
or a combination of these, and migrates principally along
faults and shear zones. Contemporaneous deformation
may modifY or destroy pre-existing textures and create new
textures or foliations.
Many VHMS deposits, such as Rosebery, Hercules and
Mount Lyell (western Tasmania), have been affected by
later tectonic deformation and modified by syntectonic
hydrothermal fluids (Walshe and Solomon, 1981; Khin Zaw
and Large, 1992). Although syntectonic hydrothermal fluids
were not responsible for the formation of these VHMS ores,
they can be critical to the subsequent formation of other styles
of ore deposits in the submarine volcanic successions, such as
mesothermal gold deposits. Oetailed discussion of syntectonic
hydrothermal alteration is not dealt with in this book.
Characteristicsinheritedfromvolcanicfacies
Volcanic components and facies with different compositions
and textures behave differendy during the initial stages of
low-temperature alteration. Some components react more
rapidly than others and their composition may influence
the composition of the alteration mineral assemblage. For
example, Marsaglia and Tazaki (1992), in their study of
diagenetic trends in volcaniclastic sandstones of the lzu-
Bonin Arc, found that black mafic crystalline fragments were
unaltered, brown intermediate to mafic glassy fragments
showed evidence of dissolution, and colourless rhyolitic
fragments were altered to clay minerals. These differences
were due to the variable reactivity of the components and the
proportions of volcanic glass to crystalline facies.
Generally glass is the most reactive component, followed
by olivine --'» magnetite, titanomagnetite and ilmenite
pyroxene and amphibole --'» biotite --'» Ca-plagioclase
microcline, sanidine and orthoclase --'» quartz, apatite, rutile
and zircon (Browne, 1978; Reyes, 1990). Alteration rates
for different minerals vary considerably because of mineral
structure and composition. Silicate materials with an extensive
cross-linked (e.g. tetrosilicate) structure react slowly; whereas
those silicates with poorly connected fabric tend to react
rapidly and uniformly (Casey and Bunker, 1990).
Felsic volcanic facies typically have a higher proportion of
glassy to crystalline facies than mafic facies. This is because
the viscosity of silicic magmas (71-77% Si02) inhibits
diffusive crystal growth and thus produces thick bodies of
glass, whereas the low viscosity of basaltic magmas favours
crystallisation (Friedman and Long, 1984).
Glassy facies or facies that contain glassy fragments are
likely to be more rapidly altered, and to form different mineral
assemblages, than those that are crystalline (Lee and Klein,
1986). In addition, mafic glasses are more rapidly altered than
felsic glasses (e.g. Whetten and Hawkins, 1970; Fisher and
Schmincke, 1984; Friedman and Long, 1984). The rate of
alteration is related to the glass's viscosity, which in turn is
a function of the composition (particularly Si02 and H2O)
and temperature (Friedman and Long, 1984). Increased Si02
decreases the rate of alteration, whereas increased MgO, CaO
and H20 increases the rateoThus the higher Si02 content of
rhyolitic glasses retards reaction (Hawkins, 1981).
The primary composition can influence the alteration
mineralogy mainly because the dissolution of glass liberates
alkalis and silica, which are consumed by subsequent
reactions. Hence, highly silicic volcanic facies result in the
crystallisation of Si- and Na-rich minerals, such as opal,
quartz, tridymite, cristobalite and Na-zeolites (Sheppard et
al., 1988). In contrast, mafic glasses, such as those on pillow
rims, alter to Ca-, Fe-, Mg- and Mn-rich minerals such as
smectites, phillipsite, oxides and chlorite.
Volcaniclastic facies, particularly pumice-rich facies,
initially have very high porosities. In volcaniclastic facies, the
inter- and intra-particle pore space controls the porosity and
permeability and thus grain size, type and sorting influence
the distribution of early alteration facies. Early diagenetic
alteration in well-sorted pumice breccias, although commonly
patchy, is pervasive. In poorly sorted polymictic volcaniclastic
facies the porosity and permeability are initially much
more variable and diagenetic facies typically have complex
distribution patterns.
Coherent facies have much lower porosity and permea-
bility, factors that are controlled by fractures produced by
quenching, flowage and hydration. Alteration in coherent
facies typically progresses as fronts that move outward from
fractures into the less altered domains (e.g. the alteration of
perlite, Noh and Boles, 1989).
In addition, patchy or domainal alteration styles in
volcaniclastic facies may also be related to variations in the
quenching and hydration of glassy clasts (Surdam, 1973;
Boles and Coombs, 1977; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992).
Hydrothermal experiments on rhyolitic glass indicate that
at high temperatures (>200°C), rhyolitic glass does not
recrystallise but instead acts as Na- K ion exchanger. Quenched
glass fixes K+,whereas slowly cooled glass fixes Na+. Therefore
variations in cooling history may explain why some glassy
--'» fragments alter more readily to particular minerals than others
--'» (Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992).
 ALTERATIONIN SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS I 7

1.3 I GEOLOGYOFTHEMOUNTREAD the south through Queenstown and Rosebery to Oeloraine in

VOLCANICS
Many of the examples of altered volcanic rocks and alteration
systems discussed in the following chapters come from the
Middle to Late Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics in western
Tasmania. The Mount Read Volcanics are a submarine
succession of rhyolitic to basaltic volcanic and intrusive
rocks with variable proportions of intercalated sedimentary
rocks. They are interpreted as the products of post-collisional
volcanism associated with arc-continent collision (Berry and
Crawford, 1988; Crawford and Berry, 1992). The succession
occurs in a 200 x 20 km area that extends from Elliott Bay in
the north (Fig. 1.5). The volcanic succession was deposited
in a series of troughs separated by areas of Proterozoic
basement (Corbett and Lees, 1987; Corbett, 1992; Crawford
and Berry, 1992). The Mount Read Volcanics host gold,
silver and base-metal massive sulfide (VHMS) ore deposits
at Hellyer, Que River, Rosebery, Hercules, Henty and Mount
Lyell (Fig. 1.5). The mineral district is referred to as the
Mount Read province.
The Mount Read Volcanics have undergone diagenetic
and hydrothermal alteration, metamorphism, at least two
phases of deformation, and intrusion by Cambrian and
Oevonian granites (Corbett and Lees, 1987; Corbett, 1992).

o 5 10 km
L 1 I

LEGEND
~f¡§;:;~fI:I Devonian granite

(j)
'"
c::=J Tyndall Group
"c '

ro
'" "1, Western volcano-sedimentary
l' "', ,
(Dundas Group and equivalents) sequences
g1:)
ro
<D
c::::::JAndesites and basalts
a:
"E
::o
o
c::=J Eastern quartz-phyric sequence
:;;;
e
ro
1I1\~~1I Granite and related porphyry
E
E
ro
()
c::::=JCentral Volcanic Complex
Sticht Range Beds

c::=J Other rocks

~ Mine

. Township

Major fault

~ Major road

w
E
o
oo
o
o
"<t 1m

FIGURE1.5 I Distribution 01the principallithostratigraphic units and major massive sullide deposits in the central Cambrian Mount ReadVolcanics,western
Tasmania.Modifiedafter Corbe!!(1992,2002).
8 I CHAPTER
1

~ Owen ~ ,...,

con910merate. / / TYnda
1/2 11Gr°o:?
... ..'. {
[
r -
Q o~o / .~
,.. ...

:°":-' o .

MountCripps/.~ - -
.

''
' '.. ...
.
.

.
>} ~
n>,., II;~
t
l. >
f.=
..:-
.

,. ,."
.. ..,.
'., .",.:, Western volcano~$édimentary sequE:!l1c;es

t: ~ .
'" A
>

roa.
-c'"
I (:)0
, §c;
o
5
::¡;

11

FIGURE 1.6 I Stratigraphiccorrelationdiagramshowingthe major lithostratigraphicunitsin the MountReadVolcanicsto the west (A) and east (B) 01the Henty
lault. The sections are locatedat (1) Hellyer-QueRiver,(2) Pinnacles,(3) Hollway,(4) Mount Black,(5) Rosebery-Hercules,(6) White Spur,(7) Hall RivuletCanal,
(8) MurchisonGorge,(9) Henty,(10) South Henty,(11)Anthony Road,(12) Comstock-Lyell,(13) Lynchlord,(14) Jukes-Darwin.Sectionsare modiliedalter Fitzgerald
(1974), Corbett(1979,1992,2001), Cox (1981), Komyshan(1986),Coutts(1990),Allen (1991),Dugdale(1992),Watersand Wallace(1992),Jones(1993,1999),
McKibben(1993), Herrmannand MacDonald(1996), McPhie(1996),White and McPhie(1996,1997), Callaghan(2001),Gifkins(2001)and Wyman(2001).

(A) Tothe west 01the Hentylault, the CentralVolcanicComplexinterfingerswith, and is conlormablyand disconlormablyoverlainby,the Dundasand Mount Charter
Groups01the western volcano-sedimentarysequences(Corbettand Lees,1987; Corbett,1992).Immediatelyoverlyingthe CentralVolcanicComplexis a variety
01small-volumesedimentary(Black Harrybedsand AnimalCreekgreywacke)and volcanicunits (rhyoliteand pumicebreccia).These unitsare overlainby the
Que-HellyerVolcanics,a succession01calc-alkalineto shoshonitic,interrnediateto mafic lavasand volcaniclasticunits (Corbettand Komyshan,1989;Waters and
Wallace, 1992).The Que-HellyerVolcanicshostthe Que Riverand Hellyerore deposits,and extendvia Sock Creekto BurnsPeak and Pinnacles(Le.the Brown's
tunnel sequence).The Que River Shale overliesthe Que-HellyerVolcanicsand is similar to mudstonein other lithostratigraphicunits01the Mount ReadVolcanics.
The SouthwellSubgroupoverliesthe Que River Shale and is lithologicallysimilarto the White Spur Forrnationand the Roseberyhanging-wallvolcaniclasticunits,
comprisingquartz-bearingvolcaniclasticmass-ftowunits interbeddedwith black mudstoneand Precambrianbasement-derivedturbidites(Corbett,1992; McPhieand
Allen, 1992).Overlyingthe SouthwellSubgroupis the MountCharterGroup in which the upper Mount CrippsSubgroupis a correlate01the TyndallGroup (Corbett,
1992).

Although the primary textures, mineralogies and whole-rock The geology of the Mount Read Volcanics has been
compositions have been modifled to various degrees, volcanic described in detail by Campana and King (1963), Corbett
textures are gene rally well preserved. Locally, two regional (1981, 1986, 1992, 1994), Corbett and Lees (1987), Corbett
tectonic cleavages have been recognised; however, the axial and 50lomon (1989), Pemberton and Corbett (1992), McPhie
planar 52 Oevonian cleavage is the dominant cleavage. 52 andAllen (1992) and Crawford et al. (1992).
strikes north, dips steeply and varies from a weak, spaced
cleavage to an intense, pervasive, anastomosing cleavage in
the most strongly deformed rocks adjacent to faults and in
phyllosilicate-rich altered zones.
 ALTERATIONIN SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS I 9

B -- ~--
9
-- ~
Tyndall
Group
Owen Conglom~rate
--
14
8

Murehison
voleanies

Murehison
granite
\J
Eastern quartz-
phyric sequence Coroplex
,,,

~Ran.e~-->-
Lavas and intrusions Syneruptive volcaniclastic facies Laminated quartz-poor, crystal-rich
associations F~~-=-J volcanic sandstone and breccia

LJ Ouartz + feldspar-phyric rhyolite

~ Pumice breccia
~ Ouartz-phyric pumice-rich
laminated sandstone and siltstone
~ Feldspar-phyric rhyolite
~ Resedimented volcaniclastic facies
associations ~ Polymictic volcanic conglomerate
and sandstone

¡¿::J Feldspar-phyric dacite

~
~
Felsic breccia
\mi Volcanic breccia with mudstone
matrix
~ Andesite
~ r;7I Malic breccia Sedimentary facies
r;:v:;-;J Basalt ~
~
I/?'wl Jigsaw-fitfelsicbreccia
~ Pumice- and rhyolite-rich
breccia ~ o 0:'61
G conglomerate
Siliciclastic sandstone and

I~I EB Ouartz-phyric polymictic volcanic

breccia and sandstone
lilliliTIJ Crystal-rich polymictic sandstone

r++1
Jigsaw-fit mafic breccia
Granite l~tA~ Ouartz-phyric rhyolite breccia ~
====-
Carbonate

Lt LJ Black pyritic mudstone

~ Massive or graded crystal-rich
Pyroclastic facies Li;J sandstone

r~ ;:1 Welded ignimbrite ~ Laminated crystal-rich sandstone

rc::J Ouartz-rich volcanic sandstone $ Massive sulfides

(B)Tothe east01the Hentylault, the Easternquartz-phyricsequenceoverliesthe Sticht RangeBeds, interfingerswith the CentralVolcanicComplexand is
conlormablyoverlainby the westernvolcano-sedimentarysequences(FarrellSlates).The southernCentralVolcanicComplexis flanked to the west by the Yolande
RiverSequence,parl 01the westernvolcano-sedimentarysequences.Tothe east, it interfingerswith the Easternquartz-phyricsequenceand is overlain by the
TyndallGroup(Corbett,1992)and locally by andesiteand basalt lensesthat occur betweenHentyand Queenstown(Anthony Roadandesite,Crown HiIIandesite,
Howardsbasalt,Spillwaybasalt,and Lynchlordbasalt).The CambrianMurchisonand Darwingranitesintrudedthe successionin the Mount Murchisonand Mount
Darwinareas(Corbettand Lees,1987; Corbett,1992).The Tyndall Groupis the youngestlithostratigraphicuni!. It extends norlh-southalong the eastern margin01the
successionwhereit unconlormablyoverliesTyennanbasement,Sticht RangeBeds,southernCentralVolcanicComplex,Easternquartz-phyricsequence,western
volcano-sedimentary
sequences,and the DarwinGranite(Corbettand Lees, 1987;White and McPhie,1997).The OwenConglomerateoverlies the Mount Read
Volcanicsbothconlormablyand unconlormably.

Stratigraphy
of the MountReadVolcanics
The stratigraphy of the Mount Read Volcanics can be divided
into (Figs 1.5 and 1.6): Sticht Range Beds, Eastern quartz-
phyric sequence, Central Volcanic Complex, western volcano-
sedimentary sequences, and the Tyndall Group and correlates
(Corbett, 1992). These lithostratigraphic units comprise
compositionally and texturally diverse coherent volcanic and
volcaniclastic facies intercalated with sedimentary rocks, which
are distinguished and mapped on the basis of the dominant
facies. The principal volcanic facies associations are lavas,
synvolcanic intrusions and syneruptive volcaniclastic units
(McPhie and Allen, 1992). Lavas and synvolcanic intrusions
are predominandy calc-alkaline rhyolites and dacites with
locally abundant andesites and basalts (Crawford et al.,
1992). The volcaniclastic facies associations indude a variery
of primary and secondary volcanidastic facies induding
thick extensive syneruptive pumice- and crystal-rich units
and in situ and resedimented hyaloclastite (McPhie and
Allen, 1992). Sedimentary facies indude black mudstone,
and graded, bedded sandstone of mixed volcanic and meta-
sedimentary Precambrian basement provenance (McPhie and
Allen, 1992).
Regional stratigraphic relationships between the litho-
stratigraphic units are complex and laterally variable
(Fig. 1.6). The Mount Read Volcanics are conformably and
1O I 1
CHAPTER
unconformably overlain by the Owen GtOUP,a thick sequence
of Late Cambrian-Early Ordovician siliciclastic, shallow
marine to fluvial conglomerate and sandstone (Corben,
1992; White, 1996).
VHMS deposits occur in a variery of volcanic facies in
three of the main lithostratigraphic subdivisions of the
Mount Read Volcanics (McPhie and Allen, 1992; Pemberton
and Corben, 1992; Waters and Wallace, 1992). In particular,
VHMS deposits ate interpreted to occur: (1) at the top of the
Central Volcanic Complex, close to large felsic volcanic centres
(Rosebery, Hercules and Mount Lyell); (2) associated with
proximal facies of andesite-dacite volcanoes in the western
volcano-sedimentary sequences (Hellyer and Que River); and
(3) in the base of the Tyndall Group (Henry and Comstock)
(Corbett and Solomon, 1989; Halley and Roberts, 1997).
Sticht Range Beds
The Sticht Range Beds are a thin «500 m) basal succession
of interbedded basement-derived sedimentary rocks and
volcaniclastic rocks that occur along the eastern margin of the
Mount Read Volcanics (Fig. 1.5: Baillie, 1989).
Eastern quartz-phyric sequeuce
The Eastern quattz-phyric sequence is a 2.5 km-thick
succession of quartz + feldspar-phyric lavas, synvolcanic
intrusions and volcaniclastic units limited to the eastern
margin of the Mount Read Volcanics (Fig. 1.5: Polya, 1981;
Polya et al., 1986; Pemberton et al., 1991; Corbett, 1992).
Central Volcanic Complex
The 3 km-thick Central Volcanic Complex dominates the
central part of the Mount Read Volcanics between Mount
Darwin and Mount Block (Fig. 1.5: Corben, 1979). Ir consists
of feldspat-phyric rhyolitic and dacitic lavas, synvolcanic
intrusions and pumiceous volcaniclastic units (Corben, 1979,
1992; Corbett and Lees, 1987; Corben and Solomon, 1989;
Pemberton and Corben, 1992; Gifkins, 2001). Andesites
and basalts are locally intercalated with the felsic succession
(Crawford et al., 1992). Quartz + feldspar-phyric intrusions
and tholeiitic basalt and dolerite dykes (Henry dyke swarm)
occur throughour the northern Central Volcanic Complex
(Corben and Solomon, 1989; Crawford et al., 1992).
Western volcano-sedimentary sequences
The western volcano-sedimentary sequences include the
Yolande River Sequence, Dundas Group, Mount Charter
Group and Henry fault wedge sequence (Corben, 1992).
These sequences are thick (>3 km) mainly sedimentary
successions of quartz + feldspar-phyric volcaniclastic facies,
mixed provenance sandstone and mudstone intercalated
with rhyolitic, andesitic and basaltic lavas and synvolcanic
intrusions, (Corben and Lees, 1987; Corben, 1989; McPhie
and Allen, 1992). The volcaniclastic facies contain a diverse
range of clasts including quartz + feldspar porphyry, feldspar-
phyric rhyolite, pumice, granite and massive sulfide clasts.
Tyndall Group and correlates
The Tyndall Group is the youngest lithostratigraphic unit
in the Mount Read Volcanics. Ir extends along the eastern
margin and locally along the western side of the succession
(Fig. 1.5). The Tyndall Group varies in thickness from 350 to
1300 m and comprises distinctive quartz + feldspar crystal-
rich sandstone, volcanic breccia and volcanic conglomerate
intercalated with minor rhyolitic welded ignimbrite, felsic
to intermediate lavas and intrusions, and non-volcanic
sedimentary rocks including limestone, mudstone and
sandstone (White and McPhie, 1996, 1997).
Cambrian granites
Five Cambrian granitoids (commonly referred to as 'granites')
have been recognised in western Tasmania: the Murchison,
Darwin, Ellion Bay, Dove and Timber Tops granites (Leaman
and Richardson, 1989). Cambrian granites may also occur
at depth in a belt that extends along the eastern margin of
the Mount Read Volcanics between Mount Darwin and
Mount Murchison (Large et al., 1996). They are rypically
medium grained quartz + K-feldspar + plagio clase + biotite +
hornblende :t apatite :t zircon :t rutile granite or granodiorite
(McNeill and Corben, 1992). They intrude the western
volcano-sedimentary sequences, Central Volcanics Complex
and Eastern quattz-phyric sequence and are unconformably
overlain by the Tyndall Group in the Murchison and Darwin
areas (Corben, 1992). They are interpreted to be subvolcanic
intrusions genetically related to the host volcanic succession
(Solomon,1981).
Submarine
faciesassociations
andarchitecture
The Mount Read Volcanics were deposited in a predominandy
below wave-base, moderate to relatively deep submarine
sening. This interpretation is supported by the presence of
trilobite and other marine fossils, fossiliferous limestone,
turbidites and black pyritic mudstone in the sedimentary
facies association Qago et al., 1972; McPhie and Allen, 1992).
The presence of massive sulfide ore deposits, very thick
volcaniclastic mass-flow units, hyaloclastite, peperite and
pillow lava in the volcanic facies association are also consistent
with a subaqueous environment (Corben, 1992; McPhie and
Allen, 1992; Waters and Wallace, 1992).
The essential elements of the facies architecture in
the Mount Read Volcanics are a variery of volcanic and
sedimentary facies associations that include lavas, lava
domes, synvolcanic intrusions and diverse volcaniclastic
units (McPhie and Allen, 1992). Lavas and sills oCCUt
separately or in clusters in the succession (McPhie and
Allen, 1992). The foUt common rypes of volcaniclastic
facies associations in the Mount Read Volcanics are: (1)
very thick (tens of metres), massive to graded beds of
rhyolitic to dacitic pumice breccia; (2) very thick, massive

to diffusely stratified units of crystal-rich (feldspar, quarrz,
dinopyroxene) sandstone; (3) thick to very thick, massive to
graded beds of polymictic volcanic conglomerate or breccia;
and (4) massive or laminated shard-rich siltstone (McPhie
and Allen, 1992). Many of these volcanidastic facies contain
a high proporrion of crystals, crystal fragments, shards and
pumice dasts, which are interpreted to be juvenile pyrodasts
transporred by water-supporred graviry flows (McPhie and
Allen, 1992). The sedimentary facies association comprises
conglomerate, sandstone, interbedded turbiditic sandstone
and mudstone, mudstone, and fossiliferous carbonate (Selley,
1997; Large et al., 2001a; McPhie and Allen, 2003). These
facies are of non-volcanic and mixed provenance, and indude
pelagic marine sediment, meta-sedimentary and ultramafic
(bonninite, gabbro, peridote) rock fragments derived from
the Precambrian basement, and volcanic dasts and crystals.
There are regional variations in the proporrion of volcanic
versus sedimentary facies, the rypes of volcanic facies and the
dominant magma composition. Volcanic facies associations
locally dominate the srratigraphy (e.g. at Rosebery) where-
as, elsewhere, volcanic facies are intercalated with, or sub-
ordinate to, sedimentary facies (e.g. in the hanging wall at
Hellyer). Parrs of the volcanic succession are dominated
by the products of effusive, intrabasinal eruptions, such as
the andesitic lavas and domes in the footwall of the Hellyer
deposit (McPhie and Allen, 1992). In contrast, other areas
are dominated by volcanic facies generated by explosive
eruptions, such as the crystal and pumice-rich volcanidastic
units of the White Spur Formation (McPhie and Allen, 1992;
McPhie and Allen, 2003). The volcanic facies associations also
display marked regional variations in composition. Rhyolite
and dacite dominate much of the succession (~90% of the
mapped area of the central Mount Read Volcanics: Gifkins
and Kimber, 2004); however, intermediate to mafic volcanic
facies are locally imporrant at Hellyer and between Henry and
Queenstown (Corbett, 1992; Crawford et al., 1992; Large et
al.,2001a).
Post-depositional
alterationprocesses
Formerly glassy or partly glassy volcanic rocks dominate
the Mount Read Volcanics. These rocks have textures and
compositions that reflect subsequent modification by a
variery of processes, which indude: hydration, diagenesis,
hydrothermal alteration, regional and contact metamorphism,
and deformation.
ALTERATION
INSUBMARINE
VOLCANIC
SUCCESSIONS I 11
Two regional Cambrian diagenetic zones (albite zone
and epidote zone, Section 5.6) are preserved in the norrhern
Central Volcanic Complex (Gifkins, 2001). Locally, hydro-
thermal alteration and mineralisation was synchronous with
diagenesis. In addition, altered halo s developed around thick
synvolcanic intrusions and Cambrian granites (Eastoe et al.,
1987; Large et al., 1996; Gifkins, 2001).
The Mount Read Volcanics were faulted during the
Middle to Late Cambrian and more extensively deformed,
folded and faulted during the Early to Middle Oevonian
(Corbett and Lees, 1987; Crawford and Berry, 1992).
Regional metamorphism to lower greenschist facies produced
assemblages of quarrz, albite, sericite, calcite, chlorite,
tremolite-actinolite, K-feldspar, epidote and biotite, and was
contemporaneous with the Oevonian deformation (Corbett,
1981; Green et al., 1981; Walshe and Solomon, 1981;
Corbett and Solomon, 1989). Ouring the Late Oevonian to
Early Carboniferous, contact metamorphism was associated
with the intrusion of 1- and S- rype granites (Corbett and
Lees, 1987; Williams et al., 1989; Corbett, 1992).
Mineraldepositsandprospects
In 2004, the Mount Read province contained two major
operating base-metal-sulfide mines (Rosebery and Mount
Lyell), one gold mine (Henry), and a number of exhausted
and smaller sub-economic deposits or prospects. Published
resource estimates are listed in Table 1.1.
The Hellyer polymetallic massive sulfide deposit was a
das sic mound-shaped ore body discovered by a combination
of geophysical, geological and geochemical exploration
techniques in 1982 (Sise and Jack, 1984). Production
commenced in 1989 and mining was complete by 2000. The
high grade and simple geometry of the Hellyer ore body made
it a profitable operation although metal recoveries were low
due to the fine grainsize of the sulfides.
The Que River polymetallic massive sulfide deposit was a
small deposit comprising five steeply dipping ore lenses (four
Zn + Pb rich and one Cu rich). Ir was discovered in early 1974
by airborne electromagnetic and soil geochemical exploration
(Webster and Skey, 1979). Production from the Que River
deposit occurred from 1981 to late 1991.
Rosebery is the largest polymetallic massive sulfide deposit
in western Tasmania. Ir comprises at least 16 separate stacked
ore lenses over a strike length of 1.5 km. The deposit was
initially discovered in 1893 when prospectors traced gold and

Table1.1 I Tonnages
andgradesof massivesulfidedepositsintheMountReadprovince(DatafromMineralResourcesTasmania,
Pasminco
MiningandExploration
Goldfields
P/L,andGemmell andFulton,2001:insituvaluesbasedonaveragemetalpricesin2000).

Zn Pb Cu Ag Au situ value
Deposit tx 106 ,l3orm Stafus
d. wt%._ w!% ,wt% gtt...-gft , US$billion .-....-.-
Hellyer 16.2 13.9 7.1 0.4 168 2.5 3.99 Massivelens Pastproducer
QueRiver 3.1 13.5 7.5 0.6 200 3.4 0.81 Stratabound
sheet Pastproducer

Rosebery 32.1 14.7 4.5 0.58 146 2.3 7.76 Stratabound

sheets Currentmine
Hercules 2.7 15.9 5.1 0.4 159 2.54 0.71 Stratabound
sheets Pastproducer
Henty-Mount
Julia 2.2 - - 12.1 0.23 Sheet-like Currentmine

MountLyellfield 311 0.04 0.01 0.97 7 0.31 6.83 Disseminated Currentmine

12 I CHAPTER
1
massive sulfide boulders ro rheir source in Rosebery Creek.
However, large-scale mining did nor begin until rhe 1930s
when high zinc prices helped ro raise rhe capiral ro build a
concentraring milI (Lees et al., 1990).
The Hercules polymetalIic massive sulfide deposit consist-
ed of numerous small (100 x 100 x 5-10 m) lenses that were
folded and attenuated during Devonian deformation (Lees et
al., 1990). The main Hercules ore bodies were discovered in
1894 and sporadic mining continued until 1936 when the
mine began fulI production. However, rhe thin discontinuous
nature of the ore lenses and the old fashioned underground
operation contributed to the close of the mine in 1986. From
1996 ro 1999 mining occutred on a small scale, both in the
old open cut mine and underground, ro provide feed for the
Rosebery milI.
The Mount LyelI field comprises 21 different ore bodies
enclosed in a large altered zone (Corbett, 2001). The LyelI
ore bodies are parrs of the oldest and longest-running mine
in Tasmania; commencing initialIy as a gold mine in 1893
ro work alluvial gold shed from an exposed gossan (the !ron
Blow) and then in 1896 as a copper mine when work began
beneath the Au + Ag-rich gossan. The Mount LyelI field
has had a tutbulent hisrory due to financial problems and
flucruating copper prices. Production since 1990 has been
from the disseminated chalcopyrite + pyrite Prince LyelI
deposit. Although generalIy classified with the more typical
VHMS deposits in the Mount Read province (e.g. HelIyer,
Que River, Rosebery and Hercules), the Mount LyelI field is
particularly large and Cu-Au rich.
The Henty gold deposit consists of five smalIlenses, which
total ~2.2 Mt. In the early 1970s, coincident gradient array
induced polarisation (IP) and soil geochemical anomalies
identified a small semi-massive base-metal prospect at
Henty. However, it was 1982-83 before re-assaying for gold
stimulated a persistent drilIing program and the ultimate
recognition in 1989 of Henty's gold potential (Halley and
Roberrs, 1997). Underground producrion began in 1996
and continues roday. The Henty deposit, a gold-rich, sulfide-
poor disseminated ore, is unlike other VHMS deposits in the
Mount Read province.
1.4 I GEOLOGY
OFTHEMOUNT
WINDSOR
SUBPROVINCE
The Mount Windsor Subprovince is an early Palaeozoic
volcano-sedimentary terrane in the norrhern parr of the
Tasman Orogenic Zone in norrheast Queensland. Ir extends
as a series of partly dismembered and covered inliers, in a 165
km-long east-to-west belt between Ravenswood and Pentland
(Fig. 1.7: Henderson, 1986).
The Subprovince includes the Seventy Mile Range Group,
a volcano-sedimentary succession deposited on attenuated
continental crust in a Cambro-Ordovician extensional back-
arc basin. The Seventy Mile Range Group has undergone
diagenetic and hydrothermal alteration, low-grade regional
metamorphism, and deformation and contact metamorphism
associated with contemporaneous emplacement of Mid-Late
Ordovician granites (Berry et al., 1992). The Mount Windsor
Subprovince (Fig. 1.7) hosts major base-metal massive sulfide
deposits (Thalanga and Highway-Reward) and several smaller
prospects (Liontown, Handcuff, Waterloo and Magpie).
The geology of the Mount Windsor Subprovince has been
described by Henderson (1986), Berry et al. (1992), Srolz
(1995) and Simpson (2001).
Stratigraphy
oftheSeventyMileRangeGroup
The Seventy Mile Range Group comprises four conformable
Late Cambrian ro Early Ordovician formations known as,

++ ++++

20°30'5
146°00' ifJ (fP
,
C
roC CIJa.
Tertiary D Campaspe Fm :.
>..0
e e e el undifferentiated

RolIston Range Fm
=:::s
:2 e
°E >.C)
1::ro
eCIJO)
',--~\ Triassic :::: Warang Sandstone 00
(¡;(¡;
:;:0..
Trooper Creek Fm
~ " ~1Mount Windsor Fm
CIJ

11;¡ij
Queensland Tow~'e
. Chart." Devon.ian-
Ordovlclan D Ravenswood Batholith
00..
....I::J
Puddler Creek Fm (/) o::
Towe"1

FIGURE 1.7 I Distribution ofthe principallithostratigraphic units and major massive sulfide deposits in the Seventy Mile Range Group between Waddys Mili and
Sunrise Spur. Modifiedalter Berryet al. (1992) and Doyleand Huston(1999).

l
 ALTERATIONIN SUBMARINE VOLCANIC SUCCESSIONS I 13

in stratigraphic order, the Puddler Creek, Mount Windsor,
Trooper Creek and RolIston Range formations (Henderson,
1986; Paulick and McPhie, 1999). These have a total thickness
of at least 14 km (Henderson, 1986) and generally young to
the south. The four formations respectively represent initial
continent-derived sedimentation and minor rift-related mafic
volcanism, succeeded by voluminous eruptions of crustally
derived rhyolitic magmas, abrupdy followed by mixed mafic-
felsic volcanism derived from subduction-modified mande,
and culminating in deep-water fine-grained sedimentation
(Stolz, 1995). The stratigraphic relationships and lithologies
are summarised in Figure 1.8.
Rollston Range Formation
The uppermost formation of the Seventy Mile Range Group,
the RolIston Range Formation, is poorly exposed, except in
the southern central pan of the belt where it has a minimum
thickness of 1 km. It consists ofEarly Ordovician, fossiliferous,
thinly bedded sandstone and siltstone of largely volcanic
provenance. Minor intervals of felsic lava and volcanidastic
units exist locally (Berry et al., 1992).
Submarine
faciesassociations
andarchitecture

The volcanic facies associations in the vicinity of the Highway-

Puddler Creek Formation
The Puddler Creek Formation is the oldest formation in the
Seventy Mile Range Group and consists mainly of massive to
laminated lithic sandstone, greywacke and siltstone of mixed
continental and volcanic derivation. Minar altered trachy-
andesitic to trachytic coherent volcanic rocks are intercalated
with dastic rocks in the upper few hundred metres. The
volcanic rocks have geochemical signarures indicating an
alkali intraplate association related to lithospheric thinning
and incipient back-arc basin development (Stolz, 1995). The
formation is up to 9 km thick in the western pan of the belt
and is pardy stoped out by the Ravenswood Batholith in the
east.
Reward, Liontown and Thalanga base-metal sulfide deposits
are known from several detailed deposit scale srudies (Hill,
1996; Miller, 1996; Doyle, 1997; Paulick, 1999; Paulick and
McPhie, 1999; Doyle and McPhie, 2000). Recent regional
srudies of volcanic facies and lithostratigraphy contribute to
an improved understanding of the volcanic facies associations
(SimpsonandMcPhie, 1998; Simpson, 2001); however, much
of the regional data is currendy confidential or unpublished.
In summary, the Mount Windsor and Trooper Creek
Formations comprise deep submarine volcanic facies that
indude pyrodasts, probably from both subaerial and
submarine explosive eruptions. Lithofacies such as sparse
microbialitic ironstones (Simpson and McPhie, 1998)
indicate shallow marine settings for the Mount Windsor
Subprovince.

Mount Windsor Formation

The Mount Windsor Formation is a 0.4 to 5 km-thick

succession of subaqueous rhyolitic volcanic rocks dominated Formation Age Lithology
by thick lavas, domes and high-level intrusions with sub-
Rollston EarlyOrdovician Sandstoneand
ordinate volcanidastic breccias. Isotopic evidence (Stolz, Range mudstone
Formation
1995) suggested the magmas were derived from the melting
of continental crust.
Trooper EarlyOrdovician Andesitic,dacitic
Creek and rhyolitic
Formation lavas,intrusions
Trooper Creek Formation and associated
breccia;
mudstone,
The Trooper Creek Formation is a 0.5 to 2 km-thick sandstone,
o..
::::¡ pumice-lithic
succession of highly variable basaltic-andesitic, dacitic and e breccia, siliceous
(!)
ironstone, and
rhyolitic coherent and brecciated volcanic rocks intercalated ID massive sulfide
(J)
with abundant volcanogenic siltstone, and minor calcareous c:
C'O
meta-sedimentary rocks.1t is internally heterogenous and there e:::
; " Thalanga " ; " , ., Mount EarlyOrdovician Rhyoliticlavas
are major lateral variations in the proponion of volcanic and , ., """"".
., ., " " ., Windsor and intrusions;
sedimentary facies. Base-metal sulfide deposits and exhalative " " " ., " ., " ., " ., " ., . >- Formation monomictic
, ., ., ., ., ., ., c rhyoliticbreccia
siliceous ironstones occur at various stratigraphic levels (Fig. " " ., ., " ID
> (minor
" " " " " " . ID
1.8: Duhig et al., 1992). Stolz (1995) suggested that the ," ., " ., " ., " ., " ., " ., . en sandstone)
," ., " ., " ., " ., " ., " ., .
Trooper Creek Formation volcanic rocks were derived from
a melted subduction-modified, sub-arc mande wedge that
Puddler ? LatéCambrian Sandstoneand
was erupted during back-arc extension. Decreased volcanic Creek greywacke;alkali
Formation basaltand
activity, or an increase in dastic sedimentation, appears to
trachyandesite
have coincided with the change from exdusively rhyolitic lavasand sills
volcanism in the preceding Mount Windsor Formation.

FIGURE1.8 I Simplifiedstratigraphiccolumnlor the SeventyMile Range

Group.Modiliedalter Large (1992)and Paulickand McPhie(1999).
14 I CHAPTER
1

Table 1.2 I Tonnagesand grades01massivesullide depositsin the MountWindsorSubprovince(data lrom Berryet al., 1992;Large,
1992: in situ values basedon averagemetalprices in 2000).
...,,,. .." ...... ..
Zn Pb eU Ag Au In situ value
Deposit tx106 Form Status
'........ wt% wt% wt%- gft gft US$billion 0'-

Thalanga 6.6 8.4 2.6 1.8 69 0.4 1.02 Stratabound

sheet Pastproducer
Highway-Reward 3.7 - 6.2 - 1.5 0.47 pipes Currentmine
Subvertical
Liontown 1.8 6.2 2.2 0.5 29 0.9 0.18 Stratabound
sheet Prospect
Handcuff 1 10 0.4 0.6 8 0.2 0.13 Stratabound
sheet Prospect
Waterloo/Agincourt 0.4 19.7 2.8 3.8 94 2 0.13 Stratabound
sheet Prospect
Magpie 0.3 15 2 2 30 1 0.06 Stratabound
sheet Prospect

Post-depositional
alteration
processes
Some of the least-altered felsic coherent facies of the Seventy
Mile Range Group commonly have relict spherulitic or
perlitic textures due to devitrification and hydration (Paulick
and McPhie, 1999; Doyle, 2001). Pseudodastic textures,
attributed to domainal devitrification and subsequent
diagenesis of coherent rhyolites, are prominent in the Mount
Windsor Formation at Thalanga and probably elsewhere.
Zones of intense hydrothermal alteration comprising quartz
+ sericite + chlorite + pyrite :t carbonate assemblages partiy
endose the major sulfide deposits. They vary in style from
the broadly stratabound zone extending laterally beneath
the Thalanga deposit, to the discordant concentric zones
enveloping the Highway-Reward sulfide pipes. Early dia-
genetic and hydrothermal alteration facies were overprinted
by regional deformation coeval with extensive intrusion of
Mid-Late Ordovician gneissic granitoids (Berry et al., 1992).
This deformation produced relatively low-pressure regional
metamorphic assemblages that range from prehnite grade in
the east, to upper greenschist grade in the west, and a near
vertical axial planar deavage. Subsequent intrusion of post-
kinematic Siluro-Devonian plutons in the central and eastern
parts of the subprovince produced contact metamorphic
aureoles with assemblages up to amphibole-hornfels grade.
Despite the multiple alteration processes, well preserved
primary volcanic textures that enable detailed interpretations
of facies associations occur away from zones of hydrothermal
alteration and mineralisation (e.g. Simpson and McPhie,
1998). Even in intensely hydrothermally altered rocks, the
existence of resistant primary components such as quartz
phenocrysts allow volcanic facies interpretation (e.g. Paulick
and McPhie, 1999).
Mineraldepositsandprospects
The Mount Windsor Subprovince contains two major base-
metal sulfide deposits and several small sub-economic deposits
and historical prospects. Published resource estimates are
listed in Table 1.2. The known deposits are all in the Trooper
Creek Formation. The two largest deposits, Thalanga and
Highway-Reward, exist at the base and near the top of the
formation respectively (Fig. 1.8).
A gossanous outcrop led to the 1975 discovery of the
Thalanga deposit and its eventual development for open pit
and underground mining. Production between 1990 and
1998 amounted to 4.7 Mt from an estimated total resource
of 6.6 Mt. Thalanga mine was not highly profitable, mainly
because of ore dilution in underground mining and stability
problems related to the thin ore lenses.
The Highway-Reward Cu-Au deposit consists of two
discordant, vertical pipe-like bodies of massive pyrite about
200 m aparto Originally discovered in a surface road-metal
scrape in 1953 (Beams et al., 1998), the Highway-Reward
deposit has been the subject of intense but sporadic
exploration. Open pit mining of small oxide and supergene
high-grade Cu-Au resources occurred during the late 1980s
and from 1997 to the presento The deeper hypogene parts of
the sulfide pipes remain undeveloped.

2 DESCRIBING ALTERED VOLCANIC ROCKS
This chapter addresses some of the common problems that
we face when studying altered volcanic rocks. Recognising
and describing the characteristics of the altered rocks is an
important step towards understanding the processes of
alteration. Alteration involves complex modifications of
the pre-existing rock and can encompass mineralogical,
textural and compositional changes. Resolving these complex
relationships is dependent on a systematic multidisciplinary
descriptive approach incorporating aspects of volcanology, ore
deposit geology, petrology and geochemistry. Unfortunately
relatively few studies adequately integrate these datasets.
Studies of ore deposits generally describe the characteristics
of the host rocks (i.e. lithology, petrology, geochemistry and
alteration) in separate sections of manuscripts. In many cases,
particularly in unpublished company reporrs, the geochemical
data and petrographic descriptions are in appendices,
discouraging integration and interpretation.
The integration of physical or textural observations and
geochemical data is a powerful tool in the study of altered
rocks. The physical characteristics and immobile element
concentrations of altered volcanic rocks can help to identif}r
the original rocks, where relict primary minerals and textures
are inconclusive (e.g. Paulick and McPhie, 1999; Barrett et al.,
2001). Physical and chemical changes that occurred during
alteration may help to determine the degree of alteration (i.e.
alteration intensity), the style of alteration (i.e. isochemical
versus metasomatic), and to discriminate berween alteration
processes such as diagenesis, metamorphism and hydrothermal
alteration (e.g. Offier and Whitford, 1992; Gifkins andAllen,
2001). In addition, this integrated approach can lead to the
development of vectors to guide explorers toward ore deposits
(e.g. Large et al., 2001c).
This chapter compares alternative schemes of alteration
nomenclature and presents a multi-variable system for
describing and naming alteration facies. The different
elements of this descriptive approach to nomenclature are
eXplained in detail in subsequent sectioils and chapters (i.e.
alteration mineral assemblage in Section 2.4, alteration
intensity in Section 2.5, alteration textures in Section 3.1
and 3.2, distriburion and zonation in Section 3.3, and timing
in Section 3.5). Ir also explains alteration indices, and the
physical and geochemical techniques for determining the
intensity of alteration. Alteration data sheets, which visually
I 15
combine mineralogical, textural and chemical data for altered
volcanic rocks, are introduced. These alteration data sheets are
used in Chapters 5, 6 and 7 to present examples of alteration
facies associated with various alteration processes and different
VHMS deposits.
2.1 I FREQUENTLY
ASKEDQUESTIONS
Most geologists are introduced to the basic principIes of
hydrothermal alteration when they are students. However,
they typically have a limited knowledge of how to recognise,
characterise and interpret altered rocks. Common questions
are:
.. Was the rock altered?
What was the nature of the alteration?
.. Was the rock hydrothermally altered?
How do we name the altered rock?
.What was the original rock?
To address these questions we need to make some simple
observations, which include the recognition of primary
minerals and textures, alteration colour, mineral assemblage,
texture and intensity, overprinting relationships, and alter-
ation distribution patterns. These observations can be made
at a variety of scales: map, outcrop, hand-specimen and thin-
section scales.
Was the rock altered?
Few volcanic rocks in submarine settings are entirely un-
altered and most altered rocks are easily recognised as such.
The most effective method of determining if a rock is altered
is by comparing it with other samples from the same unit.
Observed differences in mineral assemblage, texture and
colour may indicate a spectrum from fresh, or least-altered, to
significandy altered samples.
Some indicators of alteration in submarine volcanic facies
may be:
..absence of glass
colour differences
. presence of abundant minerals that typically form during
alteration, such as clays, zeolites, chlorite, micas, kaolinite,

16 I CHAPTER
2
tourmaline, apatite, alunite, epidote, carbonates and quartz
. association between a distinctive mineral assemblageand
sulfides
. presence of halo s around veins, faults, intrusions and
mineralisedrock
..lack of, or only partial preservation of, primary textures
hardness of the rock: if not silicified, altered volcanic rocks
tend to be softer than unaltered volcanic rocks, which are
rypically glassy or crystalline, hard and brittle
. degree of deformation: clay- or phyllosilicate-altered rocks
are commonly more deformed than unaltered or least-
altered rocks because deformation-related strain is rypically
partitioned into softer altered rocks.
What was the nature of the alteration?
Characterising the narure of the alteration can be challenging.
Nevertheless, systematic descriptions of alteration mineral
assemblages, alteration textures, preservation of relict minerals
and textures, patterns of distribution and overprinting
relationships combined with interpretations of alteration
indices and compositional changes provide important
information for subsequent classification and genetic
interpretation. To ensure that the data are meaningful,
systematic schemes for core logging and sample description
should be employed. Figures 2.1 and 2.2 are examples where
detailed observations in drill core and hand specimen have
established the characteristics of the altered rocks.
Was the rock hydrothermaUy altered?
Hydrothermal alteration can be discriminated from
metamorphism and diagenesis, which are rypically regionally
extensive processes that result in weakly altered rocks and
preserve delicate volcanic textures. In contrast, hydrothermal
alteration sryles, especially those associated with mineral-
isation, are local in their distribution, have variable intensiry
(from weak to intense) and generally destroy primary
textures.
Discriminating accurately between different alteration
sryles (Section 8.1) requires knowledge of: the host rock;
alteration intensiry; distribution; timing; mineralogical,
textural and chemical changes; and comparison with changes
related to diagenesis, metamorphism and hydrothermal
alteration, which have been documented in well-preserved,
geologically young, submarine volcanic successions.
How do we name the altered rock?
Typically, rocks that are only weakly to moderately altered,
in which primary textures and minerals can be easily
recognised, are given precursor names (e.g. quartz-phyric
pumice breccia). In contrast, rocks that are intensely altered,
in which few primary textures or minerals are recognisable,
are given alteration names (e.g. quartz-augen schist or massive
chlorite rock). This is similar to metamorphic rocks where
low-grade rocks are given precursor names - the prefix 'meta-'
is assumed - and pervasively deformed and metamorphosed
rocks are given metamorphic names.
\
r-
What was the original rock?
Outcrops and hand specimens of ancient volcanic rocks
rarely exhibit clear evidence of their modes of eruption and
emplacement. In many cases, the best we may hope for is
to recognise features that help distinguish coherent volcaÍlic
facies from volcaniclastic facies.
The simplest approach to recognising the primary rock
is to move out of the altered zone and examine unaltered
rock. However" ancient volcanic successions rarely contain
unaltered rocks. As a result we rely on the preservation of
relict texrures and minerals in altered rocks to provide a guide
to the interpretation of the primary volcanic facies. Relict
textures are original pre-altetation features that have not been
clestroyed by alteration. Relict textures are most likely to be
visible in polished hand specimens with the aid of a hand lens
and in thin sections cut parallel to the tectonic foliation.
Thete are a small number of volcanic, devitrification
and hydration texrures, and components or structures that
usually survive diagenesis, moderate hydrothermal alteration,
low-grade metamorphism and deformation - these are
particularly helpful in deciphering the primary volcanic facies.
For example, porphyritic texture, spherulites, lithophysae,
micropoikilitic texture, perlite, flow banding, columnar
joints and pillows are all characteristic of coherent volcanic
facies. Volcanic components such as pumice and scoria clasts,
glass shards, accretionary lapilli and non-vesicular volcanic
bombs or blocks, as well as bedding and cross stratification,
are characteristics of volcaniclastic facies. For a more detailed
discussion of volcanic, devitrification and hydration textures,
components and structures that help to determine the host
volcanic facies, readers are referred to McPhie et al. (1993)
Volcanic Textures: a guide to the interpretation o/ textures in
volcanic rocks.
Primary crystals and crystal fragments are found in a wide
variery of volcanic facies and can also be helpful indicators of
the host volcanic facies. Whole crystals and crystal fragments
in volcanic facies are mainly derived from porphyritic magmas.
Crystals may be liberated from magmas during volcanic
processes (explosive eruption or auto fragmentation) or by
surface sedimentary processes. The shape and distribution of
crystals in an altered volcanic rock can be used as a guide
to whether the primary facies was coherent or clastic. In
pyroclastic facies, angular and broken crystal fragments
are much more common than whole euhedral crystals. In
autoclastic facies, whole crystals and clusters of jigsaw-fit
crystal fragments are common. In contrast, coherent volcanic
facies rypically, but not necessarily, contain very few broken
crystal fragments. The distribution of crystals and crystal
fragments in volcaniclastic facies may be random, related
to size or densiry sorting, or concentrated in particular
clasts, clusters or lenses. Crystal-bearing coherent facies are
porphyritic; they contain evenly distributed euhedral crystals
in a fine-grained or glassy groundmass.
Although relict textures and primary crystals can be used
as a guide, the discrimination of coherent and volcaniclastic
facies in altered volcanic rocks is not trivial. In originally
glassy volcanic rocks, alteration may produce convincing
pseudotextures such as pseudobreccia, false polymictic
texture, false thin-bedded texture and pseudomassive texrure
(Section 3.2: Allen, 1988).
 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 17

Hole No.: E\4P~W1 Page 5 of Ib

Diamond drill 109 Location: Mour'\l Recld Date: 10/3/0.7
Scale: 1: 2.00 Logged by: Cathr~nGitK\ns
'" Grainsize Alteration
m o Sample Structure Lithological description
o bNOO~mm No. description
?er'\lc<sIY€. ww..I<. Y\C\S$IV0,mO(1Ot'YÚchGI dClrk eretjJ
seV" T 91-:3 :t ch I , relclspar- pl1~n¿ eJ..S'lbJ I MM
5u'o\k chl + ser j'lo.310dase) dC\(Ik brewi.l.
lA some... \Clr~e( dasf-s VC\r¡C\\)\e o.mouv1ks of ~V\e
( <5(V\(\"\') IY\C\rrl)(. I..owl ;)13SQlD
d\s~eVV\\V\akc.\ r\~ ~~ blufe
p~f'i\:e l)Ú,-h.f: .J1~a[Qc!(l.D\-ij~

-frG\lW:\'\QDo.ll
contóct - - -, - - - - - -
~':>o ctoVVlcuflcd c.h\ -;-se-r ) 'Do..C\k- ClV1c\ sdbkmé:. 'o>"ecc\o.
fSP+9~ t W' ;j iflsaw ~If- d.Cl.c,k. claSK.
!V'>"cgt.l!a( stll(\(1ed Mw:t~fot1e Ft
Slll-sI-ot1<: das~5 .
. 'De>c.lI-e,.. stlbl-on~ ~e?~\~e
ShMP contbd:, 30° LCA '" IY'IIk\.\s\l/e
v " " sf1'Ot1j pel"vosIVe
cr.\ t"\o.$"ie- o.M~~c:l.CI\O\dal
... n'
~
uu -.-

<) ere~,
M(!.ss\Ve-,tohakcl, 'POole
0fWEDUS slltsl-me
240
~
W€OK It, Moc\enJ,te
ecac\ecl. J ft;lós¡:Qt
\r\te.V'bedclec\,
J So ~ 2.5° LCA
peV'v(A!,wi fsp -;-ql-3 -pb~r'\.0 VO[CMII¿ brecc.w J
gb + S1"r I f"'Iodeil'Clk \-o
so.v\D\s~OYHc Mc\ d\~.se~
lalM\V\c...\a.\, SI 1b;\-onE:...
~ ~\'v"~ tsp'l'<1l)t Si''''''''
dev1';,eclasfs J weClk. (D 'P\ú~\úc.\o.~ - PYl~r"I(.,
~ *;1,4 5.5r1\
c.hl-r ser r\(Ú'r\Y!1c"
ClC\&\-S;

'P1AYV\\c..e '/ @ blockj, ¡,Jeo.klj

t I
*' ;2..1-\71M 'PICl3\OdClSe .. 'P~~('l ¿ c!.cwf-c 0('
~ 24""6 m
dll > CL In +l.IftáCCO\lS .

('h~ohk ;> Qf muc\'sf-oV1t:.

Ef
~I\UL:í {I~e .C\f'(>1\'1ecJ
béds lil'\d $IIbsla1e. ,'n)yc<dasl:s
:1.50 cc.! a~ t\ellt" f:ou\\-
mal"Ked bj
c¡uo.r~~ velVlS at\d
stV'0V\3 t>~rvo..SII/€. fu-re pY\k, A:\d'spov-pfl~rL¿
clo.3 P«,9 "nQrn .
ch\ T t't)l"lf-e ctú.ó\-s ,Vi o. do.rk. c¿reeY1 C~I(JY'lR
f',d1 mú.h-, X .
~J~ .c,
r t~60 Cfll- alk red volWí\I¿ brewCl.
perllaslVe. weClk
L-ZA
S;¡, o !¡DoLe'"
1\-~ 't seY'
r ...
Mc\SSIVe."med.u.Lm-sro.liieclJ
P€V'Vc.s",é weo.k
í ~Ie 8re~ ~\dspw -p\1~r'G
I
fsp + q\-3 + se"- [7 '70 ,.5' mm plcJ.~loC\ase)
260 I
2.(,1- ;<'bs'3m dClC.'fe, L
sil I 7)
r C\'oUY"lOO<'\\:;.
'IY\cn::Cl.SII'j c",1 5foh

í 9\.\~r~-\-CAlo;e
V(O\(\5 al" ~:?,o \ ~

FIGURE2.1 I Par! 01a dril! core graphiclog usinga modifiedstandardloggingsheet,which incorporatesvolcanicand alterationlacies descriptions.
This dril! core, EHP319,is lrom westernTasmaniaand ineludesa thick interval01CentralVolcanicComplex rocks.Abbreviations:80 = bedding,81 and
82 = tectonicloliations, LCA= longcore axis,cc = calcite,chl = chlorite,Isp = leldspar,qtz '" quartz,ser = sericiteand gb = graded bedding.
18 I CHAPTER
2

Sample description Sample No.: E\1P:,IQ ;{45'2

Project: Phd... Location: Moul'lt; lZeo..CÁ.
Date: 121'8 I'17 Dril! hole and depth: (.\1P;W:'.¡-
;/.4-5'2rVi ,
Described by: Cú\:ht'~1'IG'fklI'lS Group/Formation name:' 00(\e.$ Cree'f::.. ~ec\\mer"\ts

Lithological observations
rnectU'ale-~~wcll pl'"eserv'ed k1'l-ures; lAYKOVYIpÚCJcCÁ
and. VMI{Ú)~
(OV\'1pCK~'c\fsp+q!j+sev- aV\d ser+d\1 o.lkxetl ~\a9\oda.se- ~qt3~W1
pI'tW't¿ tu1o! pt-lMICe.. ('770 (o, 0.1 te 5 CM); f&~tq~ a\kl'"ed s~j\oi,1<s
b\ock,j f\ú~'o(,la)e -f~~rl¿ flow- bandecl. r\1.t)olik c,lMI-s
e \fJo I 4. I un) j c-\1.\
- nG-l ~0,fY\0'\e..; fSp-o.l\-o'e(,\ bt.\vb\e LOa\!
5h4v-c\s (.:::: \'70 vrcse\'V(:Q); plú.~\odCtSEUjS+Ú~ a.\\d
CV'~6\-a1~5Mm\6 ("-S!,o, 0'.1-\,5 Mvn) compkklj
RpIClCEd I?L\. s,er t CC\\u\-e) f~ fsp + q\-3'¡-~eV" ch \ ~
alk.rcc( v"Y\a'thx ; C\blAl\cl.o.vlf-
o.Y\O..S~rY\()s,nl/\
sl-\.\\Dliks
Mineralogy or components
Primary: '5'70, \ mM ?\O{)\ocl/tSe
!'lO qL\CW"r)
Alteration mineralogy intensity texture distribution style
mod
f~?+ 9t~+ ser renJa.~\ve..\.o.dolVla.ino.l cla,sl--s l1\'1cÁ fV\(:IW-I)( rcpla.ceYl'lU\1::
SU' .¡-(..11¡ (,Veak c\DYY\G.lV1Cl.\
F[~mMe tt..p\MC arld d.cf t!'
h<'.VV\t c.hl 1" ~-f:r j: ['1\ L\.)t'lAK S~\Ó\\hG Mo.\.-r\'j. CIh el 0al11'Mi' GiSSO\Uhen ,
cú\¿' k- \J $.ulo\-Ie- o.!~seM'M\.((..\ a~sO(.\Cd'fd.. W\\-V¡ \/(~,h..s, ('I:fI!ACe \'Y\e..v'\'
di \ 1- s,e..r- . StAb\-\e.. ¡::>e.rvúf,tII¿ folll\nOn ~oa'YÚC ~c"'¡)S~a.I\'sa.hor)
Sulfide mineralogy modal /0 texture distribution style
1\on e.

Fabrics
Primary (ie. bedding): (lMe....

Compaction foliatíon: s.er -r c..i--,\ FtClW\VVle,

Dissolution fabric: hem- 1"1c11s.~\o¡\kS I d\~s-eYY\lM\-ecA heVVl -+-Pj CMceV\W-Cll-td al OVl~

.H-te:,:;c: C\ sul-uY"es -paY'!-lCL\.\GIt wll-hll'"l
.CiV\I\S1-t>\'V10SIV\ ftC¡l'YIme...
Tectonlc TohatlOn/s: v ~ I
f
.'

Cl.lI5\'\W\fV\1- o c.h\ -t- Z,e 11'\ ft'¿yoI'lCl.\ L S.t ') cJmvo.Fje..

Veins
Mineralogy attitude distibution infill texture vein envelope alteration

91-) 1: ro\it k
-- I'Y\dSSIV€. IY\A\\ vJi'ClI<. GIS<¡'('~lVLakc!

(1'((V'¿,sl-ú\l,secl fV\oscÚG) coJÓIG

Overprinting relationships

fs:p t ql-S -T ser a.r"le\sei'"" preo.oJc. hc.VV\-rc~\ tser -t f~ ca\¿ \-e,

f;,f' 1- 9~ t S€.V' I se,"" -t-cl-,\ Q.Y\c1 heVV\ t ch\ +-&er 1: p~ Vre.c\a\-e..-
0.\\ Mev-pV'lV\kc\ Pj c.h\ -t 5e'f' CtIt~J1e..c\ftAV'a'\t'e\ \-o S2-

Interpretation
Descriptive lithological name: Cjrocle..G\ P!~\odo.se-ph~(,l¿ -ptAMICe..lorw:m
Descriptíve alteratíon facies:
ex.\r~ weak cAOVVIC.\'lVlO.\
fSf +ql3 + ser 0.V\c.l sei'""-+-ch\

- lor a racksamplelram 245.2 m depth in dril! core EHP319- showsthe maindescriptivefieldslor alteration
FIGURE2.2 I Thissampledescription
studies.Abbreviations:82 = regionalcleavage,chl = chlorite,Ig = line grained,Isp = leldspar,hem = hematite,plag= plagioclase,py = pyrite,qtz = quartz
and ser = sericite.
 DESCRIBING
ALTERED ROCKS I 19
VOLCANIC

Crystal assemblages may reflect the primary volcanic

composition; they are relicts of original magmatic mineral
assemblages. For example, a rock containing abundant quartz
crystals was probably derived from a quartz-phyric magma,
which was likely of rhyolitic composition (Table 2.1).
I In cases oflow temperature «200°C), weak to moderate
intensiry alteration, the alteration mineral assemblage may
also be a guide to the primary composition of the volcanic
facies. Alteration minerals rich in Fe, Mg and Ca are common
in mafic volcanic rocks; K- and Na-rich minerals in felsic
rocks. Typical alteration minerals in mafic rocks are chlorite,
epidote, calcite, palagonite, zeolites, albite, micas, actinolite-
tremolite and clays (Table 2.2). In contrast, common alteration
minerals in felsic rocks are quartz, micas, feldspars, zeolites,
cristobalite, opal and clays, especially montmorillonite and
kaolinite (Table 2.2). At temperatures above 200°C and at
high water-rock ratios, the alteration mineral assemblage
formed is less dependent on primary host composition and
more on the fluid composition, temperature, permeabiliry
and pressure (Browne, 1978; Henley and Ellis, 1983; Reyes,
1990).
Generally, consideration of a combination of field
relationships, relict textures and mineral assemblages will
enable interpretation of coherent versus clastic, and felsic
versus mafic volcanic facies, in all but the most intensely
altered volcanic rocks. Beyond that we must resort to
lithogeochemical techniques (Chapter 4).
2.2 I ALTERATION
NOMENCLATURE
A variery of approaches have previously been taken to the
classification of alteration and altered rocks, particularly
hydrothermal alteration associated with different sryles
of mineral deposits. Common methods of alteration
nomenclature are mineral based, compositional, generic, or
use terminology that reflects a combination of mineralogical
and textural characteristics (e.g. alteration facies). Discussions
of alteration nomenclature appear in Meyer and Hemley
(1967), Rose and Burt (1979), Beane (1982), Tidey (1982),
Guilbert and Park (1986) and Thompson and Thompson
(1996).
Mineral-based alteration nomenclature
ClassifYing altered rocks in terms of mineral assemblage
was discussed in detail by Creasey (1959). Mineral-based
classification involves field and petrographic observations,
in some cases supported by other analyrical techniques (e.g.
microprobe, X-ray diffraction and SWIR spectroscopy). Ir is
based on direct observations and provides the simplest non-
genetic approach to naming alteration and altered rocks.
There are two levels of mineral-based alteration
nomenclature: (1) terminology based on the dominant

TABLE 2.1 I Summary01the commonvolcanicrockcompositions,their chemicalclassilication(Si02 content)and likely

phenocrystminerals.Si02 contentslor unalteredmodernsubduction-relatedvolcanicrocksare lrom Ewart (1979).
~

Rock composition Si02 (wt%) Main phenocrystqiinerals Otl1.ercommon phenocrysts en

-""
u
e
Rhyolite >69 K-feldspar (orthoclase) :!: quartz :!: plagioclase:!: biotite:!: muscovite -o ;€
~
:!: amphibole
:!: pyroxene:!: fayalite ::;:¡
o
1:
Dacite 63-69 ou o"
Na-plagioclase :!: quartz :!: biotite:!: amphibole
:!: pyroxene U5
O>
Andesite 52-63 -""
Na-orCa-plagioclase
+ biotite :!: quartz :!: K-feldspar:!: olivine ro
oramphibole
or pyroxene o
Basalt <52 Ca-plagioclase
+ pyroxene :!: olivine:!: hornblende

TABLE 2.2 I Commonalterationmineralsthat replaceglass and magmaticmineralsin volcanicrocks.Alterationmineralsare lrom

Schwartz(1959),White and Sigvaldason(1962), lijima (1978),Hay (1978),Honnorez(1978), Breyand Schmincke(1980),Tucker
(1987)and Utada(1991).
""'~

Original component Typical direct alteratio.!1replacement products

.- ...-
Silicicvolcanicglass Zeolites(mordenite,clinoptilolite,
laumonite, analcime,heulandite),
cristobalite,
opalinesilica,quartz,calcite,clays(montmorillonite,
smectite,
mixed-Iayer clays)
Maficvolcanicglass Palagonite,nontronitic
clays,smectite,calcite,chlorite,epidote,Ca-rich
zeolites,Fe/Ti/Mn-oxides
Magnetite,
ilmeniteandtitano-magnetite Pyrite,leucoxene,
titanite,pyrrhotite,
hematite
Pyroxene,amphibole,olivineandbiotite Chlorite,illite,quartz,calcite,pyrite,anhydrite
Plagioclase Calcite,albite,adularia, wairakite,quartz,anydrite,chlorite,illite,kaolin,
montmorillonite, epidote,sericite
Anorthoclase,
sanidineandorthoclase Adularia,albite,sericite
Quartz Microcrystalline quartz

j
20 I CHAPTER
2
mineral; and (2) the use of the complete or abbreviated
alteration mineral assemblage. Some authors also use negative
mineral-based names, such as K-feldspar-destructive alteration
(e.g. Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
The simplest method of alteration nomenclature uses the
dominant or most recognisable mineral phase in the altered
rock. Examples of this are albitic, which is dominated by
albite; silicic, dominated by quartz; chloritic, dominated by
chlorite; and sericitic, dominated by sericite. In addition,
the terms chloritisation, sericitsation, silicification and
carbonitisation are common in VHMS literature in reference
to the processes of alteration (e.g. Sangster, 1972; Paradis et
al., 1993). They, like the terms alteration and mineralisation,
are widely misused (Solomon, 1999).
Deciding which mineral is dominant in an altered zone
is not always a straightforward task. Several minerals may
be obvious and their proportions may vary. In addition,
common alteration minerals, such as sericite, can occur as the
dominant mineral in several different mineral assemblages
that have different origins, timing and economic significance.
In fact, sericitic assemblages are probably the most abundant
and widespread of all alteration assemblages. They are present
in aluminous rocks in nearly al! rypes of hypogene alteration
associated with ore deposits (Meyer and Hemley, 1967).
Along with sericite, carbonates, chlorite and quartz are among
the most widespread alteration minerals (Meyer and Hemley,
1967).
Alternatively, more detailed alteration mineral assemblages
can be used; either complete assemblages of all the visible
alteration minerals, or abbreviated assemblages of the most
abundant and distinctive minerals. Minerals are usually listed
in order of decreasing abundance; thus a mixture of 60%
sericite, 35% quartz and 5% pyrite becomes the sericite +
quartz + pyrite alteration assemblage. This nomenclature has
the advantage of clearly defining the alteration assemblage.
However, some confusion may existwhere mineral assemblages
contain identical or similar minerals in different abundances.
For example, sericite + quartz + pyrite is easily confused with
sericite + chlorite + quartz + pyrite.
Dana's Textbook o/ Mineralogy (Dana, 1957) defined
sericite as 'fine scaly muscovite united in fibrous aggregates
and characterized by its silky lustre'. The term has since
been widely used to refer to all fine-grained pale-coloured
micas, and indeed almost any fine-grained aggregates of
pale-coloured layer-Iattice minerals (Whitten and Brooks,
1972), particularly in hydrothermally altered and low-grade
metamorphic rocks. White mica is the preferred term to avoid
the ambiguiry in sericite where compositional differences such
as sodic muscovite, muscovite and phengite, may be important
(e.g. Yang, 1998). In this book, we always use sericite in the
loose sense, referring to fine-grained pale-coloured micas
of undetermined composition. We use the non-specific
alternative term: white mica, where compositions are known
(e.g. in discussions of mineral chemistry in Sections 4.2 and
8.2).
Compositional
alteration
nomenclature
Chemical methods of assessing hydrothermally altered
rocks (i.e. lithogeochemistry) have been applied in mineral
eXploration, especially around VHMS and porphyry
Cu deposits, leading to the classification of alteration by
compositional changes that occurred during alteration
(Hemley and Jones, 1964). Examples of this include Na-
metasomatism or soda-metasomatism, Mg-metasomatism
and K-metasomatism (e.g. Hemley and Jones, 1964) or K-
enriched alteration, Ca-enriched alteration and Mg-enriched
alteration (e.g. El!iott-Meadows and Appleyard, 1991), and
Na-depleted alteration (e.g. Date et al., 1979, 1983).
There are several problems with compositional alter-
ation nomenclature: (1) it becomes increasingly complicated
where more than one element is mobilised during alteration,
which is almost always the case in the alteration of volcanic
rocks; (2) it cannot be applied in the field, as it requires a
detailed knowledge of the addition and removal of elements;
and (3) the character of the chemical alteration can only
be accurately determined if a least-altered protolith can be
unequivocally identified (Section 4.1).
Genericalterationnomenclature
A number of generic terms, such as advanced argillic,
intermediate argillic, phyl!ic or sericitic, potassic, propylitic,
skarn and greisen, have been applied to common alteration
mineral assemblages or groups of assemblages (Table 2.3:
Meyer and Hemley, 1967). These terms are widespread in
the geologicalliterature, however they are not always clearly
defined or uniformly applied by different authors, and are
less precise than alteration assemblages. Many workers apply
generic terms based on the occurrence of indicator minerals
rather than complete alteration assemblages, with the result
that the terms are not always distinguishable in their usage
(Rose and Burt, 1979). To apply these terms rigorously,
alteration mineral assemblages for specific host rocks need to
be identified and correlated.
Generic alteration nomenclature tends to reflect detailed
work on altered rocks associated with particular deposit
rypes or geothermal systems, specifically porphyry, skarn,
mesothermal vein and epithermal deposits (Table 2.4). In
each case, the generic classification conveys a sense of the
mineralogical composition and implies knowledge of alteration
processes and environment of formation. Although generic
classification of altered rocks surrounding an ore deposit can
be useful, the reliance on understanding the environment
of formation can cause problems and may incorrecdy imply
genetic processes. Thus, generic classification is best avoided
during the early stages of recognition, description, mapping
and interpretation of altered rocks in favour of a more rigorous
and descriptive classification.
Descriptivenomenclature- alteration
facies
The term alterationfacies was first proposed by Creasey (1959)
in an attempt to standardise the subdivision ofhydrothermally
altered rocks in a similar manner to metamorphic facies,
which are assemblages of co-existing metamorphic minerals
that characterise particular pressure and temperature regimes
during metamorphism (Yardley, 1989). Creasey's concept of
three chemically and mineralogically distinctive alteration
 DESCRIBING
ALTERED ROCKS I 21
VOLCANIC

TABLE2.3 I Genericalterationterms basedon commonalterationmineralassemblages.Modifiedafter Creasey(1959),Meyer and Hemley (1967),

Lowelland Guilber!(1970),Rose (1970),Gustafsonand Hunt(1975),Rose and Sur! (1979),Beaneand Titley (1981),Guilber!and Par!<(1986), Beane
(1982),and Thompsonand Thompson(1996). Forsimplic:~,skarn impliesa limestoneor dolomitehostrock.

Generieterminology Alteratio",;rniiX§~al
assemblage Envi~om]1ent
offormation
in bo!~)
(~e,y,!!i!J~R~!~.~re
Argillie Kaolinite
(orhalloysite,
metahalloysiteordiekite)+ PorphyryCu,high-sulfidation
epithermal,
low-
montmorillonite:t
sericite(ormuscovite):tehlorite sulfidatíon
epithermal,
geothermal
Advaneedargillie Pyrophyllite + kaolinite(ordiekite):!:quartz:t sericite PorphyryCu,high-sulfidation
epithermal,
low-
:t andalusite:t diaspore:t alunite:t topaz:t zunyite:t sulfidatíon
epithermal,
geothermal
enargíte:t tourmaline:t pyrite:t ehaleopyrite :t hematite
Intermediate Chlorite+ serieite:t kaolinite:t montmorillonite:t íllite- PorphyryCu,high-sulfidation
epithermal
argillie smeetite:t ealcite:t epidote:t biotite:t pyrite
Phyllie(orsericitie) Serieite+ quartz+ pyrite:t biotite:t ehlorite :t rutile:t PorphyryCu
leueoxene:t ehaleopyrite:t illite
(Note:K-feldsparabsent)
Sericitie(orphyllíe) Serieite+ quartz+ pyrite:t K-feldspar:t biotíte:t ealcite PorphyryCu, low-sulfidationepithermal,
:t dolomite:t ehlorite:t andalusite:t ehloritoid:t albite:t geothermal,VHMS , sedimenthostedmassive
pyrrhotite sulfide
Propylítie
(or Epidote(or zoisiteor elinozoisite)+ ehlorite+ albite PorphyryCu, high-sulfidationepithermal,low-
saussuritization) :!:earbonate:t sericite:t montmorillonite:t septaehlorite sulfidationepithermal,geothermal
:t apatite:t anhydrite:t ankerite:t hematite:t pyrite:t
ehaleopyrite
Potassíe K.feldspar(orthoelase)+ biotite+ quartz :t magnetite PorphyryCu
:t serieite(or museovite):t albite:t ehlorite:t anhydrite:t
apatite:t rutile:t epidote:t ehaleopyrite:t bornite:t pyrite
Greisen Museovite(or serieite)+ quartz+ topaz:t tourmaline PorphyryCu, porphyrySn
:t fluorite:t rutile:t eassiterite:t wolfranite:t magnetite:t
zunyite:t K-feldspar
Skarn
Caleieskarn Pyroxene + garnet+ wollastonite:tepídote(orzoisite) Porphyry,
skarn
(ortaetite) :t aetinolite-termolite
:t vesuvianite
:t pyrite:t ehaleopyrite
:t sphalerite
Magnesianskarn Forsterite+ diopside+ serpentine+ tale :t aetinolite- Porphyry,skarn
tremolíte:t ealeite:t magnetite:t hematite:t ehaleopyrite
:t pyrite:t sphalerite

Retrogradeskarn Caleite+ ehlorite:t hematite:t pyrite Porphyry,skarn

Jasperiod Quartz+ pyrite+ hematite Sedimented-hostedAu, VHMS

facies - propylitic, argillicand potassium silicate facies -
was abandoned for a wide variety of generic and non-generic
terms.
Subsequendy, Riverin and Hodgson (1980) proposed that
alteration fácies be used as a descriptive term to refer simply
to altered rocks that could be identihed during the course
of mapping or in hand specimen. They described a 'spotted
facies' characterised by a well-developed spotted texture due
to large, strongly altered, cordierite porphyroblasts, and a
'silicihed facies' that lacked spots and was typically grey in
colour and siliceous in appearance.
More recendy, the concept of alteration facies has
been expanded to incorporate other descriptive elements,
particularly alteration mineral assemblages (e.g. Gibson et al.,
1983; Elliott-Meadows and Appleyard, 1991; Paradis et al.,
1993; Tiwary and Deb, 1997; Brauhart et al., 1998; Gifkins
and Allen, 2001). Examples are 'motded quartz-epidote' and
'silicihcation alteration facies' described by Gibson et al. (1983)
in the Amulet Rhyolite of Noranda, Canada, and 'domainal
feldspar-quartz-sericite', 'fracture-controlled chlorite-sericite'
and 'stylolitic chlorite-sericite-hematite alteration facies'
described by Gifkins and Allen (2001) in a regional study of
alteration in the Mount Read Volcanics, western Tasmania.
The advantage of characterising alteration in terms of
alteration facies is that it is a purely descriptive scheme in
which the basic criteria used to dassifY the alteration can be
recognised and established in the held or in hand specimen.
More importandy, by using a combination of textural and
mineralogical terms, alteration facies convey the general
appearance of an altered rock. Also, the descriptive variables
in the alteration facies provide information that is critical to
subsequent genetic interpretations of the alteration process
(e.g. diagenetic, metamorphic, or hydrothermal).
 22 I CHAPTER
2

TABLE 2.4 I Examples01differentalterationnomenclature(Le.dominantmineral,abbreviatedmineralassemblage,compositionaland genericterminology)

to alteredrocks in a varietv01ore deoositenvironments.

Minér~l.assemblage Composltion Generic

L~omina~~ineral ,-.- --',"
VHMSdeposits
Silicic Quartz+ sericite+ pyrite:t chlorite:t K-feldspar Si-metasomatism Not used in VHMS
Chloritic Chlorite+ pyrite+ sericite:t quartz Mg-metasomatism literature
Sericitic Sericite:t quartz:t chlorite:t pyrite K-enrichment
Albitic Albite + sericite:t quartz Na-depletion
Carbonate Dolomite/siderite/ankerite :t quartz:t sericite:t chlorite Ca, Mg,or Mn-metasomatism
:t pyrite

Porphyrydeposits
Kaolinitic Kaolinite+ montmorillonite:t sericite:t chlorite K,Ca,Mg-metasomatism Argillic
Pyrophyllitic Pyrophyllite+ kaolinite:t quartz:t sericite K,Ca,Mg-metasomatism Advanced argillic
Kaolinitic Kaolinite+ chlorite+ sericite:t montmorillonite:t illite- K,Ca,Mg-metasomatism Intermediate
argillic
smectite:t calcite:t epidote:t biotite
Sericitic Sericite+ quartz + pyrite:t chlorite:t biotite Na,Ca,Mg-metasomatism Phyllic
Feldspathic K-feldspar:t biotite:t quartz :t sericite:t albite:t K-metasomatism Potassic
anhydrite:t epidote
Biotitic Biotite+ K-feldspar+ magnetite:t quartz:t albite:t K-metasomatism Potassic
anhydrite
Chloritic Chlorite+ epidote+ albite :t carbonate:t sericite:t Ca-Mg-metasomatism Propylitic
montmorillonite:t pyrite

Epithermaldeposits
Silicic Quartz:t chalcedony:t alunite:t barite:t pyrite Si-enrichment Silicic
Alunite Alunite+ kaolinite/dickite+ quartzlcristobalite:t Ca,Mg,Na-depletion Advancedargillic
pyrophyllite:t diaspore:t pyrite:t topaz:t andulusite
K-micaor kaolinite Kaolinite/dickite+ illite-smectite:t quartz:t pyrite K,Ca,Mg,Na-metasomatismIntermediate
argillic
Chloritic Chlorite+ calcite + epidote+ albite:t pyrite Ca,Mg-metasomatism Propylitic
Sericitic Sericite+ illite-smectite:t quartz :t calcite:t dolomite:t K-metasomatism Argillic
pyrite
Sediment.hosted
deposits Quartz+ pyrite+ hematite Jasperiod
Silicic Quartz:t muscovite:t carbonate:t pyrite:t pyrrhotite
Silicic Tourmaline:t muscovite:t quartz:t pyrrhotite Tourmalinite
Tourmaline Ankerite/siderite/calcite+ quartz:t muscovite:t pyrrhotite
Carbonate Sericite+ chlorite+ quartz:t pyrrhotite:t pyrite:t albite
Sericitic Albite + chlorite+ muscovite:t biotite
Albitic

2.3 I ALTERATION
FACIES-
THERECOMMENDED METHOD
We advocate a multi-faceted, descriptive approach to studying
altered volcanic rocks. Differenr alteration facies can be
defined not only on the basis of their mineral assemblage and
texture, but also on distribution, intensity and composition
(or compositional changes). This approach to describing
and naming alteration facies is similar to the nomenclature
scheme adopted by McPhie et al. (1993) for volcanic facies
and the descriptive scheme for diagenetic calcite used by Folk
(1965).
The four alteration variables are: mineral assemblage,
texture, distribution and intensity (Fig. 2.3). However, because
it is not always practical to provide information on all four
variables, we suggest that the alteration mineral assemblage
and at least one other variable be used. Ideally, descriptive
names for alteration facies follow the formula: intensity +
distribution + texture + mineral assemblage.
The intensity variable (Section 2.5) provides information
on the degree of mineralogical, compositional and textural
modification (i.e. subtle, weak, moderate, strong or intense).Ir
is determined from petrographic descriptions in combination
with compositional data (e.g. Na20) and alteration indices.
The distribution variable (Sections 3.3 and 3.4) refers to
the mappable extent of the alteration facies and its relationship
to host facies or components, structures, mineralised rock,
veins and other alteration assemblages (i.e. local or regional;
footwall or hanging wall; stratabound, pipe or plume).
The texture variable (Sections 3.1 and 3.2) refers to the
alteration texture that is superimposed on the rock, and is
typically described in hand specimen and/or thin section. Ir
may incorporate the shape, form, grainsize or fabric in the
altered rock (e.g. pervasive, selective or vein halo).
The alteration mineral assemblage(Section 2.4) is expressed
as an abbreviated alteration mineral assemblage in which the
minerals are listed in order of decreasing abundance (e.g. the
assemblage feldspar > quartz > sericite becomes feldspar +
quartz + sericite).
This approach produces alteration facies names such as
weak, regional, selective, chlorite + sericite alteration facies or
strong, massive, footwall, quartz + sericite alteration facies.

-
 DESCRIBING
ALTERED ROCKS I 23
VOLCANIC

IDEAL COMBINATION

m + m + + OJ
mineral
intensity distribution texture
assemblage
e.g. weak, regional,selectivefeldspar + quartz + sericitealterationfacies
moderate,distal, domainal,chlorite > sericite + quartz alterationfacies
strong,local, discordant,pervasivechlorite+ pyrite alterationfacies
Minimum:

w+ OJ e.g.hornfelsicquartz+ sericitealterationfacies
+ OJ e.g.regional,semi-conformable
chlorite+ epidotealteration
facies

+ OJ e.g.intensequartz+ pyritealterationfacies
+ f2l
~ + L'Jr:¡i alteratlon
e.g.moderate,
faciespervasivequartz+ hematite

OJ MINERALASSEMBLAGE
. expressed asa complete
orabbreviated alterationassemblage inwhichthemineral
s arelistedinorder
of decreasing
abundance (e.g.feldspar+ quartz+sericite)
. fortwoormorealterationassemblages, themineralsofthedominantassemblage arepresented first
followedbythoseoftheremaining assemblages inorderof relativeabundance
(e.g.chlorite/sericite
+ quartz)
TEXTURE

111replacement textures
pervasive,selective(selective-pervasiveor disseminated),vein-halo,microcrystalline,cryptocrystalline,
pseudomorphic,nodular,spheroidal,etc.
. infilltextures
incomplete,massive,layered(combtexture, crustification,colloform,botryoidal,cockade)
'" dissolution
textures
stylolitic,corrosive
. staticrecrystallisation
textures
porphyroblastic,poikiloblastic,poikiliticl micropoikilitic,microlitic,granoblastic,decussate,variolitic,
hornfelsic,perlitic
. dynamic
recrystallisation
textures
schistose,gneissic
. deformation
textures
augen schistose,fiamme,foliated, lineated
111pseudo textures
pseudobreccia,false pyroclastic,false eutaxitic,false polymictic,false coherent,false thin-bedded
volcaniclastic

DISTRIBUTION
111extent:
regional,local
. relationship to stratigraphy
stratabound,semi-conformable,discordant,pipe,plume
<11>spatial association
halo, envelope,selvage
INTENSITY
. subtle,weak, moderate,strong,intense

FIGURE2.3 I Descriptivenamesfor alterationfacies.

and under the same Huid-rock conditions (Hemley and Jones,

2.4 I ALTERATION
MINERAL
ASSEMBLAGE
Mineral assemblagerefers to specific, and usually characteristic,
observed mineral associations that may be in equilibrium or
disequilibrium. An equilibrium mineral assemblageis a group
of minerals formed at the same time, lacking any indication
of disequilibrium, such as replacement or veining textures,
and hence interpreted to have formed due to the same process
1964). Oisequilibrium or metastable mineral assemblages
are common and caution must be exercised in equating co-
existence with stable equilibrium (Meyer and Hemley, 1967;
Rose and Burr, 1979).
In general, alteration is a process of re-equilibration.
The pre-existing mineral constituents in a rock become
unstable under changed physicochemical conditions (e.g.
the addition of hydrothermal Huid) and progressively
alter to a new stable mineral assemblage, with or without
24 I CHAPTER
2

metasomatic chemical changes. The alteration process may be Stage 1: Hydration

only pattially completed and may result in a disequilibrium Glassyplagioclase-phyric
assemblage containing a mixture of the pre-existing and new coherentrhyolitewithperlitic
fractures.Fracturesurfaces
alteration minerals. Indeed, disequilibrium assemblages are are coatedwithciay
minerals.
typical of altered volcanic rocks. Common examples, at low
metamorphic grade, are domainal devitrification of felsic glass
and incipient sericitisation of feldspar crystals.
Subsequent overprinting alteration may complicate dis-
equilibrium assemblages. Volcanic rocks commonly retain
relicts of primary minerals (especially as phenocrysts)
and alteration minerals from several stages of diagenetic,
metamorphic and/or hydrothermal alteration (e.g. Fig. 2.4). Stage2: Diagenetic
.
alteration
Equilibrium assemblages may be attained in zones of intense
hydrothermal alteration Ot metamorphism, but primary Partlyciay+ zeolite-altered
plagiociase-phyriccoherent
equilibrium assemblages are rarely preserved in ancient rhyolite.The alteration
volcanic rocks. This is true even in least-altered rocks. faciesdistributionis
controlledby the perlitic
When mapping altered rocks it is impottant to recognise fracturepattern.
disequilibrium assemblages and correcdy attribute minerals
to the various processes of formation. Equally impottant is
an understanding of the effects and constraints that earlier
alteration facies, at various scales, may impose on subsequent
processes.
Stage 3: Hydrothermal
alteration

Toolsformineralogical
determination Moderatelysericite+ quartz-
alteredplagioclase-phyric
coherentrhyolite.
The first steps in the identification of alteration minerals are Pervasivelydeveloped
to apply the three essential field tools: the practised geological sericite+ quartzhas
replacedall glassand
eye, the hand lens and the scriber. These are frequendy previouslyaltereddomains.
Someclay-alteredrelicts
adequate for useful descriptions of alteration mineral havebeenalteredto sericite.
assemblages, mapping of altered zones and interpretation of Plagioclasephenocrysts are
partlyalteredto sericite.
styles or processes of alteration. Large-scale features must not
be overlooked; these provide the geological context that is
critical for interpretation of processes. Stage 4: Hydrothermal
Simple chemical field tests, such as the use of dilute hydro- alteration

chloric acid for discriminating carbonates, and sodium cobalt Intensechlorite+ pyrite-
nitrite for staining K-feldspar, can also be useful. However, alteredplagioclase-phyric
coherentrhyolite.Vein-halo
when alteration minerals occur as fine-grained masses chlorite+ pyriteassociated
additional instrumental techniques, such as microscopic with cross-cuttingchlorite+
carbonateveinshas
petrography, shott wavelength infrared spectrometry, X-ray overprintedand destroyed
earlierclayand sericite+
diffraction and micro-analyses, may be necessary to identifY quartzalteration
them. In many situations, such as mineral eXploration, the assemblagesandtextures.
practising geologist must rely largely on field skills, perhaps
augmented with limited laboratory work to substantiate
and assist in developing an 'eye' for patticular mineral FIGURE2.4 I Cartoonsof the microscopictexturaland mineralogicalevolution
of an originallyglassy plagiociase-phyriccoherentrhyolite.Overprinting
assemblages.
hydration,diagenesisand two stagesof hydrothermalalterationare visible in the
final rock.
Polished slabs

The identification of primary and alteration minerals, textures,
and overprinting relationships can often be facilitated by the
careful examination of polished slabs using a hand lens or
simple binocular microscope. Polished slabs can be made from
drill core or hand specimens that have been sawn to produce
a relatively fIat surface, which is subsequendy ground smooth
using a diamond lapoAt this stage many coarser minerals and
textures will be visible on the wet surface. The resolution of
finer features can be improved by polishing the slab surface on
a rotating metallap with 220 to 400-grit zinc or iron powder
and then finer powder (with water) on a glass plate. In the
absence of polishing equipment, it is sometimes beneficial to
buff the sawn surface with wet sandpaper. Steel wool can be
used to clean tarnished sulfides. Polished slabs are the cheapest
and most readily available tools for the field geologist.
Petrography
Examination of standard 75 x 25 mm thin sections or
polished thin sections with a polarising microscope is an
excellent and relatively inexpensive method of mineral
identification. Ir is the best way of resolving small-scale
spatial relationships between minerals to assist determination
of alteration reactions, paragenesis and likely processes.

Petrography is most effective if carried out by the person
who maps and samples the rocks. This requires access to
preparation facilities and a polarising microscope. This is not
a practical solution for mineral explorers, but is still widely
applicable in academia. The alternative is to send selected
samples to a consultant petrographer with complete details
of the geological context and the underlying objectives. Many
professional petrographers are unapologeric petrologists,
principally interested in petrogenesis and not enthusiastic
about the obscuring effect of alteration. Therefore, it is
imperative that the client informs the petrographer of the
importance of alteration mineral assemblages.
Short-wavelength infrared spectroscopy
The development of portable field instruments like the
PIMA (portable infrared mineral analyser), has increased the
use of short-wavelength infrared (5WIR) spectroscopy in
mineral exploration and related research (Thompson et al.,
1999). The technique identifies phyllosilicates, hydroxylated
silicates, carbonates and sulfates in most rypes of dry geological
samples and can also provide information on crystalliniry and
compositional variations in some minerals, such as clays,white
mica and chlorite. These minerals, particularly phyllosilicates,
are common constituents of alteration mineral assemblages
and may be difficult to discriminate by other field or optical
methods.
Portable 5WIR analysis has significant limitations in
resolving complex mineral assemblages, analysing dark
samples with significant opaque components and in
identifying aspectral anhydrous minerals, such as quartz.
Ir is an empirical method and does not supersede precise
determinative methods such asX-ray diffraction. Nevertheless,
portable 5WIR has practical advantages including rapid in-
field analyses of up to 30 samples per hour and no sample
preparation other than drying. Ir has many applications in
the recognition and mapping of altered zones in a variery of
mineral deposit sryles. Thompson et al. (1999) listed recendy
published 5WIR stUdies in epithermal, Archaean greenstone,
VHM5, uranium, evaporite and regolith environments.
Electron microprobe
Micro-analysis of mineral grains by electron microprobe has
become the standard tool for stUdies of mineral chemistry
over the past few decades. Ir has fine resolution, down to a
few microns diameter, and provides quantitative analyses
of elements with atomic numbers greater than four (Be) at
concentrations of greater than about 0.01 wt% (Berry et
al., 1983). Major element data can be used to estimate the
molecular formulae of unidentified minerals and investigate
spatial variations in mineral composition. Non-destructive
analyses are made on standard polished petrographic thin
sections or polished grain mounts. However, the electron
microprobe is an expensive laboratory instrument; it
requires a skilled operator and the sample throughput is low.
Consequendy, it is essentially a research tool. Ir is rarelyapplied
in alteration stUdies, mineral exploration or mapping, but is
potentially useful for the verification of mineral identification
and spatial compositional variations interpreted by other
means.
DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 25
X-ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is the definitive method for the
identification of all crystalline minerals, including opaque
minerals and structural polymorphs with similar chemical
compositions. Modern powder diffractometers can provide
semi-automated analysis and computerised semi-quantitative
mineral identifications from a small amount of powdered
sample (Berry et al., 1983). Like the electran microprobe,
these machines are mainly used as research tools. Commercial
quantitative XRD is not widely available and is relatively
expensive, currendy around $75-95 per sample (AMDEL)
in Australia.
2.5 I ALTERATION
INTENSITY
Alteration intensity is an indication of how completely a
rock has reacted to produce new minerals and textUres,
and is independent of the alteration process. The alteration
intensiry does not reflect the new mineral species, only their
abundance. Ir is closely linked to textUral and compositional
changes because it reflects the extent to which pre-existing
textUres and minerals (relicts of the original volcanic facies)
are preserved, and the degree of metasomatism (Rose and
Burt, 1979). Alteration intensiry can be estimated both
qualitatively and quantitatively.
Qualitativeestimatesof alterationintensity
Qualitative estimates of the alteration intensiry summarise
the textural and mineralogical changes that occurred during
alteration. They are based on the abundances of new alteration
minerals, the degree of destruction of pre-existing minerals,
the pervasiveness of alteration textUres, and/or the degree of
preservation of pre-existing textures. Although these featUres
can be estimated to some extent in hand specimen, they are
commonly estimated petrographically. Many geoscientists
apply terms such as least altered, weakly altered, moderately
altered, strongly altered and intensely altered to describe
alteration intensiry; however, these terms are subjective and
are rarely well defined.
5immons and Christenson (1994) determined alteration
intensiry by measuring the percentage conversion of primary to
secondary minerals, such that a weakly altered rock contained
0-33% alteration minerals; moderately altered 33-67%; and
strongly altered 67-100%. Alteration intensiry can also be
measured by independendy estimating the addition of new
minerals in the groundmass and the destruction of primary
phenocrysts such as plagioclase.
In contrast, Guilbert et al. (in Guilbert and Park, 1986)
proposed that alteration intensiry be described in terms ofboth
the growth of new alteration minerals and the destruction of
pre-existing textures. Their rwo-part alteration intensiry scale
incorporates estimates of the susceptibility of minerals to
alteration and the pervasivenessof alteration minerals. Mineral
susceptibiliry is the degree to which minerals in the rack are
altered, 51-510 (vol%), whereas pervasiveness is the degree to
 26 I CHAPTER
2
which alteration minerals permeate the entire rock, P1-P10
(vol%).
Despite these attempts to quantifY alteration intensity,
it is still applied subjectively by most geologists. For this
reason we prefer to avoid a numerical system and retain the
descriptive terms subtle, weak, moderate, strong and intense.
The term least altered is reserved for rocks that are less altered
than rheir counterparts in the same environment. Least-
altered rocks may be weakly to moderately altered, especially
in hydrothermal environments where all rocks are altered to
some degree.
Here we define subtle, weak, moderate, strong and intense
alteration based on the extent of growth of new alteration
minerals, the destruction of primary minerals and textures,
and pervasiveness of alteration textures (Table 2.5). Typically
with increasing intensity of alteration, primary minerals are
progressively replaced, new minerals are more pervasively
distributed, primary textures are less consistently preserved,
and new textures are developed (Fig. 2.5). For example,
Gustafson and Hunt (1975) noted that with increasing
intensity of hydrothermal K-silicate alteration at the El
Salvador porphyry deposit in Chile, there is an increasing
degree of replacement of plagioclase phenocrysts by K-
bearing phases until the phenocrysts are obliterated. With
progressively more intense alteration, the mafic phenocrysts
are replaced, the groundmass becomes coarser grained with
K-feldspar overgrowths, magnetite and hematite disappear,
and the abundance of veins increases.
Estimates of alteration intensity that incorporate textural
changes are biased towards texturally destructive alteration
styles such as feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alteration.
Ir is important to recognise that under some circumstances
alteration, particularly carbonate alteration and some forms
of silicification, can enhance some primary or pre-existing
textures (e.g. Fig. 2.6: Titley, 1982; Allen, 1988). For
example, carbonate nodules preserve delicate shard textures
in the Hercules footwall, western Tasmania (Fig. 2.6A: Allen,
1997), and shards are preserved in quartz nodules and quartz
+ chlorite (:t muscovite) altered zones in the Gossan Hill
footwall, Western Australia (Fig. 2.6B and C: Sharpe and
Gemmell, 2001). Although these alteration styles preserve
pre-existing textures, they may still be recognised as intensely
altered because of the pervasiveness of the new mineral
assemblage.
Colour contrasts related to overprinting alteration
assemblages or different mineral habits within an assemblage
can enhance textures, such as clast margins, whereas another
alteration assemblage with lower colour contrast and of equal
intensity may preserve textures just as well but textures may
be less discernable. The pervasiveness of alteration textures
and the degree of preservation of pre-existing textures are
dependent on the resilience of the pre-existing textures, the
intensity and style of alteration (Doyle, 2001; Gifkins and
Allen,2001).
L
Quantitative
estimates
ofalteration
intensity
Alteration indices
Alteration indices are simple, multi-component or normalised
ratios oflithogeochemical composition data. They are usually
calculated from composition data expressed as weight
percentages (wt%) or parts per million (ppm), although in
some cases molar proportions are used. They are geochemical
representations ofhydrothermal mineral assemblages designed
to facilitate discrimination of alteration styles, quantification
of alteration intensity, and exploration vectors. Alteration
indices have been widely applied in research and exploration
for VHMS deposits (Ishikawa et al., 1976; Large et al., 2001a).
They have also been used to a lesser extent in sediment hosted
Zn-Pb-Ag deposits (Large et al., 2001a) and Archaean lode
Au deposits (Eilu et al., 1997; Bierlein et al., 2000).
Simple ratio indices, especially of molar proportions, are
generally easily related to mineralogical changes (Eilu et al.,
1997). However, that is not the case for some more complex
indices where changes in the index value could be due to
changes in one or more of three or four components, and thus
related to several mineral phases. Stanley and Madeisky (1996)
noted that some empirically determined alteration indices are
not universally effective outside the district where they were
initially developed, tend to generate many false anomalies, or
may fail to identifY significant altered zones, because losses of
one component may cancel out gains in another.
Alteration indices are formulated by placing proportions
of components that were gained during alteration in the
numerator and components that were lost in the denominator,
thus producing the highest values in the most intensely altered
rocks. In developing new indices, it is therefore useful to first
apply mass transfer techniques to determine the components
gained and lost.
Because alteration indices are ratios, they are less affected
by closure than composition data (closure is discussed
in Section 4.1). They respond only to changes in the
concentrations of those components used in the index, but
not to all other components of the rock. Nevertheless, and
contrary to the opinion ofEilu et al. (1997), alteration indices
are not independent of closure because each component
of composition data is affected by closure. Hence, major
components that dominate igneous rock compositions, such
as Si02 and Al203 (which is also relatively immobile), are
rarely used in alteration indices for volcanic rocks.
Simple indices are ratios formulated from two components
of analytical data. For example, the S/Na20 ratio of Large et
al. (2001a). S/Na20 shows high contrast in VHMS alteration
systems, typically with values less than 0.1 in least-altered
rocks and values several orders of magnitude greater in sulfide-
bearing, intense, proximal altered footwall zones (Fig. 2.7).
Multi-component and normalised indices have two or more
components added together in either or both the numerator
and denominator of the index. The alkali based K2O/
Na20 + K20 + CaO index of Date et al. (1983) is a typical
example. Ir has a common structure for alteration indices: the
components of the numerator are also in the denominator.
This has a normalising effect of limiting the possible range
of values from zero to one. The normalisation in some
indices involves multiplication by a factor of one hundred to
 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 27

TABLE2.5I Descriptive
alterationintensityterms(subtle,weak,moderate,
strongandintense)definedontheextentofgrowthof newalteration
minerals,
thedestruction
ofprimarymineralsandtextures,andpervasiveness ofalteration
textures.
- --.._..__.._,. "-.-
Alte'ration Primary01inral Alterationinineral Texturalpreservation Newtextures
intensIty presation - distribt.ltidn
>--""""-' .",' .... ,,_.
-,
Subtle Phenocrysts andfree Newmineralshave Primaryvolcanic,devitrification Minorreplacement /recyrstallisation
crystalsoffeldspar, coatedthesurfacesof andhydration texturesareclearly (micro-orcryptocrystalline,
quartz,andmafic existingphenocrysts, visiblewithlittleornomodification.overgrowths, poikilitic,microlitic,
minerals(amphiboles, fracturesandclasts, spherulitic,varioliticandperlitic)and
pyroxenesetc_)were andinfilledopenspace infilltextures.
unaffected byalteration. (fractures,
vesicles,
Plagioclase mayhave porespace,etc} Glass
beendustedwith hasbeendevitrified.
sericite,carbonateor
hematite.
Weak Feldsparhasbeen Patchyordomainaland Goodpreservation of most Replacement, dissolution,
partlyreplacedbyalbite, disseminated selective textures(originalgroundmass, recrystallisation,deformation and
sericite,carbonate, alterationstyles. matrixtexturesandphenocrysts)- infilltextures.Mostcommontextures
hematiteand/orepidote. Alterationcommonly Delicatetexturessuchasshards, include:pseudomorphs, cleavage
Maficmineralshave nucleated onexisting pumiceclasts,perliteandthefine andrimtexture,coreandzonal
beenpartlyreplaced minerals,clastsor fibroustexturesinspherulites texture,coreandrimtexture,skeletal
byMg-andFe-rich fracturesandinterstitial showsomemodification. texture,overgrowths,micro-or
minerals,suchas inglomerocrysts. cryptocrystalline, dissolution vugs,
chlorite,epidoteand stylolites,poikilitic,foliations,fiamme,
Fe-oxides. andinfilltextures.
Moderate Feldsparhasbeenpartly Patchyordomainal Mosttexturesmodifiedand/or Replacement, dissolution,
to completelyreplaced anddisseminated destroyed byalteration.Delicate recrystallisation,
deformation, infill
byfeldspar,sericite, alterationstyles- texturescommonly destroyed or andpseudotextures. Inparticular:
carbonate,epidote, Individualdomainsmay substantiallymodified.
Coarser pseudomorphs, partialpseudomorphs,
quartzand/ormagnetite, havebeentexturally groundmass textures(perlite, overgrowths, disseminated nodules,
withoutlinesstill destructive(Le.chlorite spherulites,amygdales andflow spheriods, micro-orcryptocrystalline,
visible.Maficminerals alterationofpumice banding)andclastspartiallyto dissolutionvugs,stylolites,fiamme,
commonly completely clasts).Selective completely recrystallised
butstill porphyroblasts, poikiloblasts,poikilitic,
pseudomorphed. Minor alterationofindividual clearlyvisibleindomains. hornfelsicandaugentextures,and
recrystallisation
or clasts,groupsofclasts foliationsandlineations.
replacement ofquartz. or minerals. Vein-halo
alteration.
Strong Feldsparhasbeen Domainal selectiveto Primaryvolcanic,devitrification Replacement, dissolution,
completely replaced pervasive.Vein-halo andhydration texturesalmost recrystallisation,
deformation, infill
bychlorite,sericite, alteration. completely destroyed(regardless andpseudotextures.Including:
carbonate and/or of grainsize).
Pervasive pseudomorphs, nodules,spheroids,
opaques(although replacement ofgroundmass, micro-orcryptocrystalline,
outlinesstillpartly matrixandphenocrysts. Sparse dissolution
vugs,stylolites,fiamme,
visible)andquartz relictfiamme,amygdales andclast porphyroblasts,poikiloblasts,poikilitic,
partlyreplacedor outlinespreserved- granoblastic,
decussate, hornfelsic
recrystallised. andaugentextures,andfoliationsand
lineations.
Intense Noprimaryminerals Transgresses textural AIIoriginalrocktexturesincluding Replacement, dissolution,
remain.Sparseoutlines faciesandunitcontacts phenocrysts havebeendestroyed. recrystallisation,deformation,infilland
afterprimaryminerals andprimarytextures. Weakpseudomorphs oroutlines pseudotextures.Including:nodules,
maystillbevisible. Pervasive,typically of coarsephenocrysts may spheriods, micro-orcryptocrystalline,
homogenous, alteration bevisible.Primaryrocktype rarestylolites,granoblastic,
decussate
ona localscale.Vein- indeterminate. andhornfelsic textures,andfoliations
haloalteration. andlineations.
 r
28 I 2
CHAPTER

SI l).iI!1
~

iEi
~
.. '"
(1)
en
c:
(1) f;/¡
1:, ~

jffJ
".
'Ifj;:;::¡¡¡
~
..
I!JI
 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 29

A. Bubble-wall shards
Delicate bubble-wall and platy shards (S) have been preserved
within a carbonate nodule in the proximal, carbonate zone
beneath the Hercules VHMS deposito The carbonate nodule
comprises quartz + calcite + chlorite-altered pumice breccia.
. Plane polarised light.
~1 Sample MR96- 57, Cambrian Hercules Pumice Formation,
Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics, Hercules
~I footwall, western Tasmania.

B. Pumice shards
Delicate rube pumice clasts (P) have beeen preserved in intensely
quartz + chlorite (:t muscovite)-altered pumice breccia fmm the
footwall to the Gossan Hill VHMS deposito The rube vesicles have
been coated in thin films of chlorite and filled with quartz, and
vesicle walls have been altered to quartz. Plane polarised light.
Sample 138752, Archaean Golden Grove Formation, Gossan
Hill footwall, Wéstern Australia.

C. Shards
This quartz nodule (Q) from the footWall, quartz + chlorite
(:t muscovite) zone contains delicate shard textures. Plane
polarised light.
Sample 138795, Archaean Golden Grove Formation, Gossan
Hill footwall, WésternAustralia.

FIGURE2.6 I Photographs01intenselyalteredpumicebrecciaswith delicateprimarytextures.

FIGURE2.5 I Pairs 01hand-specimen and thin-section photographs 01 increasing intensity 01alteration in rhyolitic leldspar-phyric pumice breccia in the Hercules
lootwall, northernCentralVolcanicComplex,westernTasmania.(A) Hand-specimenand (B) thin-sectionphotographs01subtle,domainal,albite + sericite-and
sericite+ chlorite-alteredpumicebreccia(sampleMR96-63) showingexcellentpreservation01volcanictextures.Plagioclasecrystals are partly replacedby albite.
In albite-richdomains,tube vesiclesand clast marginsare linedwith sericiteand albite + quartz altered.In contrast,pumiceclasts and shards in the chlorite-rich
domainsare pervasivelysericite+ chloritealtered.The Al = 40 and CCPI = 26. (e) Hand-specimenand (D) thin-sectionphotographs01weak, domainal,albite +
sericite-and sericite+ chlorite-alteredpumicebreccia(sampleMR96-54). Volcanictexturesare well preservedin the albite-richdomains and poorly preservedin the
chlorite-richdomains.Plagioclasecrystals(P) are sericite:!: albite :!:opaquesalteredand have albiteovergrowthsor nodules(alb), which locally preservedelicate
vesiculartextures.Elsewherevesiclesare coatedin sericiteand Iilled with albite.Pumicewalls are albite + quartz alteredand sericite :!:chlorite + hematitefiamme
and stylolitesare abundan!.The Al = 58 and CCPI= 37. (E) Hand-specimenand (F)thin-sectionphotographs01moderate,pervasive,albite + sericite-alteredpumice
breccia(sampleMR96--48)with partly preservedpumicetexturesand plagioclasecrystals.Sericitefiamme(F) and sericite + hematitestylolitesare abundan!.
Nodulesor overgrowths01albite occuraroundcalcite and albite + hematite-alteredplagioclasecrystals (P). The Al = 70 and CCPI = 38. (G) Hand-specimenand (H)
thin-sectionphotographs01strong,pervasive,quartz + sericite + pyrite-alteredpumicebreccia(sampleMR96-50). Primaryvolcanictextures are laint, with sparse
sericite-alteredpumiceclasts or liamme (F). Plagioclasecrystals (P) are polycrystalline-quartz:!:pyritealtered.TheAl = 98 and CCPI= 64. (1)Hand-specimenand
(J) thin-sectionphotographs01intense,schistose,quartz + sericite+ pyrite-alteredpumicebreccia(sampleMR96--46).No relict plagioclaseor volcanictexturesare
preservedin thin section:in hand specimenirregularlenses01sericiteresemblefiamme (F).This alterationlacies is pervasiveand stronglyloliated. The Al = 99 and
CCPI= 30.
~

30 I CHAPTER
2
-

""
"" S/Na20

.>5
2900mN D1-5
D 0.1-1
D <0.1

KershawPumiceand MountBlackFonmations

~ -',
I
\
1 Feldspar-phyric
monomictic
rhyoliteanddacite,
rhyolitebreccia,feldspar-
phyricpumicebreccia,pumiceand lithic
clast-richbreccia
Roseberyhangingwall (WhiteSpur Formation)
r:;:;l
Rhyoliticfeldspar+ quartz-phyric
~ pumicebrecciaand sandstone
~ Blackshale

..
r..:
... :1 Stratified
crystal-rich
sandstone volcaniclastic

...
GJ Rhyoliticquartz + feldspar+ biotiteporphyrysill ...
1-2%disseminated
sphalerite
+ galena+ pyrite
1IIIIIIII 2-5% disseminatedsphalerite+ galena+ pyrite
Massive/semi-massive
ore

Roseberyfootwall(Hercules/KershawPumiceFormation)

D Rhyolitic
feldspar-phyric
pumicebreccia
~ Daciticfeldspar-phyric
pumicebreccia

400mE
aOOmE
7J';;¡.
2100mN

FIGURE2.7 I West-east 1700mNsectionthroughthe K-Iensof the RoseberyVHMS deposit,westem Tasmania,showinggeology and

contouredS/Nap data.

produce a potential range from zero to one hundred, which
is convenient for quantification of alteration intensiry. The
classic example is the Alteration Index (Al) of Ishikawa et al.
(1976):
Al= 100(MgO + KzO)
MgO + K20 + CaO + Na20
Originally devised as a measure of intensiry of sericite and
chlorite alteration associated with the Kuroko- VHMS
deposits, it is useful in many rypes of plagioclase-destructive
hydrothermal alteration systems.
In some cases where there are large differences in
magnitudes between components, some components are
multiplied by appropriate factors to adjust their effect in the
index. An example is the Al mark 4 index,
Al mark 4 = 100(FeO + lOMnO)
FeO + 10MnO + MgO + (Si02/10)
which quantifies alteration in siliciclastic dolomites (Large et
al., 2000).
Molar proportion alteration indices are said to be more easily
related to the stoichiometry of alteration reactions and hence
to alteration assemblages (e.g. Eilu et al., 1997). The extra
step in converting composition data to molar proportions of
oxides or elements is easily achieved in computer spreadsheets
but it significantly complicates manual calculations. Some
examples of molar indices are the 3K/Al sericitisation index
and the CO2/CaO carbonation index used in exploration
for lode Au deposits (Davies et al., 1990). The ACNK
index ofHodges and Manojlovic (1993) used the molecular
proportions of Al203/(CaO + Na20 + K2O) to quantifY
intensiry of alteration related to metamorphosed massive
sulfide deposits at Snow Lake, Manitoba.
 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 31

The AI-CCPI alteration indices and box plot A

The well-known Alteration lndex (Al) was developed in the

Kuroko VHMS deposits, Japan, to represent the principal
components gained (MgO and K2O) during chlorite and
seticite alteration, and those lost (Na20 and CaO) during
-
the bteakdown ofNa-plagiodase and volcanic glass (lshikawa
et al., 1976). The Al has since been widely used in VHMS
minetal explor<ltion to provide quantitative estimates of the
intensity of alteration. Ir typically increases to maximum values
.-¡
in the proximal hydrothermal zones beneath massive sulfide ~
lenses (e.g. Saeki and Date, 1980). The Al ranges from O to
100 _ B
100. High (> 60) values reflect high MgO and K20 contents
80- 1

relative to CaO and Na20, and may be related to intense

hydrothermal sericite and chlorite alteration. In contrast, low 60-1
« 30) Al values reflect high CaO or Na20 contents that may «
40-1
be due to intense albite or calcite alteration more typical of
regionaldiagenetic alteration or metamorphism. For example,
at Hellyer Al increases from 35 to 95 from the margin to the
O.
centre of the alteration pipe directly below the ore deposit
(Fig. 2.8A and B: Gemmell and Large, 1992; Large et al.,
200Ia).
100
80
~e
There is a strong inverse relationship between Al and Na
concentration (e.g. Fig. 2.8A and D) because loss ofNa, and
-c... 60
o
sometimes loss of Ca, is the major chemical change involved o 40
in the breakdown of plagiodase. In many studies Na depletion
20
is used instead of Al as the principal measure of alteration
intensity (Date et al., 1983). o
The lshikawa alteration index has two major limitations 8
(Large et al., 2001a). Firstly, it do es not take carbonate
alteration into account, even though this type of alteration cf< 6

can be significant in some VHMS alteration systems. Where

~
Ca-carbonates are present they cause a decrease in Al, even o N
4
C\S
where plagiodase destruction is extreme, because CaO is Z
2
in the denominator. Secondly, the Al effectively measures
plagioclase destruction but does not differentiate chlorite-
o
fram sericite-altered rocks. Variations in relative proporrions
ofchlorite and sericite or spatial relationships between chlorite FIGURE2.8 I Alterationintensityin the alteredlootwall zones at the Hellyer
and sericite zones may be imporrant guides to exploration VHMS deposit,westernTasmania.(A) Schematiccross-section01the altered
in some VHMS alteration systems. A geochemical index to lootwall zonesand variationsin alterationintensityin these zones as measured
quantifYthe variation would be an improvement on subjective by (B) AlterationIndex(Al), (C) Chlorite-carbonate-pyriteindex (CCPI),and
visualestimates. (D) Na2O.Modiliedalter Gemmelland Large(1992) and Large et al. (2001a).

The chlorite-carbonate-pyrite index,

CCPI = 100(FeO +MgO)
FeO+MgO+Na20+K2O
was developed to reflect the prominence of chlorite, Fe-
Mg carbonates, and pyrite, which are common minerals in
the praximal altered zones of many VHMS deposits (Large
et al., 2001a). High values of CCPI reflect high FeO and
MgO contents, suggesting intense alteration to Fe- or Mg-
rich minerals such as chlorite, Fe-Mg-bearing carbonates
(dolomite, ankerite or siderite), pyrite, magnetite or hematite.
However, the CCPI of least-altered rocks is dependent on
primary composition and magmatic fractionation. Mafic
racks with high primary FeO and MgO contents typically
haveCCPI values greater than 50, whereas more evolved felsic
racks have lower CCPI values between 10 and 50. Thus the
CCPI is not well suited to the study of altered mafic rocks.
Used in conjunction with the Al, particularly graphically
on x-y bivariate plots with Al as the x-axis, the CCPI provides
an effective means of discriminating sericite-, chlorite- and
carbonate-rich altered zones. Furthermore, the AI-CCPI
bivariate plot, termed the Alteration box plot by Large et al.
(2001a), discriminates these VHMS-related hydrothermal
alteration assemblages from diagenetic albite- or albite + K-
feldspar-bearing assemblages.
Feldspar, phyllosilicate, carbonate and several other
alteration mineral compositions plot around the margins of
the Alteration box plot (Fig. 2.9). Albite plots at the lower
left, K-feldspar and pure muscovite at the lower right, chlorite
at the top right, and carbonates along the upper margin et
cetera. Calcite plots at the top left comer (although CCPI is
indeterminate for pure calcite, the merest traceof Fe or Mg
will result in CCPI = 100), magnesite at the top right and
the Ca-Mg carbonates spread between them according to Al

....
32 I CHAPTER
2
. pyrite, magnetite and siderite . . pyrite, magnetite and siderite
epidote epidote
ealeite ankerite dolomite aetinolite tremolite ehlorite ealeite ankerite dolomite aetino]ite tremolite ehlorite
100 100

90 ',1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.. 1 90 - . rhyolite

- K- I - I - -1- -1- - r -, - I - -1--
(>69 wt% 5i02)
80 1 " to-- .1. 1 I I 80 --~-- '1/! dacite
X - t- - - -1 JGE¡'IIr "'l~ - f- + - -t - -1- -
ID 1 ' . xID I (63-69 wt% 5i02)
"O
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60
-
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j... -

- L -A
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. -

-1'Ti J.~(Iffi-
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... ~I
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1 1 1
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.1 - .1 - _1 - -
1
"O
.!';
.$
70

60
~- -
I
.. andesite
(52-63wt%5i02)
Á basal!
.~ «52 wt% 5i02)
ID 1 jI',;J! 1@~. 1 @I 1 c.
c¡¡ 50 ID
<:: _L- _-.J_~I--!~Ijj"L .1_.1__1_- c¡¡ 50
o <::
.D 1
- L -
liJ ~\ J.
@t.l.II!..I~~"""
1 ~'I'
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1 1 1
J - _1 - -
o
.D
(¡;
'-' 40 40
serieite (¡;
1 ~'-I.I¡¡¡"I "1'- 1 1 4 (phengite) '-' serieite
(; 30 - '- - - -'¡'''''_I~I.~: ..~ - ..!. - _1- - 2 30
(phengite)
:c 1 Ti"... Y.!I--- . .1 '§
:c
S¿ 20 1 1 . .. ~""'IC.1 rl.. andesite/ S¿ 20
o:: - I - - -1 - -1- 1- -.¡- 1 basalt
<.) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @ dacite o::
<.) 10 <.)
- í - '1 - I - -1 - - 1- - I - T . rhyolite <.) 10

O
albite I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 ', museovite
K-feldspar o
albite museovite
K-feldspar
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

FIGURE2.9 I Al - CCPIAlterationbox plot lor least-alteredsampleslrom the FIGURE2.10 I AI- CCPIAlterationbox plot lor 1734analyses01rockslrom
Mount ReadVolcanics,westernTasmania(modiliedalter Largeet al., 2001a). modernvolcanicares; mostare assumedto be unaltered.Geochemicaldata
The data are classiliedaccordingto TilZr ratios,where rhyoliteshaveTilZr <10, are lrom Aleutian,Andean, Indonesianand 8cotian volcanicares, and were
dacites 10-20 and andesitesand basalts>20,and show the effect01magmatic compiledby A.J. 8tolz (electroniccommunication,1998).These data (classified
Iractionationon the CCPI. by8i02content)showtheeffects01magmaticdifferentiation onCCPI,andtoa
lesserdegree onAl. Malic rocks have high CCPIand low to moderateAl values
because01theirhighFe,MgandhighCacontents,respectively. Incontrast,
lelsic rockshave low CCPI because 01their low Fe, Mg and high K contents,and
derermined by Mg/Cararios. Similarly, Mn-carbonares (excepr highAl due to their low Ca and high K contents.
pure rhodochrosire, which is indererminare in borh in dices)
plor along rhe top margin of rhe Alrerarion box plor; rheir
posirions derermined by rhe inevirable minor concentrations Ir is imporrant to nore rhar neirher Al nor CCPI indudes
of Ca, Mg and Fe. Siderire, pyrire and Fe-oxides have CCPI Si02; rhus rhe Alrerarion box plor does nor provide a direcr
values of 100, bur are indererminare for Al and rhus plor as a measure of rhe intensity of quarrz or silica alreraríon. As
line, rarher rhan a point, along rhe rop. oudined in Secrion 7.2, silica-alrered rocks are imporranr
Large er al. (2001a) found rhar leasr-altered rocks in rhe around some VHMS deposirs, induding rhe silicic core zone
Mount Read Volcanics have an Al range of 20 ro 65 and a in rhe Hellyer alrerarion pipe (Gemmell and Large, 1992), rhe
CCPI range of 15 ro 85 (Fig. 2.9). A compilation of 1734 stockwork zones of some Kuroko deposirs (Shirozu, 1974),
geochemical analyses for unalrered volcanic rocks from and in some Cyprus-type alreraríon pipes (Lydon, 1984).
various modern volcanic arcs shows a slighdy smaller Al range The Alrerarion box plor is a powerful rool for relaríng
of 20 to 60 and a slighdy grearer CCPI range of lOto 90 lirhogeochemical dara ro mineral assemblages and alrerarion
(Fig. 2.10). Hence, leasr-alrered volcanic rocks plor wirhin a intensity in VHMS sysrems, parricularly in felsic volcanic
recrangle near rhe middle (somewhar lefr of cenrre) of rhe rocks. Ir has obvious applicarions in mineral explorarion for
AI-CCPI bivariare plor. This is rhe leasr-alrered 'box' rhar recognising favourable alrerarion styles, delinearing alrered
inspired rhe rerm box plor. The exrenr and posirion of rhe zones and providing vectors to ore wirhin large alrered sysrems.
leasr-alrered box may vary for dara from different disrricrs, A similar dual index approach may be useful for orher deposir
according ro rhe diversity of primary composirions. types, wirh differenr indices designed ro highlighr specific
Fluid-dominared pervasive hydrorhermal alrerarion alrerarion assemblages.
rends ro produce simple equilibrium assemblages of only a
few phases. Therefore, intensely alrered samples rend ro plor Element concentrations and mineral abundances
ourside rhe leasr-alrered box and towards rhe posiríons of
rhe dominanr alrerarion minerals. For example, unalrered Element concentrarions can also be used as guides to alrerarion
calc-alkaline rhyolires plor in a box towards rhe centre of rhe intensity. Many alrerarion srudies have used Na deplerion as
Alreration box plor; wirh increasing intensity of alrerarion, a measure of hydrorhermal alrerarion intensity (e.g. Franklin
alrered samples plor progressively furrher away from the er al., 1975; Dare er al., 1979; 1983; Hashiguchi er al., 1983;
unalrered box (Fig. 2.11). The relarive direcrion of movement Ashley er al., 1988). Typically unalrered modern arc calc-
away from rhe unalrered box is controlled by rhe alrerarion alkaline rhyolires have Na20 values between 3 and 5 wr%
assemblage and hence by rhe alrerarion process (Large er al., (Barrett er al., 1993; Srolz er al., 1996). Rhyolires wirh grearer
2001a). rhan 5 wt% Na20 are normally albirísed, whereas rhyolires
Large er al. (2001a) defined 10 differenr mineralogical wirh less rhan 3 wt% Na20 reflecr feldspar-desrrucríve
trends on rhe Alreration box plor. Six of rhese rrends relare to alrerarion styles (e.g.sericire, chlorire, pyrire, K-feldspar and
common VHMS hydrorhermal alterarion styles and four are carbonare). The lower rhe Na20 content rhe more intensely
associared mainly wirh diagenetic alrerarion (Fig. 2.12). hydrorhermally alrered rhe rock; rhus, Na20 typically
 DESCRIBING
ALTERED VOLCANIC ROCKS I 33
.. pyrite, magnetiteand siderite ..
epidote
A. Hydrothermal trends
calcite ankerite dolomite tremolite chlorite .. pyrite, magnetite and siderite ..
100
epidote
calcite ankerite dolomite actinolite tremolite chlorite
1 1 1 1 1 1 I ~ 1
~
x
90 - , - --r- , - -1- -1- - , - ~ o .~e- -1- - 100
Q) 1 1 1 1 1 1 :0~~:Ae{\G 1
4 )- ore
~ 80 - t- - -t - --j - -1- - 1- - .~,e e" <;! - -1 - -
, x
90
,,1
- ,-
1 1 1(
--r- , - -1- chl + carb -¡-- --r- -1- -

t
Q) Q)
.¡: 70
1 1 1 1 '()..;P~o~~'().~o:0 1 'D
80
1" l-4II
>.
c.
.- +- - -1-- ~ - -! (j~e ~Gi;>,e~ -I-e- - -t..- . - t- - - --j ~; - - 1- - f- + 17c"J:'. -
1. 1 1 1\\oO~l.e 1 1 l. 2 1 ,,1" 1 1 3 x~ 1
<i>
Ci1
60 - L - -1 - J - _1- '>-'Q - - L ~ ~I -..-
- -
.§, 70
- +-- -~"" 5 1- - 1- ~ y-+
e 1 1 1 1.1
- L - -1 - ~ - _1- - I - L .
. 1 l. I
1- - -1 ! _1 - t
a.
<i>
I I <~'<S 1 x~
e
1
- -2
,
-

.8 50 60 _L- -~--\.JC,s;- ~~--1--,L-

rn ¡¡;
1 1 1 1 l. S 181.18 e 1 1 1" ~ V 1 ser + chl + py
't 40 ..L - J - -.J- ;1- -f. -:L -~'-~- O 50
.D
~ 1 ~ 1 .. ~ I..J..I sericite
- L1 - - ~1 - _1-1 - ~
1 1 1- - .l 1 -

.2 30 ~--
1 1 1-.1.. ,..
L~ (phengite) <.:>
40 ---
1
- Ieas-t ---i" 1 1 ser 1
.!:
() 1.1. ~.I 1 l. $ I 1 1 -)1--"
..oob
1 . r .1. 1 .1
6r.", _1-
:::- 20 '§ 30 - ~ - al tered _1- - 1.."~' _T (phengite)
Il. - I - ~ -.- 1- T - I - -1- -
1: b
1 ox 1 1 l' "c!1~ I
8 10 1
- I - I -
1 least-altered
,- rhyolite
1
box -1 - - o::
20
- ~ - - ~ - -:- -:- - ~ + -"~Q'JC.s'~ -
albite 1 1 I I 1 () 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 :"~ '1"-
o K.feldspar () 10 - I - I - I - -1- -1- -,- - T - I - ~

.
O 10 20 30 40 50

Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

60 70 80 90 100
O albite . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ". muscovlte
K-feldspar
O 10' 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

FIGURE2.11 I Al - CCPI Alterationbox plot lor rhyolitesin the northernCentral
VolcanicComplex,westernTasmania.Samplesare 01rhyoliticpumicebreccias B. Diagenetic trends
lromthe Roseberyand Herculeslootwalls.With increasingintensityollootwall .. pyrite, magnetiteand siderite ..
epidote
chlorite+ sericite:t pyritealteration,Al and CCPIvaluesincreaseand samples calcite ankerite dolomite actinolite tremolite chlorite
plotin the upperright 01the Alterationbox plol. 100

90 - ,1 - --r-
1 , 1 - -11- - 1-
1 - 1 llore
xQ) 1 ' -¡ r-~--
'D 80 , 1
.
2
ep +cc:!:ab- -1 least- - +1 - ~1 - -1: - -

.§,
a.
70
1
8 /0-
1
-:1 altered
box - -1--
1 -1--
1 -11 - -
-
decreases towards the centre of VHMS
(e.g. Fig. 2.13).
alteration systems <i>
¡¡;
e
60 _L-
1
-~
1- -
~ 1- -
1 L1 - 1- - -1 - _1 --

TI ~
O
Alteration mineral abundances quantitatively estimated
.D 50 _L-
1
-~-
1
7 1
L
1
1---1
1 1
1
<.:>
from whole-rock composition data can also provide measures 40 - .L - -; : 1 1 1 - -1 - -
sericite
.41 1 )t 1 -1'- 1- - L 1 - J - _1
(phengite)
ofalteration intensity. For example, Large et al. (2001b) found O
1: 30 -~-;:g> --,__9 1 : 1 1 1-4
1 1 IIr - ,- - l' .!. - ~ - _1-
that calculated mineral percentages closely approximated the
20 - 1 IK-feld + ab I 1 1-
o:: 1 -- 1 T1 - '11 - -1--
1
petrographic estimates of alteration mineral abundances in ()
samples from Rosebery. By plotting the calculated mineral () 10 - -:- -~ 1O~ _1-

abundances down hole they showed that diagenetic minerals,

1 1 1 par+ab
, , I1 - muscovite
O K-feldspar
such as albite, decrease in abundance and hydrothermal O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
minerals, such as sericite, quartz, chlorite and Mn-carbonate, Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
increase in abundance with proximity to ore (Fig. 2.14).
Mineral abundances can be calculated as percentages from FIGURE 2.12 I Schematic AI-CCPI Alteration box plots showing the 10
the whole-rock analyses by the least-squares method outlined alterationtrends recognisedby Large et al. (2001a). These providea tool lor
in Herrmann and Berry (2002). A free copy of the MINSQ graphicallydiscriminatingprospectivelrom non-prospectivealteredzones and/or
(least-squares spreadsheet method for calculating mineral systems.(A)Thesixtrendsmarkedbyarrowsonthisboxplotaretypical01
hydrothermallyalteredrocksassociatedwith VHMS deposits.Trend 1: sericite
proportions from whole-rock major element analyses) is alterationatthemargins01the hydrothermal alterationhaloinlelsicvolcanic
available to download from the University of Tasmania's rocks.Trend2: lootwallsericite+ chlorite:t pyritealterationin lelsic and mafic
Centre for Ore Deposit Research website <www.codes.utas. volcanicrocks.Trend3:chlorite:t sericite:t pyritealteration,typicalollootwall,
edu.au>. chlorite-dominatedzones in either lelsic or malic volcanic rocks.Trend4: chlorite
+ carbonatealterationtypicallydevelopedproximalto massivesulfide lenses
inthelootwall01eitherlelsicormalichostrocks.Trend5:sericite+ carbonate
alterationin the proximalhangingwall to ore depositsor alongstrike in the host
Anintegratedapproachto alterationintensity rocks.Trend6: K-Ieldspar+ sericite,an uncommontrend developedlocally
within lootwalllelsic volcanicrocks.(B) The lour trends markedby arrowson
A combined compositional and descriptive approach to this box plot are mainlyattributedto diageneticprocessesand are unrelatedto
estimating alteration intensity can also be used. In fact, mineralisation. Trend7:albite+chloritealteration, typical01low temperature
seawater-volcanicrockinteraction.Trend 8: epidote+ calcite :t albite alteration
the Alteration box plot is most powerful when used in
commonin intermediateand maficvolcanicrocks.Trend9: K-Ieldspar+ albite
combination with petrographic and/or other instrumental alteration.Trend10:paragonitic sericite+ albitealteration.
mineralogical srudies, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) or
short wavelength infra-red spectral analysis (e.g. PIMA). Used
in this way the box plot reveals trends in the data, from least
altered to intensely altered, which can be related to alteration
processes and hence exploration targets.
 34 I CHAPTER
2

"'" "'" "'"

"'" "'"
"'" "'"
"'" Na20
= <0.5wt%
2900mN
D 0.5-1
D 1-2
2-3
3-5

KershawPumiceandMountBlackFormations
["T":'lFeldspar-phyricrhyoliteanddacite,
L.L.J monomictic rhyolitebreccia,feldspar-
phyricpumicebreccia,pumiceandlithic
clast-richbreccia
Rosebery hangingwal!(WhiteSpurFormation)
r-:::;:;lRhyoliticfeldspar+ quartz-phyric
~ pumicebrecciaandsandstone
f:ZILj Blackshale

..
D... sandstone
Stratifiedcrystal-rich
volcaniclastic

G:JRhyoliticquartz+ feldspar+ biotiteporphyrysil!

1-2% disseminatedsphalerite+ galena + pyrite

2-5% disseminatedsphalerite + galena + pyrite

Massive/semi-massiveore

Roseberyfootwal! (Hercules/KershawPumice Formation)

FIGURE2.13 I ContouredNazOdata lor
D Rhyoliticfeldspar-phyricpumicebreccia
the west-€ast 1700mN sectionthrough
~ Dacitic feldspar-phyricpumice breccia
the K-Iens01the RoseberyVHMS
200mE 600mE
I deposit,westernTasmania.Modifiedalter
2100mN Largeet al. (2001b).

In the northern Central Volcanic Complex (Mount Read
Volcanics), detailed petrographic descriptions were combined
with compositional data to assess the range of Al and CCPI
values for subdy to intensely altered rhyolites (Table 2.6 and
Fig. 2.15). The least-altered rhyolites were subdy altered and
have comparable alteration indices to unaltered modern arc
rhyolites (Al = 30-60 and CCPI = 10-40). Intenselyaltered
rhyolites have mid to high alteration indices (Al = 40-100 and
CCPI = 28-100). Al ranges for subdy, weakly, moderately,
strongly or intensely altered rhyolites, dacites, andesites and
basalts are similar. In contrast, the CCPI is inBuenced by the
primary composition. For this reason the Alteration box plot
should never be used independendy as a method of classifYing
the alteration system, but should be integrated with the
primary geochemical and/or petrographic data.
Using a combination of alteration mineral assemblage and
composition data also enables separation of rock samples into
least-altered, diagenetically altered and hydrothermally altered
samples (Gifkins and Allen, 2001; Large et al., 2001 a). The
trend from subdy to intensely hydrothermally altered rocks
associated with VHMS deposits is characterised by increases
in both CCPI and Al, and decreases in Na20 (Table 2.7).

TABLE2.6 I Alterationindiceslor alteredrhyolitesin the northernCentral TABLE2.7 I Alterationindices,Nap contentsand approximatemass changes
VolcanicComplex,westernTasmania.The broad range in Al and CCPIvalues lor hydrothermallyalteredrhyoliteslrom the lootwallsto the Roseberyand
reflectsdiflerent alterationstyles. For example,stronglyalteredrhyoliteswith low HerculesVHMS deposits,westernTasmania.Al and CCPIincreaseand NazO
Al values probablyreflectdiageneticalteration,whereashighAl values reflect decreaseswith increasingintensity01alteration.
hydrothermalalteration. ,NM .~,~~NW
e'_=- Alteration NazO Ma$scbanges
Al CCPI
Alteration
intensity Al CCPI tJazO(wt%) illtellsity
------W_-----. (wt%) (gmOOg)
!.-'_e., ,

Subtle 30-55 10-32 3.5-5 Subtle 30-55 10-32 3.5-5 <1

Weak 25-60 15-45 2-5.5 Weak 40-60 15--45 2--4 <10
Moderate 10-75 10-55 1-6 Moderate 40-75 10-55 1-2 5-30
Strong 5-90 28-90 0.5--4.5 Strong 70-90 30-90 0.5-1 15-60
Intense 40-100 28-100 0-3 Intense 90-100 28-100 0-0.5 15-100

'ü
 DESCRIBINGALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 35

Quartz K-feldspar Albite Muscovite Carbonate Chlorite Sulfides

.-"-"'.-
1060 m Mount Black fault
';;/.>;::
~:. .",:
.' v,
I I ..
-u_o"~...~ -
.~. ~ I
~:'. ..':.
1100m '... . \7.
~
~
.. . .
'". .
-'.. :'" Feldspar and quartz
4'~ A crystal-lithic pumice
breccias

1140 m -Ij!!I!I; 1; , - ' '"'''' , ,. t~,~':;r:l'

'.". .:

~',,;.

UU~¿:i~

Black mudstone

""mJlill!,,;
1220
m :-;
IFII1 Fault

li'hTUH ni'
jl-
Planar stratified,
feldspar crystal-rich
volcanic sandstone
u
--_._--:-Hr!-Im j-I:11 Fault
Black mudstone
Fault
1260 m -I¡H-,-H+ ¡-.-u+j--I- ll,_ul-.L,_u:-ju' -- +
Planar stratified,
feldspar crystal-rich
volcanic sandstone
and siltstone

'" '"
1300 m ij =
1'"
'" '" Massive feldspar +
ij = quartz + biotite-
1 '" phyric rhyolite sil!
'" '"
ij =
1340m 1'"
'" '"
ij
Massive feldspar-
phyric dacitic
pumice breccia
Massive and
disseminated
1380m sulfides

-.
-~~-
~ Massive feldspar-
phyric rhyolitic
pumice breccia

~
u _u-

,,
o 100%0 100%0 100%) 100%0 100% 1/16264 mm

FIGURE2.14 I Variations in calculated mineral abundances in samples lrom DDH120Rthrough K lens01the Rosebery VHMS
deposit,westernTasmania.Increasingintensity01hydrothermalalterationtowardsthe ore lens correspondswith increasingproportions
01chlorite,Mn-carbonateand calcite,and decreasingconcentrations01quartzandalbite.
r-

36 I CHAPTER
2

epidote
. pyrite, magnetite and siderite . chemical characteristics of the altered rock or alteration facies,
calc~e ankente dolomite tremol~e chlorite providing quick reference to the data collected and facilitating
interpretation. Data sheets are used in Chapters 5, 6 and 7 to
)(90
illustrate the dominant alteration facies or zones associated
Q)
with each of the casestudies. The information that is induded
~ 80 -j ~t+ ~ f-.+ +
~ 1 ',,1 '15lron'g 1 on the data sheets may vary beeause the relevant or available

_
'~,70 L - .1 - ~- _1- - 1- - L - 1-Il- -P- - data varies in different volcanic successions and in different
el.
1 e' 1" 1 ! 1 1 !
L_~_~_~__L_L ~-~-- deposits. Where appropriate, data sheets may incorporate:
~e 60 I
o le . sample number
-e 50 -' I l' . location information
<ti
u
1 -1 - ,-" ,- - ~Od~ra;: ~ ¡@-
-' weak ola. le

.
.
,,'
geographical or geological feature
'* 40 ¡A.- " 4JJ1a. 1--
o sericite formation or group
:¡: 30 -
II ',,'~:'
"..118../..
..,.;:¡,~'
¡¡J't''''~
'
,
.: ~ - iD
'f-1
-D.. (phengite)
. succession
8 ... I ? ~ij~J""~Yf,;
'11
1 I
a: 20 , , , ,, ,
~- -1- - . coordinates
() -1-'!f~:~"'~" -~ 1" 1 . map, cross-section, or alteration zonation model showing
() 10 -1- -'i -
albile 1 1" the loeation of the sample or alteration facies
O .....- K-feldspar . volcanic facies characteristics
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index) . descriptive name for the volcanic facies (see McPhie et al.

6
.
.
(1993) for guidelines)
relict primary minerals
composition (e.g. rhyolitic, dacitic, andesitic or basaltic)
5 estimated from relict primary minerals and/or geochemical

4
.
.
data
lithofacies characteristics
relict textures
>R
. interpretation of the volcanic facies and application of
°'" 3 genetic nomendature (e.g. volcanogenic sedimentaty
<ti
Z deposit, resedimented mass-flow or turbidite deposit,
2 syneruptive mass-flow deposit, autobreccia, hyalodastite,
peperite, pyrodastic-flow deposit, pyrodastic-fall deposit

. or pyrodastic-surge deposit)
alteration facies characteristics

1 . descriptive name for the alteration facies

O~ . alteration mineral assemblage
O 10 ~ ~ ~ W 00 m 00 00 100 . alteration textures
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index) . distribution or zonation of alteration facies
. intense ... moderate + subtle
. alteration intensity
e strong o weak
. relative timing
. interpretation of the alteration process (i.e. diagenetic,
FIGURE 2.15 I Bivariantplotsof rI1yolitesamplesfromthe northemCentral
metamorphic, hydration, intrusion-related hydrothermal
Volcanic Complex, westemTasmania,which have beenclassifiedqualitatively.
(A) AI-CCPI Alteration box plot for subtly, weakly, moderately, strongly and alteration, proximal or regional hydrothermal alteration
intensely altered rhyolites, With increasing intensity of alteration rhyolites and mineralisation, syntectonic hydrothermal alteration)
plot away from the subtle box in all directions depending on the alteration . photographs of distinctive features of the alteration facies
composition and hence on the processes. (B) Al versus Nap for subtly, weakly, in outcrop, drill core, hand specimen or thin section
moderately, strongly and intensely altered rhyolites. With increasing intensity of
alteration rhyolites plot away from the subtle field,
. composition data (whole-rock, mineral-chemistry or
iso tope analyses)
. chemical characteristics such as important mass changes,
alteration indices (e.g. Al and CCPI) and immobile
element ratios (e.g. Ti/Zr)
2.6 I ALTERATION
DATASHEETS . Alteration box plot, with the sample highlighted
. other significant compositional plots, such as Ti/Zr-Si02
A practical way of integrating different alteration data, bivariant plot, mass change bar graph, SWIR spectra et
constructing descriptive names and defining alteration cetera.
facies is to use alteration data sheets. These visually display
a combination of different data types for a specific rock or
alteration facies on one page. They present all the relevant
data for a particular rock sample or alteration facies together,
and graphically illustrate relationships betWeen texture,
mineral assemblage, composition and alteration zonation,
particularly with respect to an ore body. Alteration data sheets
act as 'flash cards', incorporating the distinctive physical and
 I 37

3 COMMON ALTERATION TEXTURES AND

ZONATION PATTERNS

This chapter describes common alteration textures,
pseudotextures, and alteration distribution and zonation
patterns in submarine volcanic successions, which can be
observedat a variery of scales: map, outcrop, hand specimen
and thin section. Ir also discusses the use of overprinting
relationshipsin determining the paragenetic sequence.
Alteration textures, patterns of distribution and zonation,
and overprinting relationships are fundamental elements in
describing and interpreting alteration facies (e.g. Fig. 2.3).
Alteration rextures can aid determination of equilibrium
mineral assemblages, alteration intensiry, and overprinting
relationships. Alteration facies distribution and zonation
patternscan be used to interpret patterns of fluid flow, changes
in physicochemical conditions and development of alteration
systems.Superimposed alteration patterns and overprinting
texturesare imporrant for determining paragenesis involving
multiple stages of alteration and hence for understanding
evolutionof the system over time.
3.1 I ALTERATIONTEXTURES
Furrhermore, there are rwo rypes of textures that are
common in and unique to volcanic rocks, which, although
not alteration textures, influence subsequent alteration,
especially the development of pseudotextures. These are high-
temperature devitrification textures (i.e. spherulites, varioles,
lithophysae and micropoikilitic texture) and perlitic fractures
(Figs 3.1 and 3.2). The formation and alteration of perlite is
described in detail in Section 5.2.
Replacement
textures
Most alteration forms by replacement, because pre-existing
mineral phases and glass become unstable during changed
geothermal conditions and are readily substituted by new,
more stable minerals. Replacement is the process of practically
simultaneous solution and deposition of a new mineral of
parrly or completely different composition either in a pre-
existing mineral or an aggregate of minerals (Lindgren, 1933).
Although mineral exchange is essentially simultaneous,
replacement may occur in stages, where intermediate
products form, at least temporarily, before the final alteration

Typicallyalteration encompasses mineralogical and textural

TABLE3.1 I Types01texturalchangesthat occurduring alteration.
changes.Textural changes are changes in the shape, form,
grainsizeand orientation of grains within the rock and can be
Replacement Existingmineralsorglassarereplacedbyone
texturallydestructive, preserve relicts of pre-existing textures (metasomatism) or morenewmineralspecies
or enhance textures (McPhie et al., 1993; Doyle, 2001).
Infill A mineralor mineralsareprecipitated
from
Alterationtexturesare those that are superimposed on the rock
solutionintoopenspace
bythe processes of alteration (i.e. by hydration, dissolution,
Dissolution Existingmineralsorglassareleached
diagenesis, hydrothermal alteration, metamorphism and
deformation) .
andremovedbysolutionwithorwithout
replacement
Changes in texture during alteration may involve: the
Static Recrystallisation
ofexistingmineralsto new
precipitation of minerals along fluid pathways; creation
recrystallisation grains,and/ora changein morphology ofthe
or infilling of pore space; the dissolution and replacement
samemineralspeciesor composition
of earlier minerals and glass by subsequent minerals; and
recrystallisation.There are five common rypes of alteration Dynamic Recrystallisation
ofexistingmineralsto new
texturesthat occur in volcanic facies (Tables 3.1 and 3.2): recrystallisation grainsand/ora changeinmorphology and/or
orientation
ofthesamemineralspeciesor
(1) replacemenr textures, (2) infill textures, (3) dissolution
composition
textures,(4) recrystallisationJ textures, and (5) deformation
Deformation Existingcomponent ortextureis rotated,
textures.In addition, the combined effects of a number of
milled,broken,compressed, modified,
differentoverprinting alteration facies can result in false or distortedorfractured
pseudotexrures(De Rosen-Spence et al., 1980; Allen, 1988).
í

38 I CHAPTER
3

TABLE3.2 I Common macroscopic and microscopic alteration textures in volcanic rocks.

Replacement Pervasive Pervasive,

selective,massive,
disseminated,
microcrystailine,
A
cryptocrystailine
Selective Disseminated Disseminated,pseudomorph, overgrowth,cleavageandrim
texture,coreandzonalreplacement texture,microcrystalline,
cryptocrystalline,
spheroid,nodule,concretion
Domainal
Veinhalo Pervasive,
selective,
disseminated, pseudomorph, overgrowth,
cleavageandrimtexture,coreandzonalreplacement texture,
microcrystailine,
cryptocrystailine,
spheroid,nodule,concretion
Infiil Incomplete infiil Crustiform,
fibrous,prismatic,
spherulitic
Massiveinfiil Microcrystailine,
prismatic
Layeredor bandedinfiil Crustiform,
coiloform,comb,botryoidal
Dissolution Styloliticfoliation Stylolites,
solutionseams
Corrosion
vug Openporespace:t infiiltextures(prismatic,
fibrousand
massive)
Static Pervasive(hornfels) Equigranular,
granoblastic,
granophyric,
decussate
recrystailisation Selective Porphyroblastic,
idioblastic,
xenoblastic,
poikiloblastic,
intergrowths,
overgrowths,reactionrims,polycrystalline
grains
Dynamic Foliation Slatycleavage Cleavage, mineralalignment,
granoblastic,
porphyroblastic,
recrystailisation poikiloblastic
Schistosity
Layering(gneissosity) Differentiallayering,microcrystailine,granoblastic,granophyric
Lineation Aligned,strained,bent, kinked,flattened,twinnedand broken
grains(crystalsor clasts),cleavage
Cataclasite No foliation,porphyroblastic,microcrystailine
Mylonite Foliation,granular
Deformation Foliation Cleavage,aligned,strained,bent, kinked,flattened,twinnedand
brokengrains(crystalsor clasts),fiamme,eutaxitic
Lineation Aligned,strained,bent, kinked,flattened,twinnedand broken
grains(crystalsor clasts),cleavage
Augenstructure Cleavage

minerals. For example,relict radiating fibroustextureslocally Pervasive

preserved in feldspar-altered pumice and perlite clasts in the
Mounr Read Volcanics, western Tasmania, suggest that an
inrermediate phase between felsic glass and feldspar, possibly
fibraus zeolites, occurred (Fig. 5.11: Gifkins and Allen,
2001).
Replacemenr can range from the conversion of specific
mineral phases or domains to new minerals (selective
alteration, Fig. 3.3B, e and D), to complete replacement of
a rack to a completely new mineral assemblage (pervasive
alteration, Fig. 3.3A). Where alteration occurs dominantly
by diffusion, it may affect a large volume of rack. Elsewhere
it may occur along well-defined Huid pathways (vein-halo
alteration, Fig. 3.3E) with its effects restricted to a scale of
millimetres to metres (Titley, 1994). Ir is worrh noting that
the terms pervasive, selective or vein-halo depend on the scale
of observation. For example, vein-halo alteration can appear
pervasive when viewed in thin section.
Pervasive alteration is extensive alteration that has completely
changed the rack composition and texture at scales that range
fram millimetres to kilometres (Rose and Burr, 1979; Titley,
1982). Pervasive alteration is distributed without regard for
pre-existing textures and can result in disseminated, massive
micracrystalline or cryptocrystalline micrascopic textures
(Fig. 3.4A).
Selective
Selective alteration converrs only specific pre-existing phases
to new mineral phases (Titley et al., 1978; Titley, 1982). The
original rack texture may be only slightly modified during
selective alteration because only cerrain components in the
host (e.g. minerals, volcanic glass or clasts: Fig. 3.3B, e and
D) are preferenrially replaced, and others are left relatively
unaltered (Rose and Burr, 1979).
 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 39

A. Spherulites and obsidian in rhyolite

Pink, isolated spherulites and densely microspherulitic
flow bands are endosed in black obsidian in this flow-
banded rhyolite. Spherulites are radiating aggregates
or bundles of acicular and fibrous crystals. They vary
in shape from spherical to bow-tie shaped sheafs and
axiolitic bundles, and are commonly composed of
feldspar or intergrowths of alkali feldspar, plagiodase,
crisrobalite or tridymite and dinopyroxene (Lofgren,
1971b). Spherulites are typically the product of high-
temperature (above the glass-transition temperature)
devitrification of silicic glass (Lofgren, 1971 a).
Sample NC4, recent Ngongotaha lava dome, Hendersons
quarry, Rotorua, New Zealand.

B. Lithophysae in rhyolite
This red albite + quarrz + hematite-altered, flow-banded
quarrz + plagiodase-phyric rhyolite contains abundant
spherulites and lithophysae. The lithophysae are filled
with layered quarrz.
Samplefrom the Lower Devonian Snowy River Volcanics,
FlukesKnob area, Victoria.

C. Varioles in basalt
Dark spots in this basalt outcrop are varioles: radial or
sheaf-like aggregates of plagiodase and pyroxene, olivine
or iron oxides, and are similar ro spherulites, but only
occur in mafic facies (cf. Fowler et a\., 1987; Williams
et a\., 1982).
Shirakawa quarry, Miocene Creen Tuff Belt, Odate,
fapan.

D. Micropoikilitic texture in thin section

The groundmass ofthis rhyolite isdensely micropoikilitic;
comprising patches of optically continuous quarrz,
which endose variably oriented laths of sericitised albite.
Poikilitic and micropoikilitic texture (snowflake texture) .
comprise an optically continuous crystal endosing
numerous randomly oriented indusions of a different
composition (Anderson, 1969). The boundaries between
the micropoikilitic quarrz domains in this sample are
highlighted by concentrations of sericite. Cross polarised
light.
Sample 133921, Cambrian ~Mount Black Formation,
CentralVolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Mount
Black,westernTasmania.

FIGURE3.1 I Examples01high-Iemperaluredevilrilicalionlexlures.

....
40 I CHAPTER
3

A. Altered macroperlite
Relict macroperlitic factures in mis coherent dacite are
enhanced by dark grey sericite + chlorite-altered zones
along and adjacent to the perlitic fractures. The arcuate
shape of the fractures is preserved in some areas. The
perlite cores are pink albite + quartz + sericite altered.
Cambrian Mount Black Formation, Central Volcanics
Complex, Mount Read Volcanics, Pieman Road, western
Tasmania.

B. Relict perlite in thin section

The formerly glassy groundmass of this rhyolite preserves
perlitic fractures. Perlitic fractures are a network of fine
typically concentric, arcuate fractures that endose glassy
or originally glassy cores. Here, the perlitic fractures are
filled with dark, mixed-layer smectite/chlorite and me
groundmass adjacent to me fractures is dinoptilolite
altered. The perlitic cores are partiy glassy and partiy
smectite altered. Plane polarised light.
Sample J6-737 m, Miocene Nishikurosawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan.

C. Banded perlite
This finely Bow-banded, plagiodase-phyric rhyolite
contains an intersecting fracture network of sub-parallel
long fractures linked by short cross fractures (banded
perlite) superimposed on the Bow-banded texture.
Sample KB257, Siluro-Devonian rhyolite, Ural Volcanics,
Ural Ridges area, New South Wales.

D. Bandedperlite in thin section

In thin section, concentrations of sericite :!: hematite
mark the relict perlitic fractures. The pale Bow bands
comprise a fine-grained mosaic of feldspar + quartz,
whereas the darker bands consist of sericite + feldspar
+ quartz + chlorite. Oisseminated fine-grained hematite
occurs throughout the groundmass. Plane polarised
light.
Sample KB257, Siluro-Devonian rhyolite, Ural Volcanics,
Ural Ridges area, New South Wales.

FIGURE3.2 I Examplesof perlite.


Two textural types ofselectivealteration occur: disseminated
altetation (or selective-pervasive alteration), which refers to
the replacement of selective pre-existing phases throughout
the host rock; and domainal alteration, which refers to the
alteration of patches, pods, or groups of dasts within the host
rack (Fig. 3.3F, G and H). In addition, selective alteration may
result in concentrically zoned alteration facies within dasts or
alteration halos around dasts (Fig. 3.31, J, K and L). Selective
alteration can result in a patchy or motded appearance (e.g.
Allen, 1988).
Common microscopic selective replacement textures
are pseudomorphs, partial pseudomorphs (deavage and rim
texture, core and zonal texture, core and tim texture and
skeletal texture), overgrowths on pre-existing components,
and spheroids or nodules (Fig. 3.4B to L: Dimroth and
Lichtblau, 1979; Craig and Vaughan, 1981; Ineson, 1989).
Carbonate and zeolite nodules are common in submarine
volcanidastic facies and can have a wide variety of grainsizes
fram 0.2 to greater than 20 mm (Fig. 3.41 to L: Franklin et
al., 1975; Lees, 1987; Khin Zaw and Large, 1992; Hill and
Orth, 1994; Allen, 1997).
~ a successionof minerals inwards from the cavity or fracture
Vein halo
Vein-halo alteration involves the replacement of either the
whole rack (pervasive alteration: Fig. 3.3E) or specific pre-
existing phases (selective alteration) in restricted areas, such as
the halos around veins, intrusion contacts, or at stratigraphic
contacts. Alteration progresses in fronts, moving out from
fractutes or contacts into the adjacent wall rock. Vein-halo
alteration has also been termed infiltration metasomatism,
vein-veinlet, reaction rim, vein-wall-rack, vein-envelope,
veinlet-controlled and fracture-controlled alteration (e.g.
Tideyet al., 1978; Tidey, 1982; Thompson and Thompson,
1996; Doyle, 2001).
InfiUtextures
Infill or open space-filling textures result from the precipitation
of new mineral phases from solution into open spaces or
cavities such as pore spaces, vesides, inter-dast space, vugs
and fractures (Taylor, 1992). Infill textures are characterised
by well-developed crystal faces, zoned crystals and mineral
banding (Craig and Vaughan, 1981). Silicate, carbonates,
oxides, sulfates and sulfides all occur as void fill in altered
volcanic rocks.
Infill results from the precipitation of minerals from
solution. The first mineral to be deposited forms a crust
on the cavity walls and grows inwards, generally with the
development of inward facing crystal faces. Common infill
textmes indude incomplete infill, massive infill, and layered
or banded infill (Fig. 3.6: Taylor, 1992). These textures can
indude fibrous, prismatic, spherulitic or equant crystal shapes
and exist on a range of scales from micrometres to metres
(Dimrath and Lichtblau, 1979; Taylor, 1992).
COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESANO ZONATION PATTERNS I 41
Incomplete infill
Incomplete or partial infilling of veins and cavities or
dissolution of void fill can leave an open vug in the centre (e.g.
Fig.3.5A). In many cases, the resulting infill texture contains
well-formed crystals that project into this yugo
Massive infill
Massive infill textures result from the continuous deposition
of a mineral or aggregate of minerals until the cavity is filled
(e.g. Fig. 3.5 B). Massive infill commonly contains well-formed
crystals, especially quartz, feldspar, fluorite, cassiterite, galena,
sphalerite and chalcopyrite crystals. Massive, microcrystalline
forms also exist (Taylor, 1992).
Layered infill
Layered or banded infill textures result from the deposition of
wall (Bateman, 1951). Layered infill textures do not generally
contain well-formed crystals, such as comb texture (e.g. Fig.
3.5H), but vary from thin layers of individual minerals to
crustiform bands or colloform textures.
Dissolution
textures
Dissolution textures are common in altered volcanic rocks
(Allen, 1990; Allen and Cas, 1990; Marsaglia and Tazaki,
1992; Gifkins and Allen, 2001). They form from the corrosion
or leaching of pre-existing phases (either glass or mineral
phases), with or without minor replacement by new mineral
phases (Fisher and Schmincke, 1984). For example, leaching
of rhyolitic glass is commonly accompanied by crystallisation
of muscovite or day minerals that absorb leached ions from
solution (Karkhanis et al., 1980).
Dissolution textures indude corrosion vugs or dissolution
pits, stylolites and solution seams (e.g. Fig. 3.6: Pettijohn,
1957).
Corrosion vugs
Dissolution or corrosion of volcanic glass or pre-existing
minerals can create open cavities or oversized pores (Fig. 3.6A
to F) in which infill can occur synchronous with dissolution or
after dissolution (Hay, 1963; Sheppard et al., 1988). In some
cases pseudomorphs of minerals or originally glassy partides,
such as glass shards, form by dissolution and precipitation
(Riech, 1979; Sheppard et al., 1988). Riech (1979) recognised
infill textured zeolites and calcite within dinopyroxenes,
and proposed that dinopyroxenes were corroded during
diagenesis, creating an open void that was subsequendy filled
with zeolites and calcite. Similarly, Hay (1963) recognised
partial to complete dissolution of glass shards followed by the
precipitation of authigenic minerals, especially zeolites, in the
new cavities as well as in original pore space.
42 I CHAPTER
3
A. Pervasively altered rhyolite
Intense, pervasive, fine-grained K-feldspar + quartz
alteration has completely replaced the groundmass and
plagioclase phenocrysts in this rhyolite.
Sample 143286, Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read
Volcanics, Mount Darwin, western Tasmania.

B. Selectively altered phenocrysts

Sericite has selectively altered the coarse prismatic
feldspar phenocrysts (F) in this latite. The pale green-
grey, fine-grained groundmass is moderately and
pervasively phengite + chlorite + ankerite altered, and
the amygdales are quartz filled.
Sample 144369, Ordovician Lake Cowal Volcanics,Junee-
Narromine Volcanic Belt, Endeavour 42 prospect, New
South Wales.

C. Selectively altered pumice dasts

Large pumice clasts (P) in this sample of crystal- and
pumice-rich volcaniclastic breccia have been selectively
altered to orange albite + quartz, whereas the finer
grained matrix has been altered to green sericite +
chlorite + albite. The domainal alteration style enhances
its clastic appearance.
Sample 131993, Cambrian Mount Julia Member,
Tyndall Group, Mount Read Volcanics, Comstock, western
Tasmania.

D. Selectively altered matrix

In this andesitic volcaniclastic breccia, the matrix is
moderately and selectively epidote altered. In contrast,
the plagioclase-phyric clasts (C) are weakly chlorite +
sericite altered.
Sample 144805, Ordovician Mingelo Volcanics, Junee-
Narromine VolcanicBelt, Peak Hill New South Wales.

FIGURE3.3 I Examples01replacementtexturesin hand specimen.

 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANDZONATION
PATTERNS
I 43
E. Vein halo
Red albite altered zones are restricted to 5 mm halos or
selvages adjacent to quarrz + actinolite + pyrite veinlets
in this feldspar porphyritic dacite.
Sample TH386271.1 m, Cambro-Ordovician Trooper
Creek Formation, Seventy Mile Range Group, Mount
Windsor Subprovince, Thalanga, Queensland.

F. Banded, domainal alteration facies

Diffuse and discontinuous pink and green bands in this
massive crystal-rich volcaniclastic sandstone are defined
by domains of albite + quarrz :t chlorite, and chlorite
+ sericite + magnetite alteration facies, respectively. The
bands are not obviously consistent with grainsize or
component variations; they alternate on a 2-1 Ocm scale,
are laterally extensive (l0-20 m) and are commonly, but
not exclusively, bedding parallel.
Sample 131982, Cambrian Mount Julia Member, Tyndall
Group, Mount Read Volcanics, Lyell Comstock, western
Tasmania.

G. Patchy, domainal alteration facies

The domainal, green epidote + quarrz and grey albite
+ quartz + hematite alteration facies are distributed in
irregular patches with diffuse margins in this coherent
plagioclase-phyric dacite.
Sample M142, Cambrian Mount Black Formation,
Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,Tullah,
westernTasmania.

H. Domainal alteration facies in pseudobreccia

Domainal red albite + quartz and dark green epidote +
sericite + albite alteration facies in this sample of macro-
perlite gives it a pseudo-polymictic and -clastic texture.
However, the red apparent clasts have diffuse margins
and identical phenocryst populations to the apparent
matrix.
Sample 147550, Cambrian Mount Black Formation,
CentralVolcanicsComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Pieman
Road, western Tasmania.

FIGURE3.3 I Examples01replacementtexturesin hand specimen,con!.

44 I CHAPTER
3
I. Zonation within dasts
The andesite and basalt dasts in this polymictic volcanic
breccia are concentrically zoned, with sericite + quartz
+ calcite-altered rims, and chlorite-altered cores. Some
of the larger dasts have an additional quartz + sericite
+ chlorite-altered core zone. The matrix has been
moderately and pervasively quartz + sericite + calcite :t
chlorite altered.
Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics,Mount Charter Group,
western volcano-sedimentary sequences, Mount Read
Volcanics,Hellyer, western Tásmania.

J. Zonation within dasts

Clasts in this basaltic pebble conglomerate display
heterogenous alteration facies, and some dasts are
internally zoned. The basalt dast (B) has a fine-grained,
pale green sericite-rich rim, and darker sericite + chlorite-
altered coreo
Sample 134632, Cambrian Red Lead Formation correlate,
Dundas, Kapi Creek, western Tasmania.

K. Zonation within pillows

This metamorphosed, amphibolite-grade lava-pillow has
a typical triangular, draped shape and is concentrically
zoned. The central red zone is coarse-grained, scapolite-
poor and albite + hematite + sericite :t epidote altered.
The average grainsize decreases, and scapolite grainsize
and abundance increases, in consecutive zones towards
the rim. Biotite + calcite + hornblende + microdine +
scapolite + epidote + quartz comprise the inter-pillow
matrix.
Proterozoic Corella Formation, Mary Kathleen Group,
Malbon River, northwest Queensland.

L. Altered halos around dasts

Orange albite + quartz alteration facies is distributed in
a halo around a massive, albite-altered dacite dast (C) in
this crystal- and lithic-rich volcanidastic sandstone. The
more pervasive green-grey domain is sericite + chlorite +
quartz + albite altered.
Sample 132090, Cambrian Mount Julia Member, Tjmdall
Group, Mount Read Volcanics, Anthony Road, western
Tásmania.

FIGURE3.3 I Examples01replacementtexturesin handspecimen,con!.

 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 45

A. Microcrystalline texture in thin section

The groundmass of this rhyolite is a microcrystalline
mosaic of quartz + feldspar + sericite. Quartz phenocrysts
(Q) have been recrystllised. Microcrystalline texture
(aphanitic) is a tine-grained granular texture where the
individual crystals can be distinguished in thin section.
In contrast, cryprocrystalline texture (phaneritic) is
where the crystals are roo minute ro be distinguished
even with the aid of a microscope (Williams et al.,
1982). Cross polarised light.
Sample 133318, Cambro-Ordovician Mount Windsor
Formation, Seventy Mile Range Group, Thalanga,
Queensland.

B. Pseudomorphs in thin section

The plagiodase phenocrysts in this sericite + quartz
+ tourmaline-altered andesite were pseudomorphed
by tourmaline, and subsequently almost completely
replaced by blue-green chlorite. Pseudomorphs are
crystals or aggregates of crystals that preserve the shape
of a pre-existing mineral or partide (e.g. glass shard or
pumice dast) (Spry, 1976). Plane polarised light.
Sample145199, Ordovician ForestReefi Volcanics,Molong
VolcanicBelt, Black Rock, New South Wales.

C. Pseudomorphs in thin section

This thin section of plagiodase + quartz + pyroxene-
phyric rhyolite shows an illite pseudomorph after
pyroxene. Plagiodase phenocrysts have been altered ro
K-feldsparand the groundmass comprises a tine-grained
mosaic of K-feldspar + quartz + chlorite + smectite."
Cross polarised light.
Sample KB495, Siluro-Devonian Coan rhyolite, Mount
Hope Volcanics,Coan Gonn Peak, New South Wales.

D. Cleavage and rim texture in thin section

The plagiodase crystals in this basalt have been selectively
altered by sericite along deavage planes. Cleavage and
rim textures occur by selective alteration of mineral grain
boundaries and deavages. It is common in plagiodase,
in which montmorillonite, sericite or calcite form along
the cleavage planes (Sales and Meyer, 1948). Plane
polarised light.
SampleSVD87a-104.9 m from the Cambrian Sterling
Valley Volcanics,Mount Read Volcanics, Sterling Valley,
westernTasmania.

FIGURE3.4 I Examples01replacementtexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks.

46 I CHAPTER
3
E. Core and zonal texture in thin section
Zones within plagiodase phenocrysts in this subtly,
smectite + calcite-altered diorite have been selectively
altered to sericite. These incomplete pseudomorphs,
termed core and zonal texture, are particularly common
in zoned feldspar, amphibole and mica crystals where
the cores, or one or more zones in zoned minerals,
are altered (Barker, 1990). In plagiodase crystals, like
those pictured here, the calcic zones are typically altered
to calcite or sericite (Sales and Meyer, 1948). Plane
polarised light.
Sample 152958, Pliocene-PleistoceneLuise Volcano,Lihir
Island, New lreland Province, Ladolam epithermal Au
mine, Papua New Guinea.

F. Core and zonal texture in thin section

In this example of core and zonal texture, the core zones
of plagiodase phenocrysts have been altered to sericite.
The groundmass of this plagiodase + dinopyroxene-
phyric basalt was subtly and pervasively smectite +
calcite-altered. Plane polarised light.
Sample 152830, Pliocene-PleistoceneLuise Volcano,Lihir
lsland, New lreland Province, Ladolam epithermal Au
mine, Papua New Guinea.

G. Overgrowth texture in thin section

A discontinuous K-feldspar overgrowth endoses a
hematite-altered plagiodase phenocryst (P) in this
strongly and pervasively albite + quartz + sericite-altered
pumice breccia. K-feldspar nudeated on the plagiodase
phenocryst, spread outwards tilling vesides, and replaced
veside walls in the pumice dasts. Overgrowth textures
are mineral rims that may be composed of one or more
crystals of similar or different minerals. Cross polarised
light.
Sample 133814 from the Cambrian Hercules Pumice
Formation, Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read
Volcanics,Herculesfóotwall, western Tásmania.

H. Altered noduIes in pumice breccia

Blue-green celadonite nodules have overprinted pumice
dasts in this polymictic volcanic breccia. These nodules
are composed of tine-grained aggregates of celadonite :t
opal CT :!:quartz, preserve uncompacted tube and round
veside pumice textures, and are surrounded by pervasive
smectite + mordenite + calcite alteration facies.
Sample FK2, Miocene Byobu-iwa Member, Tokiwa
Formation, South FossaMagna, Green TuffBelt, Fujikawa
River,fapan.

3.4 I Examples01replacementtexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

FIGURE
,,---

COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESANO ZONATION PATTERNS I 47

I. Carbonate spheroids
Large dolomite spheroids are enclosed in the strongly
chlorite + quartz + dolomite-altered matrix of this
formerly plagioclase-phyric andesite. Nodules and
spheroids are spherical domains of alteraríon, which
may comprise radiating aggregates of fibrous crystals,
fine internally concentric structures, or mosaics of
anhedral grains, with or without cores (Allen, 1997; Hill
and Orth, 1995).
Sample 135756, Cambrian Que-Hellyer 'Volcanics,
Mount Charter Group, western volcano-sedimentary
sequences,Mount Read 'Volcanics,Hellyerftotwall, western
Tasmania.

J. Carbonate spheroids in thin section

In thin section, the dolomite spheroids display
concentric zones and a coarse, radiating, fibrous texture.
This compositional zonaríon in the spheroids probably
indicates multiple stages of carbonate alteraríon (cf. Hill
and Orth, 1995). Plane polarised light.
Sample 135756, Cambrian Que-Hellyer 'Volcanics,
Mount Charter Group, western volcano-sedimentary
sequences,Mount Read 'Volcanics,Hellyerftotwall, western
Tasmania.

K. Carbonate spheroids
Carbonate spheroids are concentrated in individual beds
in this strongly chlorite + carbonate + pyrite-altered
laminated volcaniclastic sandstone. The larger spheroids,
which are up to 2 mm in diameter, have coalesced.
Sample 138601, Archaean Mb5 Golden GroveFormation,
Luke Creek Group, Murchison 'Volcanics,Golden Grove,
'\Vestern Australia.

1. Carbonate spheroids in thin section

Thin section examinaríon shows these carbonate
spheroids are supported in a fine-grained quartz +
sericite + carbonate matrix. Plane polarised light.
Sample138601, Archaean Mb5 Golden GroveFormation,
Luke Creek Group, Murchison 'Volcanics,Golden Grove,
'\VesternAustralia.

3.4 I Examples01replacementtexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

FIGURE

1
48 I CHAPTER
3

A. Incomplete inflO in fractures

Incomplete fillingof fractures in this altered diorite left
sub-planar vugs. The pyrite fill has botryoidal surfaces,
representing rounded shapes of either spherulitic
radiating aggregates of fibrous crystals or fine-concentric
internal structures (cf. Jensen and Bateman, 1981). This
massive plagiodase-phyric diorite has been pervasively
K-feldspar + pyrite (>quarrz + illite) altered, and
dissolution of primary mafic minerals produced afine,
spongy, porous texrure.
Sample 152959, Pliocene-PleistoceneLuise Volcano, Lihir
lsland, New lreland Province, Ladolam epithermal Au
mine, Papua New Guinea.

B. MassiveinflO
Pale green epidote altered halos surround maSSlve
chlorite-filled amygdales (A) in this basalt sample.
Sample 144753, Ordovician, Junee-Narromine Volcanic
Belt, Boundary Prospect,Lake Cowal, New South Wales.

C. Layered inflll stringer vein

This banded vein consists of successive layers, from the
vein wall ro centre, of quarrz, quarrz and intergrown
chalcopyrite and pyrite, and dolo mi te. A thin dolomite
vein has overprinted the stringer vein at an oblique
angle. These veins are hosted in strongly and pervasively
sericite + chlorite + albite + pyrite-altered andesite.
Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics, western volcano-
sedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics, Hellyer
fóotwall, western Tásmania.

D. Layered inflll in arnygdales

Amygdales (A) in this basalt dast, from a basalt-
mudsrone peperite, contain concentric layers of quarrz
and calcite, which have grown inwards from the vesicle
walls. The basalt groundmass has been pervasively
sericite + chlorite + calcite altered. The dast grainsize
decreases rowards the dast rim, ro the left of the field of
view in this phorograph.
Sample 76836, Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics,western
volcano-sedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics,
Hellyer, western Tásmania.

FIGURE3.5 I Examples01inlill texturesin alteredvolcanicrocks.

 -----.

COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 49

E. Layered infill texture in vesides

Vesicles(V) in this plagioclase-phyric pumice clast have
been filled with roughly concentric layers of tan-coloured
mordenite, dark smectite and clear clinoptilolite. The
zeolites occur in clusters or aggregates of fine, radiating
fibres.The originally glassy vesicle walls (W) have been
replaced by mordenite + K-feldspar :t smectite. Plane
polarised light.
SampleOH8-387 m, MioceneOnnagawaFormation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan.

F. Layeredinfill texture in amygdales

Amygdales in this subtly altered perlitic rhyolite have
been filled with bands of fine-grained montmorillonite
and unknown radiating fibrous minerals. Pale polarised
light.
Sample J6-737 m, Miocene NishikurosawaFormation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan.

G. Layered infill in amygdales

The amygdales in this palagonite-altered trachytic basalt
clast fram a crystal- and lithic-rich pumice breccia are
fiUedwith layers of montmorillonite and fibrous zeolites.
Plane polarised light.
Sample OH8-387 m, Miocene Onnagawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan.

H. Comb texture
This example of comb texture shows layers of prominent
sparry quartz + amethyst :t carbonate crystals projecting
inwards from the vein or cavity wall.
Sample T5, Cretaceous, andesite, Fresnillo epithermal
district, Mexico.

FIGURE3.5 I Examples01inlill texturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

50 I CHAPTER
3

A. Dissolution vugs
This hand specimen of polymictic breccia has a spongy
or vuggy porous texture due to the dissolution of primary
mafic igneous minerals and glass. Ir has been intensely
and pervasively adularia + illite + pyrite altered with illite
replacing plagioclase crystals, secondary K-feldspar in
the altered matrix, and disseminated pyrite.
Sample 152726, Pliocene-PleistoceneLuise Volcano,Lihir
lsland, New lreland Province, Ladolam epithermal Au
mine, Papua New Guinea.

B. Dissolution vugs in thin section

In thin section, irregularly shaped, empty, corros ion
or dissolution vugs (V) are conspicuous in the matrix
and clasts. Some vugs cut across clast. margins. Plane
polarised light.
Sample 152726, Pliocene-PleistoceneLuise Volcano,Lihir
lsland, New lreland Province, Ladolam epithermal Au
mine, Papua New Guinea.

C. Filled dissolution vug in thin section

Corros ion vugs, created by the dissolution of volcanic
glass or pre-existing minerals, are commonly filled
by subsequent mineral precipitation from solution.
Successive layers of montmorillonite and zeolite have
filled an irregular vug (V) in this thin section. The vug
occurs in the matrix and in a basalt clast, crossing the
clast-matrix contacto Plane polarised light.
Sample OH8-387 m, Miocene Onnagawa Eormation,
Hokuroku Basin, Green Tu./fBelt, Odate, ¡apan.

D. Vuggyquartz
The prominent features in this quartz-rich sample are the
corrosion vugs, which were generated by the dissolution
of pumice clasts and crystals from this pumice and lithic
tuff.
Miocene rhyodaciticpumice and lithic tujf, Pierina Au-Ag
deposit, Peru.

FIGURE3.6 I Examples01dissolutiontexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks.

 COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 51
E. Kaolinite + dickite-altered andesite
Large (up to 4 mm), blocky feldspar phenocrysts have
been kaolinite altered in this sample of massive, coherent
andesite.
Miocene andesitic lava, Pierina Au-Ag deposit, Peru.

F. Vuggy quartz
In this sample of vuggy quartz, which is equivalem to
the previous kaolinite + dickite-altered andesite, the
feldspar phenocrysts have been dissolved resulting in
blocky vugs. The groundmass is composed dominandy
of quartz.
Miocene andesitic lava, Pierina Au-Ag deposit, Peru.

G. Stylolite in thin section

Stylolites (51) in this rhyolitic pumice breccia have
concentrated fine-grained opaques and sericite :t
chlorite. The stylolites define the compaction foliation
and are crenulated by the dominam regional cleavage
(52) defined by alignment of sericite in the subdy albite
+ quartz + sericite-altered matrix.
5ample 147422, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
Central Volcanics Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,
Rosebery,western Tctsmania.

E. SoIution seams in thin section

These analcime-filled solution seams occur in a smectite-
rich fiamme, extending from the fiamme terminations
into the shard- and crystal-rich matrix of a crystal-rich
pumice breccia. They are imerpreted to have formed
by dissolution and precipitation under the influence of
lithostatic load during diagenesis. Plane polarised light.
Sample F1{7, Miocene Wadaira Tuff Member, Tokiwa
Formation, 50uth FossaMagna, Creen Tuff Belt, Wadaira,
lapan.

FIGURE 3.6 I Examples 01 dissolution textures in altered volcanic rocks, con!.

....
 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 51
E. Kaolinite + dickite-altered andesite
Large (up to 4 mm), blocky feldspar phenocrysts have
been kaolinite altered in this sample of massive, coherent
andesite.
Miocene andesitic lava, Pierina Au-Ag deposit, Peru.

F. Vuggy quartz
In this sample of vuggy quartz, which is equivalent to
the previous kaolinite + dickite-altered andesite, the
feldspar phenocrysts have been dissolved resultingin
blocky vugs. The graundmass is composed dominantly
of quartz.
Miocene andesitic lava, Pierina Au-Ag deposit, Peru.

G. Stylolite in thin section

Stylolites (51) in this rhyolitic pumice breccia have
concentrated fine-grained opaques and sericite :t
chlorite. The stylolites define the compaction foliation
and are crenulated by the dominant regional deavage
(52) defined by alignment of sericite in the subtly albite
+ quartz + sericite-altered matrix.
Sample 147422, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
Central Volcanics Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,
Rosebery,western Tasmania.

E. Solution seams in thin section

These analcime-filled solution seams occur in a smectite-
rich fiamme, extending fram the fiamme terminations
into the shard- and crystal-rich matrix of a crystal-rich
pumice breccia. They are interpreted to have formed
by dissolution and precipitation under the inBuence of
lithostatic load during diagenesis. Plane polarised light.
Sample FK7, Miocene Wadaira Tuff Member, Tokiwa
Formation, South FossaMagna, Green Tuff Belt, Wadaira,
fapan.

FIGURE3.6 I Examples 01dissolutiontexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

52 I CHAPTER
3
Vuggy silica (quartz) alteration facies is characterised by Recrystallisation textures are produced by changes in
fine-grained, micracrystalline quartz and abundant open vugs the size, shape and arrangement of minerals in a rack. With
or pores, which may be partly infilled (e.g. Fig. 3.6D, E and increasing temperature, recrystallisation generally involves the
F). Ir is common in high-sulfidation epithermal systems and change fram fine to coarse grainsize (aggrading), except for
results fram the extensive leaching of all phases, except SiOz static recrystallisation to hornfels and dynamic recrystallisation
and TiOz, fram volcanic racks by hot acid solutions (White where large, strained grains are replaced by a mosaic of tiny,
and Hedenquist, 1990). unstrained crystals (Folk, 1965). Minerals may be directed
or randomly orientated (non-directed: Spry, 1976). Directed
textures occur where recrystallisation is accompanied by stress
Stylolites (dynamic recrystallisation). Non-directed textures occurwhere
the pressure is equal in all directions (static recrystallisation).
Stylolites are common in altered volcanidastic racks (Allen, Common macrascopic and micrascopic recrystallisatiol1
1990; Allen and Cas, 1990; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992; textures indude mineral overgrawths, porphyrablasts,
Gifkins and Allen, 2001). They are surfaces of dissolution poikoblasts, and hornfelsic, granoblastic, granophyric and
associated with strain (pressure solUtion). They are raughly decussate textures (Fig. 3.7).
planar surfaces that exhibit mutual column ~nd socket inter-
digitation and may branch. Stylolites result fram mechanical
compaction and removal of elements by diffusion and Dynamic
recrystallisation
textures
precipitation (Merino et al., 1983). They indicate volume
loss and may form parallel or sub-parallel to bedding during Directed fabrics or textures are common to regional
burial, or at high angles to bedding during folding. Stylolites metamorphic rocks where recrystallisation is accompanied
often contain a residue of insoluble material and minerals by stress (dynamic recrystallisation). These textures indude
precipitated from solUtion. Recrystallisation, dissolUtion, subgrains (granoblastic, porphyroblastic and poikiloblastic
grain grawth, grain orientation, pressure twinning, fracturing textures), foliations, layering and lineations.
and residual accumulation of minerals along stylolites are In common usage the term flliation is non-genetic and
common (AmstUtz and Park, 1967). describes any planar, spaced or pervasive fabric in the rack.
Irregular, anastomosing, bedding-parallel stylolites have Foliations J¡ay form during diagenesis, metamorphism
been recognised in originally glassy volcanic facies, especially or tectonic deformation. Planar foliations '-'are due to the
pumice breccias, in the Mount Read Volcanics (Allen, 1990; preferred orientation of minerals, particularly micas, aligned
Allen and Cas, 1990; Gifkins and Allen, 2001). These are perpendicular to the maximum compression direction
seams that concentrate fine-grained opaques and sericite at (Yardley, 1989). Planar foliations are subdivided on the basis
the margins of originally glassy dasts, along tube veside walls of grainsize and overall appearance of the altered rack. These
in pumice dasts and in the matrix (Fig. 3.6D: Gifkins, 2001). indude slaty deavage, schistosity and gnessic layers.
These stylolites are interpreted as diagenetic compaction and In fault zones or zones of intense ductile shear, two
dissolution fabrics that formed by the dissolUtion of soluble characteristic textures occur: catadastic and mylonitic
components, particularly glass, and by the precipitation of textures. Cataclase refers to a fine-grained fault gouge breccia
days and Fe-oxides as a result of pressure during burial (Allen, with an unfoliated matrix (Sibson, 1977). Ideally, catadasis is
1990; Allen and Cas, 1990; Gifkins, 2001). , mechanical fragmentation without recrystallisation, however
this rarely occurs in nature (cf. Sibson, 1977). Mylonite is a
term used for strangly foliated fine-grained racks in which
SoIution seams the grainsize has been reduced by recrystallisation (Bell and
Etheridge, 1973).
Solution seams are non-sutured, discontinuous mineral-
filled seams that may form during diagenesis as a result of
stress-related dissolUtion of soluble components and re- Deformationtextures
precipitation (Merino et al., 1983). Analcime-filled solUtion
seams in pumice-rich racks fram the Green TuffBelt (Japan) Deformation textures are stress activated and develop in
are anastomosing and roughly parallel to bedding. They occur response to overburden pressures or regional tectonic stress.
in the fine-grained matrix and within fiamme and partly Because volcanic deposits typically have high initial porosities
compacted pumice dasts (Fig. 3.6E: Gifkins et al., in press). they are easily modified by mechanical compaction during
burial, tectonic deformation or, in the case of pyradastic
deposits, welding (Peterson, 1979; Allen, 1988; Branney
Staticrecrystallisation
textures and Sparks, 1990). Textural modification associated with
compaction is essentially a result of increased pressure causing
Recrystallisation is the tfansformation of a mineral or glass the re-arrangement and deformation of grains and reduction
to a new grainsize, morphology or orientation of the same ofintergranular pore space (Deelman, 1975).
mineral species or ~inerals of the same composition (i.e. Deformation textures result fram the ratation, brittle
neomorphism, Folk, 1965). Pre-existing minerals recrystallise fracturing, Battening and distortion of existing grains or
to a new grainsize in an attempt to assume a more stable form fabrics, especially dasts that were previously altered to soft
by minimising the ratio of the surface area to the volume minerals (McBride, 1978; Galloway, 1979; Craig and
during changed physical conditions (Yardley, 1989). Vaughan, 1981; Branney and Sparks, 1990).
 COMMONALTERATION
TEXTURES PATTERNSI
ANOZONATION 53
A. Porphyroblasts
The large, strongly altered, cordierite porphyroblasts give
this rhyolite a distinctive coarsely spotty texture. This
texture inspired the terms dalmatianite, which was applied
by early workers in the Noranda Camp, and the spotted
facies,which was applied by Riverin and Hodgson (1980),
for the cordierite-altered Amulet rhyolite and Millenbach
andesite.The porphyroblasts are enclosed in a groundmass
of chloritised biotite + sericite + quartz. Porphyroblasts are
metamorphic crystals that are surrounded by a much finer
grained matrix of other minerals (Spry, 1976). These large
minerals have formed at the expense of the matrix and are
the metamorphic equivalent of phenocrysts.
Archaean Amulet Rhyolite Formation, Noranda, Abitibi
greenstonebelt, Amulet UpperA deposit, Canada.

B. Porphyroblasts in gneiss
This biotite + garnet gneiss is characterised by spotty
5 mm diameter garnet porphyroblasts in a medium- to
fine-grained quartz + feldspar + biotite groundmass. The
garnet porphyroblasts commonly have a biotite rim. A
gneiss is a rock with coarsely differentiated layering
defined by the segregation of minerals of different
composition (typically dark and light minerals) in
medium- to coarse-grained, granular rocks. Layering
forms parallel to the tectonic foliation and in this case
deviates around the garnet porphyroblasts. The precursor
is interpreted to have been a felsic volcaniclastic rock.
Sample 154061, ProterozoicPotosigneiss, Harp prospect,
Broken Hill Block, New South Wales.

C. Porphyroblasts in thin section

This sample of garnet hornfels, from the contact zone
between rhyolite and a diorite intrusion, contains
euhedral garnet porphyroblasts in the biotite + muscovite
+ quartz groundmass. Porphyroblasts, like these, with
well-developed crystal shapes are idioblastic or euhedral,
whereas those with poorly developed crystal shape are
xenoblastic or anhedral (Yardley, 1989). Plane polarised
light.
Sample 140868, Cambro-Ordovician Mount Windsor
Formation, east Thalanga, Mount Charter, Queensland.

D. Poikiloblast in thin section

This thin section of amphibolite displays an amphibole
poikiloblast with quartz and biotite inclusion trails.
Poikiloblasts are porphyroblasts that contain numerous
inclusions that may or may not show a preferred
orientation (Barker, 1990). Poikiloblastic texture is
analogous to poikilitic or micropoikilitic texture. Usually
the inclusions are minerals that also occur in the matrix
(Yardley, 1989). In this sample, the biotite inclusion
trails display snowball rotation indicating syntectonic
growth of the amphibole. Plane polarised light.
Sample 3215, Proterozoic Corella Formation, Mary
Kathleen Group, Malbon River, northwest Queensland.

FIGURE 3.7 I Examples of static recrystallisation textures in altered volcanic rocks.

.......
54 I CHAPTER
3
Common deformation textures include intergranular
textures and fabrics such as foliations, lineations, and augen-
structure, and intragranular textures such as strained, bent,
kinked, flattened, tWinned and broken grains (crystals or
clasts), as well as irregular grain contacts (e.g. Fig. 3.8A,
B and C: Oeelman, 1976; Spry, 1976). Oeformation can
modify pre-existing textures such as volcanic, hydration and
devitrification textures (e.g. Fig. 3.80 ro H). Fiamme and
eutaxitic deformation textures are unique ro volcanic facies
(e.g. Fig. 3.9: Ross and Smith, 1960; Allen and Cas, 1990;
McPhie et al., 1993; Gifkins et al., in press). Fiamme and
eutaxitic textures are characteristic of, but are not restricted
to, welded ignimbrites (e.g. Fig. 3.9A and B: Ross and Smith,
1960; Smith, 1960), welded pyroclastic fall deposits (e.g.
Sparks and Wright, 1979), welded aurobreccia (e.g. Sparks
et al., 1993) and pyroclastic deposits that have undergone
secondary welding as a result of contact with hot lava or
intrusions (e.g. Ross and Smith, 1960; Christiansen and
Lipman, 1966; Schmincke, 1967; McPhie and Hunns, 1995).
Similar fiamme and eutaxitic texture also occur in non-welded
altered pumice-rich rocks (e.g. Fig. 3.9C and O: Fiske, 1969;
Allen, 1988; Branney and Sparks, 1990; Gifkins et al., in
press) and felsic lavas (e.g. Pichler, 1981; Allen, 1988).
The terms fiamme and eutaxitic texture are used herein
to describe the rock texture and not to imply any particular
origino Fiamme are flame-like, glassy or devitrified lenses,
which define a pre-tecronic foliation (cf. McPhie et al., 1993).
Fiamme may have a wide variery of sizes (0.5 mm ro 1 m),
length ro height ratios (up ro 40: 1), shapes (e.g. flame-like,
bow tie, irregular branching and blocky) and internal textures
(aphyric, porphyritic, vesicular or srylolitic) (Gifkins et al., in
press). Eutaxitic texture is the pre-tecronic foliation defined
by the parallel alignment of fiamme (cf. Fritsch and Reiss,
1868; Ross and Smith, 1960; Smith, 1960). Eutaxitic texture
rypically imparts a blotchy or srreaky appearance to the rock
due ro the colour contrast betWeen the darker fiamme and
paler matrix (e.g. Fig. 3.9A and C).
3.2 I PSEUDOTEXTURES
The incomplete destruction of primary textures and the
combined effects of a number of different overprinting
alteration sryles (polyphase alteration) can result in significant
textural modification and the development of false textures or
pseudotextures (De Rosen-Spence et al., 1980; Allen, 1988;
McPhie et al., 1993). Pseudotextures are alteration textures
that modify or obscure primary voJcanic textures and often
lead ro incorrect interpretation of the primary volcanic facies.
Allen (1988) described examples' of altered silicic lavas and
autobreccias from Benambra, New South Wales, that have the
remarkably deceptive appearance of welded and non-welded
pyroclastic facies and thinly bedded tuffaceous rocks.
Pseudotextures can be subdivided into pseudoclastic
textures (pseudobreccia, pseudogranular, false thin-bedded
volcaniclastic) or false pyroclastic textures (false shards,
false pyroclastic or eutaxitic: Fig. 3.10). However, strong
pervasive alteration can also produce false massive textures
that resemble either massive volcaniclastic or coherent facies
(Allen, 1988; McPhie et al., 1993; Ooyle and Husron, 1999;
Ooyle, 2001). Polyphase and patchy alteration of monomictic
volcaniclastic facies can also result in false clast-supported and
false polymictic textures.
Pseudoclastic
textures
The most common pseudoclastic textures are pseudobreccia
and false pyroclastic texture (also referred ro as false eutaxitic
texture). Other pseudoclastic textures include false thin-
bedded volcaniclastic and pseudogranular textures.
Pseudobreccias have the appearance of breccias, but form
as a result of alteration of coherent facies (Carozzi, 1960; Allen,
1988). In outcrop they resemble coarse-grained, monomictic
or polymictic, clast- ro matrix-supported breccias comprising
angular ro sub-rounded clasts in a fine-grained matrix (Fig.
3.10A, B and C).
False pyroclastic textures occur in both coherent facies
and in situ hyaloclastite. In outcrop and hand specimen they
may have a eutaxitic texture and contain abundant fiamme
(e.g. Fig. 3.100). In thin section they appear to contain
splintery and arcuate fragments, which may closely resemble
pyroclastic glass shards (false shards: Fig. 3.lOE).
Both pseudobreccia and false pyroclastic texture develop
as a result of tWo-phase alteration of fractured (perlitic or
quench fractured) coherent or autoclastic facies and domain-
controlled alteration of nodular devitrificationc textures in
coherent
> facies (e.g. Fig. 3.11: Allen, 1988). .~
NetWorks of intersecting quench and/or perlitic fractures
may control polyphase alteration in the fractured glassy parrs
of coherent lavas and intrusions because they are permeable
pathways for fluid flow. Initially glass immediately adjacent to
the perlitic fractures is altered, then, as the fractures are filled,
replacement fronts migrate away from the perlitic fractures
towards the coreo This may either obscure the continuiry of
the perlitic fractures or, if alteration is in complete, enhance
the perlitic fractures. False shard textures develop either due
ro the preservation of less altered, relatively siliceous slivers
betWeen tWo or more fractures, or as altered segments of
the fractures themselves (e.g. Fig. 3.10E: Allen, 1988). The
shape of false shards is a function of the shape of the fracture
netWork. For example, cuspate false shards are produced from
classical perlite, whereas those resembling flattened or welded
shards result from banded perlite (e.g. Fig. 3.20). False clasts
develop where altered perlitic glass is partly overprinted by
a subsequent alteration phase, thereby preserving isolated
relicts of the earlier phase. Alternatively, the earlier phase
may be incomplete, leaving isolated kernels of glass that are
subsequently altered ro a different mineral assemblage.
Pseudobreccia may also result from domainal or selective
alteration of nodular devitrification textures: spherulites
and lithophysae (e.g. Fig. 3.10F and G). Spherulites and
lithophysae are rypically recrystallised to quartzo-feldspathic
compositions, whereas the interstitial originally glassy
domains are altered to phyllosilicate-rich assemblages (Allen,
1988). Consequently, the originally glassy and crystalline
domains differ in alteration mineralogy and colour, and the
spherulites appear as rounded siliceous clasts in a fine-grained
phyllosilicate-rich matrix.
Pseudogranular or sandy textures resemble well-sorted
sandstones. These result from the recrystallisation of densely
 COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESAND ZONATION PATTERNS I 55

A. Augen schist
This sample of quartz-augen schist comprises large
lenticular quartz-rich domains (Q) enclosed in a strongly
foliated, sericite + quartz:t chlorite-altered matrix. Augen
texture is common in deformed, strongly porphyritic
coherent and crystal-bearing volcaniclastic rocks. This
augen schist probably resulted from the superposition of
a strong regional cleavage on an altered pumice breccia.
The cleavage anastomoses around competent silicified
pumice clasts.
Sample 040617, Cambrian western volcano-sedimentary
sequences,Mount Read Volcanics,Rosebery hanging wall,
westernTásmania.

B. Broken crystals in andesite

This deformed andesite contains broken plagioclase
phenocrysts in a strongly foliated, sericite + chlorite
+ magnetite :t epidote-altered groundmass. Broken or
fractured grains may result from mechanical pressure
during tectonic deformation (McBride, 1978). Typically,
feldspar crystals have been fractured along their
cleavageplanes, whereas quartz crystals have developed
conchoidal fractures (Taylor, 1950; Sippel, 1968). Cross
polarised light.
Sample 144387, Ordovician Lake Cowal Volcanic
Complex,Junee-Narromine Volcanic Belt, Lake Cowal,
GatewayProspect,New South Wales.

C. Deformed grains
In this amphibolite grade volcaniclastic siltstone, the
quartz grains are deformed polycrystalline grains with
undulose extinction, and elongated parallel to the
regionalcleavage. Cross polarised light.
SampleGA9, EarlyProterozoicSupra crustalsuccession,
Bergslagenmining district, Garpenberg,Sweden.

D. Deformed dasts and pillows

PilIowfragments and clasts in this basaltic hyaloclastite
were deformed and stretched parallel to the regional
foliation.The clast shapes are irregular and difficult to
recogniseas pillow or hyaloclastite fragments. Despite
this, many clasts preserve an internal zonation.
Amphibolite, Proterozoic Corella Formation, Mary
KathleenGroup,Malbon River, northwest Queensland.

FIGURE3.8 I Examples 01 delormation textures, delormed clasts and pre-existing textures in altered volcanic rocks.
56 I CHAPTER
3
E. Deformed clasts
Lens-shaped siliceous clasts (C) in this volcaniclastic
breccia have been rotated and stretched into the strong
tectonic cleavage. The fine-grained matrix has been
foliated and chlorite + sericite + quartz altered.
Sample 133520, Cambro-Ordovician Trooper Creek
Formation, Seventy Mile Range Group, Mount Windsor
Subprovince, central Thalanga, Queensland.

, F. Folded pumice clast

This sample of rhyolite-, pumice- and crystal-rich breccia
contains a folded tube pumice clast with an axial planar
cleavage (51) defined by aligned sericite. The pumice
clast has been albite + quartz + sericite altered. Plane
polarised light.
Sample KB304B, Siluro-Devonian Ural Volcanics, Ural
Ridges area, New South Wales.

-So

G. Deformed relict perlite

Relict perlitic fractures in this jigsaw-fit andesitic
breccia are elongate and flattened, especially adjacent
to competent phenocrysts. The groundmass has been
sericite + chlorite + calcite + albite altered and the perlitic
fractures chlorite filled. Plane polarised light.
Sample 76902, Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics, western
volcano-sedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics,
Hellyer, western Tasmania.

H. Deformed grains
In this sample of volcaniclastic sandstone, strongly
deformed feldspar grains and clasts have been rotated
parallel to Jhe strong cleavage. Plane polarised light.
Sample 133520, Cambro-Ordovician Trooper Creek
Formation, Seventy Mile Range Group, Mount Windsor
Subprovince, central Thalanga, Queensland.

FIGURE3.8 I Examplesof deformationtextures,deformedclastsand pre-existingtexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,cont

 COMMON ALTERATlONTEXTURESANO ZONATlON PAffiRNS I 57

A. Fiamme and eutaxitic texture in welded

ignimbrite
Dark flame-like obsidian lenses or fiamme (F) are aligned
in this sample of subaerial welded rhyolitie ignimbrite.
Fiamme are commonly interpreted as flattened pumiee
clasts.The fiamme in this sample are interpreted to result
from the plastie deformation, flattening and sintering -,," fit
.. ...
-
together of hot glassy pumiee clasts during welding 'fI!!IIII:'>i'.!ii~""~ ."
(ef. Smith, 1960). The bedding-parallel alignment of ~ -_o - ":: .....
flattened, elongate fiamme and glass shards defines the ~_o.._,. .~- o~. ~
euraxitie texture. ,.-
o. .'I!#'-
SampleOW7, PleistoceneOwahoroaignimbrite, Whitianga -- , - ,,~... "" '"
... ..
~
..
...,- .o-
Group, Coromandel VolcanicZone, Owharoa Falls, New
- --o
, ,~ t.
"""'-' ,;;
Zealand.
-- ~.-"

B. Fiamme in thin section

In thin seetion, the former pumiee clasts, fiamme (F),
laek uneompaeted vesicles, have feathery terminations
and are enclosed in domains of euspate and plary shards
(S), and quarrz, feldspar and biotite erystal fragments.
Although some shards have preserved bubble-wall
shapes, others were plastieally deformed and eompaeted,
espeeially adjaeent to erystals. Plane polarised lighr.
Sample OW11, Pleistocene Owahoroa ignimbrite,
Whitianga Group, Coromandel VolcanicZone, Owharoa
Falls,New Zealando

C. Fiamme and eutaxitic texture in non-welded

pumice breccia
.
Dark, plagioclase-phyrie, wispy, ehlorite-rieh fiamme are '" ~.~~.~,.
,,~ .~

~ .'
<
. ,-
iJÍI'..
,~

.-
enclosed in pale domains of quarrz + ehlorite + pyrite- ~.".<II"" ~~..s;. '-
1'~ . ..". :If~
, 1[Ñ'.. ...
altered pumiee clasts, shards and erystal fragments in 'o.,p.. . /
this non-welded rhyolitie pumiee breeciaoThe bedding- .~
parallelalignment offiamme defines the eutaxitie texture. ... ;. .. ; ,. "'
Alteration and eompaetion of pumiee clasts during
diagenesis formed these apparent welding textures.
Sample 133809, Cambrian Hercules Pumice Formation,
~
.~
111 ~' ,.. ¿
~
~".'" .>.::-"
'.
:f"i<11''''''
"""
1!Iii!""I!III..~
ot.'¡ "",
.

:1
.:,;;.¡r'fh
Ifá- -.
.. II!!.
CentralVolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Hercules ""~ ~-'.- ~
" 111III~
footwall western Tasmania. 111
.. Dé.. "-

"'.~.~::

D. Fiamme in thin section

In thin seetion, the ehlorite fiamme (F) have feathery
terminations and laek internal textures other than sparse
plagioclasephenoerysts and hematite-rieh srylolites. The
pale quartz + ehlorite + pyrite-altered domains eontain
uneompaeted tube pumiee clasts (P). Plagioclase erystals
are dusted with hematite and sericite. Plane polarised
light. ...

Sample133811, Cambrian Hercules Pumice Formation,

CentralVolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Hercules
footwall western Tasmania.
¡rP
\I,~
o.'
''It", 1mm

FIGURE 309 I Examplesof tiammeand eutaxitictextureo

-""

58 I CHAPTER
3

A. Pseudobrecciain perlitic rhyolite

Sericite + chlorite-altered perlitic fractures and pink
albite-altered perlitic cores result in the pseudoclastic
texture in this plagioclase-phyric coherent rhyolite.
Sample BBP248-504.7 m from the Cambrian Central
Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics, Boco, western
Tasmania.

B. Pseudobreccia in macroperlitic dacite

Polyphase alteration of macroperlite in this plagioclase-
phyric dacite has resulted in dark chlorite + epidote-rich
domains along and adjacent to the perlitic fractures.
This overprinted and enclosed earlier, pale grey albite
+ sericite-altered perlitic cores. The chlorite + epidote-
rich domains resemble the matrix in a matrix-supponed
breccia. Locally, the arcuate perlitic fractures are well
defined.
Cambrian Sterling ValleyVolcanics,Mount Read Volcanics,
Sterling Saddle, western Tasmania.

C. False dasts
In this coherent andesite, plagioclase phenocrysts have
been extensively replaced by epidote, pyroxenes by
chlorite and the groundmass domains by green epidote
+ chlorite and orange albite. The domainal distribution
of the alteration facies gives the andesite a patchy
pseudoclastic texture. The false clasts have both sharp
and diffuse margins, which are transgressed locally by
altered plagio clase phenocrysts.
Sample 145147, Ordovician ForestReefi Volcanics,Molong
VolcanicBelt, Cooramilla, New South Wales.

D. False pyrodastic texture

The most conspicuous feature of this sample is the wispy
dark green chlorite-rich lenses that resemble fiamme.
However, these lenses are aligned in the rectonic cleavage
and occur in an evenly porphyritic rhyolite. The lenses
are interpreted to result from domainal chlorite and
sericite + quartz + biotite alteration of the groundmass
in a coherent quartz + plagioclase-phyric rhyolite.
Sample 140727, Cambro-Ordovician Mount Windsor
Formation, Mount Windsor Subprovince, centralThalanga,
Queensland.

E. False shards in thin section

Polyphase chlorite + biotite and K-feldspar alteration
of perlitic fractures, and their subsequent deformation
have resulted in irregular arcuate and plary shapes, which
resemble shards (arrows) in this quartz + plagioclase
+ pyroxene-phyric coherent rhyolite. Plane polarised
light.
Sample KB499, Siluro-Devonian Coan rhyolite, Mount
Rope Volcanics,Mount Rope area, New South Wales.

FIGURE3.10 I Examplesof pseudotexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks.

--,

COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANDZONATION
PATTERNS
I 59

F. Pseudoclastic texture in devitrified rhyolite

This rhyolite contains silicified nodules that are composed
of coalesced spheruIites in a fine-grained sericite-altered
groundmass. These nodular devitrification textures give
a clastic appearance lO the hand specimen and outcrop.
Late Devonian Bunga Beds, Boyd Volcanic Complex,
Bengunnu Point, New South Wales.

G. False clasts in thin section

The clastic texture in this rhyolite comes from the
uneven distribUtion of strongIy chIorite + hematite-
altered spheruIites in a strongIy foliated, chIorite +
sericite + feldspar + hematite-altered groundmass. The
foliation has wrapped around the altered spheruIites,
whieh have preserved fibrous textures and quartz eores.
PIane polarised Iight.
SampleKB536D, Siluro-Devonian Mount Hope Volcanics,
Boolahbone tank, Mount Hope area, New South Wales.

H. Pseudogranular texture
This altered daeite has afine granuIar texture in hand
speeimen and resembIes massive sandslOne. However, in
thin seetion it has a densely mierospheruIitic groundmass
in whieh the recrystallised quartz + aIbite spheruIites
are separated by euspate sericite-rieh domains. The
fine-grained, densely paeked spheruIites give the hand
speeimen its sandy texture.
Sample MR25, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
Central VolcanicsComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Mount
Read summit, western Tt;¡smania.

I. Pseudogranular texture in thin section

Reerystallised mieropoikilitie textures in the groundmass
of this aphyrie rhyolite resembIe sand-sized, rounded
grains in a well-sorted quartzo-feldspathie sandslOne.
The margins of the mieropoikilitie domains are marked
by eoneentrations of sericite, whieh enhanee the granuIar
texture. PIane polarised Iight.
Sample 147448, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
Central Volcanics Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,
Rosebery,western Tasmania.

FIGURE3.10 I Examples01pseudotexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con\.

60 I CHAPTER
3

J. Falsethin-beddedvolcanidastic texture
Flow banding in this microspherulitic plagioclase-phytic
dacite is defined by alternating pale albite + quartz and
darker albite + sericite + quartz layers. The planar,
repetitive, thin flow banding resembles thin bedding in
clastic facies such as tuffaceous siltstones.
Sample 76772, Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics,western
volcano-sedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics,
Hellyer, western Tasmania.

K. False thin-bedded volcanidastic texture in thin

section
In thin section, this finely flow-banded rhyolite
resembles a thin-bedded volcaniclastic facies with
fractured plagioclase crystals. However, axiolitic and
bow-tie shaped spherulitic textures are locally preserved
in the groundmass. Cross polarised light.
Sample KB132A, Siluro-Devonian Ural Volcanics, Ural
Ridges area, New South Wales.

L. False volcanidastic texture in thin section

Fractured and broken plagioclase crystals, and re-
crystallised spherulites in the groundmass of mis flow-
banded rhyolite contribute to its pseudoclastic texture.
Cross polarised light.
Sample 133837 Cambrian Mount Black Formation,
Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,Mount
Read summit, western Tasmania.

M. False polymictic, matrix-supported texture

The dark chlorite-rimmed clasts in this plagio clase-
phyric basaltic breccia appear to be supported in a
compositionally different, pale calcite + chlorite-altered
matrix. However, the matrix comprises jigsaw-fit, blocky
and splintery clasts' of perlitic basalt that are identical
to the darker clasts. The chlorite-rimmed clasts appear
subrounded, because chlorite alteration of the clast
margins and adjacent matrix has obscured the blocky
and splintery shapes.
Sample 76833, Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics,western
volcano-sedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics,
Hellyer, western Tasmania.

FIGURE3.10 I Examplesof pseudotexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES
ANOZONATION
PATTERNS
I 61

N. False polymictic texture

Overprinting domainal albite + hematite and epidote
alteration facies in this plagiodase + hornblende-phyric
dacite gives the sample a heterogenous appearance. The
abundance of pink, albitised plagiodase phenocrysts in the
red and green domains is equivalent, although they appear
more abundant in the epidote-altered domains due to the
colour contrast between the phenocrysts and epidote-
altered groundmass. Colour differences between the two
alteration facies and more prominent phenocrysts in the
epidote-altered domains obscure the massive, coherent
texture and uniform composition of this sample.
Sample 147557, Cambrian Mount Black Formation,
Central VolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Pieman
Road, western Tasmania.
O. False matrix-supported texture
Clasts in this monomictic dacite breccia display
jigsaw-fit texture. However, feldspar + quartz + sericite
alteration facies has replaced the groundmass adjacent
to the quench fractures between dasts, enhancing the
matrix, and imparting an apparent matrix-supported
texture. The feldspar + quartz + sericite-altered matrix
has been more resistant to weathering than the sericite +
chlorite-altered dasts and forms ridges on the outcrop.
The larger dasts are perlitic, plagiodase + hornblende
porphyritic with planar and curviplanar margins rypical
of dasts produced by quench fragmentation.
Cambrian,Mount BlackFormation,CentralVolcanicComplex,
Mount Read Volcanics,Tullahlakeside,westernTasmania.

P. False matrix-supported texture

In this in siru andesitic hyaloc1astite, blocky chlorite-
altered plagiodase + pyroxene-phyric dasts appear to
be supported in a pyrite + quartz + sericite-rich matrix.
However, thin section inspection reveals relict dasts
with jigsaw-fit textures preserved in the false matrix
domains.
Sample 144710, Ordovician Lake Cowal Volcanics,Junee-
Narromine Volcanic Belt, Boundary Prospect,New South
Wales.

Q. False coherent texture

This albite + quartz + sericite- and chlorite + epidote-
altered pumice and rhyolite breccia resembles a coherent,
feldspar porphyritic facies. The albite-altered plagiodase
crystals, pseudophenocrysts, are evenly distributed in
a fine-grained, sericite-rich false groundmass. On the
left side of the photograph, pervasive, massive albite +
quartz alteration facies obscures the plagiodase crystals
in a pseudo-aphyric texture.
Sample 147402, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
CentralVolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Rosebery,
western Tasmania.

FIGURE3.10 I Examples01pseudotexturesin alteredvolcanicrocks,con!.

r
62 I CHAPTER
3
Pre-existing
textures (i)Pseudobreccia
texture (il)Pseudobreccia
texture (iii)Falsepolymlctic
texture (iv)Pseudomassive
texture (v)Falsethin-bedded
texture
A. Perlite

~~~~
.~~
J:3-<;:;}t
~~~
)/'--. ~cm

,~ , Unaltered
.. volcanic
glass

-
Phyllosilicate
altered

, , Quartzo-
L..:...:..:J feldspathicaltered
Chlorite
altered

~ Feldspar
L::::::o..lJphenocrysts

~ Spherulites

FIGURE 3.11 I Sketchessummarisingthe relationshipbetweenprimaryvolcanic,high-temperaturedevitrificationand hydrationtextures,and pseudotextures.

(A) Pseudotexturesin classicalperlite(alter Allen, 1988).Falseshardsmay be producedeither (i) as siliceoussegmentsbetweenphyllosilicate-alteredperlitic
fracturesor (ii) phyllosilicate-alteredsectionsof the perliticfractures.(iv)Alternatively,pervasivephyllosilicatealterationcan obscurethe perliticfractures resultingin a
massivetexture.
(B) Pseudotexturesin flow-bandedfacies comprisingalternatingcrystalline(spherulitic)and glassy flow bands (modifiedfrom Doyle, 2001). (i) Glassydomains are
alteredto phyllosilicate-richassemblagesand spheruliticbandsto quartzo-feldspathicassemblages.Consequentlythe originallyglassy and crystallinedomains
differ in alterationcolourand mineralogy.The spherulitessuperficiallyappearas roundedsiliceousclasts in a fine-grainedphyllosilicate-richmatrix, resultingin a
pseudobrecciatexture.(v) In parallelflow-bandedfaciesthis can resultin a falsethin-beddedvolcaniclastictexture.The crystallinenature of the quartzo-feldspathic-
alteredbandsenhancesthe granularappearanceof the false beds.
(C) Pseudotexturesfrom in situ quenchfragmentedporphyriticglass (modifiedfrom Doyle,2001).Alterationprogressesas fronts awayfrom the fractures)andinto
the non-fracturedglass. (1)Wherephyllosilicatealterationis incompletethe remainingkernelsof glass are subsequentlyalteredto quartzo-feldspathicassemblages.
The furtherthe alterationprogressesaway from the fractures,the more matrix-supportedthe resultingpseudobrecciatexture.(Ii) Pseudoclastictexturealso develops
as a resultof the completereplacementby the first alterationphase(phyllosilicatealteration)and only partialreplacementby the secondalterationphase (quartzo-
feldspathicalteration),therebypreservingisolatedrelicsof the earlier phase.(iii) Falsepolymictictexturedevelopsin quenchfragmentedporphyriticglass as
polyphasealterationresultsin colourvariationsbetweenthe false clasts and matrix.Varyingintensitiesof alterationenhancethe polymicticappearance.Phenocrysts
are moreprominentin dark phyllosilicatedomainsthan in paler siliceousdomains,resultingin an apparentvariationin crystal contentconsistentwith a polymictic
rock.(iv) Pseudomassivetexturedevelopsfrom pervasivephyllosilicatealteration.
(D) Pseudotexturesfrom porphyriticautobrecciaor hyaloclastite(modifiedfrom Doyle,2001). (i) and (ii) alterationcommencesalongfracturesand in the matrixof
autobrecciabut graduallyprogressesinto the clasts,greatlyenhancingthe clastic,matrix-supportedappearance.The resultis commonlyfalse matrix-supported
texture.(iii) Polyphasealterationresultsin pseudoclastsand pseudomatrixthat comprisedifferentalterationmineralassemblagesand colours, and therefore appear
to havedifferentprimarycompositions(falsepolymictictexture). Phenocrystsare more prominentin dark phyllosilicate-altereddomains.(iv) Pseudomassivetexture
occurswherealterationhas beenextensiveand pervasive.
(E) Pseudotexturesfrom porphyriticpumicebreccia(modifiedalter Gifkins,2001). Falseeutaxitictextureresultsfrom phyllosilicatealterationof originally glassy
pumiceclastsor shardswithinthe pumicebreccia.The phyllosilicate-alteredpumiceclasts and shardsare flattenedby compaction(i) or tectonic deformation
(ii) resultingin a texturethat resembleseutaxitictexturein weldedignimbrites.(iii) Falsepolymictictextureas a resultof colourvariationsand apparentvariations
in phenocrystcontentdue to polyphasealteration.(iv) Falsecoherenttexturesresultfrom the completeand pervasivephyllosilicatealterationand subsequent
compactionof originallyglassyshardsand pumiceclastsproducinga massivetexturedrockin which the originalclasts are indistinguishable.

spherulitic or micropoikilitic groundmass of coherent felsic
facies (e.g. Fig. 3.10H and 1).
False thin-bedded volcanidastic texture resembles thinly
bedded and tectonically folded volcanidastic rocks, and can
occur in altered, planar flow-banded and flow-folded lavas
and intrusions (e.g. Fig. 3.lOJ and K). The false thin-bedded
volcanidastic texture is due to the planar and uniform character
of flow banding and the apparent textural and compositional
differences between flow bands (Allen, 1988). This apparent
compositional difference between flow bands results from
domainal alteration: originally glassy bands were altered to
dark phyllosilicate assemblages and contain well-preserved
phenocrysts, whereas the originally cryptocrystalline bands
were altered to pale quartzo-feldspathic assemblages and
contain altered polycrystalline phenocrysts that are hardly
recognisable. Phenocrysts may also be extensively fractured
and dismembered during deformation, thereby contributing
to the pseudodastic and finer grained appearance (e.g. Fig.
3.10L). Discrepancies in colour and the apparent relative
proportions of phenocrysts enhance the compositional
contrast between adjacent bands.
Falsepolymictic texture
Domainal phyllosilicate alteration may impart a heterogenous
appearance due to colour variation and to variable preservation
of phenocrysts. Pseudobreccias and pseudodastic facies
may appear polymictic due to patchy or motded alteration
distribution resulting in colour variations and variable
preservation of phenocrysts. This is particularly common in
pseudobreccias because the pseudodasts and pseudomatrix
contain different alteration minerals, and hence colours:
therefore they appear to have different primary compositions
(e.g. Fig. 3.10M and N). In addition, phenocrysts (especially
feldspar or quartz) are more prominent in dark phyllosilicate
domains than in paler siliceous domains, resulting in an
apparent variation in crystal content between different
alteration domains consistent with different compositions
(e.g. Fig. 3.10N).
False matrix-supported texture
Alteration along fractures in coherent facies and in the matrix
of autodastic facies (hyalodastite and autobreccia) results in
colour variation between the dasts and fracture selvages or
matrix, and gready enhances the dastic appearance. Where
alteration has progressed into the dasts from the dast margins,
the dasts appear to be isolated within a matrix (e.g. Fig. 3.100
and P). The result is an apparendy matrix-supported breccia
that is difficult to recognise as hyalodastite or autobreccia
(Allen, 1988).
False coherent textures
False coherent textures, such as pseudomassive texture,
are less common than pseudodastic textures. They result
fram the complete and pervasive alteration of an originally
volcanidastic facies. For example, pervasive phyllosilicate
....
COMMON ALTERATION TEXTURES
ANDZONATION
PATIERNS I 63
alteration of pumice breccia produces a massive textured
rock in which the original dasts are indistinguishable (Fig.
3.10Q).
3.3 I ALTERATION
DISTRIBUTION
Alteration distribution refers to the mappable extent of the
alteration facies and its relationship to host rocks, structures,
mineralised rock and other alteration mineral assemblages or
zones. '
Although alteration distribution, zonation and textural
relationships are easily observed in thin section and hand
specimen they are more difficult to assess on a macroscopic
scale. This is due to the typically sparse exposure in ancient
volcanic successions, structural complications, commonly
patchy mode of occurrence of alteration facies in volcanic
rocks, and the considerable amount of detailed work required
to determine the distribution and zonation. Closely spaced
drill holes may adequately delineate the alteration facies
distribution and zonation at prospect scales. However,
alteration zones may be superimposed and the original zonation
patterns modified. Ir is important to recognise disequilibrium
alteration mineral assemblages and overprinting textures
when determining zonation patterns, so as to account for any
superposition caused by subsequent alteration styles.
Is the alteration facies limited in extent or widespread?
Typically the macroscopic alteration distribution is described
as either regional or local in extent. Regional alteration styles
are widespread, affecting extensive (hundreds of metres to
tens of kilometres) expanses of rock. Local alteration styles
are limited in extent and can refer to alteration on a scale
of centimetres, such as wall-rock alteration associated with
a fault or vein, to hundreds of metres, such as the extensive
hydrothermal alteration associated with the Rosebery VHMS
deposit (western Tasmania) that extends up to 100 m
stratigraphically beneath the ore lenses, 10-20 m into the
hanging wall and 500 m along strike (Large et al., 2001b).
Is there a relationship between the distribution of the
alteration facies and stratigraphy?
Alteration facies can be distributed within individual volcanic
units or formations or cut across stratigraphic contacts.
Alteration facies that are confined to individual units or
formations and are either concordant or discordant within the
unit are described as stratabound or semiconjOrmable(Guilbert
and Park, 1986; Large, 1992). In contrast, alteration pipes and
alteration plumes refer to the distribution pattern or shape
of alteration systems or facies that transgress stratigraphic
contacts (pipes, e.g. Sangster, 1972; Gemmell and Large,
1992; Doyle and Huston, 1999, and plum es, e.g. Jack, 1989;
Gemmell and Fulton, 2001).
64 I 3
CHAPTER

Is the alteration facies associated with other alteration and that can also be applied to the distribution of altetation
facies, structures, mineralised rock or particular units? facies or minerals (Table 3.3): (1) regional zoning, (2) disttict
zoning, and (3) local or ore body zoning. In addition, altered
Locally distributed alteration facies are commonly associated zones may occur within or surrounding individual dasts
with structures, such as veins or fractures, ore bodies or in clastic facies. Thus the dimensions of altered zones may
particular volcanic units: forming halos, envelopes or vary from a few centimetres to several tens of kilometres
selvages. They may also occur around isolated clasts within (cf. Bohlke et al., 1980; Galley, 1993). These variations in
clasríc facies. In zoned alteration systems or halos, they are dimension are a funcríon of the size of the alteration system
commonly sparíally and temporally associated with other (regional versus local systems), and changes in physical and
alteraríon facies. chemical conditions such as the porosiry and composition of
the host rock, fluid-rock rarío and composition of the Huid
(Rose and Burt, 1979).
Different alteraríon processes result in different zonation
3.4 I ALTERATION ZONATION PATTERNS patterns. Regional alteration processes such as diagenesis
and metamorphism, produce thick, flat-Iying, vertically
Alteration zonation is a regular pattern in the spatial distriburion zoned systems. Local hydrothermal systems and contact
01 mineral species, mineral assemblages, major or trace metamorphism result in footwall and hanging wall altered
elements or textures, and reflects mineralogical and chemical zones or concentrically zoned alrered halos or contact aureoles.
changes that relate to fluid-rock ratios and temperature Zonaríon related to faulrs or fractures is generally parallelto
gradients (e.g. Meyer and Hemley, 1967). In general, the halo the structure, commonly cross cutting stratigraphic contacts.
of altered rock is divided mesoscopically into altered zones.
These are imprecisely defined as the areal extent of different
alteraríon mineral assemblages or facies. BourÍdaries between Regionaldiagenetic zones
hydrothermally altered zones associated with VHMS deposits
are commonly sharp, and reflect changes in the abundance of Diagenesis develops in response to increasing temperature
particular alteration mineral species such as chlorite, sericite with depth during burial; as a result it forms a sequence
or quartz. However, in some cases alteraríon facies overlap, of flat-Iying altered zones (Fig. 3.12: Iijima, 1974, 1978;
resulting in diffuse boundaries between altered zones (e.g. Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Utada, 1991). These zones
Tidey, 1982; Doyle and Huston, 1999). are characterised by mineral assemblages, which reflect the
In realiry, altered zones are identified and named using reaction of glass, primary minerals and diagenetic minerals
index minerals- the dominant alteraríonminerals- and zone with interstitial pore water and seawater at a particular
boundaries - isograds - are drawn at the first appearance of temperature - anywhere between 0° and 250°C (Hay, 1978;
an index mineral characteristic of the next zone. Thus the Iijima, 1978; Utada, 1991).
clinoptilolite + mordenite zone is placed at the first appearance Sequences of diagenetic zones are rypically between 500 m
of clinoptilolite or mordenite (e.g. Iijima, 1978). In some cases and 6 km thick (Hay, 1978) and individual altered zones vary
an altered zone may contain more than one alteraríon facies. from a few metres to several kilometres in thickness (e.g. Hay,
For example, at Thalanga the tremolite + chlorite :t carbonate 1978; Iijima, 1978; Vierecketal., 1982; Passagliaetal., 1995).
zone includes intense pervasive stratabound chlorite +tremolite The thickness of diagenetically altered zones is dependent on
(no carbonate), intense pervasive stratabound chlorite + the geothermal gradient, rate of burial, and the porosity and
calcite, and intense stratabound tremolite + dolo mi te + calcite permeabiliry of the volcanic succession.
(no chlorite) facies. The expression of zoning may be limited The Miocene Hokuroku Basin, part of the Green Tuff
by exposure and modified by structural and compositional Belr in northern Honshu, Japan, is an excellent example of
homogeneiry, faulríng and/or intrusions. diagenetic zonation (Fig. 3.12). The Hokuroku Basin contains
There are three scales of zonation that are generally applied a 3 to 6 km thick submarine volcanic succession dominated
to the relative distriburion of metals (e.g. Kurina et al., 1965) by rhyolitic to dacitic and minor basaltic coherent and clastic
volcanic facies (Horikoshi, 1969; Iijima, 1978; Tanimura et
al., 1983; Urabe, 1987; Utada, 1991). Diagenetic alteration
in the Bokuroku Basin has produced a series of flat-Iying
TABLE3.3 I Scalesofalteration zonation.
diageneríc zones, which grade vertically from fresh glass at
Regional zonation Alterationfaciesormineralsoccurinzones the top, to smectites, zeolites and albite at depth (Fig. 3.12:
thraughout a region Iijima, 1978).
Districtzonation Alteredzonesareassociated witha cluster
of orebodies,fracturesorintrusions
Regionalmetamorphiczones
Localzonation Alteredzonesareassociated withan
individual
orebody,fractureor intrusion Regional metamorphic zones develop due to regional
Sample-scale Alteredzonesareassociatedwithsmall- changes in temperature and pressure. Unless metamorphism
zonation scalefeaturessuchasclastsormineralsin is related solely to orogenic deformation, progressive burial
therack
results in dehydration and increasing metamorphic grade
with depth. This produces a vertical sequence of flat-Iying,
regional metamorphic zones (Fig. 3.13B). Ir is generally

.
 COMMON
ALTERATION
TEXTURES PATTERNS65
ANDZONATION I
-'- -::c;,. o. U.-.o-'O.. o o assumed that higher-grade metamorphic rocks formerly
,unaltered.
0.0. o -O. Oo o-.
<:> . ° ., o . °0. had mineral assemblages typical of lower-grade zones and
.0° ,° .0-0,° 0°.0...' were altered progressively as metamorphism proceeded.
.' o 0°
~U..O . O . O However, variations in geothermal gradient, variable rates
smectlte + opal ZOne .. ~
-- 3:- -''--- -::: ~-"'-_. -':: -
-'/ -'/ -'/
~ ~",45°C-
-'/
of sedimentation and folding and faulting can modify the
'"
progression of metamorphism and the resulting metamorphic
clinoprnolite + mord~nite-zone zones. In particular, folding and faulting may affect the
(+ smectite)
'" position of mineralogically determined isograds by promoting
reactions or causing local increases in temperature or heat flow
(Coombs et al., 1959).
Coombs (1954) first recognised vertical metamorphic
zoning of low-temperature, high-pressure metamorphic
mineral assemblages in a 10 km section of the uplifted
Permian to Jurassic Wakatipu Metamorphic Belt, in the
New Zealand geosyndine (Fig. 3.13A). The Wakatipu
Metamorphic Belt comprises submarine emplaced rhyolitic
to basaltic volcanidastic and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks,
which were progressively metamorphosed (Coombs, 1954).
There is a continuous gradational sequence of regional
metamorphic zones characterised by zeolite, prehnite +
pumpellyite, pumpellyite + actinolite and greenschist facies (a
I~ .O~ I Quaternary gravels biotite zone and chlorite zone) at depth (Fig. 3.15B: Coombs,

D Funakawa Formation
1954; Coombs et al., 1959; Landis and Coombs, 1%7). These
zones have an even thickness over a wide area (>10 km by
D Onnagawa Formation 300 km) suggesting that the geothermal gradient, estimated
at 14-25°C/km, was consistent throughour the Wakatipu
Q Nishikawa Formation
Metamorphic Belt (Landis and Coombs, 1%7).
FIGURE3.12 I Schematic cross-section 01 vertically developed diagenetic
zones in the central Hokuroku Basin, Japan (alter lijima, 1974; Hay, 1978; lijima,
1978).

FIGURE3.13 I Alterationzonationpatternsassociatedwith regional A 170"E

metamorphism. (A) Regionalmetamorphiczonesin the Wakatipumetamorphic
belt,SouthIsland,New Zealand.(alter Coombset al.,1959,and Landis 41°8
andCoombs,1967).(B) Schematiccross-sectionreconstruction01regional
metamorphic
zonesand isothermsduring peak metamorphism01the Wakatipu
metamorphic
belt, NewZealand(alter Landisand Coombs,1967).

o
C')

o
EC\J
-'"
o
v ~

o
66 I CHAPTER
3

Regional,deep,semi-contormable
alteredzones
Deep, semi-conformable altered zones are interpreted to be
the products of hydrothermal alteration within regional,
subseafloor hydrothermal systems (Galley, 1993). These
regional hydrothermal systems involve the large-scale
convection of modified seawater driven by the emplacement
of synvolcanic intrusions into the subsurface (Spooner and
Fyfe, 1973; Norton, 1984; Cathles, 1993; Galley, 1993).
The upper contacts of sub-surface intrusions are typically
sub-parallel to the volcanic strata and hence the overlying
isotherms are also semi-conformable (Galley, 1993). The
result is a series of vertically stacked, sub-horizontal altered
zones, which are characterised by mineral assemblages that
reflect reactions between host volcanic facies and modified
seawater at temperatures transitional with diagenesis and
greenschist facies metamorphism (Galley, 1993; Skirrow
and Franklin, 1994). Sequences of deep, semi-conformable
altered zones may be up to 20 km wide and between 1 and
2 km thick (Gibson et al., 1983; Galley, 1993; Skirrowand
Franklin, 1994).
One of the first comprehensive descriptions of deep, semi-
conformable altered zones is by Gibson et al. (1983). These
authors documented a series of vertically stacked altered zones
in the Noranda district of the Archaean Abitibi belt, Canada
(Fig. 3.14). The Amulet Rhyolite Formation comprises
coherent and clastic basalts and andesites with minor
rhyolitic lava domes. The volcanic rocks are variably altered
and the distribution of the alteration facies can be related
to stratigraphic depth and primary host rock composition.
Within the andesites there are four regionally extensive
alteration facies, from top to bottom: chlorite + actinolite +
albite + epidote + quartz; silicified; motded epidote + quartz;
and chlorite alteration facies (Fig. 3.14B). The upper chlorite
+ actinolite + albite + epidote + quartz alteration facies is
the result of low-grade regional metamorphism, whereas the
other three alteration facies are interpreted to be the products
of regional deep, semi-conformable alteration (Gibson et al.,
1983).
Localcontactmetamorphicor hydrothermally
alteredhalos
Halos or contact aureoles associated with granitoids, thick
synvolcanic sills, cryptodomes and dykes reflect changes
in the composition and temperature of the magmatic or
hydrothermal fluid away from the intrusion, and its interaction
with local pore water (Rose and Burt, 1979; Einsele et al.,
1980; Yardley, 1989). The result is a progressive sequence
of roughly concentric altered zones or metamorphic zones

+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +++++++ 1km
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

B ~ Rhyolitic
andandesitic
lavaandbreccia D Silicifiedzone

EJ rhyolite =
Feldsparand/orquartz-phyric Epidote+ quartz-altered
zone
Greenschist
Leeee",", facies
Q Andesiticlavaandbreccia
t:/j Tuff
D Subgreenschist
facies

~ Subvolcanic
intrusion
. Massivesulfidedeposit

'1 Synvolcanic
dykes

~ Synvolcanic
faults

~ D

.
Pillowandesite/basalt Moderatelyto stronglysilicifiedfacies

M Weaklysilicifiedfacies
Andesitebreccia

[iljjj]]Exhalite
- Mottledepidote+ quartzalteration
Chloritealteration facies
D Massiveandesite
D Greenschist facies
E
<=>
~ Blockyvolcanicbreccia
(chlorite+ actinolite+ alb!te+
epidote+ quartz)
¡:;:D Rhyolite

FIGURE 3.14 I Diagramshowingalterationzonationpatternsassociatedwith regionalhydrothermalalteration.

(A) A schematiccross-sectionthrougha verticallystackedsequence01deep, semi-conlormablealteredzones in the Amulet
RhyoliteFormation,Norandadistrict,Abitibi belt,Canada(alter Gibson,1989, in Galley, 1993). (B)A reconstructedsection
01deep,semi-conlormable
alteredzonesintheAmuletRhyoliteFormation
atTurcotteLake(alterGibsonetal., 1983).
 COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESANO ZONATION PATTERNS I 67

that correspond with decreasing temperature away from the

intrusion contact (e.g. Fig. 3.15). For example, submarine +
basaltic lavas and breccias of the Upper Triassic Karmutsen
Subgroup, Vancouver Island, Canada, have undergone low-
pressure, high-temperature contact metamorphism related to
the shallowemplacement of the Jurassic Coast Range Batholith
(Carson, 1973; Kuniyoshi and Liou, 1976). Intrusion of the
Coast Range Batholith resulted in two locally developed
contact metamorphic zones: hornblende + plagiodase zone
and epidote + actinolite zone, which are superimposed on
a prehnite + pumpellyite facies regional metamorphic zone
(Fig. 3.15A: Kuniyoshi and Liou, 1976). The hornblende
+ plagiodase zone is approximately 2600 m wide and the
epidote + actinolite zone less than 900 m wide (Kuniyoshi
and Liou, 1976).

Localhydrothermally
alteredhalosaroundore
t
5km
deposits
Local halos of hydrothermally altered rock around B
mineral deposits result from the interaction between the Zona I
hydrothermal fluid/s responsible for mineralisation and the '-
surrounding country rock. In the case of VHMS deposits,
hydrothermal fluid temperatures range up to 350°C (Large,
1977,1992; Urabe et al., 1983; Gemmell and Large, 1992).
The migration of hydrothermal fluids and mixing with cold
seawaterat the margins of the hydrothermal system produces
thtee-dimensional altered zones composed of successively
lowertemperature mineral assemblages away from the site of FIGURE3.15 I Diagram showingalterationzonationpatternsassociatedwith
mineralisation (Date et al., 1983; Urabe et al., 1983; Large, contactmetamorphism.(A) Contactmetamorphiczonas in the northeastern <J

1992; Schardt et al., 2001). The shape, dimensions and
distribution of fluid circulation (and thus the altered zones)
ate usually dosely related to initial patterns of permeability,
porosityand compositional contrasts in the volcanic succession
(e.g. Yamagishi and Dimroth, 1985; Large, 1992; Doyle,
2001). Accordingly, the altered halos exhibit a wide variety
of shapes and zonation around VHMS deposits, typically
with intense proximal footwall and weak hanging wall zones
(Large, 1992). In contrast, altered halos around porphyry
deposits may have a more concentric zonation, comprising
a potassic core zone, an outer propylitic zone and, in some
examples,minor phyllic zones (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975).
Laterhydrothermal alteration and mineralisation zones may
overprint these initial zones, such as the widespread phyllic
and argillic zones at the El Salvador deposit, Chile and Batu
Hijau in Indonesia (Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; McMillan
and Panteleyev, 1998; Garwin, 2002).
Hydrothermally altered zones associated with VHMS
depositscan extend laterally up to 500 m and persist at least
500m stratigraphically (Iijima, 1974; Utada et al., 1974;
Eastoe et al., 1987; Gemmell and Large, 1992; Gemmell
and Fulton, 2001). Footwall zones occur either as diffuse
stratiformzones (e.g. Rosebery, Fig. 3.16C: Green et al., 1981;
Large et al., 2001 b) or well-defined and zoned alteration
pipes (e.g. Hellyer, Fig. 3.16A: Millenbach, Fig. 3.160:
Franklinet al., 1981; Morton and Franklin, 1987; McArthur,
1989;Gemmell and Large, 1992). Hanging wall alteration is
normallyoflower intensity, and developed above the thickest
pan of the ore body either as a diffuse stratabound zone (e.g.
Woodlawnand Scuddles) or an alteration plume (e.g. Hellyer,
Vancouver Island, Canada (Irom Kuniyoshi and Liou, 1976). (B) Schematic
cross-section 01contact-metamorphic zonation.
Fig. 3.16A: Large and Both, 1980; Jack, 1989; Large, 1992;
Gemmell and Fulton, 2001).
In- the Hokuroku district, local hydrothermally altered
halos associated with the Kuroko deposits comprise up to
four altered zones in a roughly concentric distribution around
the ore deposits (Fig. 3.16B: Urabe et al., 1983; Utada et al.,
1988; Utada, 1991). From core to margin the altered zones
are: sericite + quartz :t pyrite zone; chlorite + sericite + quartz
zone; mixed-Iayer day (illite-montmorillonite) zone; kaolinite
or smectite-montmorillonite zone (Date et al., 1983; Urabe
et al., 1983). These altered zones vary in thickness from
approximately 16 m to 100 m, rransgress srratigraphic
boundaries, and grade into and interfinger with regional
diagenetic zones such as the dinoptilolite + mordenite zone
in Figure 3.16B (Utada, 1970, 1991; Iijima, 1974).
In contrast, the mineral assemblages in altered zones
associated with Australian VHMS deposits reflect higher-
grade regional metamorphic overprints. Some have proximal
chlorite zones and halos of quartz + sericite, sericite and
carbonate zones (Fig. 3.16A and C: Allen, 1988; Large, 1992;
Doyle, 2001).
Veinandfracturealteredhalos
Altered halos around fractures or veins are typically limited
in width (from millimetres to tens of metres) occurring
68 I CHAPTER
3

Que River Shale

Hellyer basalt

Hanging wall volcaniclastic

sequence
Footwall andesites
A
sericíte zone Massive sulfide ore

>- >
'7 '7
..' .'7... v/ v
pyrlte'Esphalente +. \ siliceOuscore zone~
galena +arsenopyrite +
cha.lcopyrjte ore
'\' '\'
!I !I !I

> > >

100.m
'7

B [2] Onnagawa Formation

[;:21 Nishikawa Formation
LZZJ Daijima Formation
c:J Andesite

~ Rhyolite

.. Masslve sulfide ore

c::J White Spur Formation

correlate

~ Kershaw and Hercules

..
Pumice Formations
Massive sulfide ore

f0
- --- rv ..
f0
chlonte zone
- - - -- f0

,---~- -- -::"(+.Mn-carbonate . . (:t'sericite+ pyrite+ carbonate)

--
--- --- --
qüartz +serjcite zone .. senclte zone
f0 (:tpyrite) f0
fquartz f0 f0
~~ ':!:'chlorite'1:
pyrite)

f0
~------------- albítezOne
(+ quarlz+ sericite)
f0 f0 f0

100m
f0 f0 f0 f0 f0

+ + + +
+
+ + +
+ +
~~ ~A A AA/,+ mass¡ve
AAA pyrite + chakopyriie,
sphalerite + pyrrhotite ore
A
A Amuletandesite Felsic dyke

..
A/AAAAAAAAAAAAA
.. AA ,AA AA AA AA AA A
AAAAAA""A
A A A A A Aunaltered A
Tuffaceous mudstone ;a Stringer sulfide ore
AA AA zone A
Massive sulfide ore
AA AA AA
AAAAAAA
AA A c::::::J Felsic dyke
A ,A A A A A A
AAAAAA
AA AA AA
AA AA A
AA AA A
A A A
A A A
A A
A
A
A
FIGURE3.16 I Schematiccross-sectionsshowinghydrothermalalterationzonation
A patternsassociatedwith VHMS deposits.(A) Hydrothermallyalteredzones developedin
the footwall alterationpipeand hangingwall alterationplumeto the HellyerVHMS deposit
(after Gemmelland Fulton,2001). (B) Hydrothermallyaltered halodeveloped around
the Uwamukigroup deposits,KosakaVHMS mine,Japan (after Urabeet al., 1983).
r (C) Hydrothermallyalteredhalodevelopedaround the K-IensVHMS ore lens at Rosebery
(after Largeet al., 2001b). (D) Hydrothermallyalteredzones developedin the footwall
- 15m alterationpipeand hangingwall alterationplumeto an ore lens in the MillenbachVHMS
deposit,Canada(after Riverinand Hodgson, 1980).
 COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESANO ZONATION PATTERNS I 69

either as narrow selvages around individual veins or as wide
pervasive fracture-conrrolled altered zones. Oecreasing fluid
temperatures and changes in fluid chemistry (especially pH)
away from fractures or faults results in alteration zonation
parallel to the fracture or vein surface.
3.5 I OVERPRINTING
RELATIONSHIPS
ANDTIMINGOFALTERATION
The aim in determining overprinring relationships is to
establish a time sequence for mineral growrh, which is referred
tú as a paragenetic sequence (Kurina et al., 1965). Normally
paragenesis refers to the growrh of minerals from oldest to
youngest. The paragenetic sequence is typically depicted
using a horizonral bar charr (e.g. Fig. 3.17) or a space-time
diagram, such the schematic diagram by Wilson et al. (2003)
that shows alteration and vein stages relative to the inrrusive
history of the Ridgeway Complex at the Ridgeway Au-Cu
porphyry deposit in New South Wales.
Unforrunately, inrerpreting timing relationships berween
differenr alteration facies can be difficult and confusing
as there are few unambiguous overprinring textures. The
superposition of many differenr alteration phases on the
same rock can obscure or complicate alteration texrures. In
addition, while one mineral is being deposited under cerrain
conditions at one place, other minerals are forming elsewhere
under differenr conditions. Thus the deposition of one
mineral may overlap with another in both time and space.

Time .
81 82 Devoniangranite
compaction tectonicdeformation intrusion

Regional alteration assemblages

sericite (clays)
carbonate

feldspar + quartz + sericite

(zeolites, low cristobalite, opal and clays)

chlorite + sericite (clays)

chlorite + sericite + hematite

chlorite + epidote

sericite + cal cite + actinolite

al bite + calcite + magnetite

:!: epidote :!: chlorite

+ leucoxene
~
.
Local alteration assemblages associated with Rosebery

-
Mn-carbonate
quartz + sericite :!:pyrite
chlorite :!: sericite :!: quartz :!: carbonate :!: pyrite

sericite :!: carbonate :!: quartz

Local alteration assemblages associated with intrusions I

i
quartz + sericite ~
quartz :!: calcite :!: tourmaline :!: magnetite
~I .'.. ,,
.
IT" .. .,
biotite +garnet + tourmaline :!: pyrrhotite :!: pyrite
I~
Local alteration

quartz + sericite
assemblages

calcite + quartz + hematite

associated with veins, fractures, faults or shear zones

--
i
chlorite :!: pyrite
I~
chlorite + calcite + magnetite

chlorite + quartz + calcite

quartz + calcite
~
interpreted main growth period
possible time span from overprinting relationships

FIGURE3.17 I Interpretation 01the relative timing 01 alterationmineral assemblages in the northern Central Volcanic Complex, western
Tasmania (modified alter Gifkins and Allen, 2001). 81 is the bedding-parallel, stylolitic loliation interpreted as a diagenetic compaction
and dissolution labric (Allen, 1990).82 is the regional tectonic cleavage related to Devonian lolding. Assemblages in brackets reler to
pre-metamorphic equivalents. For example, early regional sericite is probably a metamorphosed equivalent 01 early clays. The feldspar
+ quartz + sericite alteration mineral assemblage may inelude the growth 01early zeolites and the replacement 01zeolites and glass by
K-Ieldspar and albite during diagenesis.

.....
70 I CHAPTER
3
Method
The relative timing of alteration mineral assemblages is
determined by documenting overprinting relationships
among the alteration mineral assemblages, mineral deposits,
successive volcanic units or intrusions, the compaction
foliation and regional tectonic deavages. This requires
detailed examination of textural and mineralogical features
that are visible in the field, hand specimen (induding drill
core) and thin section. Although thin sections can be useful in
displaying the inter-relationships between different minerals,
they may be too small to show larger cross-cutting features
(e.g. veins) and textural features in coarse-grained rocks.
Paragenetic determination relies on a representative suite of
samples that indudes all rock types and alteration facies in
the alteration system. Because overprinting relationships are
not always straightforward the inspection of a large number
of samples is required for a systematic understanding of the
overprinting textures.
Overprinting
textures
Overprinting texture refers to any texture or geometry that
can be used to infer that one mineral or group of minerals
has formed later than another mineral. Table 3.4 describes
the three main types of overprinting textures. There is a wide
range of overprinting textures, some of which are described
in 5ections 3.1 and 3.2; however, the reader is referred
to Ramdohr (1980), Craig and Vaughan (1981), Ineson
(1989) and Taylor (1996) for more detailed discussions of
overprinting textures and their significance.
The possible relationships among alteration mineral
assemblages, mineralised rocks, successive volcanic units or
intrusions, the compaction foliation and regional tectonic
deavages and their implication for the timing of alteration
are described in Table 3.5.
Recent work (Allen, 1997; Gifkins, 2001; Gifkins and
Allen, 2001) in pumice breccias around the Rosebery VHM5
deposit has unravelled a complex sequence of hydrothermal
and non-hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages.
This work was based on overprinting relationships between
alteration mineral assemblages, compaction foliation (5]) and
tectonicdeavage (52:Fig. 3. 17).Alterationmineralassemblages
that infill primary porosity, preserve delicate uncompacted
TABLE 3.4 I Types of overprinting textures.
Mineral superposition Whereone mineralor a groupof minerals
can be seen to have nucleated upon a
pre-existingmineralor grain;thisapplies
to replacement,infillandrecrystallisation
textures
Fracture
superpositionWherefractures fragmentpre-existing
mineralsorgrains,providespacefor
subsequent infillandfocuswall-rock
alteration
Foliation
superpositionWherefoliationsor lineations
rotate,modify,
distor!orfracturepre-existing
mineralsor
components
pumice textures and/or are overprinted by 5] and 52 are
interpreted to be early, prior to compaction and complete
lithification. These indude thin films of sericite, chlorite +
sericite + hematite and calcite (or their pre-metamorphic
equivalents, smectites, calcite and palagonite) that coated all
original surfaces - induding veside walls, plagiodase crystals,
shards and fractures - and pre-date the infilling of vesides by
subsequent minerals. Feldspar + quartz + sericite, chlorite +
sericite, chlorite + sericite + hematite, chlorite, sericite and
quartz + sericite alteration facies have filled and preserved
vesides, and replaced glass, indicating that they (or their pre-
metamorphic equivalents such as zeolites and days) formed
prior to compaction and deformation.
Alteration features that define the bedding-parallel
compaction foliation, such as chlorite + sericite + hematite
and chlorite + sericite fiamme, are crenulated by the regional
deavage (52) and are interpreted to be pre- to syn-5].
Alteration features that overprint the early alteration
mineral assemblages and 5]> but which are strongly foliated
by 52, are broadly syntectonic or post-5] pre-52. A chlorite
+ epidote alteration assemblage has overprinted the early
sericite films and chlorite + sericite fiamme but is strongly
foliated by 52 and interpreted to be post-5] and pre- to syn-52.
Chlorite + calcite + magnetite has replaced and post-dated the
chlorite + sericite fiamme and chlorite + sericite + hematite
stylolites that define 5]>and which are commonly transposed
into the 52 deavage and associated with syn-52 chlorite'veins.
Chlorite :t pyrite is associated with shear zones parallel to 52,
and undeformed post-52 britde fractures and faults. 5ericite
+ calcite + actinolite :t epidote recrystallised earlier alteration
mineral assemblages and are aligned parallel to 52,
Alteration mineral assemblages that are unaffected or only
very weakly affected by the 52 foliation are interpreted to be
post-deformation. These alteration mineral assemblages are
related to chlorite + quartz + calcite vein infill and associated
vein wall-rock replacement and altered halo s associated with
Devonian granites, such as quartz :t calcite :t tourmaline :t
magnetite veins.
Early Mn-carbonate, chlorite, sericite and quartz + sericite
alteration facies are spatially associated with ore at Rosebery
(Fig. 3.16C), whereas the other alteration facies are regionally
extensive, spatially associated with synvolcanié or Devonian
intrusions, veins, faults or shear zones. The overprinting
relationships, combined with spatial associations and
distributions of the alteration facies, suggest that diagenetic
alteration began shordy after eruption in the Cambrian and
continued until the transition to regional metamorphism.
Hydrothermal alteration associated with the VHM5 deposits
at Rosebery and Hercules commenced prior to burial
compaction, but was synchronous with diagenesis and the
intrusion of synvolcanic sills. Peak regional metamorphism
was synchronous with Devonian deformation and is
overprinted by contact metamorphic assemblages associated
with the emplacement of Devonian granites.
The interpretation of textures to determine a paragenetic
sequence can result in misleading results unless the subsequem
effects of metamorphism and deformation upon the textmes
and minerals are appreciated. For example, in the Que River
VHM5 deposit galena commonly occurs in the 52 deavage.
As a result, conventional interpretation may condude that
it formed syn-52 (Devonian). This interpretation would
 COMMON ALTERATIONTEXTURESANO ZONATION PATTERNS I 71

suggest that galena post-dates the other sulfides (sphalerite
and pyrite), which are overprinted by 52, However, geological
evidence (Large et al., 1989) combined with lead isotope data
(Gulson and Porritt, 1987) indicates that galena deposition
occurred on the seafloor at the same time as the other sulfides
in the Cambrian. In this case, the textural evidence constrains
the timing of recrystallisation of the galena to syn-52, whereas
the geological and isotopic evidence suggests syn-depositional
formation of galena. Misinterpretations of this rype are
common for soft and easily recrystallised minerals such as
sericite, chlorite, day minerals, galena and chalcopyrite.

TABLE 3.51 Overprintingrelationshipsin alteredvolcanicrocksand their implicationslor the relativetiming01alteration(modiliedalter

Allen and Large,1996)

Alteration
faciesto primaryvolcanictexture
Alterationfaciestruncatedbydastmargins Pre-fragmentation
Clastswithdifferentalterationfaciesinthesamerock Pre-fragmentation
Alterationfaciesinfillsprimaryporosity Pre-lithification
Alterationfaciescrosscutsprimaryporosityorclastmargins Post-lithification
Rockcontainsrelicthigh-temperature devitrification
textures Post-devitrification
Alteration
faciesto successive volcanicunitsorintrusions
Alterationfaciestruncatedbyyoungerless-altered rocks Oldersyn-volcanic/intrusion
Alterationfaciesoverprintsintercalated
intrusions Syn-to post-intrusion
andoverlyingunits
Alterationfaciesoverprints youngerrocks Syn-to post-youngerrocks
Betweenalteration
faciesanddiagenetic compaction textures
Alteration
faciesprotectsprimarytexturefromcompaction Pre-compaction
Alteration
faciesdefinesthecompaction foliation(e.g.fiamme) Pre-to syn-compaction
Alteration
faciesoverprints
thecompaction foliation Syn-topost-compaction
Hydrothermal
assemblagesanddiagenetic facies
Hydrothermal
faciesoverprintedbyearlydiageneticfacies Pre-toearly-diagenetic
Hydrothermal
faciesoverprintedbylatediageneticfacies Syn-diagenetic
Hydrothermal
faciesoverprints
latediageneticfacies Post-diagenetic
Alteration
faciestoearlybedding-parallel styloliticdissolution
foliation(S1)
Alteration
faciesoverprinted
bystyloliticfoliation Pre-S1
Alteration
faciesoverprints
styloliticfoliation Post-S1
Alteration
faciestotectonicfoliationsandlineations
(>S2)
Alteration
texturesdeformedandcutbytectonicfoliation Pre-cleavage
Alteration
textureslessdeformed thanprimaryvolcanictextures Syn-cleavage
Undeformed alteration
textures Post-cleavage
Alteration
faciesto metamorphicassemblages
andtextures
Alteration
faciesoverprinted
bymetamorphic
assemblages Pre-metamorphic
Alteration
faciesoverprints
metamorphic
assemblages Post-metamorphic
Megascopic
alterationfaciesdistribution
Regionaldistribution Diagenetic or metamorphic
Stratabound informerlypermeable facies Pre-tosyn-lithification
Localisedinfractureddomainsofcoherent volcanicrocks Post-lithification
andpost-fracturing
Restrictedtofaultsandshearzones Syn-to post-faulting
Overprinting
relationships
betweenallalteration
assemblages Providesa paragenetic sequence
for
differentalteration
assemblages
I I ZL
...

4 GEOCHEMISTRY OF ALTERED ROCKS
This chapter reviews three principal rypes of geochemical
data that are used to characterise, quantif}r and interpret the
processes of alteration: (1) whole-rock lithogeochemistry
including major, trace and immobile trace elements; (2)
mineralchemistry or composition ofindividual mineral phases
in alteration mineral assemblages; and (3) stable isotope ratios
of whole rocks and specific alteration minerals.
Geochemistry is the study of the abundance and
distribution of chemical elements in the earth (Mason, 1966).
Ir has particular applications for the interpretation of altered
rocks. Geochemical data can aid recognition of the rype and
composition of the precursor rocks before alteration. The
chemical compositions of metasomatised or altered rocks
and mineral phases reflect compositional changes during
alteration and provide dues about the alteration processes.
Gn a utilitarian level, geochemical data are routinely used
in mineral exploration to identif}r broad chemical halos
and gradients or vectors toward mineralised zones, and
to discriminate berween prospective and non-prospective
targets.
4.1 I LlTHOGEOCHEMISTRY
Literally,lithogeochemistryis the determination and study of
the abundances and distribution of elements in stones. In this
chapter,we understand it to mean the whole-rock chemistry
of the lOor 12 major elements in rocks (usually expressed
as oxides)and various groups of trace elements, such as rare
earthelements (REE) and immobile elements. Galley's (1995)
review of lithogeochemical applications in massive-sulfide
explorationalso induded mineral and isotope chemistry but
those methods are considered here in separate Sections (4.2
and 4.3).
There are three main applications of lithogeochemistry in
mineralexplorarion (Eilu et al., 1997):
(1) idenrification or discrimination of prospective and non-
prospective areas and lithological units
(2) recognition of large alteration and geochemical halos to
increasethe size of exploration targets
(3) definition of exploration vectors based on compositional
gradienrs around ore deposits.
I 73
Several aspects of lithogeochemistry that attempt to 'see
rhrough' the effects of alteration to reveal the compositions
of the protoliths, identif}r the process or rype of alteration
and quantif}r the chemical changes associated with alteration
have particular relevance to studies of altered rocks. Chemo-
stratigraphy uses immobile elements to identif}r lithologic
correlations, magmatic affinities and geotectonic settings
in otherwise unrecognisable altered rocks. Mass-transfer
techniques, also based on immobile elements, are used to infer
the compositions of unaltered precursors and quantitatively
estimate the major element changes that occurred. Rare-
earth-element geochemistry can facilitate recognition of rock
alteration processes (e.g. Eu anomalies in exhalites). Alteration
indices may assist in the discrimination of alteration sryles or
facies, and the quantification of alteration intensiry (Section
2.4).
If composition data are available, lithogeochemical
methods certainly contribute to the interpretation and
evaluation of altered rocks. However, they are not quick
solutions to all problems and may, if used in isolation, lead
to false condusions. In every case it is important to consider
other geological information: field relationships, distriburion
or zonation of alteration mineral assemblages, macro- and
micro-scale textures, mineralogy et cetera.
Before describing the lithogeochemical methods, we
provide explanations of some common lithogeochemical
terms (Table 4.1), brief descriptions of geochemical sampling
and analytical techniques, and draw particular attention to
the phenomenon of dosure in composition data.
Samplingandanalyticalmethods
How do we acquire lithogeochemical data? As in many other
fields, the qualiry of interpretation rests on the qualiry of
the data. Rocks are particularly difficult to analyse because
of their wide compositional range and the chemical diversiry
of the elements of interest. An inappropriate analytical tech-
nique can lead to an expensive list of useless numbers and
to the discredit of the unwary geologist who attempts to use
them. This section offers advice on effective methods (they
are never inexpensive) and some pitfalls to be avoided.
74 I CHAPTER
4

TABLE4.1 I Explanation01lithogeochemicalterms.

Compositiondata Dataexpressed
aspartof awhole(e.g.inweightpercent,wt%,orpartspermiliion,ppm).
Mass Aquantityof material,
wholerockoritscomponents,
measured
inweightunits(g).
Unitsofmasschange Usuallyexpressed ingramsperhundredgrams(g/100g)to avoidconfusionwithcomposition
datainweight
percent,althoughtheyareeffectively
thesame.

Absolutemasschange(~a) Masschangesthatareproportional tothewholeinitialmassoftherock.Usuallyexpressed

ingramsperhundred
grams(g/100g).Itmayreferto individual
components orthesumof allcomponents(netmasschange).

Relativemasschange(~r) Theabsolutemasschangeina component expressed asa percentproportion oftheinitialcompositionof that

component ina rock.Relativemasschangesdistorttheperception ofchemicalprocesses. Forexample,the
additionof asmallquantity(say0.5g/100g)of MnOinitiallypresentat0.5%wouldproducea 100%relativegain
in MnO.Incomparison, additionofthesamequantityof8i02(0.5g/100g)tothesamerockinitiallycontaining
50%8i02wouldrepresent only1%relativegain.Thisgivesthefalseimpression thatMnOwasa vastly
moreimportant elementof masschangethan8i02.Absolutemasschangesarepreferable becausetheyare
quantitativeratherthanproportional,
andaccurately
reflectthequantitiesof materialsaddedto or subtractedfrom
thesystem.
Netmasschange Thesumof positiveandnegativerockcomponent
masschangesrelativetotheinitialmassoftherock.Usually
expressed
ingramsperhundredgrams(g/100g).
Proportion Theamountofa component expressed asa proportion
ofthewholerock.Usuallygiveninunitsofweight
percent(wt%)for majorelementsandoxides,andinpartspermillion(ppm)fortraceelements.Itis analogous
to
"concentration"
inchemicalsolutions.

Sampling strategy
The number and sizeof samples to be used in alithogeochemical
investigation depends on many factors. These include the
available budget, degree of exposure, geological complexity,
compositional homogeneity of rock units or altered zones,
the elements of interest and the volume of rock that can be
physically removed from the outcrop or drill-core shed. There
can be no universally applicable strategy but generally, more
is best. Obviously, a good understanding of the geological
context is fundamental to any subsequent lithogeochemical
interpretation. Smash and grab sampling may lead to in-
adequate and often meaningless interpretations.
Field methods should avoid sampling rocks potentially
modified by weathering or other superficial secondary
processes, unless these processes are under investigation. The
sampler must also recognise potential overprinted alteration
facies. For example, a sample containing a dense network of
metamorphic quartz veins is of little value if me purpose is
to stUdy synvolcanic pervasive alteration phases; it would be
better to select a sample without veins. Handling, transport
and subsequent storage of lithogeochemical samples should
not allow contamination or cross contamination. When
sampling drill cores or cuttings stored at a mine site, be aware
represent the quantities of sample that actually undergo analy-
sis and should not be confused with the amount of pulverised
sample from which smaller portions are taken for analysis.
Sample preparation
AlI whole-rock analytical techniques (except neutron activa-
tion analysis) require samples to be crushed and ground to
fine powder for direct analysis, acid digestion or fUsionoThere
are opportunities here for sample contaminations from wear
on the grinding machinery, cross contamination between
samples in a batch, and contamination from previous batches
of samples put through the mili. Reputable laboratories will
use routine procedures to minimise those problems. However,
iflow-Ievel trace elements are important, it may help to inform
the laboratory personnel and request extra careo
Jenner (1998) cautioned against the use of new diamond
saw blades and recycled coolant for trimming slabs. He
suggested that if sawn rock slabs must be analysed, they should
be washed in acetone and distilled water. If the rock samples
include overprinting phases, such as veins and weathered
rinds, these are best cut out before crushing. The practice
of crushing to 10 mm and attempting to pick out the
~

that mines and concentrators are dusty places, and expect to rock chips without extraneous materials does not eliminate
see the signature of the ore in your trace-element data if the contamination.
samples are not clean. Jaw crushers are infamous contaminators. Crevices
In all but very coarse-grained rocks, samples of around between their moving parts harbour dust that causes cross
1 kg should be adequate (Potts, 1987). In fine-grained or contamination, and the wear of plates directly contributes steel
glassy volcanic rocks, samples in the range 200 to 500 g are particles. Magnetic separation of steel particles is inadvisable
generally sufficienr for major elemenr analyses. However, for because it may lead tO selective removal of magnetic minerals.
low-Ievel trace elements (d ppm) the 'nugget effen' may be A better alternative is to crush rock samples down to ~5 mm
significanr if elements of inrerest are concentrated in sparsely fragments in a hydraulic press fitted wim tUngsten carbide
disseminated grains (e.g. zircon). Potts (1987) provided illus- plates. The crushed rock, including any fine dust, can then be
trative tables of the sample weights required [or analytical
precision, at various concentrations and grainsizes. These coned and quartered down to about 80 or 100 g for pulverising
to a final grainsize ofIess than 75 !-lm in a swing mili.

Materials used in swing mills include tungsten carbide,
chrame stee!, alumina ceramic, and agate. All of these are
potential contaminators of some e!ements. Chrome stee! is
the least expensive, but seriously compromises Cr and low-
leve!Fe analyses. Tungsten carbide is popular and durable but
willcontribute Co and W to the sample, and possibly also Ti,
Taand Nb (Potts, 1987). Agate mills are fragile, expensive and
slowbut are the least like!y to contaminate samples destined
for low-leve!trace e!ement determination.
Precision, accuracy and reference materials
Precisionis a measure of the repeatabiliryof data within an
analytical session, and reproducibiliry in different analyrical
sessions over longer intervals. Analysing several duplicate
samples within batches and subsequent batches provides an
estimate of the precision of a technique. Precision is reponed
as the co-efficient of variation (CV), which is equivalent to
relative standard deviation (RSD) expressed as a percentage
of the mean.
CVi= 100.si/Xi (%)
where Siis the standard deviation of e!ement i in the samples
analysed,and Xi is the sample mean.
Accuraryis a measure ofhow close analytical data lie to the
'tme' values. Ir may be evaluated by including in each analyrical
batch some international geochemical reference materials, or
in-house standards for which the true values are re!ative!y
wel!determined. Ir is imponant that such reference materials
have compositions near the compositional range of the rocks
being analysed (i.e. a standard rhyolite is inappropriate when
analysing a batch of basalts). For each e!ement accuracy is
expressed as a positive or negative percentage difference,
relativeto the true or accepted values of the standard.
Ai = 100.(C/ - Cai) / C/
where C/ is the true or accepted proponion of e!ement i in
the reference material, and Cai is the apparent or analysed
proponion of e!ement i in the reference material.
Reputable analyricallaboratories will routine!y run refer-
encematerials to calibrate their instruments and maintain an
acceptable leve! of accuracy. Ir is he!pful if the client, upon
submittal, gives the analyst an indication of the rock rypes,
mineralassemblages and compositional range of the samples,
to enable an appropriate se!ection of reference materials.
However,laboratories do not routine!y repon their analyses
of reference materials for comparison with accepted values.
Evenif they do, the potential for fudging the results provides
the user with a less than satisfactory assurance of accuracy.
The solution is for the user to acquire some appropriate
geochemicalreference materials and include a sample or two,
preferablydisguised, in each analyrical batch. This can involve
considerableexpense. Potts (1987) suggested that a minimum
of10 reference materials should be submitted with each batch
for a ful! assessment of accuracy.
In many cases, the user may not be gready concerned
with the 'corred values provided that the data are re!ative!y
consistentor precise within and between batches. Submitting
GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 75
representative duplicate samples allows the user to monitor
long-term precision and calibration drifr. Ir permits greater
confidence in the analyrical data, which justifies the additional
expense. Keeping the reference materials and duplicates
anonymous can be problematic, even if the sample numbers
are disguised. A few small packets of powdered or crushed rock
stand out prominendy in a batch of drill-core samples and
analysts have no difficulry in recognising them as standards.
They may analyse them with special care, deve!op their own
comparative data over successive batches, and be tempted to
adjust any oudiers. However, the recognition that the client
is prepared to carry out independent qualiry control generally
has a positive effect on analyrical practice and discourages
complacency at the laboratory.
Limit of detection
Limit of detection of an e!ement is commonly understood to be
'the lowest concentration that can be confidendy measured by
a particular method on an average sample' (e.g. Anonymous,
1997). However, as pointed out in detail by Potts (1987), the
leve!s of confidence are frequendy not stated. That obscures
the realiry that the quoted detection limits are ofren be!ow
the leve!s at which re!iably quantitative measurements are
possible.
Potts (1987) proposed three new terms for better definition
of the much abused 'detection limit':
. Lower limit of detection (LLD) for a signalleve! of three
standard deviations higher than the mean background
(mean + 3s). This is the lowest leve! at which an e!ement
can be recognised but not quantitative!y estimated.
. Limit of determination (LOD) representing a leve! six
standard deviations above the background signal (mean
+ 6s). Ir is the lowest leve! at which the signal can be
. quantitative!y measured for a confident analysis.
Limit of quantitation (LOQ) is set at 10 standard deviations
higher than background (mean + lOs) to provide extra
confidence in the analysis in cases where there are legal,
commercial or statutory implications placed on the
interpretation of detection limits.
According to Jenner (1998) the limit of detection
commonly quoted by analysts is equivalent to Pott's (1987)
lower limit of detection (LLD; mean + 3s). Jenner (1998)
gave the example that if LLD for an e!ement is 0.3 ppm,
then data reported between 0.3 and 1 ppm may or may not
be significandy different, but the e!ement is recognisably
presento Data above 1 ppm may be considered quantitative,
or in other words, data at 1.1 and 1.5 ppm can be confidendy
regarded as different.
The consequence is that one cannot place much re!iance
on data reported at close to the lower limit of detection. A
safe rule of thumb is to treat with circumspection any data of
less than one order of magnitude above the quoted detection
limito Therefore, se!ect an analyrical method that will provide
quantitative data at an order of magnitude lower than the
threshold of interest.
76 I CHAPTER
4
Analytical techniques
The most popular methods for analysis of whole-rock samples
are X-ray fluorescence specrrometry (XRF), inductively coupled
plasma atomic emission specrrometry (ICP-AES) and inductively
coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). These methods
offergood precision for a largenumber of major and trace elements
over wide concentration ranges. XRF remains the preferred
method for major elements (Robinson, 2001). However, some
commerciallaboratories have recendy converred to ICP-AES,
presumably for its rapid throughput and ability to measure most
major and trace elements. ICP-MS is used only for trace element
determinations. Neutron activation analysis (NM) provides
low limits of detection for REE, some platinum-group elements
and some high-field-strength elements but it requires access to
a nuclear reactor, produces radioactive waste and has slow turn-
around of weeks or months.
The geochemical laboratory at the Universiry of
Tasmania's School of Earth Sciences uses a combination of
XRF on flux-fused and powdered samples (for majar elements
and moderate-abundance trace elements, respectively) and
solution or laser-ablation ICP-MS for low-abundance trace
elements (Robinson, 2001).
To obtain the appropriate quality of data, it is important
to involve the analysts in the selection of analytical merhods.
Inform them of the approximate compositional range in the
samples and the geochemical objectives of the analyses.
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) can be used to analyse up to
about 60 elements with atomic numbers greater than 10
(Na upwards) at concentrations from 100% down to a few
parts per million (Rollinson, 1993). Detection limits for
trace elements in the range 0.5 to 2 ppm are achievable, and
precision for major elements approaches less than 1% RSD
(Robinson, 2001). However, routine procedures used in
commerciallaboratories generally result in higher detection
limits of 2-1 O ppm.
Optimum detection limits and precision for trace
elements, at concentrations below about 0.2%, are obtained
by analysis of 6-10 g undiluted rock powder pressed into a
pill. The rock powder must be ground to a grainsize of less
than 75 ¡.,lmto ensure homogeneity in rhe sample.
Major element concentrations are determined on glass
discs made by fusing a small amount of powdered rock
diluted with lithium metaborate and tetraborate fluxes. The
fusion produces a homogenous glass, which enables analysis
of the light major elements and minimises X-ray absorption
and enhancement matrix effects. The composition of the
rock influences the rype and dilution factor of the flux to
be used, especially in sulfide-, base-metal- and carbonate-
bearing samples. Accordingly, at the geochemicallaboratory
in the Universiry of Tasmania's School of Earrh Sciences,
approximate proportions of S, Fe, Ca, Ba, Cu, Pb and Zn
are first determined on the powder pills, along wirh the trace
elements, to enable appropriate selection of fusion fluxes.
In sulfide-bearing samples, fusion should be a two-stage
process with LiN03 in the flux to oxidise sulfur. Initially, the
carefully weighed sample-flux mixture is heated and held for
10 minutes at 700°C to ensure rhat the sulfur is retained as
sulfate, and not evolved. Ir is then heated to 1000°C for a
further 10 minutes to complete the fusion and the melt is cast
into a 32-mm diameter glass dise.
In the past decade, inductively coupled plasma (ICP)
analysis has revolutionised geochemical analysis, particularly
for trace elements. There are two separate methods of analysis
known as ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Both use inductively
coupled high-temperature argon plasma to generate atomic
and ionic emissions in the sample. In ICP-AES (atomic
emission spectrometry) the spectrum of atomic emissions is
measured by an array of photomultipliers. This merhod is
sometimes called ICP-OES (optical emission spectrometry).
ICP-MS uses a mass spectrometer to measure ionic particles
in plasma-sample gases. ICP-AES provides low limits of
detection typically 2-10 ppm for trace elements and 10-
100 ppm for major elements. ICP- MS enables determinations
of heavier trace elements at extreme detection limits, up to
four orders of magnitude lower than ICP-AES (e.g. REE and
HFSE detection limits in rhe range ofO.1 to 2 ppb).
ICP methods are able to measure most elements at low
detection limits with high precision using linear calibration
over eight orders of magnitude (Robinson, 2001). Up to 50
elements can be analysed simultaneously in a few minutes on
samples of less than 100 mg.
There are a number of disadvantages to ICP related to
rhe requirement that the rock sample must be dissolved in
dilute solution before introduction to the plasma. Ensuring
complete dissolution of rocks, including refractory phases
such as zircon and REE minerals, and maintaining rhem in
solution without contamination, is a difficult task (Yu et al.,
2001). Samples are typically digested by strong acid cocktails
in sealed teflon vials for one or two days, dried by evaporation
and then the residue is re-dissolved in dilute nitric acid ready
for analysis. In some cases, samples are fused with lithium-
borate fluxes or sodium peroxide before acid dissolution. Ir
is advisable to test for complete solution by comparing the
ICP-MS data with XRF determinations of some relatively
immobile elements, such as Zr, Nb, y and REE (Robinson,
2001). The likely loss of some volatile elements during fusion
and evaporation may render the method unsuitable for Hg,
TI, Sb, Se and As.
HzO and COz
A combination ofXRF and ICP-AES or ICP-MS can provide
accurate analyses of most major elements and a surfeit of
trace elements. However, they cannot determine HzO and
caz as XRF is limited to elements of atomic numbers greater
than 10, and ICp, which measures the samples in solution,
obviously cannot determine water. Loss on ignition (LOI) is a
poor substitute for HzO and caz analyses. For geochemical
analyses of altered rocks that contain significant hydrous
minerals or carbonates, it is preferable to separately determine
HzO and caz.
Hydrogen and total carbon in rock samples can be analysed
by the 'C- H -N elemental analyser' , an instrument designed for
routine determinations of C, H and N in organic compounds
(Potts, 1987). Ir is a relatively straightforward and inexpensive
technique requiring only about 25 mg of finely ground rock
powder. On the, generally safe, assumption that altered
volcanic rocks do not contain significant organic substances,
the total H and C determinations can be recalculated to HzO
and caz for inclusion in major element composition data.

Interference
Some instrumental analytical methods are susceptible to
inaccuracies caused by peak overlap, particularly in mineralised
rocks with exotic-metal contents. For instance, in XRF analyses
on powdered samples, high concentrations of Ba and Pb
interfere with determination ofTi and Zr, respectively. These
problems may be minimised by instrument configuration or,
in extreme cases, another method of analysis. Therefore, it
is important that the analyst is advised which elements are
critically important for the geochemical interpretation and
the approximate compositional ranges of the rocks submitted,
so that the appropriate analytical methods and procedures are
applied. For example, if the purpose of analyses is to infer
the volcanic precursors of Pb + Zn + Ba-bearing mineralised
rocks by immobile element chemostratigraphy, it would
help the analyst to know that accurate Ti and Zr analyses are
priorities, and that the mineral assemblage indudes Pb- and
Zn-sulfides, and barite.
Reporting data
Major elements in rocks are conventionally reported in weight
percent (wt%), mostly as oxides and in order of decreasing
cation valency: Si02, Ti02, Al203' FeO (or Fe203 total),
MnO, MgO, CaO, Na20, K2O, P205' Hp+, CO2' S and
Total.The percentages are relative to the dry sample; analysed
after driving off moisture (H2O-) by heating for a few hours
at 105ee. H2O+ in the analysis represents structural water in
crystals or glass. AlI other elements are typically regarded as
trace elements although some may be present at greater than
the conventional 0.1 % cut off. Trace elements are usually
reported in alphabetic order in pans per million (ppm),
which is equivalent to the sr unit !!g/g preferred by analysts.
Ir is often useful to re-order the trace elements into groups
according to their geochemical characteristics (e.g. immobile
trace elements, rare earths, etc.) to facilitate plotting. Ir is
imponant to note that geochemical analyses are usually
reponed to one decimal place more than can be quoted with
confidence (Potts, 1987).
Loss on ignition
Hydrogen and carbon, mainly as H2O+ and carbonate, are
significant components of some silicate rocks, particularly
altered rocks. However, since XRF or rcp methods cannot
determine these light elements, it has become common to
repon loss on ignition (LOr) as a proxy. Lor is determined
by igniting a weighed sample at 1000-1 050ec far at least
12 hours and then weighing the residue. Expressed in weight
percent (as for the major elements), it is often assumed that
LOr represents the combined proportions of H2O+ and CO2
in the rock. However, for several reasons pointed out by Potts
(1987), the determination of Lor has little geochemical
value:
. The maximum temperature may not be high enough to
dehydrate some minerals, such as talc, topaz, cordierite
and epidote.
. Oxidation of ferrous iron (e.g. in silicates, magnetite and
GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 77
sulfides) can produce a weight gain, partly offsetting the
LOr. Even if FeO and Fe are separately determined, it
is not reasonable to assume that they will be completely
oxidised in the LOr process.
. LOr may indude a contribution from volatilisation of
alkali metals, sulfur oxides and fluorine; the loss may be
only partial and not predictable. For example, in samples
containing both sulfide and carbonate, some S02 may
react with CaO and remain in the ignited sample.
The variables affecting Lor and the wide range of
compositions in altered and mineralised rocks may lead
to unpredictable results that are not readily interpretable.
Consequently, LOr is not a reliable substitute for H2O+ and
CO2 analyses, and it may significantly underestimate the
evolved volatiles.
Totals
The sum of the elements in a major-element analysis is
frequently taken as an indication of analytical reliability.
Considering the shortcomings of LOr determinations, it is
unreasonable to expect that their indusion in a major element
analyses will provide totals dos e to 100%. Nor should one
expect that the error values on determinations of individual
elements should cancel each other to produce totals of 100%.
Further ambiguity is due to the usual practice of analysing
and reporting total Fe as Fe20y irrespective of its actual
oxidation state.
Sums ofXRF majar element oxides, sulfur and LOI data
will exceed 100%. This is because the sulfur is measured
twice: in the fused disc XRF and in the LOI determinations.
However, simpie subtraction of XRF determined sulfur does
not solve the problem because the sulfur may not be entirely
evolved in the LOr process. Reasonable totals are obtained if
H2O+ and CO2 are separately determined by another method
and summed with XRF major element oxides and sulfur.
Low totals do not necessarily indicate erroneous analyses;
it may be that some significant elements were not determined.
For example, boron constitutes about 10% of tourmalines and
some micas contain significant proportions of Li, Fl, Rb and
Ce (Deer et al., 1966), and mineralised rocks may contain
significant proponions of base metals.
Potts (1987) cautioned that, although it is nice to find
totals near 100%, it is not a satisfactory test of the quality
of analytical data. He considered that the only acceptable
way of checking accuracy of modern instrumental analytical~
techniques, such as XRF and rcp, was to analyse appropriate
geochemical reference materials. By applying this quality
control practice to all of the methods used to produce a set of
major-element data, the user can have reasonable faith in the
relative accuracy of the individual elements analysed. Likewise,
confidence in the accuracy of individual determinations
permits acceptance of odd totals as accumulated errors, or
indications of incomplete analyses.
Recalculating to volatile free
Ir is common practice, panicularly in petrologicalliterature,
to recalculate major-element analyses to 100% 'anhydrous'
78 I CHAPTER
4
or 'volatile free'. The recalculation involves multiplying the
proponion of each majar-element oxide in an analysis, except
LOl, by a factor derived from the formula 100/L::Ci, where L::
Ci is the weight percent sum of all major oxides (not induding
LOI) in the analysis.
Thus the 10 majar oxides are commonly adjusted to sum
to exacdy 100%. LOI is reponed, but not induded in the
total (e.g. Crawford et al., 1992; Stolz, 1995). The object
of recalculation is to remove apparent variations in the
proponions of major oxides that may be due to differences
in LOI values. This may be a valid approach for srudies of
petrogenesis and fractionation in unaltered or weakly altered
rocks, where alteration was limited to hydration or minor
calcite veside fillings (Crawford et al., 1992). In these cases,
additions of H2O+ and CO2 may be the only significant
metasomatic changes, although CaO may be added if it is
not otherwise derived from the decalcification of plagiodase.
Ir is not unreasonable to 'subtract' the estimated additions
due to hydration and carbonation to determine equivalent
anhydrous magmatic compositions.
In more altered rocks, however, many of the other major
elements, panicularly Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na and S, are also likely
to be involved in significant mass changes. Thus recalculating
to volatile free would diston the pattern of mass changes,
anificially increasing the changes of other elements relative to
the constiruents of LOL In cases where the 10 major oxides
(Si02 to P2°5) sum to low totals, volatile free recalculation
followed by immobile-element-based mass change estimates
could result in actual small net mass losses of some elements
appearing as mass gains. Similarly, it may upwardly diston
the estimates of net mass change, with implications for
interpretation of volume changes.
Barrett and MacLean (1994a) recommended using volatile
free recalculated major element data for mass change estimates.
They neglected to mention whether the same recalculation
factor should also, for consistency, be applied to all the trace
elements. Failure to similarly adjust the trace elements could
lead to small inconsistencies in immobile element ratios
(e.g. Ti/Zr, which is usually calculated from major element
Ti02 data). Ir could also positively skew subsequent mass
change estimates based on immobile elements. The volatile
free recalculation has a proponionally greater effect on data
for altered rocks because they generally have higher LOI
than their unaltered precursors. Upward recalculation of all
trace elements, as well as majors, can avoid those problems.
However, comprehensive recalculation is unnecessary as both
chemostratigraphic methods and mass change estimates are
based on ratios of elements and hence are unaffected by
recalculation.
The method used in some srudies (e.g. Gemmell and
Large, 1992), of recalculating the 10 major oxides but not
other major elements, such as sulfur, is also inconsistent. Ir
has the effect of under-estimating mass changes in sulfur
relative to the other oxides.
In dealing with altered rocks, it is preferable to obtain as
near as practical 'complete' major element analyses. The major
element suite should indude sulfur, H2O+ and CO2 and any
other elements likely to exceed 0.1 % (e.g. base metals). Ensure
adequate quality controls and then trust in the accuracy of the
data. They do not require fudging or normalisation at the risk
of introducing new errors and misinterpretations. Otherwise,
where analyses of altered rocks are limited to the usual 10
major oxides and LOl, it is best to treat LOI as a (somewhat
fuzzy) component in its own right, and not to recalculate to
artificial 100% totals. This particularly applies to data that are
to be used in mass transfer calculations.
Closurein compositiondata
Closure, also known as the constant sum effect, affects all
analytical data expressed as proponions of a whole; that is,
as composition data (or as 'concentrations' in Stanley and
Madeisky, 1996). The total of all elements in a rock analysis
must sum to 100%, or one million ppm, and so fonh,
according to the units of measurement. Chemical mass
transfers that change the total mass of a system by adding
or removing some elements (e.g. hydrothermal alteration)
will affect the proponions of all elements, even those not
involved in the mass transfers (Fig. 4.1). ConseqÚendy, the
apparent differences in composit~on data between unaltered
and altered rocks do not accurately reflect the real material
changes, except in systems where there has been no net mass
change.s
Closure panicularly obscures mass changes in the majar
elements such as Si, Al and Fe, which exist in high proponions
in primary unaltered rocks. For example, intense silicification
of felsic volcanic rocks may not be apparent in composition
data (e.g. footwall alteration zone of the Thalanga deposit,
Herrmann and Hill, 2001). Closure is less of a problem for
elements of low initial proponions. For example, in felsic
volcanic rocks, Ca and Na concentrations average only a few
weight percent and their depletion associated with plagiodase-
destructive alteration is usually evident in the composition
data.
Trace elements, by definition, are present at low
proponions in background rocks. They tend to provide
high-contrast anomalies in mineralised and altered rocks,
commonly orders of magnirude greater than background
levels, and are therefore practically unaffected by dosure.
MA= 2MP
~Mi=O
MA
MP
FIGURE4.1 I SchematiciIIustration01the effect01closure in composition
data (alter Eilu et al., 1997). Alterationleadingto a net mass gain in the system
resultsin a lower proportion(or concentration)01elementi, althoughthe actual
mass01elementi is not changed(Ll.M1
= O).MP= initial mass and MA= altered
mass01total system.
 GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERDROCKS I 79

Rollinson (1993) presented a detailed discussion of the Incompatible elements

problem of closure in geochemistry and suggested some
solutions. Ir is not a trivial maner in me study of altered rocks. Incompatible elements are mose mat tend to be excluded from
The techniques for estimating alteration-related mass transfers the lanices of minerals crystallising from magmas and are
overcome the problem of closure by quantifYing the amounts instead partitioned into the melt phase. Hence, incompatible
of elements or oxides gained by or lost from altered rocks. elements exist at highest proportions in the most evolved
felsic rocks.
The high-field-srrength elements (HFSE) Zr, Y and Nb
Chemostratigraphy are generally incompatible, except in some calc-alkaline suites.
They have similar low magmatic liquid-solid distribution co-
Major element compositions are routinely used to classifY efficients and so tend to retain similar inter-element ratios
volcanic rocks in terms of petrogenesis and tectonic sening throughout a single magmatic fractionation series, and on x-y
(e.g. Pearce and Cann, 1973). However, me same method is bivariate plots form linear trends that project from the zero
not applicable to altered rocks because many of the major origino Subsequent alteration involving net mass gain or loss
elements, especially Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na and K, are relatively can change the proportion of incompatible elements in the
mobile during alteration. Consequently, compositional whole rock but their primary ratios are preserved. As a result
changes related to alteration may considerably outWeigh alteration trends coincide wim the primary fractionation
meir primary variations. Fortunately, several elements are trends.
chemically immobile during most types of alteration and these The gradients of mese trends vary according to magmatic
can be reliably used to classifYand correlate altered volcanic affinity (MacLean and Barren, 1993; Barren and MacLean,
rocks. In this context, immobile means elements that are 1994a). Samples from different magmatic suites thus produce
neither added to, nor taken from, the rock during alteration. separate linear trends of magmatic enrichment, which regress
Immobile elements may be involved in phase changes and to the origins on incompatible-incompatible immobile
perhaps be mobile at millimetre scale, but meir mass in the element plots (e.g. Fig. 4.2).
altered rock remains unchanged. Although the proportions Incompatible-incompatible element ratios and bivariate
(concentrations) of immobile elements may change, due to plots have chemostratigraphic applications even in
net mass changes in the size of the system, their inter-element hydrothermally altered samples in which the major elements
ratios remain the same. may not be reliable discriminants. Incompatible-incompatible
element ratios are used to identifY magma tic affinities,
favourable volcanic suites and terranes.
Immobile elements

The high-field-strength elements Ti, Zr, Nb and Y are Compatible elements

relatively immobile during hydrothermal, diagenetic and
weathering alteration, and during regional metamorphism up Compatible elements have high magmatic distribution co-
to mid-amphibolite facies. Ratios of these immobile elements efficients (>1) and are preferentially taken up by mineral
are the basis of tectono-magmatic discrimination diagrams
developed in the 1970s (e.g. Pearce and Cann, 1973; Floyd 400
and Winchester, 1978).
Many studies ofVHMS deposits have shown that Al, Ti,
Zt, Nb, Y, heavy REE (Lu, Yb), Hf, Ta and Th, and in some
cases P, Sc, V and Cr, remain essentially immobile during
300
alteration. Their immobility has been documented even in the
most intense hydrothermally altered zones directly beneam
deposits (e.g. MacLean and Kranidiotis, 1987; Skirrowand
Ftanklin, 1994; Barren and MacLean, 1994a). Barren and E
MacLean (1994a) recognised some mobility of me light REE ~ 200
in proximal, intense chlorite altered zones beneam some N
deposits and suggested that mey may be useful as exploration
vectors. Y and Nb show considerable scaner in some datasets
and this may be partly anributable to primary variations 100
(Ewart, 1979) or slight chemical mobility in some systems.
Analytical precision may also be a factor, particularly for Nb,
which typically occurs at low concentrations not much above
XRF detection limits.
In practice, Ti and Zr are the most reliably immobile o 20 40 60
elements. They can be inexpensively and accurately analysed y (ppm)
by XRF on pressed powder pellets and they exist at easily
FIGURE4.2 I SchemalicY-Zr (incompalible-incompalible)plol usedtor
detectable levels in most volcanic rocks, unlike me heavy delerminalionot magmalicaffiniliesin alteredvolcanicrocks (modifiedafler
REE, Sc, Nb, Ta, Hf and Th, which generally exist at less MacLean
andBarrell,1993).
than 20 ppm.

...
-=-

80 I CHAPTER
4
phases crystallising from magma. Consequently, compatible
elements are depleted from the melt phase (this is opposite
to the enrichment in incompatible elements). Thus, the
relative proportion of compatible and incompatible elements
in residual melts changes as fractionation proceeds. Batches
of magma that are successively tapped off and emplaced as
eruptive or intrusive units will have successively smaller
compatible-incompatible element ratios.
Aluminium, Ti, Cr, Sc and V are generally compatible
during crystallisation and immobile during alteration
(Barrett and MacLean, 1994a). Bivariate plots of immobile
compatible-incompatible element data for least-altered
samples from a particular magmatic affiniry should show
smooth fractionation trends, generally with negative slopes
(Fig. 4.3).
Subsequent net mass gains and losses imposed by alteration
will produce, on compatible-incompatible immobile element
plots, separate alteration lines for each chemically distinct
rock unit (Fig. 4.3). This properry is particularly useful for
the discrimination and correlation of initially homogenous
but subsequently altered volcanic units that may be otherwise
unidentifiable.
Ir is worth emphasising that immobile element ratios must
be used with discretion in chemostratigraphic discrimination
and correlation. This method is most effective in rocks
with primary compositional homogeneiry, such as coherent
lavas and sills, and possibly in some massive syneruptive
volcaniclastic units such as pumice breccias. Processes
of magma generation, crystallisation and fractionation
determine the immobile element ratios of magmas. Therefore,
immobile element ratios are likely to be uniform within single
coherent eruptive or intrusive emplacement units. However,
volcaniclastic debris may be subject to unhomogenising
processes. Both lateral and vertical compositional variations
may occur in volcaniclastic units as a result of:
. mechanical sorting of components of different densities,
such as clasts, pumice, scoria, crystals (e.g. Ti-oxides and
.. zircon) and glass shards, during eruption and transport
winnowing of glass shards from turbidiry currents
mixing of debris from a variery of volcanic sources in
variable proportions
or
. incorporation of extraneous
volcaniclastic mass flows.
clasts into the base of

Chemostratigraphic fingerprinting is commonly done
with Ti/Zr ratios and TiOz-Zr bivariate plots. However,
in tholeiitic suites Ti enrichment parallels. the rypical Fe-
enrichment trend at the mafic end of the fractionation
series (MacLean and Barrett, 1993). In other words, Ti is
initially incompatible in tholeiitic fractionation series up
to about the composition of basaltic-andesite. On a TiOz-
Zr plot, the mafic end of the tholeiitic series has a positive
fractionation trend, essentially similar to the alteration trends
superimposed by subsequent metasomatic netOmass changes
(Fig. 4.3). Therefore, TiOz-Zr is not a reliable discriminant
of altered mafic tholeiites. A reasonable substitute is AlZ03-
Zr, which has a near linear, slightly negative trend in tholeiites
(MacLean and Barrett, 1993). Titanium becomes compatible
in tholeiitic magmas more evolved than basaltic-andesite and
the TiOrZr fractionation curve then has a negative slope.
Two examples of chemostratigraphic discrimination and
correlation in the Mount Read Volcanics are presented in
Figures 4.4 and 4.5.
jf
/
Ñ
o
4/
E
~
:.c; ".~"'/
/
#'"
Gifkins (2001) showed that thick, graded, rhyolitic
pumice breccia units in the Central Volcanic Complex,
western Tasmania, have Ti/Zr ratios that vary from -5 near
the crystal- and lithic-rich bases, to -9 in the fine-grained,
shard-rich tops of the units. This is consistent with an
increased concentration of zircon crystals towards the base of
the units but may also reflect the abundance of felsic clasts
in the basal portions. In contrast, graded rhyolitic volcanic
breccia units in the Rosebery hanging wall, western Tasmania,
display the opposite trend. Large et al. (2001 b) suggested that
decreasing Ti/Zr ratios towards the top of these units were
due to physical fractionation of Zr-poor crystal and lithic
components from Zr-bearing originally glassy pumice and
shards during emplacement.
Testing immobility
Ir is preferable that element immobiliry in any system is
established, rather than assumed, before proceeding with
chemostratigraphic interpretations of altered rocks. This is
also an important preparatory step for methods of estimating
mass transfers of mobile elements.
The simplest test is to plot potentially immobileelements
on x-y bivariate diagrams with the origins at zero. I{possible,

~
o the tests should use data from unaltered and variably altered
E .,s.'"/ .;1f'
.~ "!§'~/ ~ // samples of asingle, originally compositionally uniform volcanic
-o $/ ~ "\\~e //
c:
cu / 'i/.°~ / unit, such as a coherent lava or sil!. If the selected elements
ID / ~\.e~~ / /
:¡s
1i5
D..
E
o /
/
//

//
/ / ~
I;.?>¿::,.e;
/ <94

<9"h.
(9
are immobile, the data points for a single-precursor system
should align in a highly correlated linear trend, which projects

~ -------
()
/ // . . to the origin of the plot and through the data points of the
/ / / / !\Wolite alte!atlon I,ne ~ least-altered samples. These linear trends, or alteration lines,
t~ are due to net mass gains and losses of the mobile elements
Incompatibleand immobile(Zr) in the altered rock samples (Fig. 4.6). Typically there is some
data scatter due to analytical errors and slight inhomogeneities
FIGURE4.3 I SchematicTi02-Zr (compatible-incompatible)plot showingthe
in the primary rock. However, ifboth elements are immobile,
negativecurvilinearfractionationtrend typical of co-geneticcalc-alkalinevolcanic
suites (after Barrettand MacLean,1994a).Mafictholeiitesmayshow a positive
calculated linear correlation co-efficients (r) for alteration
trend up to the compositionof basaltic-andesite,because of Ti02 incompatibility lines should exceed -0.85 (Barrett and MacLean, 1994a).
in the earlystage of magmaticdifferentiation. In contrast, elements that were mobile during alteration are
 GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 81

mud
o ... ....-........
"
. . .. .
.
a
a
a.
Quartzerystal-rieh
volcanidastiesandstone

..
E : a'
.
.<:::
Q.. .. . a Feldsparerystal-rieh
Q)
-O .
1
.. 'a volcanielastiesandstone

:a
100
t. .:i
. .:
. . . . . . .:- '11/.:.. . . : . . ..
. :.
,
. . . . :'EI . . .:. . . . .:. . . . "1
a.
:a
Y~<~lij Mixedfelsievoleanielastie
,: ..': 'a
. a
:a
and limestonebreecias

. . a
. .:.. a a /J. Siltstone

l' :.:.
.
..
: .:
. .. aa .. ~:'.: :':: ~".:,': :",'.=: '.1
""d~¡;""~L
~. . . . . . . ... . . ... . . . ... ..
"
200
. . . :. '. '" : : a.:.. .. ..1 "">~>: ~V~...
"":""':''';''
. ".: a <I..~<I.. V Chlorite-alteredmafie
.'.. a.
~I\ ~ ~... I volcaniebreeeia

.. " a
.
~,-""
-1~<I~~
<I..,-""
~

..
:.: . . a
a
a
Serieite-alteredfelsie
pumieeousbreeeiaand
a : sandstone
. :..: . . '!
300~.. . ; .!'..:~.. .:. : . : :...~.~~...:
. .. . ........
:, . : B" .
.. . ...
:.
:.
:a

.
..
. : : ..:
...
. a
a -=sI Mafiedyke

. : '!" . .1 a~f.'

~
1
400~...i
..:
..: :
."":""
: : .'
... , .:
11 lfI
.~P~..:
.
r r Serieite-quartzaltered
sparselyfeldspar-phyrie
:. :a r eoherentdaeite
:.
.. .a
.a
'.: rl. . a
.' . a :"a
.
:.
.. a .
... .
. . a.
:g
: ...~..a.. r
l
500r. .. i .. .~....:. ...: . " :
r
. .':
1
[ :¡ : ~...: ... . . . . .. ':"
~ ¡a ~ :
I

.a a 1\ Sericite+ K-feldspar-anered
. .. ~. andesiteand assoeiated

..:.
.. a: aa
: a
. a
.a
hyaloelastitebreeeias

600 ... ....

O 10 20 30 40 50 O 25 50 75 100
TilZr Alteration Index
100(K2O+MgO)
(K2O+MgO+CaO+Na20)

FIGURE4.4 I Graphiclog and down-holeTi/Zrand Al plots of drill hole NC4, near Lake Newton,western Tasmania,The TilZr
data clearlydelineatesunitsof differentprimaryvolcaniccompositionsdespiteeffectsof strong hydrothermalalterationin rocks
intersectedin the middleand lower par! of the hole.The highTi/Zr ratiosat -200-230 m led to recognitionof an alteredmafic
volcanicbrecciaunit,which had previouslybeen interpretedas a zone of chlorite-alteredfelsic volcaniclasticrocks.Another
alteredmafic unit occurs below530 m. Quartzand feldsparcrystal-richsandstonesin the upper 100 m have a rangeof TilZ
ratios,which suggeststhat they do not havea uniqueprovenance.

readily identifiable by their erratic distribution or near total compositional data, due to closure. The results of mass
removal (Finlow-Bates and Stumpfl, 1981). transfer calculations are usually easy to relate to mineral
assemblages and may reveal clues about the composition,
source and temperature of hydrothermal fluids (e.g. Barrett
Masstransfer techniques and MacLean, 1994b). Mass change data have been used
to infer hydrothermal water-rock rarios (e.g. MacLean and
Mass transfer techniques aim to quantify the amounts of Hoy, 1991). They are also used in the interpretarion of
individual elements added to and subtracted from the rock whole-rock 0180 and REE data (e.g. MacLean and Barrett,
during alterarion in order to overcome the distortions of 1993). Thus, they may enable discrimination of favourable
closure that are inherent in composition data. alteration systems and altered zones within systems. When
As noted by Barrett and MacLean (l994b), significant plotted spatially mass rransfer data can be used as quantitarive
mass change anomalies may not be apparent in untreated exploration vectors (Section 8.2).
82 I 4
CHAPTER
113R

131R
M'"otBlock/'"1t
Q"",-phy'¡' 'hyolit, .". F,'d,p">qp,""~,,,,-
109R ",hb"","
r'71 ~~~::~:"~;:":'~.,,.

--- .". .". ~ m ,,

" F,'d'p">q"""~,,,,-
,¡,h'"","
...
, 120R

~'

F"",p">q""",phy'"
pcm¡"',,,,,,"
-. 1100m
'.'

1000 m

---
¡::"':d
--'" $

[
F,"" ,, "-
f300m

o 10203040
T;/Zr
,, 1200 m F,Id,p".'"",.
'lOtl"porphy~"1t

,, -"
1: ij Footwall
(TilZr = 12-14)
Footwall
(TilZr = 7-9)
, - - - - --$
700 m
f300m

O 10203040
1iIZ,
o 10 20 30 40
Ti/Zr

O 10 20 30 40
Ti/Z,

FIGURE4.5 I Chemostratigraphiccorrelationdiagram01the volcano-sedimentarysuccessionthat hoststhe Roseberymassivesullide deposit,westernTasmania.

A thinunit01daciticpumicebreccia,betweenthemassivesullidelensandtheleldspar+ quartz+ biotiteporphyry
sillintersected
inhole120R,istexturally
indistinguishablelrom the lootwall rhyoliticpumicebreccias(Ti/Zr =7-9) but has a distinctiveTilZr ratio 01between12 and 14.

2.0 .
,. "
l.. 4
l. ~ti
,.
,.. ~
andesite

E
basalt .¡. l. ()
'"'-
,",-A
FIGURE4.6 I Ti02-Zr plot 01data lrom a tholeiiticvolcanic
suite (alter MacLeanand Barrett,1993).The data pointslor
I e¡
-2; 1.0 .1. '§i' 7";- least-alteredbasalt,andesiteand rhyolitesamplesdefine
l. ".:g~-~
,"l.
0'" . "'" the magmatic'Iractionationcurve'. Twolineararrays 01data

.. "
¡= ~ ~ d representvariablyalteredsamples01originally homogenous
~~

'" , Q¡ it-
,,', ~ ~
units 01andesiteand rhyolite.These highlycorrelated
alterationlinesintersectthe least-altereddata pointson
#'.
~I
.
.....
~Jr~~~ the Iractionationcurveand projecttowardsthe originoData
:f! I .
~\\e¡a.\\O(\
\\(\e .....
rhyolite
pointson the alterationlines belowthe Iractionationcurve
f1j1
;.;
..... representnet massgains,those abovethe curve represent
least-altered
I "'" alterationline net masslosses.The positiveslope at the basalticend 01the
rhyolite
~ ~~~-~~~~~~ Iractionationcurve is due to incompatibility01Ti02 in the early
o 100 200 300 400 stages01differentiation01tholeiiticmagmas.This may lead
to conlusion01Iractionationand alterationtrends in mafic
Zr(ppm)
tholeiites.

There are several approaches to estimating mass transfers.
These include the mathematically complex graphical
method of Gresens (1967); subsequently simplified by Grant
(1986) and Huston (1993) to produce the isocon method;
the immobile element techniques of MacLean and Barren
(1993), and the Pearce element ratio analysis of Stanley and
Madeisky (1996). These techniques all depend on recognition
of immobile elements. They also, with the exception of the
Pearce element ratio analysis, depend on the identification of
precursor-rock compositions.
The determination of unaltered precursor compositions is
ofren problematic in the altered, lithologically and structurally
complex rocks that host ore deposits. The safest approach
is to consider the geological context, established from field
relationships and rock textures, in combination with various
immobile element tests (e.g. MacLean and Barren, 1993;
Stanley and Madeisky, 1996). This ensures that precursors are
appropriately matched to the altered rocks under investigation.
The isocon method does not include a procedure for selecting
precursors and it commonly produces erroneous results
because incorrect geological assumptions are applied. For this
reason, we prefer the more rigorous MacLean and Barren
(1993) method, which is also simplest to calculate.
Another potential difficulry arises from primary compo-
sitional variations in volcanic rocks related to magmatic
fractionation or volcaniclastic mixing processes. Huston
(1993) recognised this as a deficiency of the isocon method.
He suggested examining standard deviations of data from
least-altered samples to screen their suitabiliry, estimating
error s for the consequent mass changes and recognising that
small apparem mass changes may be arrefacts of primary
inhomogeneities, not due to alteration. The Pearce element
ratio analysis method (Stanley and Madeisky, 1996) and the
multiple-precursor variant of the MacLean and Barren (1993)
method anempt to overcome the limitations of primary
variabiliry. Of rhese tWo, we prefer the MacLean and Barren
approach, again for its relative ease of calculation.
1~
net mass gain
25 g/100 9
~~~s-
~ p
40 wt%
mobile
60 wt%
mobile
60 - ¡. J - - - - -1 t - - - - - -i
~
yo
40wt% . ,: .."
mobilei. ~
ya
24 wt%
. ~
mobile
20 - I I - - - - -1 . - - -
composition of composition of
precursor rock altered rock
GEOCHEMISTRY
OFALTERERD
ROCKS I 83
The MacLean and Barren multiple-precursor method
involves sorring samples into affiniry groups, calculating
primary variabiliry trends (fractionation curves) and using
immobile elements to synthesise primary compositions for
altered samples that may fall betWeen compositions of the
available least-altered samples. This method relies on the
assumptions that co-genetic groupings can be recognised
and separated, and compositional variations are smooth
linear or curvilinear trends for every major elemento This
is generally true for magmatic fractionation, and therefore
applicable to volcanic suites, but the variations may be erratic
if volcaniclastic, sedimentary or multiple alteration processes
were involved (Eilu et al., 1997). Thus, due caution must
be exercised when using this method in mixed provenance
volcano-sedimentary successions. Filtering sample sets
through geological field evidence and petrographic textural
observations are obvious fundamental precaurions. Sample
sets from restricted prospect-scale areas are less likely to have
complex primary compositional variations than district-scale
sample sets. Peculiar aberrations or significant mass changes
in elements otherwise expected to be immobile, such as Al,
should arouse suspicion that primary fractionation trends
may have been incorrecdy modelled.
Single precursor mass transfer technique
The MacLean and Barren method of estimating mass transfers
in single-precursor systems incorporates testing of immobiliry
as a fundamental step. The analytical data for potemially
immobile elements, from an initially homogenous but
variably altered lithological unit, are ploned on x-y bivariate
diagrams and linear regressions are calculated. The existence
of highly correlated (r >0.85) trends that pass through the
origin enables selection of the optimal element to be used
as the immobile monitor in the mass change calculations.
This graphical process also highlights any oudiers or samples
f-
--
i
gain01X
1 35 g/1009
_1
~
75 g/100 9
mobile i
X in precursor
40 g/100 9
FIGURE4.7 I DiagramrepresenlingIhe calculalionof
I
~-
} - - _1
loss 01Y
10 g/100 9
r
massIransfersfor an allered rockwilh an inilial massof
100 unils (after MacLeanand Barrett,1993).The proportion
of immobileelemenl in Ihe allered rockdecreases(is
.. diluled) becauseof nel mass gains in mobileelemenl(s).
yr
.30 g/100 9
. mobile
The ralio of immobileelemenlsZo/ZarepresenlsIhe faclor,
which mullipliedby Ihe proportionof immobileelemenlin
Ihe allered rock,would resloreil lo a mass unil, ralher Ihan
- - a proportionof Ihe whole. The same faclor appliedlo all
olher elemenls producesIhe 'reconstrucledcomposilion'in
zero change in Z mass unils. The massIransfersin eachelemenl are Ihen
calculaledby sublracling ils primarycomposilionfrom Ihe
reconslrucledcomposilion.In Ihis example,a large mass
reconstructed gain in X combinedwilh a small mass loss in Y producesa
composition large nel massgain.
84 I CHAPTER
4
from different precursors, which should be eliminated or
treated separately. Ir identifies any primary compositional
inhomogeneities in the rocks, which may require treatment
by the multiple-precursor method (MacLean and Barrett,
1993) or Pearce element ratio analysis (Stanley and Madeisky,
1996). These more complex methods are not explained here;
the reader is referred to the relevant references for details.
The single-precursor mass transfer method proceeds
by calculating the ratios of the proportions of an immobile
element in the altered and unaltered samples. Each of the
mobile element proportions is then multiplied by that ratio
to obtain a reconstructed composition (Fig. 4.7). The mass
change of each element is found by subtracting its percent
proportion in the precursor from that in the reconstructed
composition.
The steps below and the flow chart in Figure 4.8 outline
the procedure for estimating mass changes in single-precursor
systems. Figures 4.9, 4.10 and 4.11 present a worked example
based on compositions of Thalanga footwall rhyolites,
Queensland.
(1) Acquire and tabulate the lithogeochemical analyses (e.g.
Figure 4.9). The first part of this section (4.1) presents
some guidance on sampling and analytical techniques.
Barrett and MacLean (1994a) recommended using major
element composition data that are recalculated to 'volatile-
free' totals of 100%. However, it is unreasonable to expect

Cornrnents relatad to
Thalanga data in Figures 4.9,
4.10 and 4.11.

lit Values below deteclíon replaced

by arbitrary smafl values; e.g.
0.5 x detection limit or zero
(Figures 4.9 and 4.10).

Data should preferably be from

Select least-alterad mappable single-precursor
precursor Testfor immobility units. This example includes 34
composition rhyolites frcm diverse volcanic
units. However, the remarkable
Arithmelíc average of uniformity of immobife-element
three least-altered ratios suggests they were
Plot bivariate essentiafly co-magmatic and
samples.
diagrams of likely can be treated as a single-
0.15
immobile precursor system.

0.10
.... components, e.g. Zr,
Ti02, Al203

No obvious outliers. Yltrium

0.05 (Fig. 4.10) typicafly shows
Identifydata frorn considerable scalter, which may
single precursor and be a result of primary varialíon.
Zr exclude outliers
0.00
O 200
A/203 and Zr both have three of
four correlation co-efficients
Fit linear trends, >0.85 (Fig. 4.10). Either could
calculate correlation be used as the immobife
co-efficients and monitor componen/. Zirconium
select best was selected because of
immobile monitor marginafly higher average
correlalíon (0.86 vs 0.83).

L1a = [ZO/ Za . ea] - eo

where.da is absolute mas s change in g/100g.
ea = wt % praportion of component in altered
rack,
eo = wt% praportion of component in precursor,
za = praportion of immobile element in alterad Appropriate $ symbols in the
rack, formula enabie it to be fifled
zo = praportion of immobile e/ement in precursor.
di across and down in the
spreadsheet and maintain cefl
references to Zo, Za and Co.

100
140727.
80
"'40000. '
'40724.
~60 00',4000:'0000' , Large positive and negative net

...
'a, mass changes are mainly due to
--'uOOOu

j40 Plot bar graph ot Si02 gains and losses, or

.¡; addition of Fe and S in pyrilíc
¡q20 mass changes tor
'" visual appreciation samples (Fig. 4.11). Note that
because of closure, the Si02
changes are not obvious in the
-20 analytical data.
SIO, r;Q, AI,O, F.,O, MnO MgO CaO Na,O K,O p,o, S CO, Ne'

FIGURE4,8 I Flowchart for mass-changecalculationsby the single-precursormethod(alter MacLeanand Barrett,1993).

 GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERDROCKS I 85

elements of an analysis to total exactly 100%, and the and correlation factors to determine which element
use of recalculated data may produce positive distortions consistently occurs in highly correlated trends and is most
in subsequent mass transfer estimates. In dealing with suitable as an immobile monitor (i.e. was uniform in the
altered rocks, it is preferable to obtain accurate analyses of primary rock and least mobile during alteration).
all the major elements (including S, CO2 and H2O+) and (5) Select a composition for the precursor. This could be from
include them in the mass transfer calculations. If S, CO2 a single unaltered sample or an average of several unaltered
and H2O+ data are not available, and losses on ignition samples.
(LOI) are significant (>2%), then LOI could be included (6) Calculate the absolute mass change for each component
as a separate, albeit loosely defined, component of mass using the formula:
change.
(2) Test for immobility. Plot analytical data for potentially !!.. = [ZO/ Z' . Ca ] - Co

immobile elements (e.g. Al, Ti, Zr, Nb, Y, etc.) on x-y

bivariate diagrams with the origins at zero (e.g. Fig. 4.10). where !!.ais absolute mass change expressed in g/100 g
If possible, use data from variably altered and unaltered Ca = wt% proportion of component in altered rock
samples of a single uniform rock unir. Co = wt% proportion of component in precursor
(3) Inspect for outliers and, with geological considerations, za = proportion of immobile element in altered rock
decide whether to cull them, or treat the data as a multiple- Zo = proportion of immobile element in precursor.
precursor system. Readers are referred to MacLean and The mass changes may be calculated from compositions
Barrett (1993) for details of the multiple-precursor ofindividual altered samples or from average compositions
method. of sample groups representing certain mineral assemblages
(4) The immobile element data for single-precursor systems or altered zones.
should plot on highly correlated linear trends (r >0.85) (7) For visual comparison, plot the absolute mass changes for
that pass through the origin and through the data points individual elements on a bar graph (e.g. Fig. 4.11).
for least-altered samples. Evaluate the bivariate diagrams

A B
Whole-rockmajarandtraceelemen!composi!iondata
2 Sampleno. Altera!ionfacies SiO TiC AIO FeO MnO MgO CaO NaO KO PO S CO Total LOI Zr Nb y
3
4" 140802 least-altered
footwal! 76.40 0.11 11.90 1.64 0.04 0.67 1.42 2.27 4.04 0.02 0.01 0.00 98.52 0.60 146 13 40
5 ' 140727 moderate. foliatedserieite+ehlorite 70.90 0.10 14.50 1.69 0.04 3.94 0.12 1.05 3.92 0.01 0.00 0.10 96.37 2.67 162 19 54

6
7
. 140808
' 140724
quartz+ sericite+ pyrite ehlorite 75.70
stron9,pervasive
67.00
0.07
0.05
11.40 5.14
6.60 14.34
0.08
0.02
2.38
1.67
0.00
0.05
0.21
0.06
2.39
1.99
0.01
0.01
0.65
10.61
000 98.03 2.75 128
0.00 102.40 8.24 79
14
7
36
44
intense,pervasive
quartz+ pyrite
8 ' 140902 intense,mieraerystalline
quartz+K-feldspar 84.20 0.06 7.40 0.60 0.00 0.08 0.11 0.34 5.87 0.01 0.48 99.15 0.49 80 9 20
9 TH394-142 least-alteredfootwal! 77.39 0.09 11.85 1.13 0.02 0.76 0.46 4.79 1.82 0.01 000 0.15 98.47 0.49 137 14 34
10 TH144B-34 least-alteredfootwal! 77.25 0.10 11.90 2.09 0.03 0.68 0.90 2.77 3.60 0.02 0.24 0.15 99.74 0.77 141 12 33
11 TH41A-575 76.71 0.07 10.18 0.99 0.08 4.33 1.75 1.57 2.80 0.02 0.01 98.51 1.38 113 12 30
12 TH005-256 77.80 0.07 8.83 1.90 0.06 2.14 3.08 0.84 3.06 0.05 1.33 0.99 100.15 2.12 114 13- 57
13 TH238-236 74.62 0.09 13.40 1.40 0.02 3.54 0.12 1.82 2.23 0.01 0.00 0.00 97.25 2.49 140 13 30
14 TH038-191 77.81 0.07 10.54 1.51 0.09 3.13 0.25 0.90 3.40 0.01 0.06 97.77 2.08 119 13 41
15 TH085-125 75.25 0.07 11.13 2.32 0.06 1.90 3.03 0.59 3.68 0.02 1.39 99.44 1.75 116 12 42
16 TH148-159 8202 0.08 8.84 0.68 0.02 1.05 0.24 0.53 5.33 0.02 0.30 99.11 1.03 114 11 28
17 TH085A-422 69.97 0.11 13.06 2.80 0.03 1.98 0.28 0.38 3.69 0.05 203 94.38 3.39 162 17 49
18 TH270-278 64.37 0.12 17.56 4.73 0.07 4.35 0.01 0.24 4.15 0.02 1.08 96.70 4.23 195 20 46
19 TH270-145 72.70 0.09 12.22 2.39 0.09 4.24 0.27 0.22 4.73 0.01 0.84 97.80 2.56 130 14 36
20 TH085-312 72.73 0.08 12.33 5.48 0.01 1.10 0.00 0.17 3.75 0.01 3.47 99.13 4.07 129 15 35
21 TH018-266 66.82 0.08 11.26 2.46 0.13 9.88 0.01 0.12 5.08 0.02 0.53 96.39 2.65 132 15 45
22 TH038-054 75.37 0.08 10.70 4.47 0.02 2.91 0.00 0.12 2.43 0.01 1.61 97.72 3.54 119 14 27
23 TH085-159 75.29 0.09 12.79 1.96 0.09 2.51 0.08 0.10 4.41 0.01 0.81 98.14 2.50 137 16 48
24 TH085A-348 66.93 0.10 14.57 5.70 0.08 4.70 0.00 0.09 2.91 0.01 0.86 95.95 4.11 176 16 46
25 TH238-194 74.41 0.09 12.18 1.42 0.05 4.16 0.07 0.08 3.57 0.01 0.44 0.26 96.74 2.79 138 16 39
26 TH270-220 63.38 0.05 7.99 13.46 0.13 5.88 0.00 0.00 0.91 0.01 7.64 99.45 7.60 83 9 19
27 TH085A-335 78.04 0.06 9.48 4.45 0.04 1.76 0.02 0.16 2.45 0.01 1.57 9804 2.95 105 11 30
28 TH085-204 71.22 0.05 8.28 9.18 0.09 3.97 0.00 0.15 1.51 0.01 4.97 99.43 5.33 84 9 17
29 TH085-215 67.08 0.07 10.44 8.62 0.13 6.42 0.01 0.12 1.59 0.01 2.89 97.38 5.02 116 12 29
30 TH085A-241 71.59 0.07 11.03 6.91 0.06 2.53 0.08 0.11 2.82 0.02 3.59 98.81 4.73 120 14 37
31 TH085-188 74.54 0.06 8.40 6.95 0.05 2.77 0.00 0.09 2.14 0.01 4.36 99.37 4.50 92 11 29
32 TH270-313 72.56 0.10 12.55 4.93 0.07 3.88 0.00 0.03 2.50 0.01 0.44 97.07 3.17 140 16 39
33 TH061-086 74.39 0.11 13.75 1.56 0.03 1.19 0.34 0.95 6.33 0.01 0.00 000 98.66 1.24 158 18 52
34 TH41A-713 75.87 0.10 12.17 1.70 0.05 1.12 0.08 0.42 6.36 0.02 0.66 98.55 1.71 157 17 47
35 TH061-157 78.48 0.08 11.60 0.88 0.01 0.61 0.12 0.37 7.60 0.02 0.13 0.18 100.08 0.76 122 13 37
36 TH270-381 55.36 0.10 13.90 14.36 0.14 4.90 0.11 0.18 2.40 0.02 5.92 97.39 7.22 154 19 63
37 TH085A-384 49.30 0.10 13.47 19.14 0.30 7.79 0.19 0.08 0.93 0.02 5.12 96.44 7.83 145 16 44
Precursor
38 composition averageof 140802,TH394-142 andTH144B-34 77.01 0.10 11.88 1.62 0.03 0.70 0.93 3.28 3.15 0.02 0.08 0.10 98.91 0.62 1,41 13 35

39
40
(Fo-;;;;u7a7n-eeITc45T::ri6$387ii:i5'-C5)--'
:
I C$38] is med aeross and down.
Pla,ement 01 $ symbols is erilieal lo
't o/.
:
I
UnI s
DL
o
0.05
%
0.01
%
0.05
%
0.01
%
0.01
%
0.01
%
0.01
%
0.05
%
0.01
%
0.01
%
0.01
%
0.1
% % ppmppmppm
1 1 1
41 '.'!'!'",m.:..!! e,:,:!Cf: ty,rZ,!..!::"5'f:_) fFOi¡¡;ulaiñc¡,ii845 7s-)7ed-'
\ 'down [=sum(C45N45)}:
42 \
\ '-----7---------
43 \ SiO TiO AIO Fe O MnO MgO CaO Na O KO PO S CO Ne! "
Mass Changes
44 \ ;:
45 140727 moderate,foliatedserieite
+ ehlorite ---". -15 O 1 O O 3 -1 -2 O O O O -15
46 140808 7 O 1 4 O 2 -1 -3 -1 O 1 O 9
stran9,pervasivequartz+ serieite
+ pyrite ehlorite
47 140724 intense,pervasivequartz+ pyrite 43 O O 24 O 2 -1 -3 O O 19 O 84
48 140902 intense,mieraerystal!ine
quartz+ K-feldspar 72 O 1 -1 O -1 -1 -3 7 O 1 O 76
49 units 0/1000 0/1000 0/1000 0/1000 0/10000/1000 0/10000/10000/1000 0/10000/10000/100

FIGURE4.9 I Example01layoutand calculation01masschangesby the single-precursormethodlor 34 rhyoliteslrom the Thalangalootwall,Queensland.DataIrom

Paulick(1999)and Paulicket al. (2001).Valuesbelowlimit01detectionreplacedby zero. Samplenumberswith * are leaturedin the Thalangadata sheets(Section7.7).
 86 I CHAPTER
4
0.15 ! ! ,....
1:A ' r = 0.938 2°t:: B :
, , : r = 0955 ,....
i ..1

0.10 .00.00"',0000- - ;ft.

:: ~~.:.~.~..L'u'u'u:L.~u'u'ul.~'..:.:.'
i!" ~ 1: ~ .u.u.-".uu : E
c. 15
1 ;; 1u
. E: 10
.0
éi 0.05 l. ~.« '"
-".- -

¡:: 5 ,.

0.00 o
u m u (mu u (u m .¡m m m ~ ~ 5 L u..
,, u
,
...1....1....
u L.. u. --Cu,'
,,
,
-

0-
O 50 100 150 200 O 50 100 150 200 O 50 100 150 200
Zr (ppm) Zr (ppm) Zr (ppm)
.. .. . .. ..
E i ¡ : F i i
80LD . . . ¡ . . . 'r~~.6~8'. , . . . .
,- -
i!" 0.15 ,: ,. @:, .. ,, r = 0.838
. ~ 15:
20 ~. um.~uuu.~uuu,,,m~u
r ='. 0.904 ~
. . . ,, . . . . ,,',. . . . ' ~. :
r. ' '.. . -;ft.
60 . 0.10 - -"r -c'Wu.r' '-'-C'-
mmu1m._uu-;

.. .. :
u
Ec. 40 "00"";""""";"" ~
'"
:: , ~, , ~(') 10
E: , --."uuu-
: : O
>- 20 ,. ., ~0.05 5 ,.

o I . . . . I . . . .
O 50 100 150 200
0.00l. . . . l.
O 5
. . . l. . . . l. . . . ¡. ~~.'
10 15 20
~

25
~ o ~.
O
. 1. . . . 1. . . . 1. . . . . ~~ . ~
5 10 15
¡
20 25
Zr (ppm) Nb (ppm) Nb (ppm)
20 i
"""!"

0.15 , H
. . . . :' . . . . : r = 0.881 : :
, ;¡
, . . . . ! .. . . : .. ~=O.715 :~ ., 1
.
80 ,uU'U',u.-

15
E
~
>-
00 ,-G~ mLm~im,n,mm'~cm
40

20

O""""""'"
~u+.~

~.~~cum:mm
, ,'0000"
,
, :
'
.
:
' 00-
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.

:
~ 0.>0
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0.00
-.u..-uuu.""

i
l.
A1203:1
., ~
«
~
10 . mmu.!u<m~.~~.uu)m..

5 . m.m.:uumm:.~mu).m.m

O
r = 0.566 :
..~ '\o: . :
y
.

O 5 10 15 20 25 O 5 10 15 20 O 20 40 60 80
Nb (ppm) y (ppm) y (ppm)
0.15 , 12 .. . . . . ,, . . ..
~
I
,, ,
'J
;?
::.r=0.586:
~.. . ;? 10 lLm -'''00-:''''-''''':'''''''00

I
-:-. .:
IO.1O :..u;~~V_u
, .. ~ 8 ~ ; ~._.;~. ~_: .~..~4:...-
'"
O , ,
O
'"
ea : li<Lnn¡"n'nmm
..- -, --@-:
I ~
, , , Z 5 F--um~u--~.i.mm"'!.uum.
¡:: 0.05 ,, u. u..",""""",,
,, ,, u u.

L+~o;",:.~,
, , ,
: ' : y
0.00 :o 1:.- . O
2luuuTuu.~~r.~ , . ~ ~ . .
O 20 40 60 80 O 50 100 150 200 O 50 100 150 200
AI203 (ppm) Zr (ppm) Zr (ppm)

FIGURE 4.10 I Bivariate plots of potentially immobile elements: AIP3' Ti02' Zr, Nb and Y (Thalanga data from Figure 4.9). (A) Ti02 versus Zr, (B) AI203 versus Zr,
(C) Nb versus Zr, (D) y versusZr, (E) Ti02 versus Nb,(F)AlP3 versus Nb,(G) Y versus Nb,(H) Ti02 versusY, (1)AI203versusY, (J) Ti02 versusA1203'(K) Nap
versus Zr, and (L) sulfur versusZr. These plotsfacilitate recognitionof compositionaloutliers,which shouldbe excludedfrom single.precursorcalculations,and
selectionof the least.mobileelementto serve as the immobilemonitorin mass.changecalculations.In this example,Zr andAI203both show consistenthighly
correlatedtrends that projectto the zero originoNotethe considerablescatters,and hencepoorerlinearcorrelations,in plots involvingY and the majorelementssulfur
and Na2O.These are consistentwith primarycompositionalvariationsor significantchemicalmobility,particularlyfor sulfurand Nap.

.
100
Sampleno. Alteration
facies
140727 Moderate,foliatedsericite+
80 - - - - - - - - u - - . . - - . . - - - . - - - - n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - n - - - n - - - - - - - - chlorite
14080811 Strong,pervasive
quartz+sericite
.- + pyrite:t chlorite
e;
C> 60
- - n - - - - - - - - n- - n- --o - - -.. - - - n- n - n- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - n - - - n --
140724. Intense,pervasive
quartz+ pyrite
C>

~ 140902 D Intense,
microcrystalline
K-feldspar
quartz+
¡g,
c:: 40
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - -.. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --

<ti
.<::
(,)

~ 20
:2:
n n n n n_n n u n n_n u - _.--

-20
8iOz TiOz Alz03 FeZ03MnO MgO CaO NazO KzO PzOs 8 COz Net

FIGURE4.11 I Bargraph showingestimatedabsolutemasschangesof major elementsin four samplesrepresentingmajoralterationfacies in the Thalangafootwall,

Queensland(data from Figure4.9).

I
....

Rare-earth.element
geochemistry
relatedto
alteration
In the past few decades, trace elements have become basic tools
or pathfinders in ore deposit exploration and in petrogenetic
interpretation. Immobile trace elements have valuable appli-
cations in studies of altered rocks. The rare earth elements
(REE) have some special properties during alteration, which
may be useful in interpretation and should be understood in
order to avoid false conclusions.
Mobility of light REE and effects of net mass change
Rare earth elements (with the exception of Eu) are generally
incompatible during igneous fractionation. Heavy REE (Lu
and Yb) are essentially immobile, whereas the light REE may
be variably mobile during alteration (MacLean and Barrett,
1993). Lanthanum is the most likely to be affected and the
mobility of the other REE decreases towards the heavy REE
(Barrett and MacLean, 1994a). These incremental changes in
the lighter REE modifY the slopes of chondrite-normalised
REE patterns, which may confuse petrogenetic interpretation.
Therefore, immobility of REE needs to be established before
they are used to infer magmatic affinity. Plotting geochemical
data for each rare earth element against a reliably immobile
element, such as Zr, is a means of testing for scatter and
mobility. If the elements were immobile, REE and Zr data
103
102
101
10°
La Ce Nd SmEu Tb Ha
103
sericite + chlarite-altered rhyolite
GEOCHEMISTRY
OFALTERERD
ROCKS I 87
from altered single-precursor systems or co-genetic volcanic
suites should produce highly correlated linear trends on
bivariate plots.
In systems where REE were chemically mobile, both
positive and negative shifts in light REE concentrations have
been recorded. Significant mobility of REE appear to occur
in proximal altered zones associated with VHMS deposits
(MacLean and Barren, 1993). The greater mobility of the
light REE may produce a fan shaped array in chondrite-
normalised plots with the REE profiles converging towards
the heavy, least-mobile REE (e.g. Fig. 4. 12A)
Even in cases of REE immobility, net mass changes
associated with alteration may produce significant vertical
shifts in chondrite-normalised REE patterns. The slopes of
the REE panerns are retained, but the y-axis magnitudes are
modified (downward by net mass gain and upward by net
mass loss; Fig. 4.12B).
Europium anomalies in seafloor sediments
Recent studies of sediments and hydrothermal precipitates in
modern and ancient massive sulfide environments have found
them relatively enriched in light REE, particularly in Eu
(Barrett et al., 1990; Peter and Goodfellow, 1996; Shikazono,
1999). The explanation is that Eu exists in a divalent state in
felsic magmas and hence is compatible in feldspars, unlike the
other trivalent REE, which remain incompatible (Rollinson,
1993). The divalent EU+2in feldspars may be liberated by
A subseafloor hydrothermal alteration to sericite or chlorite,
whereas' the incompatible REE that are concentrated in
alteration resistant phases, remain relatively immobile. The
liberated EU+2is transported by reduced acidic hydrothermal
fluids and may ultimately be precipitated by oxidation at
the seafloor. Therefore, in felsic volcanic successions, altered
VHMS-footwall zones tend to be depleted in Eu. In contrast,
positive Eu anomalies exist in seafloor sediments and jaspers,
and probably indicate proximity to hydrothermal vents
(Barren et al., 1990). Both phenomena have significance for
Yb Lu massive sulfide exploration in modern and ancient submarine
volcanic environments. The recognition of positive Eu
B anomalies in stratiform jasper lenses recendy contributed
to the discovery of a small satellite massive sulfide deposit
at Thalanga in the Mount Windsor Volcanics (Miller et al.,
2001).

102
I
MASS-LOSS
f EFFECT

MASS-GAIN
...
EFFECT 4.2 I MINERAL
CHEMISTRY
silicified rhyolite /
101
La Ce Nd SmEuGd Tb Ha Yb Lu Principies

FIGUR~4.12 I Modificationsin REEpatternsdue to hydrothermalalteration Minerals, by definition, are natural homogenous solids of
illustrated
byREEprofiles01variablyalteredrhyolites
lromtheAnsiland definite chemical composition and definite atomic structure
Delbridgedeposits,Canada(alter Barrettand MacLean,1994b).(A) Partial
(Dana, 1957). However, many minerals do not have simply
leaching 01the mobilelightREEintheAnsillootwallis reflected inprofileswith
differentslopesconvergingtowardsthe least-mobileheavyREE.(B) Immobility
defined chemical formulas. Their compositions may lie
01all REEis evidentin the sub-parallelprofiJeslor rhyoliteslrom the Delbridge between limits defined by two or more end-member formulas,
lootwall.However,net masschangesin mobilemajorelementshavecaused effectively forming solid solutions. Mineral crystal structures
changesin the proportions01the REE,producingverticalshilts in the proliles. can accommodate various impurities where atoms and ions
88 I CHAPTER
4
of suitable size and charge can substitute for others in the
lattice, occupy interstices in the lattice or be omitted from a
proportion of lattice sites.
The considerable variety of linked tetrahedral crystal
structures in silicate minerals permits a wide range of chemical
substitutions and interstitial solid solutions. A frequently
cited example is the olivine series in which Mgz+ and Fez+
ions, having similar charge and size, substitute for each
other between the end member compositions of forsterite
(MgzSi04) and fayalite (FezSi04).
The sheet-like structures of phyllosilicates allow a great
range of ionic substitutions and interstitial contaminants.
For example, muscovite, with the ideal formula of
KzAl4[Si6AlZOZO] (O H) 4' commonly contains the isomorphous
substitutions ofNa, Rb, Cs, Ca and Ba for K; Mg, Fez+,Fe3+,
Mn, Li, Cr, Ti, and V for octahedral Al, and F for OH and
tetrahedral cation proportions from Si6AlZto Si7Al¡ (Deer
et al., 1966). Layered days (particularly smectites) also
accommodate many cationic substitutions and exchanges as
well as physical mixtures and inter-layered structures of more
than one day mineral (e.g. smectite-illite).
The causes of such variations are both physical and
chemical. Temperature, pressure, fluid pH, fOz, and cation
solubility may all affect the stability and composition of
the minerals formed. Chemical and temperature gradients
in hydrothermal alteration systems commonly produce
spatial zonation of alteration mineral assemblages. Similarly,
they may produce gradational and zonal variations in some
alteration mineral compositions. For example, the Mn
content of metasomatic pyroxenes associated with Zn skarns
generally increases systematically along the fluid pathway, and
can be used to identify proximal and distal skarns, and altered
zones (Meinert, 1993).
The standard methods for determining mineral com-
positions and crystal structure are electron microprobe and
X-ray diffraction analyses. Although Galley (1995) noted that
these methods are more readily available than previously, the
impracticality of mineral chemistry as an exploration too!, and
the complexity and cost of these laboratory techniques means
that they are rarely used other than in academic research.
The development of field portable short wavelength infra red
(SWIR) spectrometers and spectral interpretation software
during the last decade, has allowed mineral chemistry to be
practically integrated into exploration programs for a variety
of deposit types (Thompson et al., 1999). SWIR spectral
analysis can determine compositional and crystal-structural
variations in white micas, smectites, days, chlorites, biotites
and carbonates (Pontual et al., 1997). These minerals are
prominent in altered volcanic rocks and are also prone to
significant compositional variations. The technique reliably
estimates variations in white mica composition but appears
to be less effective at analysing chlorites in typical mixed
phyllosilicate assemblages (Herrmann et al., 200 1). Carbonates
have relatively weak SWIR absorptions, which tend to be
obscured in mixed assemblages containing phyllosilicates and
are thus less amenable to spectral analysis.
Although there are many possible applications in mineral
deposit eXploration, we do not know of any cases where
systematic investigations of mineral chemistry have led to
an ore discovery. As pointed out by Simmons and Browne
(2000), the extent to which patterns of mineral distribution
and chemical variations can be used in exploration depends
largely on whether they are related to a single phase of
hydrothermal activity that produced equilibrium mineral
assemblages.
Applications
The three main applications of mineral chemistry in alteration
studies are:
(1) interpretation of the processes and physicochemical
conditions of alteration
(2) discrimination or identification of metasomatic alteration
and mineralisation styles from mineral compositions
(3) determination of spatial variations and exploration vectors
to ore.
Interpretation of processes
The compositional and crystal-structure variations in some
minerals are diagnostic of particular alteration processes
because of physicochemical influences on mineral stability and
composition. Thus, mineral chemistry may be used to infer
the geological environment in which an alteration mineral
assemblage formed. However, these kinds of compositional
variations may not always be universally applicable; they may
require orientation testing to determine their usefulness in
different districts or sites.
For example, Dill et al. (1997) found that the kaolin-
alunite deposits in felsic volcanic rocks of western Peru could
be dassified into hypogene (hydrothermal) and supergene
(weathering) types on the basis of the chemical variations
in kaolinite. Hydrothermal kaolinite tended to be rich in
Ba, Sr and sulfur, whereas weathering-related kaolin days
concentrated Cr, Ti, Nb and REE. This approach has direct
applications to mineral exploration because hypogene kaolinite
alteration in Peru is associated with high-sulfidation epithermal
Au-Ag deposits. Similarly, Yang et al. (1999) alluded to low-
and high-crystallinity forms of kaolinite in the Comstock
district of Nevada, which they respectively attributed to low-
temperature weathering and higher temperature hydrothermal
alteration processes. They suggested that spectral recognition
of distinctive kaolinite could be used in satellite-borne remote
sensing to detect prospective hydrothermal altered zones.
Discrimination of hydrothermal alteration styles
Mineral compositions can be used to identify or fingerprint
hydrothermal-alteration mineral assemblages, and possible
associations with mineralised rock. This application is useful
at early stages of mineral exploration to discriminate between
economically favourable and less favourable alteration and
mineralisation styles. For example, Zn-skarn assemblages are
commonly dominated by pyroxene with varying amounts
of garnet, amphibole, bustamite, chlorite and carbonate,
which may all be Mn enriched. Manganese-rich pyroxene
(johannsenite) is virtually diagnostic of distal Zn skarns
(Meinert, 1983) and could be used as an index mineral in
exploration for this type of deposito

Another example that is more relevant to submarine
volcanic successions, is the recognition of a dass of pyritic-
alteration systems in the Mount Read Volcanics that have
some characteristics of high-sulfidation epithermal deposits.
These indude Western Tharsis and Lyell-Comstock, which
contain sub-economic Cu + Au resources (Huston and
Kamprad, 2000; Corbett, 2001), and Basin Lake and Chester,
which appear to be barren (Boda, 1991; Green and Taheri,
1992; Williams, 2000; Williams and Davidson, 2004). White
micas in the central zones of these systems have distinctive,
non-phengitic sodic compositions (Herrmann et al., 2001).
The recognition of sodic white mica, along with low 034S
values in pyrite and the presence of pyrophyllite, enables the
discrimination of this type of alteration system from those
associated with economic Zn-rich polymetallic VHMS
deposits (i.e. Rosebery and Hellyer). The altered footWall
zones of Zn-rich polymetallic VHMS deposits contain
normal potassic to slightly phengitic white micas. The fact
that the compositional variations in white mica can be simply
determined by SWlR spectral analysis makes this a practical
method for selecting and ranking exploration targets.
Mineral chemistry exploration vectors
Many documented studies have shown spatial variations in
mineral chemistry in altered zones around VHMS deposits.
Chlorite has received the most attention, particularly in the
last tWo decades, and there are few deposits for which no
data are available. There has also been significant interest in
carbonate and, to a lesser extent, white mica compositions.
Chlorite compositions are typically Mg-rich in the
proximal altered zones of VHMS deposits. They commonly
show systematic distal trends to more Fe-rich compositions.
These trends are typically recognisable over several hundred
metres, both laterally and stratigraphically into the footWall,
away from the ore. Some examples indude the Seneca and
Corbet deposits in Canada (Urabe et al., 1983), the Arctic
deposit in Alaska (Schmidt, 1988), and the Thalanga deposit
in north Queensland (Paulick et al., 2001). However, there
are many cases where the opposite trend exists and Fe-rich
chlorites occur in proximal altered zones. The Aznacollar and
Masa Valverde deposits are tWo examples in the Iberian pyrite
belt (Sanchez-Espanaet al., 2000). At the Horne deposit,
Canada (MacLean and Hoy, 1991), chlorites in proximal
chlorite-rich zones are more Fe-rich than in the endosing
sericite + chlorite zone (Fig. 4.13). Similarly, at Mattagami
Lake (Abitibi belt, Canada) there is a general trend of Fe
enrichment in chlorites upwards towards the ore position and
outWards from the core of the altered footWall zone (Costa
et al., 1983). In northern Turkey, the dacite-hosted deposits
of the eastern Black Sea province have altered footWall zones
of Mg chlorite and sericite (Cagatay, 1993). In contrast, the
western Black Sea ophiolite-hosted pyritic Cu deposits of
the Kure district are associated with Fe-rich chlorites and
trends of Fe enrichment toward ore. Some deposits exhibit
inconsistent patterns of variations in chlorite composition.
McLeod (1987) found that Mg chlorites around the Mount
Chalmers deposit (Queensland) have a stratigraphic upwards
trend of Fe enrichment in the footWall and a sharp reversal to
Mg enrichment in the mineralised zone. Two recent regional-
GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 89
scale studies by Hannington et al. (2003a, 2003b) showed
contrasting compositional trends in chlorites associated
with VHMS deposits in the Noranda district, Canada, and
Kristineberg deposits of the Skellefte district, Sweden. In
the Noranda district, the moderately Fe-rich compositions
of chlorites (Fe/Fe+Mg 0.4-0.9) associated with sulfide
deposits and surrounding district-scale hydrothermally
altered zones, cQntribute to discrimination of prospective and
non-prospective volcanic centres. However, chlorites in the
Kristineberg district are distinctly Mg rich (Fe/Fe+Mg 0.05-
0.5) and show little variation betWeen proximal and distal
alteration facies. These studies also found the chlorites
associated with sulfide deposits contained significant Mn (up
to 1% MnO) and Zn (up to 0.5% ZnO) suggesting that these
could be used as proximity indicators in exploration.
McLeod and Stanton (1984) investigated several eastern
Australian VHMS deposits and showed that chlorites in
sphalerite-rich ores are relatively Mg rich compared to
those in chalcopyrite-rich ores. Furthermore, the Mg/Fe
ratios of chlorites are related to Mg/Fe ratios of co-existing
phyllosilicates and the Fe content of co-existing sphalerite.
Therefore, zonal compositional variations in chlorite may
be reRected in other alteration mineral species, such as
white mica, which may be more easily measured by SWlR.
Importantly, McLeod and Stanton (1984) conduded that the
compositions of chlorites and other phyllosilicates had not
been significantly modified by subsequent greenschist facies
metamorphism.
Variations in chlorite composition have also been used,
with some success, as empirical and thermodynamically
calculated geothermometers to estimate temperature gradients
in hydrothermal systems above 200°C (e.g. Cathelineau
and Nieva, 1985; Walshe, 1986). They are sensitive to
re-equilibration and therefore not reliable indicators of
hydrothermal temperatures in subsequently metamorphosed
terrains (Green and Taheri, 1992).
below No.5 GoldandHlones
No.5 lone
lone
---- - .
I
...
- - - -,;o.'*- - -,..,.-\-.. -." -r" -'
Mg Fe
FIGURE 4.13 I Ajiv-Mg-Fe calionplolshowingIrendlo Fe-richchlorilewilh
proximilylo Ihe Cu-AuVHMS deposil al Ihe HorneMine, Quebec,Canada(after
MacLeanand Hoy, 1991). WhereAb = albile, Ep = epidole, MI = magnelile and
Ser = sericile.
90 I CHAPTER
4
White micas, commonly referred to as sericite, are
nearly ubiquitous in massive sulfide-related hydrothermal
alteration systems and they can vary considerably from the
ideal muscovite formula of KZAl4[Si6AlZOzo](OH)4(Deer et
al., 1966). The term phengíte refers to white micas in which
Fe, Mg and some other cations substitute for Al in octahedral
sites and the charge balances are maintained by increased SilAl
ratios in tetrahedral sites. Phengitic micas form solid solutions
between the end members of muscovite and celadonite:
Kz(Mg,Fe2+>z{Al,Fe3+)zSisOzo] (OH)4' Barium-rich phengitic
micas, in which Ba substitutes for K in inter-layer sites, also
exist in some sediment-hosted sulfide and VHMS deposits
(e.g. Schmidt, 1988; Jiang et al., 1996; Leistel et al., 1998).
At low to moderate temperatures, there may be limited Na
substitution for K, with Na/Na+K ratios up to about 0.2.
The $Odic muscovites generally have low phengite contents.
White micas formed at temperature below 300°C may have a
significant proponion ofvacancies in inter-layer sites normally
occupied by K, as well as phengite-like Fe-Mg substitution
in octahedral sites. These are commonly termed illites; they
form complex solid solutions between three end-members:
muscovite, celadonite and pyrophyllite. Yang's (1998) review
provides a more detailed description of variations in white
mica compositions.
Although white mica composition has been examined
in a number of massive sulfide-related hydrothermal
alteration systems, few studies were systematic enough to
evaluate its usefulness as an exploration tool. White micas
in the proximal altered zones of the weakly metamorphosed
Hellyer deposit, western Tasmania, are more phengitic than
the normal muscovites in distal altered zones (Yang, 1998).
At the nearby but slighdy more metamorphosed Que River
deposit, Offler and Whitford (1992) found considerable
small-scale compositional variations in mica, even within
single samples, due to a complex alteration history.
Although the metamorphic phases preserve hydrothermal
alteration compositional trends, no convincing vectors were
recognised, possibly because of structural complications.
Around the Arctic deposit, Alaska, white micas span almost
the entire compositional range between muscovite and
celadonite (Schmidt, 1988). Metamorphic micas outside the
hydrothermal altered zones are highly phengitic. Micas in a
variery of proximal alteration mineral assemblages are variably
phengitic; some contain up to 0.4 cations of Ba per formula
unit and the least-phengitic rypes are significandy sodic. It is
not dear whether these variations are systematic enough to be
used as broad exploration vectors.
Altered zones in the Iberian pyrite belt also have a confusing
variery of mica composition patterns. Plimer and de Carvalho
(1982) found that white micas in altered footwall zones
around the Salgadinho Cu deposit are phengitic, and appear
to show increase in Fe/Fe+Mg ratios towards the mineralised
zone. In contrast, in the Rio Tinto deposit the proximal altered
zones contain muscovite and the distal altered zones (up to
2500 m from the deposit) contain micas of more phengitic
composition (Leistel et al., 1998). The Masa Valverde deposit
is associated with Ba-rich muscovites and some ore bodies in
the Aljtistrel district have extensive halos of sodic white mica
(Leistel et al., 1998; Carvalho and Barriga, 2000).
With the possible exception ofBa substitution, most of the
compositional variations in white micas are semi-quantifiable
by SWIR spectral analysis. This has been demonstrated
by several recent studies in the Mount Read Volcanics
(Herrmann et al., 2001). Figure 4.14provides an example of
variations in wavelengths of Al-OH bond-related absorption
features in SWIR spectra of white mica in samples taken at
intervals from a single drill hole. These wavelength variations
are direcdy related to white mica compositional variations.
Some alteration systems, particularly those associated with
disseminated Cu-Au deposits and/or kaolinite :t pyrophyllite
assemblages, exhibit compositional gradients in white mica
compositions that are measurable over a few hundred metres.
The background white mica compositions are commonly
variably phengitic and tend to non-phengitic muscovite
or sodic-muscovite in proximal altered zones (e.g. Huston
and Kamprad, 2000; Herrmann et al., 2001). Figure 4.15
illustrates variations in wavelengths of Al-OH absorption
features, related to white mica composition, spatially around
the Western Tharsis deposito
Carbonates are a third group of minerals that can
accommodate compositional variations and are common in
some VHMS altered zones. Documentation of carbonate
compositional trends and zonal distributions is fairly sparse.
However, it seems that massive-sulfide-related carbonates are
rypically Fe-, Mg- or Mn-bearing phases, and background
diagenetic or metamorphic carbonates are commonly calcic.
Documented examples indude the Hokuroku district in
Japan (Shikazono et al., 1998), the Rosebery deposit in
western Tasmania (Large et al., 2001b), and the South Bay
deposit in northwest Ontario (Urabe et al., 1983).
13
36
95
115
135
195
1250
1255
1260
1310
00
1480
1111111111111
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Wavelength
(nm)
FIGURE4.14 I Stack01selectedSWIRhuI!quotientspectra01 coresamples
lram a diamond-drillholethraughthe alteredzoneat the Chesterdeposit,
westernTasmania.Annotationson the left side are depthsin metresdownthe
hole.The spectralleatures are almostentirelyattributableto white micain the
alterationmineralassemblages.Notethe distinctvariationin wavelengths01
the AI-OH absorptionleaturesat araund2200 nm. These indicatethat the hole
intersectedmineralassemblagescontainingnormalpotassicmuscovitein the
upper part,sodic white micalram about 100to 250 m and muscoviteto slightly
phengiticwhite mica in the lowerparto
 GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERDROCKS I 91

1000
WesternTharsis
88S0N
Al-OHabsorption
featurewavelength
>2204nm
.
.. Rosebery
DDH120R r r
MnC03 + CaC03
J
. r
r
r Feldspar-phyric
dacite

2202-2204 MountBlackfault
2200-2202 +
2198-2200
2196-2198 Feldsparandquartzcrystal-
<2196 lithicpumicebreccia

~ >0.5%Cu

2000RL
~
Blackmudstone

12001
-1
~
e.
1 .t
Volcanicsandstone
Blackmudstone
Q) Volcanicsandstoneand
-o
siltstone

1300"
Feldspar+ quartz+ biotite-
phyricdaciticsil!

'- ._.~ Pumice

breccia?
1500RL Pb-Znmassive
sulfide
- 100m "" I
.. ..

- "" I
Feldspar-phyric
rhyolitic
pumice
breccia
FIGURE4.15 I Cross-sectionofthe WesternTharsisdeposit (western ...1 ""
Tasmania)showingzonation01wavelengths01AI-OHabsorptionleatures in
SWIR spectra.The background012200-2210 nm, correspondingto slightly
phengiticwhite mica,decreasesover a lew hundredmetresto 2194-2198 nm, ..""
attributableto non-phengitic,slightlysodic white mica in the proximalaltered
zone associatedwith disseminatedpyriteand chalcopyrite. 1500
O 20 40 60 80 100
mole %
lnevitably, there are exceptions, such as the deposits of
FIGURE4.16 I Downholeplot 01drill hole 120R illustratingthe distribution01
the northern lberian pyrite belt, which have calcite, ankerite
Mn-richcarbonates(kutnahoriteand manganosiderite-rhodochrosite)in proximity
and dolomite in proximal alteration mineral assemblages to K-Iens01the RoseberyPb-ZnVHMS deposit,westernTasmania.Magnesium-
(Sanchez-Espana et al., 2000).The Mattabi deposit in the carbonatesoccurin the lootwall and in a thin unit 01altered pumicebreccia
Sturgeon Lake area, Canada, is underlain by a funnel shaped immediatelyabovethe ore lens; carbonatesmore than 50 m above ore in the
siderite-rich altered zone grading ourwards to dolomite, hangingwall sequenceare Ca rich.

which is widespread on a district scale in the foorwall and

hanging-wall volcanic rocks.
Hydrothermal carbonates in the Rosebery-Hercules area,
western Tasmania, are conspicuously Mn rich, (Khin Zaw and
Large, 1992; Large et al., 2001 b). Large et al. (2001 b) showed
that Mn-siderite and ankerite carbonates in the foorwall of
the Rosebery deposit increase in Mn content towards ore (Fig.
4.16). Magnesium contents of carbonates in altered foorwall
zones of the South Bay deposit, Canada, increase steadily
towards ore over distances of tens to hundreds of metres
(Urabe et al., 1983).
Chlorite, white mica and carbonate all have potential as
mineral exploration vectors, at least on a prospect or deposit
scale. However, the considerable diversiry of compositional
trends in the published data indicate that exploration vectors
need to be empirically established on a district or deposit
speciflc basis, and are not universally applicable.
 f
92 I CHAPTER
4

TABLE 4.2 I Naturalabundancesof H, e, o and S isotopes,and standardsin

4.3 I STABLE
ISOTOPES commonuse (datafrom Rollinson,1993).

IStable % Natl.lral
Standard
abundance
Theoreticalbackground Ilsotope . ._..k_'_-- .
1H 99.9844 8td meanoceanwater(8MOW),Vienna-
Isotope geochemistry is a diverse and rather specialised 8MOW (V-8MOW)or POSbelemnite.
science. This section aims to provide a bare oudine of
aspects that have particular relevance to interpretation of 20 0.0156
altered volcanic rocks. Ir includes only a brief introduction 12C 98.89 POSbelemnite
to theoretical principIes, necessary to grasp the applications. 13C 1.11
We recommend that interested readers supplement this by
referring to other textbooks - Rollinson (1993) provides an
160 99.7630 8td mean oceanwater (8MOW),Vienna-
excellentworking basis.
8MOW (V-8MOW)or POSbelemnite.
Isotopes are distinct atomic forms of elements that
have the same number of protons but different numbers 170 0.0375
of neutrons in their nuclei. Of the 92 naturally occurring 180 0.1995
elements, 60 consist of more than one isotope and many 328 95.02 Troilitein CanonOiablometeorite(COT)
of them have two or more stable isotopes.That meansthat
they are non-radioactive, and do not change naturally, or 338 0.75
decay,into other radiogenic elements by emissionsof sub- 348 4.21
atomic particles from their nuclei. Some natural radiogenic 368 0.02
isotopes have important geological uses in geochronology,
petrogenesisand metallogenesis,becausetheir ratesof decay
are constant and measurable.Stable isotopes also have many
geological applications, mainly based on their properties Isotopicapplicationsin alterationstudies
of isotopic fractionation. The stable isotopes of the light
elements H, e, o and sulfur have received the most attention Isotopic srudies of alteration mineral assemblages associated
from geochemists because they are naturally abundant in the with mineralised zones may help to estimate alteration
hydrosphere and in crustal rocks, not least in altered rocks. temperatures and water-rock ratios, interpret Huid origins,
Informal isotopic notation uses the chemical symbol of the discriminate between alteration styles and identify altered
element preceded by the mass number of the isotope written halo s around ore deposits. However, it is worth repeating
as a superscript. Thus 170 denotes the oxygen isotope with Ohmoto's (1986) cautionary advice to integrate isotopic
17 nucleons, comprising eight protons and nine neutrons. A srudies with geologic, mineralogic and geochemical data. He
single isotope, which usually has equal numbers of protons stated: 'there is more than one process, which may produce
and neutrons, typically dominates the isotopic composition the same isotopic characteristics (in an ore deposit) and
of eachelement (Table4.2).Therefore isotopic ratios are very me same geological process may produce entirely different
small numbers (e.g. for the average abundances of oxygen isotopic characteristics in different conditions. Therefore,
isotopes, 180 1160 = 0.002). To avoid direct comparison of isotopic data alone cannot provide a unique answer to any
these unconvincingly small ratios, stable isotopic proportions geological problem, especially when the data are limited to
are expressedin parts per thousand (i.e. per mil, %0) relative isotopes of one element.'
to a standard material (i.e. delta form). For example: Diagenetic and hydrothermal alteration of volcanic rocks
invariably involves hydration reactions, between minerals
u"180 01
100 = 1000 (180/160 sample - 180/160 Standard ) and water, and so the amount and isotopic composition
(180/16°Standard) of water are important variables. Apart from geologic
variability, sample preparation, isotopic analytical methods
and calibration of fractionation factors also introduce
Stable isotopes undergo fractionation (or selective signiflcant uncertainties. Experimentally, empirically and
partitioninginto differentphases) accordingto thermodynamic thermodynamically determined isotopic fractionation factors
properties that are related to their differing atomic weights provide a confusing diversity of choice for use in isotopic
and consequent ionic bond strengths (Faure, 1986; Rollinson, calculations. The Laboratoire de géochimie isotopique at
1993). Fractionation may occur by several physicochemical Université Lava!, Quebec, has a comprehensive compilation
processes of which the most geologically important are of fractionation factors from many published sources and
isotopic exchange reactions between phases. The degree of is accessible at <www.gg1.ulava1.ca/personnel/beaudoin/labo>
fractionation is controlled by physical and chemical factors, (Beaudoin and Therrien, 1999).
which vary according to the elements and fractionation
processes involved. Thus, O-isotopic fractionation is largely
dependent on temperature, whereas S-isotopic fractionation Geothermometers
is inHuenced by temperature, pH, ¡02' and the activities of
sulfur and other cations involved with sulfate. The temperature dependency of isotope fractionations
between mineral pairs forms the basis of isotope geo-
 GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 93

thermometry. Provided that the paired minerals formed in

equilibrium, that their fractionation factors are known and SMOW connate
are significandy different, their original isotopic compositions Kuroko fluids brines I

[J
have been retained and can be separately determined, then a
combination of equations can be solved for temperature of -40
:
1 metamorphicH,O
1'
I
I
formation. 1 í - -. (300-600°C) 1
I 1 1 1
This approach is useful with O isotopes, because O is 1 1 1 1
~ -~-~ ~
common to, and abundant in, silicates and other alteration o I 1
00
-80 1- ! pnmarymagmaticH,O
phases, such as carbonates and sulfates. Ir is also applicable
to S-isotopic compositions of minerals in complex sulfide
and ore assemblages. Hydrogen isotopes are not generally
reliable as geothermometers because they are readily modified -120
by subsequent fluid interactions. Furthermore, the mineral
fractionation facrors are relatively insensitive to temperature
and are not well calibrated (Ohmoto, 1986). -20 -10 o 10 20
Ir is usually difficult to physically separate fine-grained 1\180(°/00)

minerals for isotopic analysis and to petrographically demon-

strate equilibrium between the analysed phases. However,
close agreement between several temperature estimates of two
or more pairs of minerals in a single assemblage (e.g. quartz +
magnetite, muscovite + chlorite and calcite + chlorite) would
inspire reasonable confidence in their isotopic equilibrium
and the calculated temperature.
In fluid-dominated hydrothermal systems, mineral-water
O-isotope fractionation factors can be used to estimate relative
temperatures. Although it is difficult to reliably measure
the isotopic composition of the water from fluid inclusions
(Nesbitt, 1996), an assumed value can provide approximate
or relative temperature estimates. This approach is used in
the determination of ocean palaeo-temperatures from <')180
values of the carbonate shells of marine organisms (Rollinson,
1993) and also has applications in mineral exploration (e.g.
Miller et al., 2001).
Fluid origins
FIGURE4.171 00- and 0180-isotopiccompositions01naturalwaters (Irom
Taylor,1979;Ohmoto,1986).SMOWis standardmean oceanwaterwith 00-
and 0180values010%0.
hydrothermal alteration systems. Water-rock ratios can be
estimated from whole-rock O-isotope data or from inferences
of mass transfers and solubilities (e.g. Ohmoto et al., 1983).
Unaltered mafic volcanic rocks have initial <')180values
in the range 6 to 7.5%0, slighdy higher than the mande
value of 5.7%0, and unaltered felsic volcanic rocks have
values up to about 10%0, (Hoefs, 1973). The <')180values of
hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks will differ from initial
values, depending on the temperature and mineral assemblage
(which affect fractionation), the initial isotopic composition
of the water and the quantiry of water that reacted with a given
amount of rock. The water-rock ratio is usually expressed in
atomic proportions of oxygen.
Taylor (1979) presented the following equations expressing
these relationships in closed and open hydrothermal systems:

Natural waters have a broad range of H- and 0- closed systems

isotopic compositions because of fractionation effects
in the hydrosphere, lithosphere and mande (Fig. 4.17).
Consequendy, it may be possible to infer the source or sources
of alteration fluids, and something about their evolution,
from their isotopic signature.
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal minerals may permit
direct measurement, but commonly the fluid compositions are
calculated from isotopic compositions of alteration minerals
with known fractionation characteristics, that are assumed to
have been in equilibrium with the hydrothermal fluidoIsotopic
composition of a single hydrothermal mineral may constrain
the fluid composition if independent temperature estimates,
such as fluid inclusion data, are available. Otherwise, isotopic
compositions of mineral pairs in equilibrium can be used (as
oudined above) to deduce temperature, which can then be
applied in the mineral-water fractionation relationship to
estimate fluid-isotopic composition.
Water-rock carlos
Knowledge of water-rock ratios may help to determine
the processes of alteration and interpret the hydrology of
w/r <')180/ - <')180/
<')180wi- <')180/ - ~r
open systems
w/r In(<')180wi + llwr - <')180,i)
<')180wi - <')180/ - ~r
where the superscripts and subscripts i, f, w and r, respectively
refer to initial, final, water and rock.
These equations can be plotted as curves of the rype
illustrated in Figure 4.18, which relate <')180 / to water-rock
ratios. Thus, a measured final <')180rcan be used to estimate
the amount of water involved in hydrothermal or diagenetic
alteration, under assumed (or otherwise determined) values
for temperature, whole-rock fractionation factors and the
initial isotopic compositions of fluid and rock.
However, as discussed in some detail by Ohmoto (1986)
and noted by Green and Taheri (1992), natural geologic
systems are not likely to be simple isothermic, closed or open
systems. Rates of isotopic re-equilibration vary according to
temperature, and the isotopic compositions ofboth rock and
94 I CHAPTER
4
30
Huid change incrementally along the Howpath. The final rack
0180 reHects an integrated history of Huid-rack reaction and
offers only braad constraints on temperature and water-rack
ratio. Creen and Taheri (1992) suggested that conditions
50°C of diagenesis might approximate a closed system, whereas
submarine hydrathermal convection is more analogous to an
20
open system. Water-rock ratios calculated under assumptions
"'" of either closed or open systems are likely to represent the
u
o 100°C
O-
o:>
---~ minimum values because of kinetic and incremental factors
affecting rates of re-equilibration. Natural open systems may
rn require water-rack ratios one or rwo orders of magnitude
'" "",""--
u:: ,, greater to achieve equivalent shifts in the isotopic composition
10
-" ,, 200°C of the rack (Ohmoto, 1986).
"'-'-- - -~ - - -- - - - - - Nevertheless, consideration of water-rack ratios is
important in evaluation of whole-rack 0180 data. This will
be further eXplained in the following section on isotopic
exploration vectors.
400°C
o 1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Water-rackratio(atomicpraportions) Oxygen-isotope exploration vectors

FIGURE4.18 I Curves illustratingrelationshipsbetweenwater-rackratio

andfinal-rack(\180 atvariousequilibration temperatures underparameters01:
(\180water=0%0,(\18°i =7 °/00,Iractionationlactor I'1wr=(2.68x 106/12)
- 3.53
(plagioclase).Solid and dashedlines representopen and closedsystems,
respectively.Note that re-equilibrationwith a small amount01water at low
temperature canpraducea largeincreaseinrack(\180.
Early isotopic studies (e.g. O'Neil and Silberman, 1974;
Taylar, 1974) discovered the link berween terrestrial epi-
thermal Au-Ag deposits, meteoric-hydrathermal convection
and very braad halos oflow 0180 in volcanic host racks. These
extensive isotopic halos had obvious potential as semi-regional
exploration vectors and stimulated further investigations into
volcanic successions hosting other deposit rypes.
Among them was the landmark study by Creen et al.
(1983) on whole-rack O-isotope geochemistry in the host
rocks to VHMS deposits in the Hokuroku district, ]apan. They
found concentric zonation of whole-rack 0180 values araund
the cluster ofFukuzawa ore bodies ranging fram 6.7:t 1.3%0

Norlh South

elevation
(m)
400

200

14'", 0'11

-200 ' , '----- . - - - - ,,",:

e hOflzon-
8
D Zone1- zeolite
I '
--400

-600
D
D
D
Zone 11-montmorillonite
Zone111- sericite+ chlorite
ZoneIV- Na-montmorillonite
1 km
~
'- dolerite
,, v
,,

FIGURE4.19 I Crass-sectioniIIustratingthe distributionolwhole-rock (\180 values (blackcontours),and alteredlootwall zonesaroundthe Fukuzawadeposits,

Hokurokudistrict,Japan (modifiedalter Green et al., 1983).

m the proximal sericite + chlorite zone and 11.1 :t 2.5%0
in the surrounding 1-3 km-wide montmorillonite zone,
to 16.9:t 2.7%0 in the outer zeolite zone (Fig. 4.19). The
i)180 anomaly is significandy broader and less variable than
elemental geochemical halos; it extends up to 1 km laterally
beyond the NazO depletion anomaly and at least 400 m into
the hanging wall above the mineralised zone. The wide extent
of the whole-rock i)180 anomaly is advantageous for regional
exploration. Ir has particular application in deformed terrains
where the original mineral assemblages of hydrothermally
altered zones has been obscured by subsequent metamorphism,
because the hydrothermal whole-rock i)180 patterns may still
be preserved. This is because regional metamorphism typically
involves low water-rock ratios.
The observed whole-rock i)180 values are consistent with
isotopic exchange between the host rocks and large amounts
of seawater (0%0, w/r >1) at different temperatures. Isotopic
modelling, using a plagiodase fractionation factor as an
average felsic volcanic rock value, showed that high i)180
values in the diagenetic zeolite zone could be produced by
interaction with fluid of virtually any source (magmatic, sea
or meteoric) at low temperatures and relatively small water-
rock ratios. This may be due to the high fractionation factors
between silicates and water at temperatures below 100°C.
However, low i)180 values of the proximal sericite + chlorite
zone are more consistent with conditions of equilibrium with
Depth Rate Q>x 10-1
(km) 1000years 2000years
O
(~
\D
U(
O 1 2 O
Distance
(km)
'--mrd.iiA~
-10 -8 -6
FIGURE4.20 I Modelleddistributionof changesin whole-rock/)180
around a subseafloorintrusion(after Cathles, 1983).The intrusionis 1 km wide and 3.25 km deep, and emplacedwith its top 1.75 km belowthe
seafloor.Re-equilibration
withdown-welling,
low-temperature seawaterproduces a shallowzoneof higher/)180. Increasing
createa sub-horizontal
zoneoflow/)180,whichpropagates uptotheseafloorresultinginthecharacteristiclow/)180 surrounded
positiveanomalies.Notethatthecontoursrepresent
shiftsfromtheinitialrock/)180 values,nottheactualrock/)180 values.
GEOCHEMISTRYOF ALTERERD ROCKS I 95
either meteoric waters at unrealistically low water-rock ratios
(-8%0, <0.2) or seawater at 200-300°C and moderate to large
water-rock ratios. The submarine volcanic environment and
implications of hydrothermal mass transfers favour the latter
interpretation.
Cathles (1983) carried out detailed thermal, geochemical
and isotopic analysis of a hypothetical, but geologically
realistic, submarine intrusion-heated convective hydrothermal
system. His model produced O-isotopic results that were
consistent with i)180 data observed by Green et al. (1983)
in the Hokuroku district. Ir predicts that rocks in the shallow
substrate become isotopically heavier by reaction with
down-welling seawater at low temperatures. Lower isotopic
fractionation, due to increased temperatures at depths greater
than about 2 km below the seafloor, produces a zone of low
rock ;)180. As the convective system evolves, and depending
on permeability and rate of isotopic exchange, the deep-
low ;)180 zone migrates up through the shallow-high ;)180
anomaly, to produce a low ;)180 isotopic anomaly around the
vent site (Fig. 4.20).
Chapter 8 summarises some other deposit- and district-
scale isotopic studies, which illustrate the possible complexities
in submarine volcanic successions, but indicate significant
potential for whole-rock O-isotope geochemistry in targeting
mineral exploration: potential that has not been widely
applied outside academic studies.
3000years 5000 years
2 O 2 O 2 3 4
0180 rack (%0)
11 I I I I
-4 -2 O 2 4 6 8 10
valuesdue to hydrothermalalterationgeneratedby the convectionof fluid
temperatures
at depth
bya haloof
96 I

5 SEAFLOOR- AND BURIAL-RELATED
ALTERATION
This chapter discusses the alteration processes and their
products (textures, minerals and zones) that occur immediately
after deposition and during burial of volcanic facies in
submarine environments. Ir encompasses the relatively low-
temperature processes of hydration, diagenesis and early
burial metamorphism.
Providedsufficienttime, burial-relatedalteration ultimately
results in the lithification of clastic facies in the succession.
Oxidation, hydration, dissolution, dehydration, ion exchange,
and hydrolysis reactions result in the breakdown of volcanic
glass, precipitation of authigenic minerals in pore space, and
replacement of glass and magmatic minerals by new minerals.
Alteration mineral assemblages may change over time due
to changing physical and chemical conditions during burial,
and may progress to low-pressure, high-temperature regional
metamorphic assemblages at depth (Coombs et al., 1959).
The recognition and description ofburial-related alteration
sryles in submarine volcanic successions has implications
for exploration and ore genesis studies, because of dramatic
changes in porosiry and permeabiliry, which result from
cementation, compaction and dissolution during diagenesis.
These changes inHuence subsequent Huid pathways and the
sites of hydrothermal venting and mineralisation. Although
it has been frequently assumed that compositional changes
associated with diagenetic alteration are limited, they may
involve mass changes of up to 9% (Gifkins and Allen, 2001).
Diagenetic and burial metamorphic mineral assemblages and
the thickness of altered zones can also be used to determine a
basin's thermal history (e.g. Utada, 1991).
5.1 I ALTERATION
RELATEDTOSEA.
FLOORPROCESSES
ANDBURIAL
Distinctive weathering and burial-related alteration processes
occur in submarine volcanic successions because of rapid
accumulation rates, and the presence of abundant glass and
seawater. Silicate glasses are more susceptible than minerals
to alteration, because they lack well-developed crystal
structures and thus will readily devitrifY, dissolve or alter to
minerals. Glass fragments are especially prone to alteration
because of their reactiviry and large surface area to volume
I 97
ratio. At elevated temperatures, volcanic glass readily alters
in the presence of alkaline Huids, but the rate of alteration is
reduced under dry conditions or in the presence of pure water
(Lofgren, 1970). For example, hydration and devitrification
rates of felsic volcaniclastic facies increase one to five orders
of magnitude in the presence of seawater (Lofgren, 1970,
1971b).
Another imporrant aspect of burial-related alteration in
volcanic and igneous rocks is that anhydrous primary igneous
minerals that have crystallised at high temperatures (e.g.
olivine and pyroxene) become unstable and alter to hydrous
minerals at lower temperatures. The extent of these retrograde
reactions depends on the availabiliry of water and the rock
permeabiliry.
The effects of diagenesis and burial metamorphism on
thick, proximal volcanic successions are relatively poorly
understood and documented, and detailed studies are
almost exclusively limited to well-sorred, fine-grained felsic
volcaniclastic facies.
The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) in fore-arc and
back-arc basins in the western Pacific region has provided
imporrant information on the behaviour of volcanic
components during early low-temperature alteration and
lithification, and the factors controlling the intensiry and
depth of diagenetic alteration in Miocene to Recent felsic to
intermediate sandstones (e.g. Hein and Scholl, 1978; Taylor
and Surdam, 1981; Klein and Lee, 1984; Hay and Guldman,
1987; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992; Tazaki and Fyfe, 1992;
Torres et al., 1995). Studies in mafic volcanic successions have
generally been limited to seafloor alteration (e.g. Bonatti,
1965; Hay and lijima, 1968a; Honnorez, 1978; Zhou and
Fyfe, 1989).
Limited work in uplifted and eroded ancient submarine
successions provides data on diagenetic and burial
metamorphic minerals, textures and zones that formed at
depths greater than 1 km (e.g. in New Zealand, Coombs,
1954; Coombs et al., 1959; in Canada, Kuniyoshi and Liou,
1976; Starkey and Frost, 1990; in Australia, Smith, 1969;
Smith et al., 1982; Gifkins and Allen, 2001; Gifkins et al., in
press; and in Japan, Hay and lijima, 1968a; Seki et al., 1969;
lijima and Utada, 1972; Utada, 1991).
Active geothermal regions provide direct measurements of
temperatures, alteration mineral assemblages and pore water
98 I CHAPTER
5
chemistry at relatively shallow depths, less than 2 km (e.g.
Coombs et al., 1959; White and Sigvaldason, 1962; Viereck
et al., 1982). In addition, experimental work on the alteration
of natural and synthetic glasses by modified seawater provides
estimates of alteration mineralogy, temperature ranges for
mineral species, Huid-rock ratios, elemental variations in glass,
and variations in Huid chemistry over time. Basalt-seawater
experiments were performed by: Hajash (1975, 1977),
Keene et al. (1976), Seyfried and Bischoff (1977), Mottl and
Seyfried (1977), Seyfried et al. (1978), Hajash and Archer
(1980), Seyfried and Mottl (1982), and Ghiara et al. (1993).
Rhyolite-seawater experiments were conducted by: Ellis and
Mahon (1964), Sakai et al. (1978), Hajash and Chandler
(1981), Shiraki et al. (1987) and Shiraki and Iiyama (1990).
Physicalconditions
Early studies assumed that burial-related alteration mineral
assemblages and zonation patterns in submarine volcanic
successions were controlled by pressure and temperature
conditions. However, it is now believed that the composition
and pressure of intergranular Huids and the composition of
the primary facies are more important (e.g. Miyashiro and
Shido, 1970; Surdam, 1973). Differences in the mineral
assemblage, intensity, stratigraphic position and sequence of
burial-related altered zones may be eXplained by variations in:
primary rock composition, pore-Huid composition, pore-Huid
pressure, geothermal gradient and hence temperature, burial
history and sediment accumulation rate, interaction time or
age, Huid-rock ratio, porosity and permeability, and tectonic
setting (Hay, 1966; Surdam, 1973; Furnes, 1975; Boles and
Coombs, 1977; Ratterman and Surdam, 1981; Lee and Klein,
1986; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992; Ghiara et al., 1993).
Temperatures reached during diagenesis and burial
metamorphism are directly related to the geothermal gradient
and in submarine settings these range from O°C at the seaHoor
to 250°C at a depth of 2-10 km (Alt and Honnorez, 1984;
Morrow and McIlreath, 1990; Alt, 1995b; Torres et al.,
1995). In modern volcanic successions, measured geothermal
gradients average 40°C/km, although some are as high as
200°C/km (Palmasson et al., 1979; Viereck et al., 1982).
High geothermal gradients, associated with magmatism and
regions of lithospheric extension such as back-arc basins and
rifes, can enhance diagenetic reactions by increasing reaction
rates (Boles, 1977; Surdam and Boles, 1979; Torres et al.,
1995).
The geothermal gradient may have varied in different parts
of a geosyndine or basin; it was likely to have been lowest
where the sediment was thickest and where sedimentation
occurred most rapidly (Coombs et al., 1959). Taylor et al.
(1990) proposed that examples of minimal diagenesis in some
basins may be eXplained by rapid sediment accumulation
rates that did not allow sufficient time for diagenetic
reactions to occur at depth or for the development of pore-
Huid gradients. In addition, magmatism provides heat to
the geothermal system, locally increasing the geothermal
gradient and compressing isograds near volcanic centres or
large intrusions (e.g. Schiffman et al., 1984; Neuhoff et al.,
1997). Coeval volcanism, plutonism and rapid burial may
establish short-lived elevated geothermal gradients in many
submarine volcanic successions. The result is low-pressure,
high-temperature diagenesis and metamorphism, and the
suppression of some facies or zones (e.g. pumpellyite-
actinolite facies, Patuki ophiolite sequence, New Zealand,
Sivell, 1984).
Definitions
The term spilite refers to an altered basalt or dolerite,
commonly porphyritic and vesicular, in which Ca-plagiodase
has been albitised and is accompanied by chlorite, calcite,
epidote, prehnite or other low-temperature hydrous minerals
typical of greenschist facies (e.g. Cann, 1969; Jolly and Smith,
1972; Grapes, 1976). Spilites are interpreted to result from
seawater-basalt interaction during diagenesis on or near
the seaHoor (Coombs, 1974; Turner, 1980). Similarly, the
term keratophyre, although originally restricted to lavas, has
been applied to all felsic rocks that contain albite or albite-
oligodase, chlorite, epidote and calcite.
5.2 I HYDRATION
Hydration of glass is typically the first stage of alteration of
volcanic facies in submarine settings and occurs during low-
temperature «50°C) seaHoor weathering and the early stages
of diagenesis. Hydrated glasses (e.g. perlite or palagonite) are
very susceptible to alteration (Lipman, 1965). Hydration
facilitates subsequent reactions as it increases the alkalinity
of the pore Huid, which assists glass dissolution, pro motes
crystallisation, and may produce perlitic fractures, which
further increase porosity and permeability (Lofgren, 1970;
Friedman and Long, 1984; Noh and Boles, 1989; Caseyand
Bunker, 1990).
Hydration involves the diffusion of water into solid glass;
typically accompanied by a volume change (e.g. reaction R5.1
from Noh and Boles, 1989). As water is rapidly absorbed on
to glass surfaces, hydration initially affects the outer surfaces
of glassy dasts, lavas or shallow intrusions, margins along
fractures in glassy facies, pillow margins, and densely welded
pyrodastic deposits. This is followed by the slow diffusion
of water into the glass as hydration proceeds inwards along
hydration fronts defined by strain birefringence, and changes
in glass colour and refractive indices (Ross and Smith, 1955;
Friedman et al., 1966; Lofgren, 1971a). The rate of diffusion
is dependent on composition and temperature and, hence,
the extent of alteration is dependent on the time that glass
has been in contact with water (O'Keefe, 1984). Most glasses
will not undergo hydration to great thicknesses unless parallel
reactions relax the glass structure allowing water penetration
(Casey and Bunker, 1990).
dacitic glass + nH20 --.,. perlitic glass + Na+ + (OH)- (R5.1)
Hydration increases the H20 content of glass, reorganises
the glass structure and may form palagonite or silica gels.
Changes in the glass structure may indude volume changes,
and the formation of evenly spaced tiny bubbles and perlitic
fractures. Boundaries between glass and hydrated glass are

typically sharp (Peacock, 1926; Lofgren, 1971a; Fisher and
Schmincke, 1984).
Palagonite
Palagonite is a dull, resinous, yellow-orange to brown wax-
like substance formed from hydrous altered sideromelane
(basaltic) glass (Fig. 5.1). Ir is a mineraloid mixture of relict
hydrated glass, nontronite, montmorillonite and other sheet
silicates (Hay and Iijima, 1968b; Honnorez, 1969; Jakobsson
and Moore, 1986). Eggleton and Keller (1982) described
palagonite as a transitional alteration phase between volcanic
SEAFLOOR- ANOBURIAL-RELATEO
ALTERATION I 99
glass and smectite; however, the end product may not always
be smectite.
There are two main varieties: gel-palagonite and fibro-
palagonite (Peacock, 1926). Gel-palagonite is isotropic, dark
brown and commonly banded, forming directly adjacent to
unaltered glass (Peacock, 1926; Zhou and Fyfe, 1989). Fibro-
palagonite is orange-yellow, transparent and birefringent
(Zhou and Fyfe, 1989).
Palagonite is widespread in submarine basaltic facies and
common around the edges of glassy grains in basaltic tuffs, in
pillow rinds, along fractures in glass, and in originally glassy
vesicle walls (Moore, 1966; Baragar et al., 1977; Friedman
and Long, 1984). Partly altered basaltic pillows typically

A. Gel-palagonite in pillow basalt

The sideromelane groundmass of this plagioclase +
augite-phyric basalt is altered to yellow-brown palagonite
adjacent to the vesicle (V). The gel-palagonite exhibits ,.
banding parallel to the vesicle wall and perpendicular
contraction cracks. Plane polarised light.
Sample 153254, Miocene Waitakere Group, Muriwai,
Northland region, New Zealand.

B. Palagonite-altered basalt dast rind

The basalt clast in this polymictic conglomerate has a
thin palagonitised rindo The plagioclase-phyric clast is
concentrically zoned with an unaltered sideromelane
core (e), yellow-brown gel-palagonite altered zone (P)
and a brown fibro-palagonite rim (R). The conglomerate
matrix includes palagonitised basaltic shards and crystal
fragments. Plane polarised light.
J Sample 131562, Tertiary Macquarie Plains volcanics,
Bushy Park, Msmania.

C. Banded palagonite
The palagonite-altered rind on this basalt clast displays
fine concentric banding. Plane polarised light.
Sample 131562, Tertiary Macquarie Plains volcanics,
Bushy Park, Msmania.

FIGURE5.1 I Photomicrographs01palagonite.
)
100 I CHAPTER
5
have glassy cores successively surrounded by concentric zones
of gel-palagonite and fibro-palagonite (:r: smectite), which
are enhanced by bands of fine Fe- and Ti-oxides (Fig. 5.2:
Dimroth and Lichtblau, 1979; Zhou and Fyfe, 1989).
Palagonites have variable compositions with 10-20 wt%
H20 (Brey and Schmincke, 1980; Eggleton and Keller, 1982;
Pichler et al., 1999). Compared with sideromelane, Fe2+is
oxidised, K2O, FeO, Ti02 and Cl may be locally gained, and
Na20, Al203' Si02 and CaO lost (Baragar et al., 1977, 1979;
Jakobsson and Moore, 1986; Zhou and Fyfe, 1989). However,
whole-rock compositions are not significantly changed, except
for H20. Palagonitisation is typically accompanied by the
groWth of authigenic minerals in open pore spaces (Fig. 5.2)
and these commonly account for the elements lost from the
glass (e.g. Baragar et al., 1979; Jakobsson and Moore, 1986).
Genesis of palagonite
Zhou and Fyfe (1989) and others have proposed a two-
stage solution-precipitation mechanism for palagonitisation
of sideromelane based on physical characteristics, chemical
changes and the presence of etch or dissolution pits at alteration
fronts. The first stage is Ti constant: glass is dissolved and
gel-palagonite formed. There is a dramatic reduction in the
glass volume due to the loss of greater than 60% of the Si02,
Al203' MgO, CaO and Na20. The second stage is volume
constant: gel-palagonite is replaced by fibro-palagonite, and
zeolites begin to fill adjacent fractures and vesicles. CaO
and Na20 are lost, and K20 and Si02, Al203 and MgO are
gained from solution. Titanium and Fe3+are localised into
nearby fracture-filling clay and oxide minerals.
The rate of palagonitisation is temperature dependent and
doubles with every l2°C increase in temperature Qakobsson
and Moore, 1986). Palagonitisation proceeds rapidly at
temperatures above 50°C and up to 150°C Qakobsson,
1972, 1978). Jakobsson and Moore (1986) noted that
palagonitisation of glass varied from less than 40% at 60°C,
through 90% at 100°C and was complete at temperatures
above l20°e. They also found that both gel- and fibro-
palagonite occurred below 8YOC, but only fibro-palagonite
occurred above this temperature.
The thickness of palagonite rinds is time and temperature
dependent. Palagonite rinds in pillow basalts systematically
/l A
~
VD
~
p
~
eL] Fresh glass
I~I Hydrated and oxidised glass
with perlitic fractures
FIGURE. 5.2 I Sequence01palagonilealleralion and zeolile cemenlalionslages in phonolilicglassIragmenls(alter Brey and Schmincke,1980, in Fisher and
Schmincke,1984).(A) Glassyshards, perhapswilh monlmorillonilerim cemenls.(B) Hydralionand developmenl01perlilic Iracluresaccompaniedby partial
dissolulionand alleralion 01glass shardslo gel-palagonile.(C) Compleledissolulionand alleralion 01hydraledglass shardslo gel-palagonile,accompaniedby Ihe
precipilalion01zeoliles on lo glass surfaces.(D)Alleralion 01gel-palagonilelo fibro-palagonileand precipilalion01zeolilesinlo open spaces.
increase in thickness with time and doubles for every 8°C
temperature increase (Moore, 1966; Jakobsson and Moore,
1986).
Perlite
Perlite is a textural term referring to networks of fine fractures
or cracks that range from concentric arcuate fractures
enclosing cores of glass (classical perlite; e.g. Fig. 5.3A and B)
to long sub-parallel fractures linked by short cross fractures
(bandedor ladder perlite) (Fig. 3.2C and o: Ross and Smith,
1955; Friedman et al., 1966; Allen, 1988). Perlitic fractures
are a common feature of glassy rock fragments, felsic lavas and
synvolcanic sills, and also occur in the glassy rinds of mafic to
intermediate lavas.
Felsic perlites typically contain 2-6.5 Wt% H20 compared
with non-hydrated obsidian, which contains a few tenths of
one percent (Ross and Smith, 1955; Noh and Boles, 1989).
In addition to gains in H2O, perlites typically gain K2O, and
lose Na20 and to a lesser degree CaO and Si02 (Lipman
et al., 1969; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Noh and Boles,
1989). Iron is oxidised, volatile components Cl2 and F2 may
be lost, and 6018 isotope values modified by interaction
with external fluids (Lipman, 1965; Jezek and Noble, 1978;
Cerling et al., 1985). These compositional changes are most
intense along the perlitic fractures Qezek and Noble, 1978;
Fisher and Schmincke, 1984).
Genesis of perlite
A debate continues over the origin of perlite and the
importance of hydration (Ross and Smith, 1955; Friedman
and Smith, 1958; Friedman et al., 1966) versus cooling
contraction (Marshall, 1961; Yamagishi and Goto, 1992).
The formation of perlite is favoured by hydration of rapidly
cooled glass (i.e. glass with a high degree of under cooling)
either during cooling or later at low temperatures (Friedman
et al., 1966; Noh and Boles, 1989; Drysdale, 1991). However,
it is also possible that perlitic fractures form in response to
strain inherited from rapid cooling contraction, during the
conversion of melts to glass, and associated volume changes
(Ross and Smith, 1955; Friedman et al., 1966; Davis and
McPhie, 1996).
! SEAFLOOR-
ANOBURIAL-RELATEO
ALTERATION
I 101
A. Perlite in thin section
The glassy groundmass of this quartz latite exhibits
,) dassical perlitic fractures comprising intersecting
and overlapping arcuate cracks. The perlitic fractures
endose cores of unaltered and locally oxidised glass.
Arcuate glassy false shard textures occur where perlitic
fractures intersect (arrow). Arnygdales have been filled
with zeolites. Plane polarised light.
Sample ET7-4, Wereldsend Formation, Pilchard Corge,
Etendeka, Namibia.

B. Perlite in partly altered rhyolite

Well-developed perlitic fractures are abundant in this
partly glassy rhyolite. The perlitic fractures have been
lined with fine-grained, dark green to brown smectites,
enhancing the fracture pattern. Perlite cores have been
partly altered to smectites and zeolites. Arnygdales have
been filled with cristobalite. Plane polarised light.
Sample 147582, Miocene Nishikurosawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan. /'

C. Relict perlite and amygdales in altered rhyolite

In this diagenetically altered rhyolite, relict perlitic
fractures are conspicuous where glass adjacent to the
fractures has been altered to dark green mixed layer
smectite-chlorite. Elsewhere in the pervasively zeolite
altered domains the perlitic fractures have been obscured.
The amygdales have been filled with layers of cristobalite
and fibrous chlorite. Plane polarised light.
Sample J6-735 m, Miocene Nishikurosawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, Japan.

D. Relict perlite in altered basalt

In this hydrothermally altered jigsaw-fit basaltic breccia,
perlitic fractures are only weakly discernable due to
multiple overprinting alteration facies. The pervasive
sericite + quartz + pyrite and nodular carbonate
alteration facies obscure the perlitic fracture pattern.
Plane polarised light.
Sample 76833, Cambrian Que-Hellyer Volcanics,western
volcanosedimentary sequences, Mount Read Volcanics,
western Tasmania.

FIGURE5.3 I Photomicrographs01Iresh and alteredperlite.


102 I CHAPTER
5
Alteration of perlite
Perlite commonly undergoes subsequenr alteration tO
diagenetic mineral assemblages that include smectite, Fe-
oxides, zeolites, K-rich gel-like glass, 10w-cristObalite, K-
feldspar, chlorite, sericite and carbonate (Noh and Boles,
1989). Alteration begins by dissolution of hydrated glass
and crystallisaríon of smectite, carbonate or Fe-oxides along
perlitic fracrures (e.g. Noh and Boles, 1989). This commonly
accenruates the fracture pattero (e.g. Fig. 5.3B). As alteration
progresses, glass dissolution with conrinued precipitation
advances inwards and the perliríc fracrures become diffuse and
indistinct (e.g. Fig. 5.3C, O and Allen, 1988). Oissolution of
remaining glassy cores is succeeded by formation of zeolites,
such as clinoptilolite or mordenite, or gel-like glass, which
are ultimately replaced by K-feldspar (e.g. Noh and Boles,
1989).
5.3 I DIAGENESIS
(GLASSTOZEOLlTE
FACIES)
Oiagenesis encompasses the low-temperarure and low-
pressure alteration processes that occur during progressive
burial of sediments and rocks. Ir can be defined as the
processes (excluding weathering) that change their character
and composition, between the momenr of deposition, and
the onset of metamorphism (Larsen and Chilingar, 1979).
Submarine diagenesis involves low-temperature processes,
ranging from bottom water temperatures up to crystallisation
of unequivocally metamorphic minerals such as laumonrite,
wairakite, chlorite and pumpellyite (Winkler, 1979; Bohlke
et al., 1980). Ir is impossible tO define a unique pressure and
temperarure range that would characterise the transition
between diagenesis and metamorphism, because of the gready
conrrasting degrees of mineral stabiliry that characterise
differenr rock rypes and the wide range of conditions under
which the common diageneríc minerals crystallise. Generally,
diagenesis in submarine settings occurs at pressures of 0.1 tO
10 MPa (1 bar to 1 kbar) and temperarures ranging from OtO
250°C (Alt and Honnorez, 1984; Morrow and Mcllreath,
1990; Alt, 1995b). Temperarures and pore water salinities
in crease, and seawater-rock ratios decrease with burial depth
(Hanor, 1979; Alt-Epping and Smith, 1997).
Submarine diagenesis encompasses compaction,
dissolution and leaching of componenrs, precipitation of
new minerals, and recrystallisation in response tO changes
in pressure, temperarure and chemical conditions in the
subseafloor. New minerals direcdy replace glass, form mineral
overgrowths, fill primary and secondary pore spaces, and
form cemenrs, all of which dramarícally reduce the porosiry
and permeabiliry and promote lithification.
With increasing diagenesis, porosiry and permeabiliry
rypically decrease. However, reversals in this trend can
occur during fracruring or if a major componenr of the rock
becomes under sarurated and secondary porosiry is formed by
dissoluríon. This can occur where deeply buried sedimenrs are
infiltrated by fresh or brackish ground water, or can be due
tO the release of water of crystallisation from clay minerals
(Morrow and McIlreath, 1990).
""---
"""!
The process of dissolution involves corrosion or leaching
of pre-exisríng phases (either glass or mineral phases), with or
without minor replacemenr by new minerals (Morrow and
Mcllreath, 1990). Ir is a complex process involving many
disrínct reaction steps and pathways. Ir can modify glass and
most primary igneous minerals. Oissolution may ultimately
lead tO the formaríon of secondary porosiry (e.g. dissolution
vugs), replacemenr of glass and minerals, and developmenr
of solution seams or srylolites (Amsrutz and Park, 1967;
Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992).
Despite changes in mineral assemblage, many pre-existing
texrures (primary volcanic, high-temperarure devitrification
and hydration texrures) are preserved and sometimes enhanced
during diagenesis. Figure 5.4 shows some examples of texrures
in unaltered volcanic rocks, and their diagenerícally altered
and in some cases metamorphosed equivalenrs.
Submarine diagenesis may involve multiple stages or
episodes of diagenesis (Bohlke et al., 1980; Morrow and
McIlreath, 1990). Oiagenesis of most ancienr sedimenrary
successions involved repeated exposure tO diagenetic realms
as they underwent cycles of subsidence and uplift. Generally,
however, the imprinr of the first stages of diagenesis is
preserved because of the large iniríal porosiry reduction and
lithification (Morrow and McIlreath, 1990).
Diageneticminerals
There are three main rypes of minerals rypical of seafloor
weathering and diagenesis in volcanic successions: layered
silicates, zeolites and carbonates. Figure 5.5 provides estimates
of their formation temperarures.
Layered silicates
The layered silicates include clay minerals, mixed-layered
minerals, micas, chlorite and prehnite. The common clay
minerals in volcanic facies can be divided in tO two groups:
(1) smectites (e.g. montmorillonite, nontronite and saponi te),
and (2) illite group clay minerals (e.g. celadonite, glauconite
and illite).
Smectites are swelling clay minerals that readily exchange
Ca and Na cations. They rypically result from the alteration
of volcanic grains under alkaline conditions where Mg and
Ca ions are available (Oeer et al., 1966). Smectites form rims
on glass surfaces, replace both felsic and mafic glass, and
pseudomorph glass shards and olivine crystals (Sheppard and
Gude, 1968; Schmincke and von Rad, 1976; Viereck et al.,
1982). Smectites initially forms blebs and web-like arrays on
glass surfaces, and become berrer crystallised as diagenesis
proceeds (Hein and Scholl, 1978). The term bentonite refers
to felsic ruff that is composed of almost pure smectite (Gary
etal.,1974).
In conrrast, the illite group are K- and Al-rich minerals
that rypically form in neutral to alkaline conditions from the
breakdown of feldspars and micas (Oeer et al., 1966). They
rypically occur as vesicle fill and pseudomorphs of felsic glass
shards and pumice (Schmincke and von Rad, 1976; lijima,
1978). Celadonite and glauconite are less common than
illite.
 SEAFLOOR- ANDBURIAL ALTERATIONI 103
-RELATED

A. Flow banding
This d~vitrified flow-banded plagiodase-phyric rhyolite
contains alternating dark and light flow bands. The dark
bands are dominandy obsidian, whereas the pale bands
contain fine spherulites and lithophysae.
Sample NG 1, <140 ka Ngongotaha lava dome, Hendersons
quarry, Rotorua, New Zealand.

B. This diagenetically altered and metamorphosed flow-

banded plagiodase-phyric rhyolite contains alternating
orange albite + quartz and grey sericite-rich bands. In
thin section, the orange bands contain relict spherulites,
whereas the grey bands are microcrystalline.
Sample 147481, Cambrian Central Volcanic Complex,
Mount Read Volcanics,Mount Block, western Tasmania.

C. Spherulites
In thin section, fresh spherulites consist of radial crystal
fibres; typically feldspar intergrown with cristobalite,
tridymite or dinopyroxene. Many of these spherulites
endose plagiodase phenocrysts and are separated by
small cuspate lenses of dark brown obsidian. Plane
polarised light.
Sample NG4, <140 ka Ngongotaha lava dome, Hendersons
quarry, Rotorua, New Zealand.

D. Recrystallised spherulites in this greenschist facies

rhyolite are composed of albite, quartz and sericite.
Fine sericite trails preserve a radial pattern within the
spherulites. The boundaries between the spherulites are
marked by concentrations of sericite. Plane polarised
light.
Sample 147528, Cambrian Central Volcanic Complex,
Mount Read Volcanics,Mount Black, western Tasmania.

E. Tube pumice clasts

This unaltered, semi-consolidated, dacitic pumice
breccia contains glassy tube pumice dasts and plagiodase
crystals in a matrix of fine glass shards. The pumice
dast pictured here displays afine fibrous texture, which
may be preserved during subsequent alteration. Plane
polarised light.
Sample ftom the -1 Ma trachydacitic pumice breccias,
Ejaté Pumice Formation, Vanuatu.

FIGURE5.4 I Pholographsof unalleredand diagenelicallyalleredvolcaniclexlures.

 104 I CHAPTER
5

F. Pumice clasts in this diagenetically-altered and

metamorphosed rhyolitic pumice breccia preserve the
6ne tube vesicle structure. The originally glassy vesicle
walls have been altered to albite + quartz + hematite, the
vesicles have been lined with sericite and 611edwith albite.
Plagioclase crystals in this sample have been completely
replaced by albite and hematite. Plane polarised light.
Sample 133815, Cambrian Hercules Pumice Formation,
Central VolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Hercules
footwall, western Tasmania.

G. Many tube pumice clasts locally preserve round

vesicles adjacenr to phenocrysts. In this diagenetically
altered pumice breccia, round and tube vesicles adjacenr
to a cluster of plagioclase phenocrysts have been 611ed
with mordenite. As a result, the vesicles have retained
their shapes during burial compaction. Plane polarised
lighe.
Sample OH8-369 m, Miocene Onnagawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, lapan.

H. Similarly, this pumice breccia, which has been

diagenetically altered and metamorphosed to greenschist
facies, conrains round and tube vesicles adjacenr to
hematite-altered plagioclase phenocrysts. The vesicles
(V) have beeen 611ed wich sericite and albite. Plane
polarised light.
Sample 147499, Cambrian Kershaw Pumice Formation,
Central Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics, east
Hercules, western Tasmania.

I. Palagonitised rinds on clasts

The rim of this basalt clast has been altered to orange-
brown palagonite. Palagonite has also formed rims
around the vesicles in the clase. Plane polarised light.
Sample 131562, Tertiary Macquarie Plains volcanics,
Bushy Park, Tasmania.

J. The sericite + albite + hematite-altered rim (R) on chis

basalt clast may be che metamorphosed equivalenr of a
palagonite-altered rindo Plan e polarised light.
Sample 147572, Cambrian Sterling Valley Volcanics,
Central VolcanicComplex, Mount Read Volcanics,Sterling
Valley,western Tasmania.

FIGURE5.4 I Photographsof unalteredand diageneticallyalteredvolcanictextures,con!.

-
 -
SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI
ANDBURIAL-RELATED 105
Clayminerals I I Carbonates
I I
Celadonite
I I
Smectite I Diagenetic carbonates are dominantly calcite and dolomite.
Saponite
Sericite
Chlorite
I
, -81¡----
I They rypically fill originally open spaces such as vesicles, occur
as cements in volcaniclastic facies (e.g. Hay, 1977), as spheroids
or nodules, and as euhedral crystals replacing palagonite (e.g.
IlIite
I
, ,----
I
Dimroth and Lichtblau, 1979), rock fragments, olivine and

-
I plagioclase crystals.
Zeolites I
I
I
Clinoptilolite I I
Mordenite I I
I I Other diagenetic minerals
Analcime , I
Phillipsite I
I Other diagenetic minerals include silica phases (e.g. low-
Heulandite
I cristobalite, opal CT, chert and quartz), Fe-oxides (e.g.
Laumonite I
Wairakite I ' hematite), Ti-rich minerals (e.g.leucoxene), anhydrite, pyrite,
I I epidote and feldspars (albite and K-feldspar). These mainly
Carbonates I I replace glass, primary crystal phases and earlier alteration
Calcite
I I minerals. Silica phases and feldspars also occur as overgrowths
I on primary plagioclase and quartz crystals (e.g. Noh and

-
Anhydrite
I I Boles, 1989; Tsolis-Katagas and Katagas, 1989).
I I
Silica minerals I I
I I
Opal CT
Low-cristobalite
I
I
I
I
Diageneticzones
Adularia I
' I Diagenetic mineral assemblages commonly show a thick
K-Ieldpsar I I
Albite I vertical zonation (e.g. Fig. 5.6 and Section 5.5). Diagenetic
Quartz zones have been described by a number of authors in modern
I I and ancient submarine felsic to intermediate volcanic
Others I I successions (e.g. Iijima, 1974; Walton, 1975; Iijima, 1978;
I I
Gel-palagonite I I Ratterman and Surdam, 1981; Sheppard et al., 1988;
Fibro-palagonite I Williams et al., 1989; Utada, 1991; Passaglia et al., 1995;
' I
Fe/Mn oxides Ogihara, 1996). Sequences of diagenetic zones are between

-
I I
Epidote I 500 m and 6 km thick, with individual altered zones varying
Pumpellyite I from a few metres to several kilometres in thickness. This
I 1
Prehnite I I vertical zonation corresponds to progressive mineral reactions
-

that occur in response to changes in pore water chemistry and

o 100 200 300
Temperature
(°C)
FIGURE5.5 I Temperatureestimateslor the growth01commondiageneticand
burialmetamorphicminerals,and palagonite(datalrom Thompson,1971;Seki,
1972; Merino,1975; Grapes,1976; Kastnerand Gieskes,1976;Seylriedand
Bischoff,1979; Bohlkeet al., 1980; Munhaet al., 1980; Boles, 1982;Vierecket
al., 1982;Jakobssonand Moore,1986; Bish andAronson, 1993; Ogihara,1996;
Ylaganet al., 1996;Bodonand Cooke, 1998).
Zeolites
Zeolites are hydrous Al-silicates containing Na and Ca
(Table 5.1). The most common zeolites in marine settings
are clinoptilolite, mordenite, phillipsite and analcime
(Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992). A variery of fibro-radiated and
bladed zeolites fill pore spaces, cement volcaniclastic particles
and replace glass in altered volcanic facies (Miyashiro and
Shido, 1970; Schmincke and von Rad, 1976). Most zeolites
precipitate in open space on to smectite or chlorite films or
occur as overgrowths on detrital grains such as plagioclase
crystal fragments (e.g. Schmincke and von Rad, 1976). Others
crystallise directly from glass via dissolution reactions with
smectite (e.g. Noh and Boles, 1989) and may pseudomorph
glass shards (e.g. Walton, 1975).
temperature with depth ofburial, and is very similar to burial
metamorphism (Coombs, 1954). Some altered zones may be
absent or combined.
Diagenetic zones in felsic volcanic successions
Diagenetic zones in felsic volcanic successions can be grouped
into four main' zones (Table 5.2): (I) partially altered zones,
(II) alkali-rich zeolite zones, (III) late-stage zeolite + calcite
zones, and (IV) albite zones. At depth Zone IV may pass in to
a prehnite + pumpellyite zone, which represents the transition
to greenschist facies metamorphic zones (Iijima, 1974, 1978;
Utada, 1991).
Partially altered zones are characterised by silica and
clay minerals, they lack zeolites, contain unaltered and partly
altered glass,and unaltered primary minerals such as plagioclase
(Iijima, 1974, 1978). Alteration mineral assemblages are
dominated by smectites (commonly montmorillonite) + low-
cristobalite or opal-CT (Iijima, 1974, 1978; Walton, 1975;
Sheppard et al., 1988; Passaglia et al., 1995). Primary pore
spaces, such as vesicles, have rypically been partially filled with
low-cristobalite, glassy clasts have been coated in thin films of
smectite, and some originally glassy shards and pumice clasts
altered to smectite. Coherent facies were relatively unaltered.
 106 I CHAPTER
5

TABLE5.1 I Commonzeolites and their occurrencesin submarinevolcanicfacies.Zeoliteformulasare from Deeret al. (1966).

Analcime Na[AISiZ06].HZO A Na-richlatestagezeolite,whichreplacesearlieralkalizeolitesinbothcoherentandclastic

volcanicfaciesof rhyoliticto basalticcomposition
(e.g.lijima,1974;Ratterman
andSurdam,1981;
Torresetal.,1995)

Chabazite Ca[AlzSi401Z].6Hp- Restricted

to maficfacies,typicallyreplacing
palagonite
(e.g.BreyandSchmincke,
1980;Dimroth
thomsonite NaCaz[(AI,Si)50
1oJz.6HzO andLichtblau,1979)

Clinoptilolite (Na,K)4CaAI6Si30072.HzO Occursasa cementandreplacesglassinfelsicvolcanicfacies(e.g.NohandBoles,1989;

Ratterman
andSurdam,1981;Torresetal.,1995)

Heulandite (Ca,Naz)[AlzSi7018]
.6HzO Occursascementsinfelsicvolcaniclastic
facies(e.g.Ratterman
andSurdam,1981)

Laumontite Ca[AlzSi4Od.4HzO A calciczeolite,whichoccursatdepthinoriginallyglassyfelsicvolcanicfacies

Mordenite Onlyderivedfromfelsicvolcanicfaciesandcommonly
(Ca, Naz,Kz)[AlzSi10OZ4].7HzO coexistswithsmectiteandsilicaphases
(Le.opal,quartz,tridymiteandcristobalite)
(NohandBoles,1989;Ratterman andSurdam,
1981;Sheppard etal.,1988;Sheppard andGude,1968;Torreset al.,1995;Tsolis-Katagas
and
Katagas,1989;Utada,1970)

Phillipsite (1/2Ca, Na,Kh[AI3Si5016].6HzO Occursmainlyinbasalticlavasandlesscommonlyinvolcaniclastic

facieswhereit replaces
basalticglassandpalagonite
(TaylorandSurdam,1981),it commonlycontainsinclusions
of Fe-
oxyhydroxides andsmectites(BreyandSchmincke,
1980)

Wairakite CaAlzSi401Z.Hp Acommonalterationproductin basalticfaciesatdepthin moderngeothermal

systems(e.g.Boles,
1977;Hay,1977)

Table 5.2 I Commondiageneticzones and their alterationmineralassemblagesfor thick submarinevolcanicsuccessions.

Felsicvolcanicsuccessions Maficvolcánicsuccessions
-,,,o
Zone1:partiallyalteredzone Zone1:partially
alteredzone

+ low-cristobalite/opal-CT unaltered
unalteredglass+ smectite(montmorillonite) glass+ palagonite
+ smectite+ illite+ low-cristobalite/
adularia+ Fe/Mn/Ti
oxides+ unaltered
glass

Zone 11:alkali-richzeolitezone Zone 11:calcic-zeolitezone

(a)clinoptilolite + low-cristobalite/opal-CT phillipsite/chabzite

+ smectite(montmorillonite) + phyllosilicate
minerals(chlorite,smectite,
sericite)+ Fe/Mn/Ti-oxides
:t K-feldspar

(b) Ca-clinoptilolite+ mordenite+ smectite+ K-feldspar:t quartz

Zone 111:
late stagezeolite+ calcitezone Zone 111:
late-stagezeolitezone

(a) analcime+ heulandite+ clacite+ phyllosilicateminerals(smectite, analcime:tnatrolite(:t heulandite :t laumontite)+ chlorite+ K-

chlorite,mixedlayer minerals)+ K-feldspar:t quartz:t pyrite feldspar+ Fe/Mn/Ti-oxides:t calcite

(b)analcime+ laumontite + clacite+ phyllosilicate

minerals(illite,
chlorite,smectite)+ K-feldspar:tquartz

ZoneIV:albitezone Zone IV: epidotezone

albite+ phyllosilicate
minerals(prehenite,
pumpellyite, chlorite, epidote+ chlorite+ albite + calcite + sphene:t prehnite
sericite)+ quartz:t K-feldspar
:t laumontite
:t calcite

-
 SEAFLOOR- ANOBURIAL-RELATED I 107
ALTERATION

-
A 0-4
0-14
OH-7 0-11 ,o
,o D Gravel
"
"
o'
o'
D Daciticbreccia
gj 161 F:l ~ Basalticlavaor sill
a
- Massivesulfideore
lIIIIIllUGypsum-clay
E W Daciticlava
u... ~ Mudstoneandsiltstone
E
'"
"5'
<= ,
'10
Cf)

E
u...
"10
<=
J:1, ,
'"
..c:
Cf)

B 0-5 0-4

e
E H w K Diagenetic zones
ZONE1
D Partialiy altered zone lacking zeolites
ZONE11
mmmITI
Clinoptilolite+ mordenitezone

1 km

FIGURE, 5.6 I East-westschematiccross-sectionsshowingthe depth dislribution01regionaldiageneticzones and local

hydrothermalzones associatedwith the Kurokodepositsin the GreenTuff Bell, Japan (alter lijima, 1974, 1978). (A) Odate
Basin, Hokorokudistrict.(B) Odateto HanawaBasin, Hokorokudistrict. (C) Diageneliczones in the Neogeneand Palaeogene
lormations01Hokkaido.Traces01cross-sectionsA and B are shownon the regionalmap 01the HokurokuBasin (Fig. 5.15).
108 I CHAPTER
5
These early day-rich zones are associated with minor
initial gains in KzO and AlZ03, and losses in NazO and, to
lesser degrees, CaO and SiOz (Noh and Boles, 1989)
AIkali-rich zeolite zones are commonly characterised by
assemblages of dinoptilolite + mordenite + smectite (tYpically
montmorillonite, saponi te or mixed-Iayer illite/smectite) :t
low-cristobalite :t quartz :t opal :t K-feldspar. Opal-CT and
low-cristobalite occur in the upper parts of these zones, whereas
quartz and K-feldspar occur in the lower parts (Walton, 1975;
Sheppard et al., 1988). Plagiodase is rarelyaltered.
In general, dinoptilolite and mordenite has filled pore
spaces such as primary vesides and dissolution voids. Glassy
dasts have been coated in montmorillonite or silica rims and
completely altered to zeolites (e.g. mordenite), low-cristobalite,
quartz, day minerals and K-feldspar (Iijima and Utada, 1971;
lijima, 1974, 1978). The glassy groundmass oflavas and sills,
and the cores of blocky dasts may have been partly altered.
Pumice-rich facies in these zones contain dark green, variably
flattened phyllosilicate-rich fiamme (e.g. saponite fiamme
in pumice breccia in the Hokuroku Basin, lijima, 1974).
Tuffaceous mudstones may be rich in montmorillonite, low
cristobalite and quartz.
Alteration to alkali-zeolites and phyllosilicate minerals
resulted in whole-rock gains of MgO and FeZ03' and losses
of SiOz' NazO, KzO, and variable changes in CaO (Noh and
Boles, 1989; Tsolis- Katagas and Katagas, 1989; Passaglia et
al., 1995).
Late-stage zeolite + calcite zones are characterised by
mineral assemblages containing analcime and calcite (Iijima,
1974). In some successions, two late-stage zeolite + calcite
zones have been defined (e.g. lijima, 1978): (a) analcime +
heulandite + calcite :t phyllosilicate minerals :t K-feldspar
:t quartz :t pyrite, and (b) analcime + laumontite + calcite
:t chlorite :t illite :t sericite :t K-feldspar. The phyllosilicate
minerals are tYpically smectites, chlorite and mixed-Iayer
minerals such as illite/smectite, saponite/chlorite or swelling
chlorite. These mineral assemblages may also contain relict
dinoptilolite and/or mordenite (Iijima, 1974; Walton, 1975;
Sheppard et al., 1988).
Plagiodase phenocrysts have remained unaltered or
have been analcime :t calcite altered. Analcime has replaced
mordenite- or dinoptilolite-altered felsic glass fragments
and pumice dasts. Saponite, smectite, chlorite and mixed-
layer mineral fiamme are typically common in pumice-rich
rocks. Calcite may occur as euhedral crystals, concretions or
veinlets.
Albite zones are commonly characterised by albite
+ laumontite :t calcite :t prehnite :t chlorite :t sericite :t
pumpellyite:t quartz :t K-feldspar (Iijima and Utada, 1971;
lijima, 1974). Plagiodase phenocrysts have been extensively
albitised, and albite + laumontite have replaced plagiodase
crystals, originally glassy shards and pumice dasts, and filled
pore spaces.
Mass gains in CaO, SiOz' NazO, Sr and Ba in these zones
are consistent with seafloor albitisation (Boles and Coombs,
1977; Boles, 1982).
Diagenetic zones in mafic volcanic successions
Diagenetic mineral assemblages in mafic volcanic successions
contain palagonite, several species of calcic zeolites, Fe/Ti/Mn-
oxides and abundant day minerals of the smectite-chlorite
series typically distributed in four zones (Table 5.2: Baragar et
al., 1979; Zhou and Fyfe, 1989; Utada, 1991).
PartialIy altered zones contain some fresh basaltic glass
and have alteration mineral assemblages of palagonite :t Fe/
Mn/Ti-oxides (e.g. maghemite or magnetite) :t day minerals
(smectites, illites and mixed-Iayer minerals) :t low-cristobalite.
Compositional changes indude major gains ofHzO, very
minor gains of KzO, FeO, TiOz and Cl and losses of NazO,
AlZ03, SiOz and CaO (Baragar et al., 1977, 1979; Jakobsson
and Moore, 1986; Zhou and Fyfe, 1989).
Calcic-zeolite zones are characterised by phillipsite
or chabazite :t chlorite :t smectite + Fe/Mn/Ti-oxides + K-
feldspar.
Whole-rock gains in MgO in these zones are consistent
with the formation of smectite, chlorite and other Mg-
silicates during diagenesis (cf. Hajash and Chandler, 1981;
Shiraki and liyama, 1990).
Late-stage zeolite zones are characterised by analcime :t
laumontite :t natrolite :t chabazite :t heulandite :t mesolite +
chlorite + Fe/M n/Ti-oxides + K-feldspar.
Epidote zones are characterised by epidote + chlorite +
albite + sphene :t calcite :t prehnite.
Genesisofdiagenetic
minerals
andzones
In submarine volcanic facies, dissolution, cementation
and lithification begin shortly after deposition (d Ma);
however, major diagenetic changes develop through a series
of recognisable stages over tens of millions of years (Marsaglia
and Tazaki, 1992). The paragenesis from glass to smectites to
alkali zeolites may be eXplained by a sequence of hydration
and dissolution reactions in most glass bearing rocks (Fig.
5.7). Later reactions involve transitions from less stable to
more stable mineral assemblages, such as dinoptilolite to
Na-dinoptilolite + mordenite or K-rich gel-like glass to K-
feldspar (Noh and Boles, 1989).
There are four stages of dastic diagenesis after initial
hydration and oxidation (e.g. Fig. 5.8): (1) formation of
day mineral rims on glassy surfaces, (2) partial to complete
dissolution of glass and compaction, (3) precipitation of
authigenic minerals, especially zeolites and calcite, in open
pore spaces, and (4) alteration and replacement of mineral
phases (Hay, 1963; Fisher and Schmincke, 1984; Pichler et
al., 1999). Stages two and three may overIap.
Stage 1: coating surfaces
The initial stage of diagenesis in volcanidastic facies is
characterised by the precipitation of thin rim cements, which
coat all originally glassy surfaces and some crystal surfaces
(Fig. 5.9A and B). Rim cements help to preserve shard and
dast outlines during subsequent replacement (e.g. Walton,
1975). Rim cements may be accompanied by dissolution of
intermediate to mafic glass, alteration of rhyolitic glass to day

minerals and minor precipitation of calcite or dinoptilolite
cements (Fig. 5.9C and o: Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992;
Torres et al., 1995).
In felsic volcanidastic facies, the outer walls of most glass
shards and vesides in pumice dasts are lined with thin films of
smectite, calcite, opal or rarely chlorite (e.g. Henneberger and
Browne, 1988; Sheppard et al., 1988; Noh and Boles, 1989;
Tsolis-Katagas and Katagas, 1989; Marsaglia and Tazaki,
1992; Torres et al., 1995). Only rarely are fine-grained, glassy
fragments such as shards and pumice completely replaced by
smectite. Smectite rims probably precipitate from alkaline
fluids during the dissolution of hydrated glass surfaces. This
may follow the reactions:
SEAFLOOR- AND BURIAL-RELATEDALTERATION I 109
and high activities of Mg (Hay, 1978; Hajash and Chandler,
1981).
The initial stage of diagenesis in basalts involves the
palagonitisation ofbasaltic glass. Palagonitisation initiates on
glass surfaces, along fractures and around vesides in a similar
way 10 the thin smectite coating on rhyolitic glass shards (e.g.
Zhou and Fyfe, 1989). Associated with palagonitisation is the
precipitation of Fe- and Ti-oxides, which coat all surfaces,
thermal contraction cracks, vesides, and the palagonitisation
front (e.g. Dimroth and Lichtblau, 1979).
Stage 2: dissolution of glass and compaction

perlitic glass + 3.88K+ + O.65H+ + 15.4HzO ---;> Large-scale dissolution of glass and crystals is typically
smectite + 9.5gel-like glass + 4.03Na+ + O.25Caz+ + accompanied and followed by the precipitation of authigenic
10.55H4Si04 mineral cements and lithification after a few million years
(Noh and Boles, 1989) (R5.2) (Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992; Torres et al., 1995). The
dissolution of glass fragments, olivine and amphiboles occurs
or rapidly at shallow burial depths prior 10 extensive cementation
and lithification (Smith, 1991; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992).
rhyolitic glass + Mgz+ + HzO ---;> With increasing depths of burial, dissolution of feldspar
Na-Ca montmorillonite + SiOz + Na+ + K+ + Fez+ microlites and the glassy groundmasses of coherent facies
(R5.3) occurs (Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992). In contrast, plagiodase
crystal fragments and phenocrysts undergo only minor
The formation of smectite and other Mg-silicates during dissolution early in the diagenetic history.
rhyolite-seawater interaction does not require significant gains Elements leached from the glass during dissolution
in alkalis, but is favoured by high ratios of H/Na and K/Ca, reactions are consumed by the formation of new minerals.

Perlite
-¡¡;
'§
.D
'O
..c::
12
'"
-o
Zene I Smeetites
""-llk'9." 7S
Clinoptilolite
~cristoba'ite

-o
e
'"
'" Zene 11
/-----
Na-elinoptilolite Mordenite
:;
10
Q;
"-
¿
K-feldspar I
E
2
C)
e
'00 Mixed-Iayer minerals Analeime Heulándite Caleite Quartz
'" Zene 111 (smeetite, ehlorite, illite)
'"
t¡
E

'Zene IV
I
I
Chloríte
museovite
/
Albíte
L,"V
Prehnite

-¡¡; 8 BASALTIC GLASS

'§
.D
'O Fe/Mnrri-oxides
É.
'" I Zone I
-o
-o
e FIGURE.5.7 I Flowdiagramsshowingthe
'"
successivedevelopmentof alterationmineral
j~ lzoneJl
I .
assemblagesin volcanicglass during diagenesis.
(A) Alterationof silicic glass to clay minerals,
E zeolites and silicates(after Hay, 1978; lijima, 1978;
2
C)
e Utada, 1991).(B) Alterationof basalticglass to
'00 palagonite,clay minerals,zeolites and oxides
'"
'"
t¡ (Honnorez,1978; lijima, 1978; after Brey and
E Schmincke,1980;Vierecket al., 1982; Fisher and
Schmincke,1984).
110 I CHAPTER
5

A B e

FIGURE5.8 I Schematicmodellor the microscopictexturalevolutionand reductionin porosityin non-weldedpumicebrecciasduring diagenesis(alter Gilkins,

2001). (A) Stage 1: thin films 01smectite (greenlines) coat originalsurfaces,such as vesiclewalls, crystals,shardsand lithic clasts. (B) Stage2: primaryporosity
is lilled, and originally glassy shardsand vesiclewalls replacedor partlyreplacedby zeolites (bronze),clay minerals(green)or carbonates.Zeoliteor K-Ieldspar
overgrowths(orange)may developon plagioclasecrystals.(e) Stage 3: glass is dissolved,alteredto clay mineralsand compacted,producingphyllosilicate-rich
fiamme. Clays, zeolites and Fe-oxidesprecipitatesynchronouslywith the dissolution01glass,lorming stylolites.Alter compaction,morestable diageneticor
metamorphicmineralsreplaceany remainingglass and less stableminerals(Le.Stage4).

For example, Na released by the hydration and dissolution of
rhyolitic glass (reactions 5.2 and 5.3) may be consumed by
the precipitation of mordenite in vesides (e.g. Fig. 5.1 OE) or
dissolution vugs (Sheppard et al., 1988).
Dissolution may be accompanied by compaction that
reduces the pore space geometry by rotating grains, deforming
soft grains and crushing grains. This promotes lithification in
volcanidastic facies by pressure welding dasts so that their
margins interpenetrate (Taylor et al., 1990; Marsaglia and
Tazaki, 1992). Generally, lithification of volcanidastic facies
is associated with the formation of diagenetic day mineral
or carbonate rims, which act as cohesive binders: cements.
However, Marsaglia and Tazaki (1992) in their study of
modern partially altered sandstones at ODP Site 788 (Japan)
suggested that lithification could be related to a combination
of compaction and brown glass dissolution. Sandstones in
a transitional zone, berween the unlithified and cemented
zones, appeared to be lithified as a result of compaction and/
or pressure welding with minor cementation by phillipsite
and smectite/chlorite rim cements. The rim cements formed
where sufficient glass had dissolved to produce favourable
conditions for smectite or zeolite precipitation.
Compaction may also bend and Hatten dasts, particularly
pumice dasts. Gifkins et al. (in press) suggested that compaction
during burial of day-altered pumice dasts Hattened the dasts
and modified tube veside structures resulting in bedding-
parallel phyllosilicate lenses (i.e. fiamme, Fig. 5.9G). They
also proposed that srylolites in pumice breccias in the Mount
Read Volcanics (western Tasmania) and the Green Tuff Belt
(Japan) resulted from the dissolution of soluble components,
particularly glass, and the precipitation of days and Fe-oxides
during compaction (Fig. 5.9H).
Stage 3: filling poce space and cementation
Precipitation of low-cristobalite and zeolites as pore-fill
cements follows the early rim cements in both felsic and
mafic volcanic facies (e.g. Klein and Lee, 1984; Zhou and
Fyfe, 1989). Zeolites also fill vesides and dissolution voids in
glass, and direcdy replace glass, forming shard pseudomorphs
or altering the glassy cores of perlite (Dimroth and Lichtblau,
1979; Noh and Boles, 1989; Tsolis-Katagas and Katagas,
1989; Passaglia et al., 1995). Many of the zeolites filling
vesides have fibrous radiating textures (e.g. mordenite,
Fig. 5.lOA and B), which may be pardy preserved during
subsequent metamorphic recrystallisation (e.g. Fig. 5.10C
and D). Dimroth and Lichtblau (1979) described fibro-
radial textures defined by a dusting of fine oxides in Archaean
basaltic hyalodastite of the Noranda District (Canada), which
suggest the former presence of fibro-palagonite or zeolites.
The formation of alkali-rich zeolites as pore-fill cements
involves hydration and dissolution of glass by saline,alkaline
solutions (Ratterman and Surdam, 1981; Noh and Boles,
1989). For example, the formation of dinoptilolite from
hydrated felsic glass in reaction R5.4, which consumes Ca
and Si released during reaction R5.1:
perlitic glass + 0.lCa2+ + 0.lH4Si04 + O.lH+ + H2°---;.
dinoptilolite + O.lK+ + 0.2Na+ (R5.4)
The formation of rim and pore-fill cements results in a
lithified rock. Cements reduce the porosiry, strengthen the
grain framework and reduce the amount of compaction.
The initial 35-40% porosiry of a well-sorted sandstone can
be reduced to 15-20% by early day mineral, carbonate or
zeolite cements (Helmold and van de Kamp, 1984). In the
dinoptilolite + mordenite zone, Henneberger and Browne
(1988) found the porosiry of pumice breccias was reduced
by half, from 34-47% to 20-50%. Alteration in the quartz +
adularia zone further reduced porosiry to 4-23%.
 SEAFLOOR- ANOBURIAL ALTERATIONI 111
-RELATEO

A. CIay rim cement in pumice breccia

Smectite films on all glass and crystal surfaces record
the initial stage of diagenesis in this parrially altered
rhyolitic pumice breccia. Green-brown smectite has
coated bubble-wall shards, plagioclase and quarrz crystal
fragments, and lined vesicles. Some originally glassy
shards have been completely replaced by smectite;
however, larger dasts are still glassy (G).
Sample f6-295 m, Miocene Onnagawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Green Tuff Belt, Odate, fapan.

B. CIay-lined vesides
Round and elongate vesicles (V) in this pumice clast are
coated in irregular, fine-grained, pale brown smectite
films. Small vesicles have been completely filled wih
smectite, larger vesicles are unfilled, and the originally
glassy vesicle walls have been altered to mordenite.
Sample FK5B, Miocene Tokiwa Formation, South Fossa
Magna, Green Tuff Belt, Odawara, fapan.

C. Pore-filling cements
In this pumice breccia sample, calcite cement binds the
unaltered glassy and partly calcite-altered tube pumice
clasts. Plane polarised light.
Sample Y2A, Quaternary Yalipumice breccia, Yali ¡sland,
easternAegean, Greece.

D. In crossed nicols, the glassypumice dasts are isotropic

and the calcite cement, calcite-filled tube vesides, and
altered shards and pumice clasts are evident.

FIGURE5.9 I Examples01lexlures Ihal recordIhe differenlsleps in Ihe evolulion01pumiceclasls during diagenesis.

112 I CHAPTER
5

E. Zeolite-filled vesides in pnmice

The smectite-lined vesicles (11 in this pumice clast have
been infilled with layered fibrous zeolites: mordenite
and clinoptilolite. Originally glassy shards have been
altered to smectite and vesicle walls to mordenite +
smectite. Fine-grained nodules of analcime overprinted
the mordenite and smectite altered tube pumice clast
(P). Plagioclase and quartz crystals are unaltered.
Sample OH8-531 m, Miocene Onnagawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, lapan.

F. Clay-altered pumice dast

Other pumice clasts may be completely altered to clay
minerals, like this dark green uncompacted smectite-
altered pumice. Shards and fine-grained clasts in the
matrix have been altered to smectites (montmorillonite
and saponite) + mordenite.
Sample OH8-381 m, Miocene Onnagawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, lapan.

G. Clay-altered and compacted pumice

During burial, lithostatic pressure may lead to the
flattening of soft clay-altered pumice clasts. The mixed
layer smectite-chlorite fiamme (F) in this pumice
and lithic breccia roughly define a bedding-parallel
compaction fabriCoThe fiamme have a fibrous internal
texture, wispy terminations and flame-like shapes.
Some fiamme are also plagioclase porphyritic. They are
interpreted to be diagenetically altered and compacted
pumice clasts.
Sample 141583, Miocene Nishikurosawa Formation,
Hokuroku Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate, lapan.

H. Dissolution fabrics in pumice breccia

The dissolution of glass commonly accompanies
compaction during diagenesis. Solution seams and
stylolites, like the one pictured here, are interpreted
to record the dissolution of soluble components. This
stylolite is an anastomosing sutured structure that
concentrates clay minerals and oxides.
Sample FK7, Miocene Wadaira Tuff Member, Tokiwa
Formation, South FossaMagna, Creen Tuff Belt, Wadaira,
lapan.

FIGURE5.9 I Examples01texturesthat recordthe differentsteps in the evolution01pumiceclasts during diagenesis,con\.

.
 SEAFLOOR-
ANOBURIAL-RELATEO
ALTERATION I 113

A. Fibrous zeolites in vesides B. In crossed nicols, radial extinction patterns accentuate the
Vesicles adjacent to this plagioclase crystal in a pumice clast fibrous nature of the vesicle-filling zeolites.
have been lined with smectite and filled with fibrous radiating
mordenite. Plane polarised light.
Sample 147580, Miocene Onnagawa Formation, Hokuroku
Basin, Creen Tuff Belt, Odate,fapan.

C. Fibrous feldspar in vesides D. In crossed nicols, radiating extinction patterns in the

The vesicles 01 in this altered pumice clast are faintly visible albite-filled vesicles mimic pre-existing fibrous textures.
in plane polarised light because they are lined with sericite.
Sample 133815, Cambrian HerculesPumice Formation, Central
Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics, Hercules flotwall,
western Tasmania.

E. Fibrous feldspar in perlite cores
In plane polarised light, perlitic fractures are conspicuous in
the groundmass of this altered plagioclase-phyric rhyolite.
Sample 147541, Cambrian KershawPumice Formation, Central
Volcanic Complex, Mount Read Volcanics,Murchison Highway,
western Tasmania.
F. In crossed nicols, overlapping arcuate perlitic fractures
are defined by concentrations of sericite and radial fibrous
textures are preserved in the extinction pattern of the albite +
quartz + sericite-altered perlite cores (C).

FIGURE5.10 I Photomicrographsof relictfibroustexturesin vesiclesand originallyglassydomainsin diageneticallyalteredfacies.

114 I 5
CHAPTER
Stage 4: alteration and replacement of mineral phases
Later reactions involve the dissolution and replacement
of earlier diagenetic phases, remaining gel-like glass, and
magmatic minerals such as plagioclase (Torres et al., 1995).
With time and/or increasing temperature, zeolite assemblages
are especially susceptible to replacement because zeolite
crystallisation is controlled by temperature, fluid pressure,
and rock and fluid composition. Transitions from unstable
zeolites (e.g. phillipsite, clinoptilolite and heulandite) to more
stable phases (e.g. mordenite, analcime, laumontite and K-
feldspar) are common. These changes reflect dehydration
reactions (Rarrerman and Surdam, 1981; Noh and Boles,
1989; Smith, 1991):
2.75clinoptilolite + 0.75Na+ + 3.0H4Si04 ~
Na-clinoptilolite + 2.25mordenite + 0.13K+ +
0.27Mg2+ + 0.08H+ + 4.46Hp (R5.5)
Clinoptilolite and mordenite may also react with solution
to form analcime, adularia, quartz and calcite (Iijima, 1974).
mordenite + 2Na+ + COl- ~ al., 1980; Boles, 1982; Torres et al., 1995). Albitisation of
analcime + 6Si02 + CaC03 + 5H20 (R5.6)
clinoptilolite + Ca2+ + 2HC03- ~ analcime + cases, albitisation appears to have progressed preferentially
adularia + 5Si02 + CaC03 + CO2 + 8H20 (R5.7)
Increasing diagenesis may favour the formation of calcic
zeolites, particularly in mafic facies, because ofincreased CalNa
activity ratios due to albitisation of calcic plagioclase (Utada,
1991). In addition, chlorite and epidote may crystallise.
Chlorite and epidote have been observed as direct alteration
products of dacitic to basaltic glasses, and clays at relatively
shallow depths (420 m) in modern geothermal regions
(White and Sigvaldason, 1962). The development of epidote
depends on the availability of Fe3+and is probably controlled
by the earlier formation of palagonite. Where palagonite is
absent the reaction of basaltic glass to form chlorite releases
Ca, which may be consumed by the precipitation of epidote
(Baragar et al., 1979). Chlorite and epidote are also typical
of low-temperature metamorphism and the growth of these
minerals may bridge the boundary betWeen diagenesis and
metamorphism where glass and diagenetic clays are replaced
by phyllosilicates.
K-feldspar is common in diagenetically altered originally
glassyvolcanicfacies. Munha et al. (1980) suggested that below
150°C, Na in glass might be exchanged for K in seawater,
resulting in precipitation of K-feldspar and K-smectite.
However, K-feldspar has not been reported as a direct product
of glass alteration, thus some intermediate phases appear to
be required. Iijima and Hay (1968), Surdam and Sheppard
(1978) and Hay and Guldman (1987) recognised that K-
feldspar replaced earlier mordenite, analcime, clinoptilolite
and phillipsite. In contrast, Noh and Boles (1989) proposed
that K-feldspar crystallised from silicic glass via a series of
hydration and dissolution reactions, which included an
intermediate phase ofK-rich gel-like glass.
dacitic glass + nH20 ~ perlitic glass + Na+ + OH- (R5.8)
This is probably followed by either reaction R5.9 or
R5.1O, which fixes Mg from seawater.
12.5perlitic glass + 3.88K+ + 0.65H+ +15.4H20 ~
smectite + 9.5gel-like glass + 4.03Na+ + 0.25Ca2+ +
10.55H4Si04 (R5.9)
2.79perlitic glass + 0.2Mg2+ + 0.2Fe2+ + 0.32H+ +
5.27H20 ~ 1.27smectite + gel-like glass +
1.0Na+ + 0.12Ca2+ + 3.61H4Si04 (R5.10)
The K liberated during zeolite forming reactions (e.g.
reaction R5.4) is then fixed in K-feldspar formation.
gel-like glass + 0.5K+ + 0.2H+ +0.2H2O ~
1.3K-feldspar + O.lNa+ + 0.lCa2+ + 0.8H4Si04 +
0.1 Mg2+ + 0.lFe2+ (R5.11)
Albite is common as a replacement product of plagioclase
and K-feldspar in rhyolitic to basaltic rocks (Munha et
plagioclase occurs by dissolution and replacement (Boles,
1982; Shiraki and Iiyama, 1990; Torres et al., 1995). In many
along plagioclase grain fractures and cleavage traces,
suggesting rhat fluid films can infiltrate the crystal along
larrice defects and planes of weakness, promoting albitisation
(Boles, 1982). Microlites in the glassy groundmass of slowly
cooled lavas and sills may serve as nuclei for the crystallisation
of albite (Dimroth and Lichtblau, 1979). The replacement of
plagioclase and K-feldspar by albite could reflect the exchange
of K in the rock with Na in seawater at greater depths and
temperatures (105-120°C) (Iijima and Utada, 1972; Merino,
1975; Munha et al., 1980; Boles, 1982). The Na and Si
required for albite crystallisation are supplied by diffusion
from seawater and earlier diagenetic reactions (Boles and
Coombs, 1977; Boles, 1982).
2Si02 + 0.5H2O + H+ + Na+ + Ca-plagioclase ~
albite + 0.5Al2Si205(OH)4 + Ca2+ (R5.12)
Albite is typically riddled with minute inclusions of clays,
sericite and calcite, which form as by-products and consume
Ca and Al released during this reaction.
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATION115
ANDBURIAL-RELATED I
5.4 I REGIONALMETAMORPHISM pumpellyite, epidote, albite, K-feldspar, phyllosilicate minerals
(smectites, chlorite, celadonite, sericite), calcite, siderite,
(ZEOLlTE
TOAMPHIBOLlTE quarrz, apatite, sphene, pyrite and Fe-oxides (Surdam, 1973;
FACIES) Boles and Coombs, 1977).

Transitionfromdiagenesisto regional
metamorphism Surialmetamorphic
facies

Diagenesis progresses gradually to regional metamorphism
with increasing temperature, pressure and, commonly, depth
of burial. Many sedimentologists consider that the boundary
between diagenesis and metamorphism occurs when a rock has
less than 5% interconnected pore space, whereas metamorphic
petrologists tend to define it by mineral assemblages that are
not stable in sedimentary environments (e.g. Coombs, 1954;
Blatt et al., 1972; Winkler, 1979; Turner, 1980; Morrow
and McIlreath, 1990; Bevins and Robinson, 1992). These
definitions do not necessarily coincide. Diagenesis and
low-grade metamorphism can both have temperatures and
pressures in the 200-300°C and less than 1 kbar range. In
fact, no clear distinction exists between the processes, pressure
and temperature conditions, fabrics (textures) and mineral
assemblages of diagenesis and low-grade metamorphism.
Diagenesis involves hydration of glass, compaction,
dissolution, cementation and minor recrystallisation: meta-
somatic processes involving minor chemical exchange
between the host facies and trapped fluid at low temperatures
(up to 250°C). In contrast, metamorphism involves mainly
isochemical processes with substantial recrystallisation,
but chemical changes that are limited to dehydration and
decarbonation (Fyfe et al., 1958). During progressive burial
there is a stage when metasomatic reactions occur but the
temperatures are generally considered too high for diagenesis;
this transitional stage is referred to as burial metamorphism
(Coombs, 1954).
The transition from diagenesis to burial metamorphism
has been studied in andesitic to rhyolitic rocks in New Zealand
(e.g. Coombs, 1954; Coombs et al., 1959; Boles, 1974; Boles
and Coombs, 1975, 1977), Chile (e.g. Levi, 1970), the USA
(e.g. Dickinson, 1962; Sheppard and Gude, 1973) andJapan
(e.g. Utada, 1970; Iijima and Utada, 1972; Iijima, 1978), and
in basaltic rocks in Canada (e.g. Surdam, 1973; Kuniyoshi
and Liou, 1976), Australia (e.g. Smith, 1969; Hellman et
al., 1977; Smith et al., 1982) and Iceland (e.g. Viereck et al.,
1982).
A metamorphic facies is defined by a group of metamorphic
mineral assemblages occurring in spatially associated rock
types of diverse chemical composition, which are interpreted
to have formed during restricted temperature and pressure
conditions (Fig. 5.1l).
Low-grade facies typical of burial metamorphism in
volcanic successions are characterised by hydrous minerals and
carbonates, whereas high-grades facies are typically coarser
grained and contain anhydrous and COz-poor minerals.
The low-grade facies are (Table 5.3): zeolite, prehnite +
pumpellyite, pumpellyite + actinolite, lawsonite + albite +
chlorite, blueschist, and greenschist facies (Turner, 1980).
Although burial metamorphic facies are widespread,
they are commonly heterogenous with patchy and domainal
textures (e.g. epidote metadomains of Smith, 1968, 1974,
1977; Smith and Smith, 1976). This domainal style of
alteration may reflect mobilisation and local redistribution
of elements on a scale of centimetres to metres (e.g. the
loss of Ferota!'Mg, Na and K and gain of Ca from epidote
metadomains balance losses and gains from the enclosing
albite domains, Smith, 1977), rather than the significant
addition of elements.
Surialmetamorphiczones
Burial metamorphism is a progressive process that produces
a sequence of regionally extensive metamorphic zones (e.g.
Figs 3.13 and 5.12). Metamorphic zones are mappable groups
of rocks that have similar metamorphic grade. Adjacent
metamorphic zones, like altered zones, are separated by lines
of equal grade (isograds), which are delineated by the first
appearance of an index mineral or minerals within the same
rock type or composition.
16
50

Eclogite
12 40
Surialmetamorphism E
:j5"' ¿:..
Burial metamorphism was defined by Coombs (1954) to cover ¿:..
Q) 30 15..
Q)
progressive mineral changes that can be directly correlated ::;
'" 8 'O
'" X
with increases in temperature and burial depth in thick e
ti.. Granulite 20
o
c..
c..
sedimentary or volcanic successions. Ir is a form of regional «
4
metamorphism that affects thick sedimentary or volcanic 10
successions in subsiding basins, where the basal parrs attain
low-grade metamorphic conditions without the deformation
or folding typical of regional metamorphism. o
Burial metamorphism, like diagenesis, rarely attains
equilibrium mineral assemblages, and penetrative deformation
FIGURE 5.11 I Pressureand temperature diagramshowing the fields for
fabrics are absent. Alteration minerals common to burial
regionalmetamorphicfacies (alter Turner,1980; Bevinsand Robinson,1992).
metamorphism in submarine volcanic successions are: Boundariesbetweenthe fields are gradational.Abbreviationsused are PA=
zeolites (heulandite, stilbite, laumontite, analcime), prehnite, pumpellyite+ actinoliteand PP = prehnite+ pumpellyite.
 116 I CHAPTER
5

Table 5.3 I Commonburial and regionalmetamorphicfacies and mineralassemblagesfor submarinevolcanicsuccessions(from Coombs,1954;Humphris

and Thompson,1978;Turner, 1980;Sivell, 1984;Yardley,1989).

Zeolite Zeolites(Iaumonite,analcime,heulandite,stilbite,natrolite,mesolite,wairakite)+ mixed-Iayerclays +

quartz + ealcite:t museovite
Prehnite+ pumpellyite Prehnite+ pumpellyite:t ehlorite+ albite + quartz:t epidote:t ealcite:t sphene:t raregarnet

Pumpellyite
+ aetinolite Pumpellyite+ aetinolite+ albite+ ehlorite+ sphene+ quartz+ museovite+ ealeite:t lawsonite
Lawsonite
+ albite+ ehlorite Lawsonite+ albite+ ehlorite+ quartz:t pumpellyite:t epidote:t aetinolite:t sphene + museovite:t ealcite
Bluesehist Glaueophanieamphibole+ albite+ aetinolite/phengite+ quartz:t epidote:t ehlorite:t sphene:t
pumpellyite:t stilpnomelane:t ealcite
Greensehist Aetinolite+ epidote+ albite:t ehlorite:t ealcite:t tremolite:t tale+ quartz :t sphene:t magnetite:t biotite

Amphibolite Hornblende+ plagioclase:t epidote:t garnet :t biotite:t quartz+ museovite+ ealcite:t sphene:t
magnetite

Drilling in modern geothermal regions has revealed
patterns of low-grade metamorphic zones that can be related
directly to temperature and fluid composition at shallow
depths (e.g. Fig. 5.13: Coombs et al., 1959; White and
Sigvaldason, 1962; Vierecket al., 1982). It is generallyassumed
that higher-grade rocks formerly had mineral assemblages
typical of lower grade zones, which were progressively altered
as metamorphism proceeded. Near isograds, index minerals
from the lower zones locally overgrow lower grade minerals.
For example, in basaltic lavas and tUffs in east Greenland near
the boundary between two zeolite facies burial metamorphic
zones, the analcime and mesolite + scolecite zones, vesicles
are lined with analcime and filled with mesolite (Neuhoff et
al., 1997).
The generalised sequence of burial metamorphic facies
with increasing depth is (e.g. Fig. 3.13): zeolite, prehnite +
pumpellyite, pumpellyite + actinolite, lawsonite + albite +
chlorite, blueschist, and greenschist facies (Coombs, 1954;
Coombs et al., 1959; Turner, 1980). Departures from this
pattern are common.
is diagnostic of the zeolite facies as mineral assemblages are
sensitive to primary rock composition, fluid composition,
burial history and geothermal gradient. Typically the zeolite
facies contains heulandite, laumontite, analcime, quartz,
albite and smectites :t prehnite and pumpellyite (Turner,
1980; Viereck et al., 1982).
Fyfe et al. (1958) and Coombs (1954), in stUdies of
Triassic submarine volcano-sedimentary rocks ofTarinagatura
Hills (New Zealand), divided the zeolite facies into three
mineral assemblages that correlate with increasing depth: (1)
heulandite +analcime + quartz:t (montmorillonite + celadonite
+ sphene), (2) laumontite + albite + quartz :t chlorite, and
(3) quartz + albite + adularia. However, at Hokonui Hills,
50 km east ofTarinagatura Hills, Boles and Coombs (1975)
found no correlation between mineral assemblage and depth
of the zeolite facies rocks. In contrast, Neuhoff et al. (1997)
divided the zeolite facies in the Tertiary flood basalts of east
Greenland into five diagenetic and burial metamorphic zones
based on the index minerals: (1) chabazite + thomsonite, (2)
analcime, (3) mesolite + scolecite, (4) heulandite + stilbite
and (5) laumonite (Fig. 5.12).

Zeolitefacies
Coombs (1954) and Coombs et al. (1959) proposed that
regionally extensive zeolite facies in Triassic volcaniclastic rocks
ofNew Zealand bridged the transition between diagenesis and
conventional metamorphism. The zeolite facies embraces co-
existing assemblages of Ca + Al- and Na + Al-rich zeolites and
quartz (Coombs et al., 1959). No single mineral assemblage
Genesis
The development of the burial metamorphic zones is complex.
In many cases, it is progressive through a number of stages
that may overlap with diagenesis. However, the transition
to burial metamorphism generally involves dehydration and
decarbonation accompanied by the release of silica, such as in

SE
c:
:2
CIJ
1000
>
<1>
[jJ

- Mesolite+ seoleetite
5

Heulandite
+ stilbite
10
Distanee (km)
15

Laumontite 111 Prehnite

+ K-feldspar
20

+ quartz

FIGURE5.12 I Cross-sectionin the Borggravenregion,east Greenland,showingthe regionalextentand verticaldistributionof burlal-

metamorphiczeolitezones (after Neuhoffet al., 1997).The thin discontinuouslines representthe dips of selectedlavas in this section.

-.....
 SEAFLOOR- ANO BURIAL -RELATEO ALTERATION I 117
o
5 7 ..

D Surfaceacidleachedlone
(kaolinite
+ opal)
D Montmorillonitelone (+calcite) 2
200m
11Mordenitelone (+ heulandite
:!:laumontite)
11Wairakitelone
111Albitelone
l1li Adularialone(+sphene+ calcite
:!:prehnite)
Hydromica lone 3

FIGURE 5.13 I Schematiccross-sectionshowingthe low-temperaturealtered

zonesand averagetemperaturemeasurementslor the boundariesin the
Wairakeigeothermalfield.TaupoVolcanicZone, NewZealand(modiliedlrom
Coombset al., 1959,alter Steiner,1953; Banwellet al., 1957). z
4 O
en
en
(]) w
E ()
()
"(3 =>
reactions R5.13 and R5.15, below (Coombs, 1954; Boles and E
-""
c¡¡
e
en
()
Coombs, 1977). (f)
« ¡:::
(f)
en
<t:
Rocks in the Tarinagatura Hills record two stages of ~ 5 --'
-"" S2
zeolite facies alteration: an upper heulandite + analcime <..:> z
:.c <t:
1- ()
--'
diagenetic stage and a lower laumonite + albite + quartz burial O
>
metamorphic stage (Coombs, 1954). In the uppet part of the ()
en
succession, volcanic glass has been replaced by heulandite en
<t:
and, less commonly, analcime (Fig. 5.14). These zeolites co- 6 ¡¡::
1-
exist with newly crystallised quartz and fine-grained smectite.
In the lower part, analcime has been replaced by albite and :m
"D
e
heulandite by laumonite + quartz. Smectite, chlorite, sericite ~
~
and mixed-Iayer mineral s occur and prehnite and pumpellyite (])
:r:
appear as accessory minerals. These stages can be summarised 7
by the reactions:
.$
heulandite ~ laumontite + quartz + 2HzO (R5.13) 'E
O
E
~
ro
(R5.14) -1
analcime + quartz ~ albite + HzO 8 :m
e
..c:
laumontite + calcite ~ prehnite + quartz + (])
D:::
HzO + COz (R5.15)

Some successions lack textural evidence for shallow 9

diagenetic and zeolite zones as precursors to higher-grade
mineral assemblages, suggesting that metamorphism to higher t
grades is not always progressive (e.g. Neuhoff et al., 1997) or
that early textures are destroyed. 100 o
10

FIGURE5.14 I Down-holemineraldistributionsat TarinagaturaHills, New

Zealand(alterCoombs,1954).

I
I

\
 118 I CHAPTER
5
The lower Nishikurosawa or Hotakizawa Formation is up
5.5 I DIAGENETIC
ALTERATION
INTHE to 650 m thick and includes intercalated basaltic lavas and
HOKUROKU
BASIN breccias, rhyolitic lavas, and laminated mudstone (Tanimura
et al., 1983). The upper Nishikurosawa Formation is a
The Middle Miocene Hokuroku Basin, pan of the Creen thick (<400 m) succession of rhyolitic lavas, domes and
Tuff Belt in nonhern Honshu, ]apan, is the most frequendy interbedded pumice-rich facies and mudstone (Fig. 5.16:
cited example of diagenetic zones in a submarine volcanic lshikawa, 1983; Urabe, 1987; Yamagishi, 1987). The upper
succession that hosts VHMS deposits. lijima (1974, 1978), Nishikurosawa Formation hosts the Kuroko VHMS deposits
lijima and Utada (1971) and Utada (1991) described four and is conformably overlain by the Onnagawa Formation
flat-lying, venically stacked, zeolite-dominated altered zones (Nakajima,1988).
that grade into clay-rich hydrothermal zones proximal to the The Onnagawa Formation comprises a sequence of
Kuroko VHMS deposits (Fig. 5.6A and B). pumice-rich breccia, sandstone, siltstone and black mudstone
with abundant felsic synvolcanic intrusions and local basaltic
lavas (Fig. 5.16: Ohmoto and Takahashi, 1983; Tanimura
Geological
setting et al., 1983; Nakajima, 1988). The lower pumice breccia is
extensive and has been correlated across the Hokuroku Basin
The Hokuroku Basin is a 30 x 30 km submarine basin (Urabe, 1987).
containing a 3 to 6 km thick bimodal volcanic succession of The volcanic succession is relatively undeformed but
calc-alkaline rhyolites and tholeiitic basalts with some locally has undergone regional diagenesis and local hydrothermal
abundant andesites (Figs 5.6 and 5.15: Dudas et al., 1983; alteration and mineralisation (Utada, 1970; Tanimura et al.,
Urabe, 1987). Here, the Nishikurosawa and Onnagawa 1983). Cenerally the stratigraphy has a gende dip with open,
Formations dominate the stratigraphy. N-S-trending folds (Tanimura et al., 1983).

"'~
oc,0
iJi'c,
«'1>'

200 km
1 1

Funakawa Formation

Onnagawa Formation
Nishikurosawa Formation

Daijima Formation
Rhyolite
Andesite
Dolerite

Quartz diorite
Other rocks
. Drill holes in this study

~
.
'X' Majormine
Township

Majorfault
N

/ - - Railway

o 5km +
FIGURE5.15 I Geology olthe Hokuroku Basin showing the majar lithostratigraphic units and inset the distribution olthe Green Tuff Belt in Japan (alter Sato, 1974;
Tanimura et al., 1983). The trace 01 Ijima's (1974) cross-section A (in Fig. 5.6) is represented by solid line AA', B by the dashed line BB' and our cross-section (Fig.
5.18) by the dotted line BC.

~
 SEAFLOOR- ANO BURIAL-RELATEOALTERATION I 119
300 m 580 m
~
~

320m 600 m
Interbedded
shard-rich -----
siltstone, crystal-
rich pumiceous
340m

.:' :.': .:.:"~' :;

sandstone and
polymictic
620 m
Polymictic B Fiamme
conglomerate pumiceandlithic Pumice clast
:-,~,::':':'..:'.'..:':. brecciawith
360m 640 m mudstoneand
~-,:c:~~ ------ siltstone clasts,
and laminated
I@)I Outsized
clast
pumice

O
''',",c.--- . - siltstone with Angular volcanic lithic
380m
.:~?i::Jí 660 m rare water-
seUled pumice
clasts
Roundedvolcaniclithic
y...' '0:"":(;)"'"
.o~::~~, ;i.Q ,-,". 1

Graded, well- clasts 1.001 clasts

sorted polymictic
400 m lithic-, crystal- and
pumice-rich
680 m
MUdstane -
Idl Irregular mudstone
clast
conglomerate
U
-.::....,:;.,
Crystal-rich lacies
Laminated mudstone
420 m 700 m
,-----
Laminatedshard-rich
siltstone
440 m 720 m
Interbedded Interbedded
crystal-rich pumice breccia,
pumiceous pumiceous
460 m sandstone, 740 m sandstone and
pumiceous shard-rich
sandstone and siltstone
shard-rich siltstone
480 m with water-seUled 760 m
pumice clasts

500 m 780 m
------

520 m

800m-¡t,, <)
Pumice breccia, Pumice and
540 m pumiceous 820 m lithic breccia,
sandstone and
shard-rich siltstone and shard-rich
with rare water- siltstone
settled pumice
560 m clasts 840 m

580 m 860 m
1/16264 mm 1/16264mm

FIGURj: 5.16 I Graphic log 01 drill core OH-8in the OdateBasin,westernHokurokuBasin(Japan)showing lithology,bedlorms,and diageneticand hydrothermal
zones in pumice-rich lacies 01the Upper Nishikurosawa and Onnagawa Formations.

have been altered ro monrmorillonite and vesicles are empry

Alteration
faciesandzones
The regional diagenetic zones are, fram top ro base (Figs
5.6 and 5.17): (l) panially altered zone, (Il) clinoptilolite +
mordenite zone (e.g. data sheets HK1 and 2), (III) analcime
zone (e.g. data sheets HK3 and 4), and (IV) laumonrite +
albite zone (Iijima, 1974, 1978; Hay, 1978; Iijima, 1978).
The panially altered zone is distributed beneath the
Quaternary gravels and overlies the clinoptilolite + mordenite
zone in the eastern Odate Basin, western Hokuraku Basin
(Fig. 5. 6A). This zone has a maximum thickness of 60 m
and is characterised by well preserved volcanic textures,
the absence of zeolites and the presence of unaltered glassy
pumice clasts and plagioclase crystals (Iijima, 1974). Rocks in
this zone are pale grey. Glass shards and pans of pumice clasts
or have been pardy filled with low-crisrobalite.
The clinoptilolite + mordenite zone is 160-250 m thick
and widely disrributed in the shallower pan of the Odate Basin
in the upper Onnagawa Formation. Regionally it overlies
the analcime zone, but in the east of the Odate Basin it is
repeated below the analcime + heulandite zone (Figs 5.6B and
5.17). In the upper pan of this zone, some glass shards and
pumice clasts are unaltered (e.g. data sheet HK1). Typically
the surfaces of shards, pumice clasts and vesicles have been
coated in a thin film of smectite or low-cristobalite. Vesicles
were filled sequenrially with mordenite and clinoptilolite.
Originally glassy shards and clasts have been altered ro smectite
(monrmorillonite, saponite or mixed-layer illite/smectite) :t
mordenite. In the lower pan of this zone, dark green saponite
120 I 5
CHAPTER

u mu
OH-8 -, m m-
u u m'- u u --,
uuum_m_m-
m mO u - --- - -

.
_muuOuuuu
u u u 000 u m no
uum_muu

Mudstone
F:'J Interbedded mudstone and
~ shard-rich siltstone
WI Polymicticpumice breccia
~ and laminated siltstone
m Interbedded crystal-rich pumice
L:.:J sandstone and shard-rich siltstone
EJI Pumice breccia, sandstone
~ and shard-richsiltstone
f";;;l Pumice and lithicbreccia,
L::J and shard-rich siltstone
c: ["""l Coherent and auto-
,9 L::...J brecciated rhyolite
-¡¡;
E I"'l Andesite and basait
es ~ intrusions
LJ...
'" lA"""Al Coherent basalt and basaltic
;s: L J bomb breccia
'"
O)
'" IOllnterbedded polymictic
c:
c: "'--.J conglomerate and sandstone
O

Diagenetic
zones
D Zone 1
DI Zone 11
l1li Zone 111

Hydrothermal zone
c:
O
O Sericite + chloritezone
1i5
E
es
LJ...
'"
;s:
'"
<f>
O
':¡
-'"
E<f>
Z 150m

o O O O O
E o00000
. , A
LJ...,OOOOOO( FIGURE5.17 I Schematic cross-section olthe western
'" 000000
E)
'~
O
1 O O O
00000
O O O
Al'
Hokuroku Sasin (Japan)showing lithologyand altered
zones.The locations01the six data sheetsare marked
on the section.

or mixed-layer smectite/chlorite and pale green mordenite
domains are common in the pumice-rich racks (e.g. data
sheet HK2). Plagioclase crystals are typically unaltered.
The analcime zone is at least 7 km wide and 150-200 m
thick, and occurs in the Upper Nishikurosawa and lower
Onnagawa Formations (below the MI mudslOne). It is
appraximately equivalent to the ore position, grading into
the hydrothermal montmorillonite zone and overlying the
sericite + chlorite zone (e.g. data sheets HK5 and 6) associated
with the Kuroko VHMS deposits (Figs 5.6 and 5.17). In the
east of the Odate Basin, an analcime + calcite zone occurs
within the clinoptilolite + mordenite zone (Fig. 5.6A: Iijima,
1974). However, it is different fram the regional analcime
zone, containing disseminated pyrite and calcite concretions
and veinlets, and is considered lO result fram hydrathermal
alteration related lO Kuroko mineralisation (Yoshida and
Utada, 1968; Iijima, 1974).
The regional analcime zone is characterised by analcime,
which has completely replaced some shards, and raunded
crystals of analcime that have replaced clinoptilolite- and
mordenite-altered shards and pumice clasts (e.g. data sheets
HK 3 and 4). The internal structure of analcime-altered
uncompacted tube pumice clasts is not as well preserved
as those in the clinoptilolite + mordenite zone. Plagioclase
crystalsare unaltered or have been partIy analcime and calcite
altered. Dark green saponite, saponite + chlorite and chlorite
fiamme are common in this zone. They are interpreted as
altered and compacted pumice clasts (Gifkins et al., in press).
Analcime-filled solution seams are common in the lower part
of this zone.
The albite + laumontite zone occurs beneath the sericite
+ chlorite zone at depth in the Odate Basin (Fig. 5.6). It is
characterised by albite + laumontite :t calcite :t chlorite :t
sericite (Iijima and Utada, 1971). Laumontite has replaced
plagioclase crystals, originally glassy shards and pumice clasts
and filled pore space (Iijima, 1974). Albite has replaced
plagioclase crystals.
Genesisofalteredzones
The four zeolite zones in the Hokuroku Basin are interpreted
lO have formed during submarine diagenesis of the mainly
glassy felsic volcanic succession (Iijima and Utada, 1971;
Iijima, 1974, 1978; Utada, 1991). The alteration pattern
is interpreted lO have formed beneath the seafloor, while
sedimentation continued and the racks were pragressively
buried. Ptygmatic folds in near vertical calcite veinlets in
 SEAFLOOR- ANO BURIAL-RELATEOALTERATION I 121

Diagenetic
zones
A
ZONEI
~
-..
D Partiallyalteredzonelackingzeolites
ZONEII
D Clinoptilolite+ mordenitezone
ZONE111
Analcime+ calcitezone
Hydrothermal
zones

..
D
Montmorillonite
andtransitional
zones
Sericite+ chloritezonewithplagioclase
Sericite
+chlorite
zonelacking
~100m
1 km

plagioclase B
~

-
D

c::J
Gravel
c::J Daciticlava
c:::::I Basalticlava/sill
Massivesulfideore
Felsicvolcanicfacies
. , , , , , ,

e
,

FIGURE5.18 I Modellorthe developmentand

delormation01the alteredzones in the Hokuroku
Basin lrom the Middle Mioceneto Recent
(alter lijima, 1974).(A) Late Nishikurosawa
stage (MiddleMiocene).(B) Onnagawastage
with deposition01the M1 mudstone.(C) Late
Funakawastage(Late Miocene).(D) Recen!.

Zone III are considered to result from compaction that took
place when the volcanic facies were most deeply buried.
Thus the diagenetic zones probably formed before the end
of deposition of the upper Miocene Funakawa Formation,
which overlies the Onnagawa Formation (Iijima, 1974).
The development of the diagenetic zones can be described in
four stages (Fig. 5.18): late Nishikurosawa stage, Onnagawa
stage, late Funakawa stage and recent (Iijima, 1974). Ouring
these stages, mineralogical changes progressed with depth as
successive reactions between volcanic glass and interstitial
modified seawater occurred, originally forming zeolites and
then albite as the temperature and pressure increased (Utada,
1991). These mineralogical changes were accompanied by
textural and compositional changes.
Ouring the late Nishikurosawa stage (Fig. 5.18A) in the
middle Miocene, felsic glass was hydrated and began to alter
to montmorillonite and low-cristobalite (Iijima, 1974). This
resulted in a shallow, regionally extensive partly altered zone.
Submarine hydrothermal activity associated with VHMS
mineralisation also commenced (Iijima, 1974).
The clinoptilolite + mordenite zone formed during the
late Nishikurosawa and early Onnagawa stage (Fig. 5.18A
and B), when partly altered facies were buried to a depth
of approximately 100 m (Iijima, 1974). This increased the
alkalinity of the fluid resulting in the dissolution of felsic glass
and the precipitation of alkali clinoptilolite and mordenite
in vesicles, interstitial voids and dissolution cavities.
Simultaneous reactions altered glassy clasts and tube pumice
walls to saponite. Reaction rates were possibly accelerated as a
result of hydrothermal fluids circulating within the succession
increasing the geothermal gradient and concentrations of Na
and K in the fluido By the end of the Onnagawa stage the
hydrothermal sericite + chlorite and montmorillonite zones
associated with the ore deposits had formed (Iijima, 1974).
Ouring the late Funakawa stage (Fig. 5.18C), clinoptilolite
and mordenite reacted with solution to form analcime,
adularia, quartz and calcite (Ogihara, 1996). As a result, the
analcime + heulandite zone was superimposed on the deeper
part of the clinoptilolite + mordenite zone (Iijima, 1974). The
Funakawa stage corresponds to the time of deepest burial and
compaction of altered pumice clasts to form fiarnme (Iijima,
1974). The diagenetic analcime + heulandite zone formed
contemporaneously with hydrothermal zones surrounding
the Kuroko VHMS deposits (Iijima, 1978; Ohmoto, 1978).
Since the Funakawa stage, the altered zones have been
mildly deformed and eroded (Fig. 5.180: Iijima, 1974).
 122 I CHAPTER
5

Subtle,patchymordenite
+ smectite-chlorite
alteration
facies HK1

Sample No. J6-294

Alteration
facies subtle,patchymordenite + smectite-
chlorite
Alterationzone clinoptilolite
+ mordenite
zone
Location Yoneshiro River
Formation Onnagawa Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt
Volcanicfacies pumicebreccia o

Relictminerals plagioclase + quartz I

m
Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,bubble-wall
crystalfragments,
shards,
non-vesicular
volcanic
i
<5
clasts
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies gradedbed
Interpretation syneruptive, mass-flow emplacedpumice
breccia o
m
Alterationminerals partlyglassy,mordenite + saponite+
montmorillonite+ smectite-chlorite
+
~
K-feldspar + pyrite J
Alterationtextures saponitefilmsinvesicles,mordenite :t :¡¡
z
saponitefilledvesiclesandporespace,
smectite-chloritefiamme,disseminated , OZo",J
pyrite lillJ Zo",1I

Distribution .ZonellJ
patchy 11 Sene'e , chJonte '°",
Preservation excellent
r";;l P,mlce and IIthle breccla,
.M'dstO", L:J and shard-ceh "Itstone
Alterationintensity subtle = JnJerbedded manne and
"""shard-rleh m,dstone
Timing early ""' Polymletle p,mlce brecela
~and'amlnated,,'tstone
O
fT'l
lL.J
~~~~r~~da~~~I¡t~-
Andesiteand basal!
InI""oos
I'"M Coherent basalt and basallle
D ~~~:~¡2~:~;J;:~~~e~e~~~;~ne L.J bomb brecc"
l'5O:l P,mlce brecela, sandstone
L:::Jandshard-rlehslltstone [:J ~~~~:~~;~tr,;~d~~;dstone

lIiIIi
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI 123
ANDBURIAL-RELATED

Weak,pervasivemordenite+ smectitealterationfacies HK2

SampleNo. OH8-369
Alteration
facies weak,pervasive mordenite+ smectite
Alterationzone clinoptilolite
+ mordenite
zone
Location Odatecity
Formation Onnagawa Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt
Volcanicfacies pumice+ lithicbreccia ~
o
Relictminerals plagioclase+ quartz
Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,bubble-wall
shards, j
crystalfragments,
clasts
non-vesicular
volcanic
6
I
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies gradedbed
Interpretation syneruptive, mass-flow emplaced pumice
breccia
Alterationminerals mordenite + smectite-chlorite
+ K-feldspar o

+ calcite+ pyrite+ glauconite j

Alterationtextures smectitefilmsinvesicles,mordenite :t ro

smectitefilledvesiclesandporespace,
mordenite-altered glassshardsand
I
:¡¡¡
z
vesiclewalls,smectite-chlorite
fiamme,
disseminated pyrite,microcrystalline
lithic
clasts
Distribution pervasive
Preservation excellent
.Muds!one ~
L:J
Pumlee and IIthle b,eccla,
andshard-riehsllts!one
Alterationintensity weak E'J
'=J
In!e,bedded marine and
sha,d-rieh mudstone D ~~~~;~,'~dY~I~!~-
Timing early ¡;e]
'-'-J
Polym;ctle pumlee b'eecla
and lam,,"ed slltstone
[T"l
lL.J
Andeslteand basalt
In!n",ons

Alterationstyle diagenetic O ;~;;~¡~~:~;¿;:~;~c,re~~~~%ne

"'"
L..J
Cohe,en! basalt and basaffie
bomb breeela
E7l Pumlce b'eecla, sands!one
LéJ and sh"d-neh sllts!one ~ :':;;~\;~~;~!~~~~~~;dS!One
124 I CHAPTER
5

Subtle,pervasive
smectite-chlorite
+ mordenite
+ analcime
alteration
facies HK3

Sample No. OH8-511

Alteration
facies subtle,pervasive
smectite-chlorite
+
mordenite+ analcime
Alterationzone analcimezone
Location Odatecity
Formation Onnagawa Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt ~
o

Volcanicfacies pumicebreccia j
ro

Relictminerals plagioclase
+ quartz i
<5
Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,crystalfragments
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation syneruptive,mass-flow emplaced pumice
breccia ~
o

Alterationminerals smectite-chlorite+ mordenite + analcime+

sericite+ pyrite
j
ro

Alterationtextures analcimesolutionseams,smectite-chlorite ~
~
fiamme,mordenite filledvesicles,analcime zi5
replacingmordenite + smectite-altered
pumiceclasts
Oistribution pervasive
Preservation good
Alterationintensity subtle .M"dsIOoe r';;l
L:J
P"mice aod, IIthic breceia,
aod shard-"h sitlslooe
mlolerbedded marioe aod
Timing early l=J shard-rich m"dslooe
18< Polymictic p"mice breceia
D ~~~~i~~da;:,'y~I~~-
rr"lAodesileaod,basall
L;..J aod lammated sillslooe "'--J mtros,""
Alterationstyle diagenetic ¡¡;-¡¡]Cohereolbasallaod basa.c
O ;~:~~¡g~:~~~;~~~c~J:"s~~~oe LJ bombbre",a
EC'l P"mice breccia, saodslooe
L:.J aod shard-rich ""slooe ['] ~~:;~;~~~'~~~~~~ds,ooe
 SEAFLOOR-
ANOBURIAL
-RELATEO
ALTERATION I 125

Weak,pervasiveanalcime+ mordenitealterationfacies HK4

SampleNo. OH8-537
Alteration
facies weak,pervasive
analcime+ mordenite
Alterationzone analcimezone
Location Odatecity
Formation Onnagawa Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt
o
o
Volcanicfacies pumicebreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Iro

Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,bubble-wall
shards,
8
i
crystalfragments
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies gradedbed
Interpretation syneruptive,
mass-flow
emplaced
pumice
breccia o
o

Alterationminerals analcime+ mordenite

smectite-chlorite
+ clinoptilolite
+ pyrite+ sericite
+
Iro

Alteration
textures mordenite andclinoptilolite
filled
~
~
vesicles,mordenite andanalcimealtered :¡:
z
vesiclewalls,analcime overgrowths on
plagioclasecrystalfragments , Olonel
Distribution pervasive ILI lone11
.lonelll
Preservation moderate l1li Serie'e , chlorite ,one
Alterationintensity weak .Mudstone r";l
L:J
Pumleeand,"thlebrece,".
and shard-r"h "ltstone
F:':=J Interbedded marineand
Timing early LJ shard-r"h mudstone D ~~~~~t~da~~~I~t~-
¡¡n Polymdle puml,e brecela [T'1 Andesite and basalt
~ and lam,nated s"tstone lL.J "tru"ons
Alterationstyle diagenetic mil Coherent basalt and basa.e
O ;~;;~¡~~:~~:,;:~~~e~e~~~;;:One L.J bomb b,eeela
l5:7l Pumlee brecela, sandstone
L:éJ and shard-r"h slltstone ~ ~~;;~;~~;~t~~~~~~'~dstone
126 I CHAPTER
5

Strong,pervasive
quartz+ sericitealteration
facies HK5

Sample No. OH8-794

Alteration
facies strong,pervasive quartz+ sericite
Alteration
zone sericite+ chloritezone
Location Odatecity
Formation Nishikurosawa
Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt
o
o
Volcanicfacies pumice+ lithicbreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
j
Relicttextures volcanicclasts I
(5
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies gradedbed
Interpretation syneruptive,
mass-flow
emplaced
pumice
breccia
Alterationminerals quartz+ K-feldspar + sericite+ chlorite+ o
o

pyrite j
Alterationtextures pseudomorphs afterplagioclase ctystals
ro

~
andclastsinpervasive crystallinematrix, ~
quartz-filled
dissolution
vugs :¡:
z
Distribution pervasive
Preservation , Dzo",'
poor 11 Zo",11
Alterationintensity strong 11 Zo",
"'
lIi!I Sencite + ch'onte zooe
Timing early
.Mudstooe r'\;;l Pumlce and llthie brecela.
L..:::Jandshard-rlehslltstone
Alterationstyle hydrothermal 1"3 'nterbedded manne and
LJ shard-neh mudstone D ~~~~[;~da~h~~l~t:-
fFl PO'ymle';e pumlee brecela f""'"""l Andeslteand basalt
LU and lamlnated slltstone lL.Jintru"ons
"'" Coherent basalt and basaltle
O ~~~:¡~~:~;n:~~d~ehus~;~ne LJ bomb brecela
EJl Pumicebrecela,sandstone
L::J and shard-rleh slltstone ~ ~~~;~;~~;~t~~:~~~dstone
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI 127
ANDBURIAL-RELATED

Moderate,pervasivesericite+ chloritealterationfacies HK6

SampleNo. H020-485
Alteration
facies moderate, pervasivesericite+ chlorite
Alterationzone sericite+ chloritezone
Location nearFukazawadeposit
Formation Nishikurosawa
Formation
Succession GreenTuffBelt
e
o
Volcanicfacies pumice+ lithicbreccia
Relictminerals nil jro

Relicttextures clasts?
o
t
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies gradedbed
Interpretation syneruptive,
mass-flow
emplaced
pumice
breccia
Alterationminerals chlorite+ sericite+ pyrite+ montmorillonite
Alterationtextures dissolutionvugsaftercrystals,sericite+
chloritefiamme,disseminated pyrite
Distribution pervasive
Preservation poor
Alterationintensity moderate
Timing early
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
r'\0 Pomi" andlithiobce"ia.
_Modstone L:J aodshaed-noh siltstone
E3 Inteebe"edmarineand
~shaed-,iohmodstoee D ~~~~~t~da~dY~I~t~-
r;n Polymictiopomi" b,ec:da f"T'1 Andesiteaodbasalt
L'-.J aodlami"ted "ltstoce lL.J intruslons
~ Coheeentbasaltandbasa"o
[J
.'.' Inteebedded "ystal.,ioh pomi"
. . . sandstone aod sha,d-rioh siltstone L.J bombb,,,o,,
tY:l Pomi" bceocia. sandstoee
L:::.Jandshaed-nohsiltstone l2J ~~~;~;~~;~t~~i~~o:;dstone
128 I CHAPTER
5
5.6 I DIAGENETIC
ALTERATION
INTHE
MOUNTREADVOLCANICS
Gifkins (2001) recognised two regionally deve!oped
Cambrian diagenetic zones (albite zone and epidote zone)
within the northern Central Volcanic Complex in the
Mount Read Volcanics. Although the rocks currendy have
mineral assemblages consistent with greenschist facies
metamorphism, diagenetic alteration facies were identified
based on combinations of mineral assemblages, overprinting
re!ationships, textures, distribution, alteration intensity and
whole-rock geochemistry. The original diagenetic mineral
assemblages were inferred from local re!ict textures and by
comparison with younger diagenetically altered volcanic
successions (Gifkins and Allen, 2001).
Locally, the diagenetic alteration facies merge with
hydrothermal alteration facies in the margins of the Rosebery
and Hercules VHMS systems (Allen, 1997). Diagenetic and
hydrothermal alteration facies are interpreted to have had
similar timing (e.g. Fig. 3.20), and the hydrothermal system
may have contributed heat and Buid to intensify the diagenetic
system (Gifkins, 2001).
Geologicalsetting
For a detailed description of the geologyof the Mount Read
Volcanics refer to Section 1.5. The northern Central Volcanic
Complex is exposed in an approximate!y 30 by 6 km area
located north and west of the Henty fault, and east of me
Rosebery fault (Fig. 1.5). Ir includes mree compositionally
and texturally different formations (Fig. 5.19): the Sterling
Valley Volcanics, the Mount Black Formation, and the
Kershaw (or Hercules) Pumice Formation (Gifkins, 2001).
The Sterling Valley Volcanics (> 1.5 km thick) are composed
of dacitic to basaltic lavas and sills, and polymictic mafic
volcaniclastic facies interpreted as resedimented syneruptive
hyaloclastite, autobreccia, pillow lava and scoria. The Mount
Black Formation is a laterally extensive (>20 km), thick
succession (>1.6 km) of mainly fe!dspar-phyric massive, Bow-
banded and autobrecciated lavas, domes, cryptodomes and
synvolcanic sills (e.g. data sheets CVC1 CVC5 and CVC6).
The Kershaw Pumice Formatian, which conformably
overlies the MountBlack Formation, is a laterally extensive
(>16 km), re!ative!y thick (>800 m) succession dominated
by non-we!ded pumice breccia (e.g. data sheets CVC3 and
CVC4), pumice-rich sandstone and shard-rich siltstone, with
lesser proportions of pumice-lithic clast-rich breccia and
sandstone, and massive, Bow-banded and brecciated rhyolitic
and dacitic lavas and intrusions (e.g. data sheet CVC2). The
upper part of the Kershaw Pumice Formation and the base of
the overlying White Spur Formation host the Rosebery and
Hercules VHMS deposits.
Abundant spherulites, lithophysae, micropoikilitic texture
and re!ict perlite indicate that volcanic rocks in the northern
Central Volcanic Complex were initially partly crystalline and
partly glassy (Gifkins and Allen, 2001).
Alterationfaciesandzonation
Regionally distributed diagenetic albite and epidote zones
formed before, or were synchronous with, stylolitic SI
compaction foliation. The alteration intensity is generally
weak with volcanic textures and albite-altered plagioclase
crystals preserved. Locally the distribution and intensity of the
diagenetic alteration facies is patchy, reBecting the complexity
of the original volcanic facies (Fig. 5.20).
The albite zone is characterised by pervasive albite + quartz
+ sericite (e.g. data sheets CVC2 and CVC5), domainal albite
+ quartz + sericite with sericitec+hematite:t chlorite (e.g. data
sheet CVC3) and pervasive sericite (e.g. data sheet CVC4)
alteration facies. Ir is thick (>2 km) and encompasses the
Kershaw Pumice Formation and most of the Mount Black
Formation (Fig. 5.21). The albite + quartz + sericite-rich facies
are associated with minor increases in Si02, CaO, Na20 and
total mass, and decreases in K20 and Al203 consistent with
seaBoor albitisation (cf. Boles and Coombs, 1977; Boles,
1982). The sericite + hematite :t chlorite alteration facies is
associated with minor increases in K20 and Al203 consistent
with the conversion of silicic glass to clay minerals (cf. Noh
and Boles, 1989; Passaglia et al., 1995). The abundance of
hematite may reBect the oxidation ofFe3+ during alteration of
glass to clays (e.g. Klein and Lee, 1984).
The epidote zone is characterised by pervasive albite +
quartz + sericite, pervasive chlorite + sericite, pervasive chlorite
+ epidote and domainal chlorite + epidote with albite + quartz
+ sericite (e.g. data sheet CVC6) alteration facies. The epidote
zone is less extensive than the albite zone and is restricted to the
Mount Black Formation and Sterling Valley Volcanics at the
stratigraphic base of the northern Central Volcanic Complex,
adjacent to the Henty fault (Fig. 5.19). In the epidote zone,
chlorite + sericite and chlorite + epidote altered fe!sic rocks
have gained MgO, consistent with the formation of smectite,
chlorite and other Mg-silicates during diagenesis (cf. Hajash
and Chandler, 1981; Shiraki and Iiyama, 1990).
Genesisofalteration
facies
The epidote zone occurs in the core of the regional anticline
in the Sterling Valley, suggesting that it is associated with the
deepest stratigraphic leve! in the northern Central Volcanic
Complex: the lower Mount Black Formation and Sterling
Valley Volcanics (Gifkins, 2001). The change from the albite
zone to the epidote zone with stratigraphic depth is consistent
with diagenetic alteration zonation (cf. Iijima, 1974, 1978).
Thick (>1 km) diagenetic zones with high-temperature
mineral assemblages (albite + quartz + sericite and chlorite
+ epidote) suggest that they deve!oped in response to a high-
grade diagenetic alteration system that involved an e!evated
geothermal gradient (cf. Utada, 1991).
Albite + quartz + sericite, sericite + hematite :t chlorite,
and sericite alteration facies are the metamorphosed
equivalents of diagenetic alteration facies that coated original
surfaces, filled primary porosity and replaced glass in the
northern Central Volcanic Complex prior to or synchronous
with diagenetic compaction. Thin films of sericite, carbonate
and hematite replaced clays that had coated original glassy
surfaces at the onset of diagenesis. Albite + quartz + sericite,
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI
ANOBURIAL-RELATED 129

5385000 mN

Lake
Mackintosh

c::::::::JGraniteandrelatedporphyry
m¡¡;¡¡ OwenConglomerate
~:~:1 TyndallGroup
I~=11 1
Eastemquartz-phyricsequence
WhiteSpurFonmation
[::::::::::1 andDundasGroup

~ Feldspar+ hornblende-phyric
andesite

1': ::::] KershawPumiceFonmation

r~{u
~
Mount81ackFonmation

..
~ SterlingValleyVoleanics

c::::J Quartz+ feldspar-phyric

rhyolite

Blackmudstone

~
- StichtRangeBeds
Fault
Road
Railway
track
Mineor majarprospect

Albitezone

Epidotezone

Hydrothermally
alteratedzones

FIGURE 5.19 I Geologyolthe northernMount ReadVolcanicsin westernTasmania,showingthe major lithostratigraphicunits and altered
zones in the northern Central Volcanic Complex (alter Gifkins, 2001). Locations 01the six data sheets are marked on the map.
 130 I CHAPTER
5
I ~
E~ Feldspar-phyric
rhyolite
400mE 600mE aOOmE 1000mE
~ u=J
E
Feldspar-phyric dacite
Jigsaw-fit monomictic felsic
~" IV6'0l breccia

r r ~I~I Pumice breccia

~ l.ii<j Pumice + lithic clast-rich breccia

I~ .o~el Glacialcover
~ Basalticdyke
I~ Flowbanding
~ Fault

3000mRL

Albite+ quartz+ sericite

u -~ c::::JChlorite+ sericite
r i~ 1~~f;~1
61" I -- 1
Chlorite+ sericitefiamme
Chlorite+ sericite+ hematite
~ 1---1 stylolites
100 m Quartz+ sericite
-"'~
roa> ~.
E-"
~ro
a>- C]. Chlorite+ quartz+ calcite

~~~ Chlorite+ pyrite

f2~
ro r:=J Chlorite + calcite + magnetite

FIGURE 5.20 I Detailedcross-sectionin the Roseberyhangingwall (westernTasmania)showingthe complexdistribution01volcanicand alterationlacies (alter

Gilkins and Allen, 2001)-

Kershaw Pumice
Formation Diageneticalterationlacies
00 00 CJ Clay+ zeolite(:!:calcite:!:hematite)

I /
'1'- \/ , 1
albite zone
CJ Chlorite+ c1ay(:!:sericite)
/,
- /
'-,
,
I
, /
(feldspar+ quartz +sericite) I .,1 Albite + quartz+ sericite
/ Transitionalalterationlacies
/ 1 / //' / / /, -, /" -- \

, -
\/'/1
/,~ '-
\
/ -
'/1
/,~ '-
/
\/'/1
-
/,~ - Chlorite+epidote
MountBlack \' \ , \ 1, Hydrothermalalterationlacies
Formation -, / - I \ - , / - I \'
CJ
III~I 1 II/~f ',1 VHMSlootwall
1/,1,/>,
-,_1; / /;:-,_1;
/,I,/~,
/;:-,_1
/,1 CJ VHMS hangingwall
1/1

-/
,-,,
\

,/
/,
\

-/
1-,'
,\

,/-/
/,
\
1-,
/
CJ Sil! related

/ \ /'1/ \ /'1/"
1= ,; ~ = I
Quartz+ leldpsar-phyricrhyoliticsil!

~ Coherent rhyolite or dacite

l::: :j Felsicautobrecciaand hyaloc1astite

¡¿}%~~ Maficautobrecciaand hyaloc1astite

es:] Coherentandesiteor basalt

FIGURE5.21 I Schematiccross-section01the northernCentralVolcanic GJ Pumicebreccia

Complexstratigraphyand alteredzones,westem Tasmania(alter Gifkins,2001).

~ Fiamme

§I§ Interbeddedpumice-richsandstone
and shard-richsiltstone

c=J Blackmudstone

~ Massivesulfide

1-1>. ~b:I Quartz-phyric

volcanicbreccia(WSF)

"=-
 SEAFLOOR-
ANO BURIAL-RELATED ALTERATION I 131

A <;~..~ ~'.
Stage 1: Onset of regional synvolcanic diagenesis
t><])
-~-,._-~f.=;r
í?<?-.<'Y'~
~c.. ~-~ " ,~;._<-,--,.
--,~ ,~ Thin films of sericite, hematiteand calcite coatoriginal surfaces,including
vesiclewalls, plagioclase crystals,shardsand fractures,These films are
p¿ the metamorphicequivalentsof low-temperaturesmectite,palagoniteand
calcite rim cements,This earlystage probablyinvolvedinteractionwith
seawatertrapped in the volcanicsuccession.Modifiedseawatermay have
been expelledfrom the successionin responseto overburdenpressure,
and migratedtowardsthe seaflooras diffuseunfocusedflow.

Stage 2: Diagenesis and synchronous hydrothermal

{ alteration and mineralisation
, <-
~~~ ". n- I ij ij Zeoliteor clay mineralcements beganto fill primarypore spaces, vesicles
"-= - - -- .:;:-,--='"--'" and perliticfractures.Subsequently,these were extensivelyreplaced

=~-: p¿- ';---r

-¡ -
p¿ ~ --. by K-feldsparor albite and chlorite.Zeolitisationprobablyoccurredat
temperaturesbetween40 and 100°C.Locally,hydrothermalfluids altered
\ I " the succession.Hydrothermalfluid flow was unfocussedand in places
, /.~ I
/ \ / ~ /, " pondedbeneaththe coherentfacies of sills and lavas. The Roseberyand
/-,,¡,/,/ HerculesVHMS depositsand their alteredhalos are interpretedto have
- - /
\/ '\\- / /
\?
yo t.<I yo t.
<1 \? <1 \? <1
formed duringthis stage at temperaturesgreaterthan 300°C.
I ' / , / . -., /- \ ,\ , / , /
. .'~. "0'. "0'.
,f, > '1 > '1

e ~
Q~ ~--
Stage 3: Continuing diagenetic alteration and
L --- ~ D... = -. . compaction synchronous with deposition of the White
..~.~~v: .
/ \ / ,
.. ~
;';'~A. . - 'V -
'> ~r(q L:? - ./.':
c.&
~ ~'.' <>.#' c.'
... "
T'"."
.' Spur Formation
Oissolutionand alterationof glassto clays, sericite and chloriteoccurred
ij ij
synchronouswith compaction.Replacementof earlier zeolites by K-
feldsparoccurredbelow 150°C,albitisationof plagioclasephenocrystsand
-- albite replacementof K-feldsparoccurredat temperaturesbetween 100
/ '
and 190°C.Large volumesof fluid were probablydisplacedas a resultof
\ - - \
/
\
'-
¡
compactionunder the weight of the accumulatingWhite Spur Formation.
\ I
\ / -. I Rapidand variablesedimentationrates may have over-pressuredthe
, " ¡ pore fluid, promotinglateralfluid flow along permeablelayers.Weak
" hangingwall alterationdevelopedduring continuedhydrothermalalteration
:.7\/¡:.j;p;:;;:;;:;';:};~;~j;f};~~" v l- v associatedwith the formationof the Roseberydeposit.

Stage 4: Transition between diagenesis and regional

, .
, ,;. '-r-","metamorphism
Morestable, higher-temperaturemineralassemblagesreplacedremaining
ij ij ij glass, phenocrystsand earlyalterationminerals.Chlorite+ epidote
alterationfacies developedat depth in both mafic and felsic volcanic
p¿
-- facies: probablyat high (>200°C)temperatures.

Stage 5: Devonian metamorphism and deformation

Greenschistfacies mineralassemblagesand tectonic fabrics overprinted
diageneticand hydrothermalalterationfacies. Deformationmodified pre-
existingvolcanicand alterationtexturesand producedfolds, faults and
shear zones.The distributionof syn-S2alterationfacies suggeststhat
metamorphicfluid migrationwas restrictedto regionalstructuressuch
as faults and shear zones. Mineralassemblagesin intermediateand
mafic rocksin the Mount ReadVolcanicsindicatethat the peak regional
metamorphictemperaturewas between370 and 450°C.

FIGURE5.22 I Modelfor the post-depositionalevolutionof the northernCentralVolcanicComplex,westernTasmania(alter Gifkins,2001). Schematiccross-

sectionsare not to scale.
 132 I CHAPTER
5
chlorite + sericite and sericite + hematite :t chlorite replaced
zeolites and days that filled pore space and altered glass, prior
to and synchronous with diagenetic compaction. In pumice-
rich facies, a bedding-parallel srylolitic foliation reflects
the dissolution of glass during compaction and fiamme are
interpreted as diagenetically altered and flattened pumice
dasts (Gifkins et al., in press). Oiagenetic alteration involved
significant mineralogical and textural changes but only minar
changes in composition consistent with the interaction of
rhyolitic and basaltic glass with seawater during burial.
The chlorite + epidote alteration mineral assemblage may
be transitional between diagenesis and burial metamorphism.
Ir developed after lithification and compaction but pre-dated
regional deformation associated with peak metamorphism.
The chlorite + epidote facies replaced earlier day or chlorite
+ sericite-rich facies and filled any remaining pore space.
Negligible absolute and total mass changes associated with
chlorite + epidote alteration suggest that it grew in response
to increasing temperature with increasing depth ofburiallate
in the diagenetic history (Gifkins, 2001).
-
Mineral assemblages in these diagenetic zones reflect the
reaction of glasswith interstitial fluid at elevated temperatures.
The albite zone probably formed at temperatures between
100 and 190°C (cf. Iijima and Utada, 1971; Thompson,
1971; Merino, 1975; Munha et al., 1980; Boles, 1982).
The epidote zone is characterised by chlorite + epidote,
chlorite + sericite and albite + quartz + sericite indicating
formation at temperatures of at least 200°C (cf. Seki, 1972;
Kristmannsdottir, 1976).
The regional diagenetic alteration and metamorphism of
the northern Central Volcanic Complex can be described in
five successive stages (Fig. 5.22): (1) the onset of diagenesis;
(2) formation of diagenetic cements, and synchronous
hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation; (3) diagenetic
alteration and compaction synchronous with emplacement
of the White Spur Formation; (4) replacement of early
diagenetic minerals and remaining glass by more stable mineral
assemblages; and (5) regional Oevonian metamorphism and
deformation.
 SEAFLOOR- ANO BURIAL-RELATEOALTERATION I 133

Subtle,pervasivealbite+ quartz+ chloritealterationfacies CVC1

Least-alteredrhyolite

Sampleno. 133921
Alteration
facies subtle,pervasive
albite+ quartz+ chlorite
Alteration
zone albitezone
Location MountBlack
Formation MountBlackFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanic
facies massive,plagiociase-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals plagiociase
Relicttextures porphyritic,
micropoikilitic
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation coherentfacies
Epidotezone
Alterationminerals albite+ quartz+ sericite+ chlorite+ Hydrothermal
alterationzones
hematite
Alteration
textures albite+ quartz:t sericite:t chlorite
pseudomorphs of plagiociase,
micropoikilitic
albite+ quartz,interstitial
chlorite,disseminatedhematite Geochemistry
Distribution pervasive Si02 74.58 Kp 4.34 Cu 2 Al 56
Preservation excellent Ti02 0.27 P205 0.03 Pb 3 CCPI 22
AI203 13.85 S <0.01 Zn 17 Ti/Zr 5.98
Alterationintensity subtle
Fe203 2.08 Total 100.32 Th 22
Timing pre-S2 MnO 0.01 Zr 270
Alterationstyle diagenetic 0.38 Rb 136 Nb 17
MgO
CaO 0.13 Sr 96 Y 41
Na20 3.54 Ba 988

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

- pyrite,
magnetiteand
sideeite
---
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplo! epidote
calcite ankerite dolomite tremolite chlorite
0.7
100
, , I , , , , , ,
- -' - -,- - L - L - -l - ~ - -, - -,- - L -
0.6 x-
Q)
90 , ,. . '"
~ 80 - .J - - - -'- - L - ~ - ~
, IAndesite-basalt""
-'- -'- - '- -
0.5 E
.~ 70
, "," ,
e. -l r-r-T-l ~- -r-
I , , ,
0.4 ~"o 60 - -, - - - -o",i'" T - 1 -,
, ,,' ,'4755p,
-,- -,-
,
- r -
,
o -e 50 - ~ - - - -,- - t- - T - -t -,- -,- - c- -
I= 0.3 :'5 , '.147557 I , , , ,
2 40 - -, - - -,- -,- - c--
§ , ".~4755e" sericite,
0.2 E 30 - -< - - - .1"'497'- - + - ~ -, - -'-Iphoogite)
se
ti: 20 - _: - ~1!41{ - ~ - ~ -*13~()Zt - ~-
0.1 o , I R~yol~e,, , , ,
o 10 - -' - _,- - '- - -'- - 1 - ~ - - '- - ~ -
, , , , " "
o - albite, , , , , , ,K-Ieldsp"
o 100 200 300
o , , , , I , , , ,
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z'(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
134 I CHAPTER
5

Weak,pervasive
albite+ quartz+ sericitealteration
facies CVC2

Sample no. 147407

Alteration
facies weak,pervasive
albite+ quartz+ sericite
Alteration
zone albitezone
Location 120R-438.5
m
Formation KershawPumiceFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanicfacies jigsawfit, monomictic,
plagioclase-phyric
rhyolitebreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic,
perliticfractures,
jigsawfit
clasts
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation in situ hyaloclastite
Alterationminerals albite + quartz + sericite> chlorite+ pyrite
> calcite
Alterationtextures albite :t calcitepseudomorphsof
plagioclase,microcrystallinegroundmass,
Geochemistry
calciteveins,chloritefilled perliticfractures 74.01 1.82 Cu 2 Al 26
Si02 K20
Distribution pervasive 0.03 Pb 4 CCPI 29
Ti02 0.23 P205
Preservation moderate 12.21 S 0.01 Zn 19 Ti/Zr 5.31
AI203
Alterationintensity weak Fe203 2.17 Total 100.61 Th 12
Timing pre-S2 MnO 0.09 Zr 258
MgO 0.49 Rb 76 Nb 16
Alterationstyle diagenetic
CaO 2.41 Sr 113 Y 36
Na20 4.07 Ba 513

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- pyrite,
magoemeaod
side,ite
--.
TiO,-Zrimmobileeiementplot epido,e
ca'ci'e aokerite do'omlte tlemo"'e ch'orite
0.7 100
, , , , , , , , ,
- -' - -'- - L - l - -1 - -' - -,- -,- - L -
0.6 X" 90 , ' , , ,
O> ~ 80 - ~ - - - -'- - L - J. - ~ -' - -'- - '- -
04
o , ,Andesite-b"alt""
0.5 2 , """,
:g .!;.
c.. 70 - -, - - - -,- - I - ., - I -,- -,- - ,. -
'"
Q) , , , ,
O> - -,- - - -oa<:iteT - T - -, -,- -,- -,-
~o 60 , ,,' ,'47551', , ,
~" 2
;: 0.4
o -e 50 - -i - - - -,- - j- - T - -t -, - -,- - r -
'"
'" oN I=N0.3 "'" , '.,47557"'"
ro ,~ 40 - -, - - -,- -,- - r -
E '" i5 1474 7 I I .~4755e , , sericlte,
~o N N Lf)
o
~
o
-
ro
0.2 1:
8
30
- -' - - -*"
, " 7410." ' - + - -' -,- -'-Iphengrte)
~ Q Q N ...J o , ' II I
o: 20
, , , , ,
-g
-2
U1f-", o
N
'"
e.. f-
0.1
- ~-" /
I , , , ,
- - -,"- - - - ,- -Rhyolite- - ~ , - - - -
o
o 10
- -, - - - - L - l - -1 - .J3
,
- -' - -'-
,Rhyolite"",
2,',- - ,- - L -

, I I I , , - ,'- - !., - J"- J - -'- - ~ -

"
olr I I , , a'blte, , , , , , ,K-felpsp"
o 100 200 300
o , , , , , , , , ,
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z'(ppm)
Al(IshikawaAlterationlndex)
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI
ANDBURIAL-RELATED 135

Moderate,domainalalbite+ quartz+ sericite withsericite+ hematite:!:chlorite CVC3

alterationfacies
Sampleno. 147410
Alterationfacies modera te,domainalalbite+ quartz+
sericite
Alterationzone albitezone
Location 120R-524.5
m
Formation KershawPumiceFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanicfacies graded,plagioclase-phyric
pumicebreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,fiamme,plagioclase
crystalfragments,
blockyrhyoliteclasts
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies normallygraded
Interpretation syn-eruptive,
mass-flow-emplaced
pumice
breccia
Alterationminerals albite+ quartz+ sericite+ chlorite+
hematite+ calcite
Alterationtextures sericitefiamme,hematitestylolites, albite
veins,recrystallisedalbite+ quartz+ Geochemistry
Si02 76.08 K20 0.88 Cu 1 Al 16
sericitepumiceclastsandmatrix,albite+
Ti02 0.19 P205 0.03 Pb 4 CCPI 26
sericite+ calcitealteredplagioclase
Distribution domainal AI203 10.66 S 0.01 Zn 27 Ti/Zr 5.43
Fe203 1.67 Total 99.93 Th 10
Preservation poor
MnO 0.09 Zr 210
Alterationintensity moderate 0.47 Nb 13
MgO Rb 34
Timing pre-S2 CaO 2.39 Sr 144 Y 37
Alterationstyle diagenetic Na20 4.71 Ba 280

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- pyrlte.
magoetlte
aod,'derlte-
Ti02-Zrimmobile
elementplot epldote
oa'olte aokerite do'omlte tremollte oh'orlte
0.7 100
, , , , , , , , ,
- ..J- -,- - ,- - L - -' - J - -,- -,- - L -
rn 0.6 X
Q)
90 , , , ,
<=> 4 ~ 80 - J - - - -'- - L - ~ -.l -'- -'- - L -
<=>
, 'Aodesite-basalt""
:g 0.5 2 , "", ,
.~ 70 -~ ~-r-T-'
, , - ,,- - ,,- -
~- -~-
<n
'" a.
O>
~" 0.4 ~
<=
60 - -, - - - -oaciteT - , - -,
, ,,' ,'47551'
, ,
-,-
,
2 ¿ o
<n °N -e 50 - ~ - - - -,- - 1- - l' - -t -,- -,- - r -
<n
ro o F 0.3 ~ , '.,47557"'"
N - -, - - -,- -,- - 1- -
E ~ 40
'" o
"5 o , ".~47552', ,erlolte,
o o o o 2o 0.2 :¡: 30
'" ro N - --'--L\- -."4'7487-1-
- + -..¡ -, - - ,-(pheoglte)
1i Q Q
N NI'" o ::¡: ro N...J " , , 8 ', JIII: """
.c U
z "- f- "."__'__L-
ro
-2
(/) f- (")
o
N
:o:
0.1
-~C" V
,
,
,
---,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
e--Rhyolite
o:: 20
o
o 10
_ 1.47410 -L~-,_.J3
-
,Rqyohte,, , , ,
, , , , , , , , ,
-'- -'- -'- - ~ _1- -' - -'- -'- - '--

o '1" ' , , a'blte, , , , , , ,K-fe'd,par

o 100 mo 300
o , , , , , , , , ,
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm)
Al (IshikawaAlteration Index)
136 I CHAPTER
5

Weak,pervasive
sericitealteration
facies CVC4

Sampleno. 147552
Alterationfacies weak,pervasive
sericite
Alterationzone albitezone
Location PiemanRoad
Formation KershawPumiceFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanicfacies massive,plagioclase-phyric
pumice
breccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Relicttextures tubepumiceclasts,bubblewallshards,
plagioclase
crystalfragments,
fiamme
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies normallygraded
Interpretation syn-eruptive,mass-flow-emplaced pumice
breccia
Alterationminerals sericite+ albite+ calcite+ chlorite+
hematite
Alterationtextures sericitefiamme,hematitestylolites,
disseminated calciterhombs,albite+ Geochemistry
Si02 70.91 K20 3.16 Cu 4 Al 48
sericitealteredpumiceclastsandshards
Distribution Ti02 0.31 P205 0.07 Pb 2 CCPI 36
pervasive
AI203 14.08 S 0.01 Zn 48 Ti/Zr 7.41
Preservation good
Fe203 2.78 Total 99.75 Th
Alterationintensity weak MnO 0.07 Zr 251
Timing pre-S2 MgO 0.77 Rb 124 Nb 13
Alterationstyle diagenetic CaO 1.66 Sr 87 Y 28
Na20 2.68 Ba 786

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

epldo"- pyrit,.mag",tit,a"d"de,'"
-
0.7
Ti02-Zrimmobile
elementplot oa'oite a"karite dolomite tremo"" ohlorite
I 100
, I , I I 1 , , I
- -" - -,- - L - l - ~ - ~ - -,- -,- - L -
0.6 X" 90 , .' , ,
¡::¡; o - ~ - - - -'- - L - ~ - 1 -'- -'- - L -
<=> ~ 80
<=> , 1A"desite-basalt
I , , ,
0.5 2 , " I 1 , , I
:9 .~
a. 70 - -, - - - -,- - ,- - I - I -,- -,- - ,- -
~ -2
O) o , , , I
<= N 0.4 *" 60 - -, - - -Oaci.. T - ., - -, -,- -,- - r -
'"
..<:: '" i': o , 1 ,. 1'4755p, , ,
'-' Z o -e 50 - -t - - - -1- - ¡- - T - ~ -,- -,- - c- -
~ ¡=N
'" -4 0.3 ~ , '.,47557I I , , ,
E 2 40 --,-- -'--'--c--
'" i5 , " *14 52 ' ,e"oite,
'5 0.2 :c 30 - -' - - - -.'''''''7+ - + - -1 -,- -I-(pheng")
g
.Q
-6 >2- , ., 7410' I I I "
'" N ¡¡: 20 - _1- - - - L - L - ~ _.J3 _1- - L -
o 0.1 o , ,R~yolite, I , , ,
-8 ' iñ o 10 --I--'--I-_l_l_~__'_-'_-'--
I I , I I I , 1 ,
o albite I 1 I I I , I K-feld'pa,
o I I 1 I I I , 1 ,
o 100 200 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr (ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 SEAFLOOR- ALTERATIONI 137
ANOBURIAL-RELATED

Subtle,pervasivealbite+ quartz+ chloritealterationfacies CVC5

Least-altereddacite

Sampleno. 147435
Alteration
facies subtle,pervasive
albite+ quartz+ chlorite
Alterationzone albitezone
Location MBD4-18.4
m
Formation MountBlackFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanic
facies massive,plagioclase
+ hornblende-phyric
dacite
Relictminerals plagioclase,
hornblende
Relicttextures porphyritic,
glomeroporphyritic
clusters,
micropoikilitic
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies massive Epidote zone
Hydrothermal

Interpretation coherentfacies alteration zones

Alterationminerals albite+ quartz+ chlorite+ epidote

Alteration
textures albite+quartzmicropoikiliticgroundmass
withinterstitial
chlorite+ epidote,albite
pseudomorphs of plagioclase,
epidote+ Geochemistry
chloritealteredhornblende 67.53 3.95 Cu 4 Al 47
Si02 K20
Distribution pervasive 0.52 0.13 Pb 4 CCPI 41
Ti02 P20s
Preservation excellent AI203 14.51 S 0.01 Zn 51 Ti/Zr 14.48
Alterationintensity subtle Fe203 4.37 Total 99.51 Th 15
MnO 0.06 Zr 216
Timing pre-S2
MgO 1.3 Rb 102 Nb 12
Alterationstyle diagenetic
CaO 2.38 Sr 242 Y 34
Nap 3.56 Ba 958

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

- pyOte.
magnemeand'idecite
-
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot epidote
ca'cite ank"ite do'omite tcemolite ch'orite
0.7
100
, , , , , , , , ,
- -' - -,- - ,- - L - -l - -' - -,- - ,- - L -
x
Q)
90 , , , ,
~ 80 - J - - - -'- - L - ~ - --' -'- -'- - '- -
, ,Andesite-basalt""
0.5 $
.~ 70
, """,
Q. - -, - - -,- - I -,- -, -,- -,- - ,- -
, , , ,
0.4 *c: 60 --,
,
0",,;""-'-'
"o ,14755p
, ,
-,--,--,-
,
¡;: o
o -e - ~ - - - -,- - t- - T - -t -,- -,- - r-
"'"
50
F~ 0.3
.~ 40 --:-- 147 '-:--:--~-
o , "0,,47552,, ,ericite,
0.2 :c 30 - --' - - - .."4'7487-1-
- + - -'
-, - -,-(phe",'e)
8 , 0,7410' , , , , , ,
¡¡: 20 - -' - - - - L - .L - -l - oJ3 '-,,- -,- - L-
0.1 o , ,R~yolite"",
o 1o - -', - -'-, - '-
, - ~, - -', - -', - -'-, - '-, - '...
,-
o albite, , , , , , ,K-fe'p,p"
o 300
o , , , , , , , , ,
100 200 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z'(ppm)
Al(IshikawaAlterationIndex)
 138 I CHAPTER
5

Moderate,
domainal
chlorite+epidotealteration
facies CVC6

Sample no. 147557

Alteration
facies moderate,
domainalchlorite+ epidote
Alteration
zone epidotezone
Location PiemanRoad
Formation MountBlackFormation
Succession CentralVolcanicComplex
Volcanicfacies jigsawtit, monomictic
plagiociase
+
hornblende-phyric
dacitebreccia
Relictminerals plagiociase,hornblende
Relicttextures glomeroporphyritic,
perliticfractures,
jigsaw-fitciasts
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation insituhyaloclastite
Alterationminerals albite+ quartz+ chlorite+ epidote
Alterationtextures microcrystalline
groundmass withdomainal
albite+ quartzandchlorite+ epidote
facies,plagiociase phenocrystsalbiteor Geochemistry
chloritei:epidotealtered,hornblende Si02 67.93 K20 2.05 Cu 10 Al 31
alteredto chlorite+ epidote 0.59 0.13 Pb 3 CCPI 44
Ti02 P20s
Distribution domainal
AI203 14.32 S 0.01 Zn 28 Ti/Zr 17.68
Preservation good 4.57 Total 99.65 Th
Fe203
Alterationintensity weak MnO 0.06 Zr 201
Timing pre-S2 MgO 1.33 Rb 41 Nb 12
CaO 2.67 Sr 151 Y 31
Alterationstyle diagenetic
Nap 4.97 Ba 826

Handspecimen photograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

- pyrite.
magne"te""d
,ldecrie
-
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot epidote
calorie ankerite dolomrie tcemo"te chlorite
10 0.7 100
, , , , , , , , ,
- .J - -'- - L - L - ~ - ~ - -,- -,- - L -
x 90 , . , , ,
go 8
0.6 aJ
~ 80 - ~ - - - -'- - L - ~ - ~ -'- -'- - '- -
, 'Andesite-basalt""
a, 0.5 2' , "'" ,
';;; 6 ';;,
c. 70 -l r-r-'-1 ~- -,-
Q)
O)
*<: 60
, , , ,
c: 0.4 - -, - - - -oaoite T - 1 - -, -,- -,- - I -

jg 4
" o , ,,' ,'4755p, , ,
t)
o -e 50 - -i - - - -,- - j- - T - ~ -, - -,- - r -
U) I=N0.3 ~
U)
'" ~ 40 _~47_57 ' 4' -:--:--~-
E 2 :s , ".n47552" ,eriorie,
Q) 0.2 :c 30 - -' - - - .'""""7+ - + - -1 -, - -'-Ipheng'e)
::; S2-
, " 7410' , , , , , ,
¡¡: 20
~ O
ll) ~
0.1 o , -.J L-L_~_'J3
,R~yolite"", "."__'__L-

-g 18 8 oN o..J 2o o 10 - -' -
, - '- - ~ - J - J -
"" -'-
" - ~-
.2 .iñ ¡:: "- r- o
o
a'blte ,
I ,
I , , ,
I I , ,
,
,
I K-feld'p",
I ,
o 100 200 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

L
 -

I 139

6 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATED
ALTERATION

The spatial and genetic associations berween intrusions
and altered zones are widely appreciated in porphyry and
epithermal districts (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970; Titley, 1982;
Henley and Brown, 1985). Similar relationships also exist
in VHMS districts, where synsedimentary or synvolcanic
intrusions are commonly altered and surrounded by halos of
altered rocks. In some VHMS districts (e.g. Snow Lake and
Sturgeon Lake, Canada), there are spatial associations berween
synvolcanic intrusions and broad-scale, semi-conformable
altered zones and clusters ofVHMS deposits in the overlying
successions (Spooner and Fyfe, 1973; Campbell et al., 1981;
Gibson and Watkinson, 1990; Galley, 1993; Hannington et
al., 2003a). Ir has been suggested that synvolcanic intrusions
were heat sources (Spooner and Fyfe, 1973; Ohmoto and
Rye, 1974; Solomon, 1976; Cathles, 1977; Franklin et al.,
1981; Polya et al., 1986; Galley, 1993; Large et al., 1996),
and perhaps also volatile and metal sources (Urabe and Sato,
1978; Stanton, 1990; Yang and Scon, 1996; Hannington et
al., 1999) for subseaBoor hydrothermal systems that formed
altered zones and VHMS deposits.
Synvolcanic intrusive sills, cryptodomes, dykes and sub-
volcanic plurons are volumetrically important in submarine
volcanic successions (Polya et al., 1986; McPhie and Allen,
1992; Doyle and Huston, 1999; Galley, 2003). They may be
composite intrusions of variable volumes up to 1000 km3,
typically emplaced at depths up to 4 km below the seaBoor
(Nielsen et al., 1981; Galley, 2003; Whalen et al., 2004).
Intrusions and intrusion-related altered zones that significantly
post-date volcanism are also common in ancient submarine
volcanic successions; however, they are not the focus of this
chapter.
Alteration can occur within intrusions (deuteric and
local hydrothermal alteration), locally in the immediate
host rocks (contact alteration) or regionally in the host
succession (regional hydrothermal alteration) (Fig. 6.1). This
chapter describes the role of intrusions in generating regional
hydrothermal systems, regional hydrothermally altered zones,
altered zones within intrusions and contact altered zones
around both small-volume, near-seaBoor and larger, deeper
intrusions in submarine volcanic successions. The final section
presents a case srudy of contact altered zones associated with
the Darwin Granite in the southern Mount Read Volcanics,
western Tasmania. The recognition of altered zones related
to synvolcanic intrusions can provide insights into Buid-Bow
and thermal histories of VHMS districts, and thereby assist
mineral exploration.

K::>

, , ,

FIGURE6.1 I A cartoon01Ihe variely 01alleredzonesassocialedwilh synvolcanicinlrusions.(A) A deuleric alleredzone wilhin

Ihe lop 01a large volumeinlrusion.(B) A Iraclure-conlrolledhydrolhermallyallered zoneal Ihe margins01an inlrusion and in Ihe
surroundinghosl rocks.(C) Conlacl-alleredzonesaround synvolcanicsilis emplacedinlo unconsolidaledsedimenl immedialely
belowIhe seafloor.(D) Concenlricconlacl-alleredzonesarounda large volumeinlrusion emplacedal deplh. (E) Regional
hydrolhermallyalleredzones relaledlo emplacemenl01a subvolcanicplulon. (F)A lootwall alleralion pipebenealh a VHMS deposit.
140 I CHAPTER
6
6.1 I THEROLEOFINTRUSIONS
IN
GENERATING
HYDROTHERMAL
SYSTEMS
The most active hydrothetmal systems are those related to
magma-induced thermal anomalies (Alt, 1999; Butterfield,
2000). The magma chamber provides heat to overlying
strata and active volcanism contributes heat from its eruptive
products, intrusions and feeder dykes. The transfer ofheat and
mass away from the intrusion may occur by either conduction
only, or conduction and infiltration. Conduction generally
involves only minor diffusion of elements, although Weaver et
al. (1990) suggested that at near solidus temperatures vapour-
phase expulsion may produce local mineral and chemical
variations (loss of Na, halogens and REE) in volcanic glass.
In contrast, conduction accompanied by infiltration and
circulation of hot fluid can remove heat from the magmatic
system much faster than conduction alone, and effectively
transporr elements considerable distances, up to hundreds of
kilometres, through the succession.
Thermalmetamorphism related to theshallowemplacement
of synvolcanic intrusions in dry successions typically results
in limited alteration with litde or no mass transfer. In rare
cases, magmatic fluids exsolved from the crystallising magma
hydrothermally alter dry host facies. Vapour-phase expulsion
of some elemental species as complexes (e.g. fluoride,
chloride, hydroxide, sulfide and carbon dioxide) may result
in minor losses as glassy rocks devitrify, and glassy elasts may
be welded by elevated temperatures in the contact zones (e.g.
Christiansen and Lipman, 1966).
The effects of intrusions emplaced into water-saturated
successions are very different because water mobilises heat
and soluble elements. Trapped seawater in submarine volcanic
successions is heated by intrusions, initiating convection and
metasomatic alteration in the overlying succession. Thus,
almost all intrusion-related alteration in submarine volcanic
successions involves some degree of metasomatism by
magmatic fluid, modified seawater, or both.
Subseafloor
regionalhydrothermal
systems
Studies of me petrology, geochemistry and oxygen isotopes
of hydrothermally altered volcanic and plutonic rocks
from ophiolite complexes provide insight into subseafloor
hydrothermal systems, fluid generation and circulation, and
the role of intrusions (e.g. Lydon and Jamieson, 1984; Alt
et al., 1986; Gillis and Robinson, 1990; Bettison- Varga et
al., 1992; Kelley et al., 1992). The convection cell model for
hydrothermal systems and the formation of VHMS deposits
is based on observations from VHMS deposits and the upper
parr of the Cretaceous Troodos Massif in Cyprus, where
hydrothermal convection was driven by emplacement oflate,
high-level gabbro stocks into the fractured and permeable
crust (e.g. Spooner et al., 1974; Lydon and Jamieson, 1984;
Bettison- Vargaetal., 1992). This model involves thecirculation
of seawater in approximately 10 km diameter cells to depths
of 3-5 km within the crust (Fig. 6.2). Initially, increased
temperatures in the host succession drive dehydration and
decarbonation reactions, and fluids migrate away from the
intrusion. Buoyant heated connate seawater rises through the
permeable volcanic succession, drawing down cold seawater,
which is heated as it descends. In this way, magma drives
convective circulation of seawater between the seafloor and
the intrusion (Norron, 1984; de-Ronde et al., 1994; Galley,
2003). Huid flow is focused along joints, fractures and faults
formed during extension or in response to intrusive pressures
(Bettison- Varga et al., 1992). Alternatively, the multi-tiered
convection model involves a high-temperature (450-700°C)
cell, which circulates recyeled modified seawater in plutonic
rocks at depth, overlain by a low-temperature (350-400°C)
cell (Gregory and Taylor, 1981; Norton et al., 1984; Alabaster
and Pearce, 1985; Kelley et al., 1992).
Submarine hydrothermal systems comprise three parrs:
a down-flow or recharge zone; a high-temperature reaction
zone; and an up-flow or discharge zone (Fig. 6.3: Spooner
and Fyfe, 1973; Alt, 1999). The locations of the recharge and
discharge zones are commonly controlled by faults (Schardt et
al., in press). Seawater percolates down through the recharge
zone, and is slowly heated and chemically modified by low-
temperature reactions (White, 1970; Gibson et al., 1983;
Galley, 1993; Alt, 1999). The reaction zone is a porous
reservoir near the heat source where heated seawater reacts
with the host rocks, exchanging some elements (Norron,
1984; de-Ronde et al., 1994; von Damm, 1995; Butterfield,
2000; Schardt et al., in press). Hot buoyant hydrothermal fluid
(modified seawater) ascends rapidly to the seafloor through
the discharge zone, which is characterised by cooling of the
fluid, alteration of the host rock, and mineral precipitation
(Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; Schardt et al., in press). The
rising hydrothermal fluid cools by adiabatic decompression,
conductive heat loss, and mixing with cold seawater in the
shallow subsurface (Motd, 1983; Butterfield, 2000). In well-
FIGURE6.2 I Simpleconvectioncel!modellor the genesis01
the CyprusVHMSdeposits(modifiedalter Heatonand Sheppard,
1977,andSpooner,
1977,inLydonandJamieson,1984).

established hydrothetmal systems, the discharge zone may be
focused, intensely altered and veined. Surface discharge onto
the seafloor may produce high-temperarure (150-350°C)
features such as black smokers (Goodfellow and Franklin,
1993; Rona et al., 1993). The temperature of the discharging
fluids on the seafloor initially increases, and then gradually
decreases to ambient temperarures, in a time scale of 100 to
10,000 years (Ohmoto, 1996).
Regional hydrothermal systems are interpreted to be
related to large volume intrusions, as the volume of circulating
fluid in a hydrothermal system theoretically cannot be greater
than the volume of the intrusion (Cathles, 1981). However,
small-volume near-seafloor intrusions, which are unlikely to
generate significant hydrothermal systems, may be related
to larger plutons or stocks at depth that were capable of
generating hydrothermal convection (e.g. Bettison-Varga et
al., 1992).
6.2 I REGIONALALTERED
ZONES
ASSOCIATED
WITHINTRUSIONS
The products of regional-scale hydrothermal alteration
systems in ancient submarine volcanic successions are
recorded by cross-cutting recharge and discharge zones, and
broad, regional-scale, semi-conformable altered zones or
reaction zones (Galley, 1993).
Recharge
zones
Very litde is known about altered zones associated wirh
recharge. They are rarely recognised except in srudies of
modern crustal alteration beneath mid-ocean ridges (e.g.
Motd, 1983; Saccocia et al., 1994; Nt, 1999), hydrothermal
'"
subvolcanic
+ intrusion
FIGURE6.3 I Model01an activegeothermalsystemiIIustratingthe recharge,
reactionor reservoirand dischargezones.Seawateris drawndown in broad
rechargezones or alonglaults and reactsat increasingtemperatures.High-
temperaturereactions(>350°C)occurin the reactionzone abovea subvolcanic
intrusionand hot (>300°C) buoyantfluids rise towardsthe surfacein locused or
diffusedischargezones (modifiedalter Alt, 1995a).Notto scale.
SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 141
alteration studies in ophiolites (e.g. Schiffman et al., 1987;
Schiffman and Smith, 1988), and studies ofO- and S-isotope
compositions in ancient hydrothermally altered systems (e.g.
Cathles, 1993; Davidson and Kitto, 1997). Rocks in modern
recharge zones are pervasively altered at low to moderate
temperarures. At less than 150°C, oxidation, the fixation of
alkalis (mainly Ca and Na), and Mg-metasomatism produces
sericite, hematite and clays (Nt, 1999). At higher temperarures
(150-350°C) anhydrite precipitates, alkalis are leached and
Mg is consumed by chlorite in the rock (Nt, 1999).
Schiffman and Smith (1988) proposed that the distribution
of epidosites in the Troodos ophiolite represent areas of
high-temperarure alteration involving high fluid-rock ratios.
Epidosites are granoblastic, fine- to medium-grained rocks,
with litde or no relict igneous textures, composed of epidote,
quart and chlorite. They are inferred to record reaction zones
in which circulating modified seawater reacted with host
rocks to form metal-rich hydrothermal fluids, and appear
diagnostic of the up-welling and deep recharge parts of the
hydrothermal system beneath VHMS deposits. Co-incident
whole-rock O-isotope patterns support their formation in
proximal recharge zones and up-flow conduits beneath VHMS
deposits. Regionally extensive, depth-dependent ()180 profiles
in the sheeted dyke complex reflect oxygen exchange during
prograde regional hydrothermal alteration involving diffuse
down-welling of cold seawater (Fig. 6.4). However, surfaces of
equal whole-rock ()180 are not horizontal but nearly vertical
in the central epidosite zone. This suggests up-flow of hot
modified seawater within the epidosite zone.
The spatial association berween gabbro intrusions and
the epidosite zones in rhe sheeted dyke complex indicates a
genetic link berween the emplacement of these intrusions and
focused high-temperature hydrothermal up-flow (Richardson
et al., 1987; Bettison-Varga et al., 1992).
Discharge
zones
Discordant foorwall alteration pipes and feldspar-destructive
zones that direcdy underlie VHMS deposits are widely
interpreted as discharge zones through which metal-bearing
hydrothermal fluid ascended to the seafloor (Sangster,
1972; Large, 1977; Lydon, 1984; Galley, 1993; Skirrow and
Franklin, 1994; Brauhart et al., 1998). They are characterised
sheeted
Om dykes gabbro
FIGURE6.4 I Cross-section01the Solea graben,Troodosophiolite, Cyprus,
showingsurfaces01equalwhole-rock0180. Regionallythese surfacesare sub-
horizontal,but in the centralepidositezone they are nearlyvertical indicating
up-Ilow01hot, modifiedseawaterduring convection.Modifiedalter Schiffman
and Smith (1988).
 142 I CHAPTER
6
by Mg-Fe enrichment and Na-Ca depletion and assemblages Deep, semi-conformable altered zones typically extend
that indude chlorite, sericite, quartz or rare talc (Lydon, for up to 20 km laterally and 1-4 km depth beneath paleo-
1984; Eastoe et al., 1987; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; seaRoors and VHMS deposits (Gibson et al., 1983, 2000;
Brauhart et al., 1998). The characteristics and compositional Cathles, 1993; Galley, 1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994).
changes associated with discordant footwall alteration pipes They comprise vertically stacked, sub-horizontal altered zones
are discussed in Section 7.3. (Galley, 1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). Generally these
Although discordant altered zones typically cut across are (Fig. 6.5): an upper background K-Mg metasomatic zone;
the regional, deep, semi-conformable altered zones (Galley, a transitional Na-Mg metasomatic zone; a central silicifled
1993; Brauhart et al., 1998), in some successions, they grade zone; and a basal Ca-Fe metasomatic and base metal-Ieaching
laterally into deep, semi-conformable altered zones (Skirrow zone (Galley, 1993). In many systems only one or two of
and Franklin, 1994; Hudak et al., 2000). Gibson et al. these altered zones are recognised. The alteration minerals in
(2000) suggested that whether or not deep, semi-conformable the semi-conformable altered zones reRect the primary host
altered zones are cut by or transitional with pipe-like altered rock composition, bulk-rock composition established during
zones, depends on whether the host succession (footwall) synvolcanic hydrothermal alteration, and the subsequent
is dominated by coherent volcanic or volcanidastic facies metamorphic grade (Paradis et al., in press). In greenschist
respectively, or timing of alteration. facies metamorphosed felsic rocks, these zones are typically,
from base to top: albite or carbonate zone, silica or sericite
zone and sericite ar chlorite zone (Gibson et al., 1983; 2000).
Deep,semi-conformable
alteredzones In maflc rocks, the zones are: albite zone, silica zone and
dinozoisite/epidote + quartz zone (Galley, 1993; Skirrow
Since they were flrst discussed by Franklin et al. (1981), deep, and Franklin, 1994; Gibson et al., 2000; Hannington et al.,
semi-conformable altered zones have been documented in 2003a). At higher metamorphic grades, such as in the Snow
the footwall beneath VHMS deposits in a variety of districts Lake District, mineral assemblages can indude kyanite,
induding: Matagami, Snow Lake, Naranda and Sturgeon staurolite, sillimanite, chlorite, biotite, quartz, plagiodase
Lake districts in Canada; Bersglagen and Skellefte districts in cordierite, amphibole, epidote and garnet (Paradis et al.,
Sweden; Iberian pyrite belt in Spain and Portugal; Troodos 1993, in press; Bailes and Galley, 1999).
Ophiolite Complex in Cyprus; Panorama district in Australia; The semi-conformable altered zones are interpreted to
and the Sirohi district in India (MacGeehan, 1978; Gibson et be synvolcanic because they have undergone the same degree
al., 1983, 2000; Lagerbald and Garbatschev, 1985; Galley, of tectonic deformation as the surrounding rocks, have
1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; Tiwary and Deb, 1997; prograde mineral assemblages, are spatially associated with
Brauhart et al., 1998; Bailes and Galley, 1999; Hannington et VHMS deposits, and are commonly truncated by unaltered
al., 2003a, 2003b). They have not been documented in eastern synvolcanic intrusions (Gibson et al., 1983; Paradis et al.,
Australia, possibly because .of structural complexities. Thus 1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). At Snow Lake, Paradis
the following discussions on deep, semi-conformable altered et al. (1993) recognised that deep, semi-conformable altered
zones are largely based on Canadian examples. Figure 6.5 zones were superimposed on low-temperature (possibly
depicts the characteristics and typical zonation of deep, semi- diagenetic) altered zones and also cross cut by discordant
conformable altered zones in the documented examples. feldspar-destructive zones associated with VHMS deposits.

PROCESSANO
1 ASSEMBLAGE
IN I ASSEMBLAGE
, massivesulfide 1, seafloor
COMPOSITIONAL
CHANGES I MAFICROCKS I
INFELSIC
ROCKS

I I K-Mgmetasomatism I Mgclays+ chlonteI Mg-clays + zeolites:t

+ zeolites+ cristobalite:tadularia
100°C
II I
backgroundzone I -+ Na,Ca,Cu,Pb,Zn,SI
Mg,K,Fe . I Fe-oxides :t I :t analcime:t
\ \ discordant I I
I I K-feldspar I K-feldspar
,\
- - -.- - - - -
\ \ footwaH ¡--
I I I
- - - -
-'--'-~~ \
\ \
~ ~ ~ - - -- alterationplpe
------ I, , \ - - - - - - - - - -
i
~200°C \\ Na-Mgmetasomatism I Albite+ quariz+ I Albite+ quariz+ sericite
transITionalaltered + Na,Mg sericite+
- Ca,Fe,Zn,Cu I + Mg-chlorite
zone I Mg-chlorite:t
calcITe
:tSi I I
~OQ.°~..-
-- -- -- I I
I
I Silicification
orsericitisation
I Quariz+ albite I Quariz:talbite:t sencite
4!!1!:'G. I +Si,Na I I
- Fe,Mg,Mn,Zn
I :tCa I I

I Ca-Fe
+Ca metasomatism 1Clinozoisite/epidote
I Sericite+ quariz
:t Mg-chlorite
orchlontoid
+ + + + I -Mg, Mn,Na,K
+ quariz
I :t actinolite I + Fe-chlorite
+ +
I :t Fe,Si I :t carbonate I
+ subvolcanicintnusion
I I
+ + I I

FIGURE 6.5 I A schemalic compilalion of regional-scale, deep, semi-conformable allered lones and Iheir characlerislics. There is a progression, wilh increasing
deplhs in submarinevolcanicsuccessions,from Ihe backgroundMg-Kmelasomaliclone lo a IransilionalNa-Mgmelasomaliclone characlerisedby feldspar
alleralion, a cenlral silicifiedlone and a basal Ca-Fe melasomalicand base-melalleachinglone Ihal Iypically includesepidole or chlorile.Alter Gibsonel al. (1983),
Galley (1993), Skirrowand Franklin(1994),and Brauhartel al. (1998).

I
~
 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 143

They suggested that regional hydrothermal alteration post-
dated the onset of diagenetic alteration, and pre-dated foorwall
alteration associated with hydrothermal alteration and
mineralisation. In some Canadian examples and at Panorama
in western Australia, deep, semi-conformable altered zones are
gradational with discordant foorwall alteration pipes suggesting
that regional hydrothermal alteration was synchronous with
the VHMS-related alteration (Gibson et al., 1999).
Deep, semi-conformable altered zones are commonly
spatially and temporally associated with subsurface syn-
volcanic intrusions (Galley, 1993, 2003). These intrusions
can be individual granitic or porphyritic plutons or sheeted
dyke swarms (e.g. Gibson et al., 1983; de-Ronde et al., 1994;
Brauhart et al., 1998). The tops of the subvolcanic intrusions
and associated dykes may be induded in the basal semi-
conformable altered zone (e.g. Galley, 1993; Brauhart et al.,
1998).
One of the best-documented examples of the spatial
association berween a subvolcanic intrusion, regional-scale
semi-conformable altered zones and VHMS deposits comes
from the Panorama district in Western Australia. Discordant
chlorite + quartz zones directly beneath the VHMS deposits,
are spatially associated with feldspar-destructive sericite
+ quartz zones in the top of the Strelley Granite pluton

Feldspar
+sericite
+ quartzlone
N ~

Chlorite+ quartzlone D
Sericite+ quartzlone =

r Background
lone D
/
+

+ +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ +

+ +
0
+

0 VHMSprospect

[:::J Innerphasegranite
EJOuterphasegranite
D Granophyre
D Microgranite
~ Microdiorite
c=J Andesite-basalt
D Dacite
2 km D Rhyolite
~ Turbidite
\J 11 Latermaficintrusions

FIGURE6.6 I Geologyand alteredlones within par! 01the Strelleysuccession,Panoramadistrict,WesternAustralia(modifiedafter

Brauhar!etal.,1998).
 144 I CHAPTER
6
v v v v V v:
v ,
v and both primary and secondary minerals with seawater at
v v v v v v
, v
v v
+~~
+ + +
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
x~+ 500 m
x x x x x metamorphic grade. For example, at Snow Lake the dia-
FIGURE6.7 I Schematicsection01the geologyand alteredzones in the
KangarooCaves lootwall succession,Panoramadistrict,WesternAustralia
(modifiedalter Brauhartet al., 1998).See Figure6.6 lor legend.
(Figs 6.6 and 6.7; Brauhart et al., 1998). Faults bounding
the discordant chlorite + quartz zone in the footwall of the
Kangaroo Caves deposit (Fig. 6.7) controlled the distribution
of the feldspar-destructive sericite + quartz zone in the Strelley
Granite (Brauhart et al., 1998).
The variations in alteration mineral assemblage down
through rhe semi-conformable altered zones correspond to
geochemical gradients in which there are gradual decreases
in the Mg/Ca, Mg/Na and Na/Ca ratios of the altered rocks
with increasing depths (Galley, 1993). Oxygen-isotope
compositions suggest that the altered rocks are 180 enriched
with respect to unaltered volcanic rocks (Mun ha and Kerrich,
1980; Barringa and Kerrich, 1984). The geochemical
gradients and O-isotope data are consistent with metasomatic
alteration resulting from the interaction of volcanic rocks
with seawater (Muehlenbachs and Clayron, 1972; Lagerbald
and Gorbatschev, 1985; Cathles, 1993).
Although modified seawater is interpreted to be the main
component, magmatic fluids may have also contributed to
the hydrothermal fluid (Lagerbald and Gorbatschev, 1985).
The spatial association between altered zones and subsurface
intrusions suggests a genetic link where intrusions may have
provided heat and or fluid to the hydrothermal system.
The extent and intensity of deep, semi-conformable
altered zones implies that very large volumes of fluid must have
reacted with the host volcanic rocks (Skirrow and Franklin,
...
1994). In the Snow Lake district Skirrow and Franklin
(1994) estimated that approximately 1.1 x 1Q7 metric tons
of SiOz was added by a minimum 12 km3 of hydrothermal
fluid at 1-2 km depth. Interactions between large volumes
of modified seawater and volcanic successions at depth are
supported by geochemical and geophysical research at active
ocean spreading ridges (e.g. Spooner and Fyfe, 1973; Bischoff
and Dickson, 1975).
Deep, semi-conformable altered zones are characterised
by mineral assemblages that reflect the reactions of glass
temperatures up to 400°C (Galley, 1993).
Background K-Mg metasomatic zones
These zones are often described as the least-altered or
diagenetically altered zones. At low temperatures (50-140°C)
in the shallow subseafloor, the interaction of abundant
seawater with the volcanic succession produces Mg-K-rich
alteration assemblages (Seyfried and Bischoff, 1977; Galley,
1993). In felsic rocks these mineral assemblages indude
adularia and Mg-smectite, whereas in mafic rocks they are
+ dominated by zeolites and Mg-smectite. Seawater becomes
+ enriched in Si, Fe3+,Mn and lesser amounts of Ca, Mg and
+ sulfur (Seyfried and Bischoff, 1977).
+
Current mineral assemblages reflect the regional
genetically altered zone is characterised by quartz + biotite +
gamet, FeZ03' MgO and KzO gains and CaO, NazO, Cu, Pb,
Zn losses (Paradis et al., in press). These compositional changes
are consistent with low-temperature seawater-dominated
diagenesis of felsic volcanic facies to days and zeolites (Section
5.3). The current mineral assemblage reflects the overprint of
amphibolite facies metamorphism. In the Panorama district
the background alteration mineral assemblage indudes
feldspar + calcite :t ankerite + quartz + pyrite :t sericite
consistent with greenschist facies metamorphism of days and
zeolites in felsic volcanic rocks (Brauhart et al., 1998).
TransitionaI zone or Na-Mg metasomatic zones
With increasing stratigraphic depth there is a transition from
K-rich zones to Na-rich zones (Munha et al., 1980; Munha
and Kerrich, 1980; Lagerbald and Gorbatschev, 1985;
Schiffman and Smith, 1988; Brauhart et al., 2001). The Na-
Mg metasomatic zones are characterised by the occurrence
of feldspar, usually albite. Greenschist facies assemblages
typically indude chlorite, sericite, albite, epidote and quartz in
mafic rocks, and albite, quartz, sericite :t chlorite :t carbonate
(calcite or dolomite) ih felsic rocks (Gibson et al., 2000). In
the Panorama district, felsic rocks in the feldspar zone have the
assemblage K-feldspar or albite + sericite + quartz + ankerite +
leucoxene :t pyrite (Brauhart et al., 1998).
The transition to Na-rich zones reflects the behaviour ofNa
and K in seawater at elevated temperatures. Between 140° and
200°C there is a transition between K- and Na-metasomatism
(Seyfried and Bischoff, 1977). Munha et al. (1980) suggested
that at lower temperatures « 150°C), Na in glass is exchanged
for K in seawater, resulting in precipitation of K-rich zeolites
 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 145

and possibly K-feldspar. At higher temperatures, K in the rock
is exchanged for Na in seawater, resulting in the formation
of albite. Thus at moderate temperatures (l40-300°C),
metasomatic reactions between modified seawater and the
volcanic succession result in Na-Mg alteration assemblages
(Seyfried et al., 1988). Regardless of the rock type, alteration
mineral assemblages include Mg-smectite + chlorite + quartz
+ albite, and compositional changes are Na20 and MgO
gains, and CaO, Zn and Cu losses (Gibson et al., 2000). The
removal of Mg from seawater lowers the pH of the fluid and
seawater evolves from a moderately alkali, Mg-K-Na-SOr
rich fluid to a hot acidic Si-Na-Ca-rich hydrothermal fluid
(Bischoff and Seyfried, 1978; Seyfried et al., 1988).
Silicified zones
In greenschist facies felsic and some mafic rocks, the central
altered zone is typically silicified, with assemblages of quartz
+ plagioclase or albite (Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; Gibson
et al., 2000).In some mafic rocks, the central zone is sericitic,
dominated by sericite + quartz :t chlorite (Gibson et al.,
2000). Central silicified or sericite zones overprint regional
albite zones (Galley, 1993). At Snow Lake the silicified zone
is spatially and temporally associated with VHMS deposits
and is zoned laterally from a silica zone to epidote and Fe-
Mg-metasomatic zones (amphibolite grade; garnet + chlorite
:t biotite :t staurolite) (Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). Silicified
zones are typically spatially associated with synvolcanic
intrusions and the intensity and pervasiveness of alteration
increases with proximity to the intrusions (Skirrow and
Franklin, 1994; Paradis et al., in press).
Silicified zones commonly contain patches of quartz +
feldspar-altered rock, quartz-altered clasts in volcaniclastic
facies, and quartz veins (e.g.Eg. 6.8A: Gibson et al., 1983;
Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). The patches of quartz + feldspar-
altered rock are restricted to flow-top breccias, and flow-

A. Central silicified zone

Moderate, patchy quartz alteration in this andesite from
the central silicified zone resulted in a fine-grained, pale
rock, which resembles a rhyolite.
Amulet Formation, Noranda district, Buttercup Hill,
Canada.

B. Epidote + quartz zone

This approximately one metre-wide patch of epidote
+ quartz alteration facies in the upper Amulet andesite
has an irregular shape typical of patchy alteration in the
basal episite + quartz zone. The groundmass has been
pervasively epidote + quartz altered.
Amulet Formation, Noranda district, Canada.

C. Epidote + quartz zone

Amygdales in this patch of epidote + quartz-altered
andesite from the basal epidote + quartz zone have
amoeboid shapes and were lined with Fe-oxides and
filled with epidote + quartz.
Amulet Formation, Noranda district, Canada.

FIGURE6.8 I Photographsfrom deep semi-conformablealterationzones in

the Norandadistrict,Canada.
146 I CHAPTER
6
banded and vesicular lavas (Gibson et al., 1983). In mafic Basal Ca- Fe metasomatÍc zones
volcanic rock the originally glassy groundmass, elsewhere
typically altered to chlorite, is altered to quartz in this zone Mineral assemblages in basal semi-conformable altered zones
(Gibson et al., 2000). This led to intensely silicified andesites are dependent on the host-rock composition and porosity. In
in the Noranda sequence being misinterpreted as rhyolite: the felsic rocks, basal zones are typically sericite or chlorite zones,
Amulet rhyolite (Gibson et al., 1983). whereas in mafic rocks they are clinozoisite or epidote +
With increasing depth, seawater carries larger amounts of quartz zones (Gibson et al., 2000; Hannington et al., 2003a).
Si as Si solubility increases with temperature and pressure, Sericite zones are characterised by sericite + quartz :t Mg-
and is enhanced in NaCl solutions or where the Buid is in chlorite assemblages (Gibson et al., 2000). Chlotite zones
contact with free Si or glass (Kennedy, 1950; Fournier, are characterised by chloritoid + Fe-chlorite :t Fe-carbonate
1985). The Si-rich hydrothermal Buid is rapidly heated assemblages (Gibson et al., 2000). Epidote + quartz zones
beyond the temperature of the quartz solubility maximum: are characterised by epidote + quartz + calcite + actinolite +
340-400°C at pressures below 900 bars (Fig. 6.9: Kennedy, chlorite assemblages (Galley, 1993).
1950; MacGeehan, 1978; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). The Two alteration textures are persistent in epidote + quartz
result is gains in Si02 and Na20, due to the precipitation of zones: pervasive and patchy. Pervasive epidote + quartz occurs
silica within pore spaces and albitisation, and losses in FeO, as selective pervasive replacement of plagio clase phenocrysts
MgO, CaO, K2O, MnO and other metals from the volcanic or the groundmass by epidote, crystallisation of fine quartz
rocks (Gibson et al., 1983,2000; Lagerbald and Gorbatschev, patches in the groundmass (e.g. Fig. 6.8B), and replacement
1985; Galley, 1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). The Fe3+, of Fe-Ti-oxide grain rims by sphene (Skirrow and Franklin,
Mg and possibly Zn leached from the silicified zone may 1994). Patchyepidote + quartz occurs as less than 1 cm to
have been transported laterally away from this environment, 2 m irregular ovoids or amoeboid patches that infill vesicles
thereby producing semi-conformable Fe-Mg-metasomatised and gas cavities within mafic lavas (e.g. Fig. 6.8C: Gibson et
zones (Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). al., 1983; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). These patchy textures
A second silicified zone is common directly beneath the are similar to the epidote + quartz metadomains described in
seaBoor in the Snow Lake, Noranda and Matagami Lake spilites by Smith (1968, 1974, 1977; Smith et al., 1982).
districts, where it is directly overlain by exhalites. This near- These basal zones may grade into the discordant
seaBoor, silicified zone is related to low-tempetature silici- (discharge) altered zones that cut through the overlying semi-
fication during the hydrothermal alteration and devitrification conformable and background altered zones (Brauhart et al.,
of glass in cooling pillow basalts and andesites (Skirrow and 1998).
Franklin, 1994; Galley et al., 2002). Epidote + quartz zones are enriched in CaO and Sr and
depleted of MgO, Na20, K2O, FeO :t MnO, Ba and base
metals (MacGeehan, 1978; Gibson et al., 1983; Richardson et
al., 1987; Schiffman and Smith, 1988; Skirrow and Franklin,
1994). Unlike the Canadian examples, the epidote + quartz
zone in the Panorama district does not appear to have been
the source ofleached base metals (Brauhart et al., 2001).
4000 At high temperatures (300-500°C), Ca-Fe-S-base metal-
rich hydrothermal Buid reacts with the volcanic succession
and possibly also with parts of the subsurface intrusion
forming mineral assemblages typical of the basal Ca-Fe-
3000
O> metasomatic zones. Experimental work suggests that epidote
-'"
c, + quartz alteration involved modified seawater (Mg-depleted,
-S Ca-Na-K-Cl Buid) at temperatures of 350-500°C and low
N
o water-rock ratios ofless than three (Gibson et al., 2000).
ü5 2000
This zone is interpreted to represent the high-temperature
interaction between modified seawater and the host volcanic
facies to form metal-rich hydrothermal Buid at the deepest part
1000 of the hydrothermal convection system. Hence, it represents
the roots of up-welling Buid discharge zones (Galley, 1993).
Alternatively, Smith (1968, 1977) interpreted these
district-scale zones of albitised basalt with Ca-rich epidote +
quartz and pumpellyite + quartz metadomains to have formed
o 300 600 900
during heterogenous burial metamorphism where local Buid
Temperature
(°e)
Bow promoted redistribution of elements. In some cases, he
FIGURE6.9 I Calculatedsolubilitieslar quartz in water up to 900°C at noted that the alteration was focussed suggesting that it was
pressuresbetween200 and 1000 bars (alter Fournier,1985).The shadedarea related to local hydrothermal systems and subseaBoor Buid
outlinesthe conditionslar retrogradesolubility. circulation.
 SYNVOLCANIC ALTERATIONI 147
INTRUSION-RELATED

Alteredzonesaspartofa regionalhydrothermal have anomalous mineral assemblages and alkali contents for
igneous rocks (e.g. Fig. 6.11; Hughes, 1973), which suggest
system
metasomatic rather than metamorphic origins (Gibson et al.,
Deep, semi-conformable altered zones superficially resemble 1983; Galley, 1993).
regional diagenetic or metamorphic facies. This is because Gibson et al. (1983) documented a vertically stacked
they are regionally extensive, vertically stacked altered sequence of altered zones in the Noranda sequence, from top
zones with mineral assemblages similar to those formed to bottom: albite zone (spilites), silicified zone, an~ epidote +
during high-temperature diagenesis, regional greenschist quartz zone (Fig. 3.16). This is consistent with a progression
facies metamorphism and hydrothermal seaBoor alteration from low-temperature diagenesis to moderate- and high-
(Galley, 1993; Paradis et al., 1993). Discriminating between temperature metasomatism with depth in the stratigraphy.
these processes and their products is difficult in submarine Munha and Kerrich (1980) referred to this process of
volcanic successions. The differences are essentially related to temperature and hence depth dependent metasomatism
timing, temperatures, and Buid-rock ratios. In reality, there is as 'hydrothermal metamorphism', a term that reBects the
a progression from diagenesis to isochemical metamorphism combined processes that operated in the subseaBoor.
with increasing temperature and depth during burial (Fig. In areas ofvolcanic and hydrothermal activity, it is probable
6.10A). Porosity, permeability and Buid-rock ratios decrease that there is a spectrum of alteration between diagenesis and
with depth in diagenetic-metamorphic systems, thereby hydrothermal alteration where these processes operate in
inhibiting the degree and pervasiveness of metasomatism at combination. Hydrothermal activity in the depositional basin
temperatures above 150°C. Typically once the temperature would accelerate and intensify the process of diagenesis by
and pressure realm of metamorphism has been reached, the contributing additional Buid and heat, and by promoting
porosity and permeability of the host succession has been convection (Iijima, 1974; Marsaglia and Tazaki, 1992).
dramatically reduced, Buid Bow inhibited and metasomatic Deep, semi-conformable altered zones are assumed to
reactions ceased. Gibson et al. (2000) suggested seawater- be the products of hydrothermal alteration within regional
dominated diagenesis might also progress to deep regional subseaBoor hydrothermal systems (Gibson et al., 1983;
hydrothermal alteration with increasing temperature and Galley, 1993). These hydrothermal systems involve the large-
depth in shallow subseaBoor hydrothermal systems (Fig. scale convection of modified seawater through the permeable
6.lOB). Deep regional hydrothermal alteration is interpreted volcanic successions (Spooner and Fyfe, 1973; Galley, 1993).
to involve metasomatic reactions between seawater and The distribution of altered zones and spatial association with
the volcanic succession at temperatures transitional with subsurface intrusions suggests that subsurface intrusions,
diagenesis and greenschist facies metamorphism (i.e. 150- augmented by heat from the cooling volcanic succession, may
400°C) (Galley, 1993). Although the processes of diagenesis be the driving force for hydrothermal convection (Campbell
and deep regional hydrothermal alteration are very similar, et al., 1981; Lesher et al., 1986; Cathles, 1993; Galley, 1993;
and both involve reactions between seawater (or modified Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). Where the upper contacts of
seawater) and volcanic successions at increasing temperatures subsurface intrusions are sub-parallel to the volcanic-strata,
and depths, deep, semi-conformable altered zones are the overlying isotherms are also semi-conformable with the
inconsistent with the diagenetic-metamorphic system. They strata and progressive temperature-dependent seawater-rock

A B

n
seaflaar

haJ/OW diagLeSiS diffuse

subsurface 100°C \ seawater
I
diageneSiS restricted
CirCUlation ~ - -- t '- ""',- recharge

\~
-""''''''.....
200°C r "- , "~~---~II/
transitional '-'- '
¡ zone '-
"'''''''''t'' ""'".,. - ".,.-".,., ,,,,,,,,,,.,..,,,-, lateralflowabove
transltlonal zone ..' .,.".,., 300°C- - J~- brittle-ductile
-:
i
~,=.t.,=,,===.=.=- ='...,',,"-'-- i transition
regionalhydrothermal
.
400°C alteration
,
I

burlal
metamorphism
500°C
500m
subvolcanic Intrusion
I
+ + + +

FIGURE6.10 I The relationshipsbetweenIluid convection,diagenesis.metamorphismand regionalhydrothermalalterationin submarinevolcanicsuccessionsthat

hostVHMS deposits.(A) Diagenetic-metamorphicsystem,wherethere is a progressionlrom diagenesisto isochemicalmetamorphismwith increasingtemperature
and depth in the subseafloor.Thistransitionreflectsthe maximumdepth to which seawatercirculatesand reactswith the host rocks.(B) Diagenetic-hydrothermal
system,wherea subsurfaceintrusionpromotesdeep circulation01fluid via the recharge,reservoirand dischargezones.The depth progressionlrom diagenesisto
regionalhydrothermalalteration(deep,semi-conlormablealteration)is dependenton temperatureand fluid circulation.
148 I CHAPTER
6
10 subaerial and submarine successions (Honnorez et al., 1979;
I
I Bohlke et al., 1980; McConne11 et al., 1995). Sederholm
albite-altered . I
8 pnmary / (1929) originally defined deuteric alteration as the alteration
compositions 8 /
/
that takes place 'in direct continuation of the consolidation
/
,. of the magma' and thus it is considered a magmatic alteration
,.,.
()
8 process. Ir is the earliest alteration sryle and is a short-
8 / lived process, rypically occurring as intrusions cool from
,.,.
/
temperatures of several hundred degrees centigrade (Ade-Hall
,.
, ,. et al., 1968; Honnorez et al., 1979). Small volume synvolcanic

,"
o least-alteredandesite intrusions rypically cool too rapidly to experience deuteric
2 () mottledalteredandesite

-- -- .... 8 silicifiedandesite alteration (cf. Gromme et al., 1969). In contrast, granitoids

o 20 40 60
K20/(Na20
+ K20)x 100(wt%)
FIGURE6.11 I Alkali ralios for alteredandesitesamplesfrom the Amulet
rhyolite, Norandadistrict, Canada (after Gibsonet al., 1983). Fieldsforthe
primaryand metasomatised(albite-altered)andesitesand basaltsare from
Hughes (1973).
reactions form a series of semi-conformable altered zones
(Galley, 1993).
In axial mid ocean ridge hydrothermal systems, down-
welling seawaters traverse extremely steep temperature
gradients in the upper crust, from less than 50°C near the
seafloor to more than 250°C at 1-2 km depth (Motd, 1983).
Thus, vertically stacked deep, semi-conformable altered
zones result from metasomatic reactions that take place at
progressively higher temperatures with depth in the succession
(Ga11ey, 1993). The decrease in pervasiveness of alteration,
from widespread nearly uniform diagenesis to more restricted
and patchy silicification and Ca-Fe metasomatism, may reflect
decreasing permeabiliry with depth.
The distribution, relative timing, and spatial association
with VHMS deposits suggest a genetic link between regional
hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation. Some authors
have proposed that the deep, semi-conformable altered zones
acted as reservoirs from which metals and sulfur were leached
(e.g. Gibson et al., 1983; Lagerbald and Gorbatschev, 1985;
Ga11ey, 1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994). As such they
represent much larger exploration targets than the discordant
altered footwall zones (Galley, 1993).
6.3 I ALTEREDZONESWITHIN
INTRUSIONS
Intrusions are commonly modified by deutericor hydrothermal
alteration associated with emplacement and may subsequendy
undergo diagenesis, regional metamorphism or hydrothermal
alteration.
Deutericalteration
Deuteric alteration, also referred to as autohydration or
autometamorphism, is the alteration of recendy crystallised
magma by trapped magmatic fluid exsolved from the same
cooling magma (Honnorez et al., 1979; Destrignevi11e et al.,
1991). Ir has been recorded in intrusions and lavas in both
and large-volume sills may have altered zones in their upper
parts resulting from reactions between rising magmatic fluids
and the cooling intrusions (e.g. Fig. 6. lA) .
Deuteric textural changes are minimal (Wilshire, 1959).
Phenocrysts, particularly feldspars and mafic minerals, such as
pyroxene or olivine, may be pseudomorphed by amphibole,
chlorite or smectite (Fu11er, 1938; Bohlke et al., 1980;
Destrignevi11e et al., 1991). Open spaces, such as vesides,
mariolitic voids, and quench fractures, are lined or fi11ed
with smectite, zeolites, carbonate, biotite, chlorite and oxides
(Wilshire, 1959; Furbish and Schrader, 1980; Destrigneville
et al., 1991). High-Ti minerals, such as titanomagnetite, are
oxidised and altered to low-Ti minerals, such as ilmenite :t
hematite (Buder and Burbank, 1929; Ade-Hall et al., 1968;
Surdam, 1968; Sherwood, 1988).
Deuteric alteration does not involve major chemical
composition changes; some components may be 10ca11y
redistributed at sub-millimetre scales or undergo oxidation
state changes (e.g. Fe2+/Fe3+ratio, Scott and Hajash, 1976)
that may alter rock thermomagnetic properties (Ade-Hall et
al., 1968; Sherwood, 1988). The changes are quantitatively
unimportant when compared to the products of long-lived
diagenesis and hydrothermal alteration and may be difficult
to distinguish from those of other alteration sryles.
Hydrothermal
alteration
Altered zones within synvolcanic intrusions may also result
from reactions with seawater or modified seawater circulating
through the intrusion, either during the prograde high-
temperature stage ofhydrothermal activiry or during cooling.
If the hydrostatic pressure is high enough (at sufficient depths)
seawater will be forced into thermal contraction fractures in
the cooling intrusion (Burnham, 1979). The time interval for
seawater-intrusion interaction may be limited by the rapid
development of a local intrusion-related hydrothermal system
in the host succession, which would result in the lithification
and fi11ing of primary pore space inhibiting fluid flow.
Thereaher, episodic seawater-intrusion interaction would
occur only if the fluid pressure exceeds the tensile strengrh
causing the altered rock adjacent to the contact to fracture
(Secor, 1965, in Fournier 1985; Phillips, 1973; Henley and
McNabb, 1978). Alteration fo11ows the advancing front ....
of britde fracturing to deeper and deeper levels within the
intrusion (Burnham, 1979; Giggenbach, 1997).
The resulting altered zones may be pervasive, occur along
cooling fronts or more commonly as selective-pervasive
alteration adjacent to fractures or veins. Alteration minerals
fi11vesides, miarolitic voids and fractures, cement hydraulic

breccias, and pseudomorph primary magmatic minerals
(Mevel and Cannat, 1991; Gillis et al., 1993; Kelley and
Gillis, 1993; Nehlig, 1993; Davidson, 1998; Galley, 2003).
Polya et al. (1986) and Davidson (1998) described
proximal zones of hydrothermal alteration within the
Cambrian Murchison Granite, western Tasmania. They
described narrow, texturally destructive imense K-feldspar
zones, associated with calcite veins, irregularly distributed
in the margins of the granite and patchy selective-pervasive
chlorite zones with chlorite pseudomorphs after biotite and
hornblende or patches of chlorite :t pyrite :t sphene.
The significam mineralogical, compositional and
isotopic changes associated with proximal hydrothermal alter-
ation within imrusions are consistem with seawater-rock
imeraction (Gregory and Taylor, 1981; Stakes and Taylor,
1992; Cathles, 1993; Galley, 2003). Galley (2003) identified
three types of early hydrothermal and magmatic alteration
within subvolcanic imrusions in the Snow Lake, Noranda and
Sturgeon Lake districts. The earliest, a greenschist alteration
facies in quartz diorite imrusions, is manifest as pervasive
epidote + quartz, and epidote + actinolite + quartz + albite
+ magnetite :t sulfides, which replaced primary minerals and
infilled miarolitic cavities, vesicles and fractures. Mass change
calculations suggest CaO, Sr, Pb and CO2 were gained and
Fe203' MgO, Cu, Zn, Mo, Na20, K20 and Ba lost. Galley
(2003) imerpreted this facies to be the product of high-
temperature hydrothermal-magmatic alteration resulting from
emplacemem of quartz-diorite imrusions into a seawater-
saturated succession. The second chlorite-rich alteration facies
is characterised by quartz + chlorite :t sericite and chlorite
+ sulfide-filled fractures and vein selvages. It is most imense
near the margins of imrusions and direcdy beneath VHMS
deposits. The chlorite-rich zones gained Fe203' MgO, Cu :t
Pb, K20, Ba, and Zn, and lost CaO, Na20, Sr :t Si02, Ba
and CO2 and are imerpreted to result from hydrothermal
alteration (Galley, 2003). Overpriming both of these zones
is a biotite-rich alteration facies associated with silicification,
and Cu-Mo-rich veins and breccia, which is imerpreted as
a magmatic alteration facies associated with late stage dykes
(Galley, 2003).
Hydrothermal alteration may also result from the
absorption of fluid from and assimilation with sedimem
inclusions incorporated imo the magma as it was emplaced
imo wet unconsolidated sedimem. Wilshire and Hobbs
(1962) described hydrothermal alteration in the margin of
a peperitic latite imrusion in a submarine volcaniclastic
succession, near Port Kembla in New South Wales. Alkali
feldspar + chlorite + carbonate-rich zones coincide with
abundam sedimem inclusions and quench fractures in the
margin of the imrusion, and the sedimemary inclusions have
been chlorite :t zeolites :t carbonate altered. The altered latite
gained Na20 and volatiles, and lost Si02, Al203' Fe203' K2O,
MgO and CaO, whereas the sedimem inclusions lost Na20
and volatiles, and gained CaO and MgO :t K20.
SYNVOLCANIC ALTERATION 149
INTRUSION-RELATED I
6.4 I CONTACTALTEREDHALOS
AROUNDINTRUSIONS
AlI magmatic imrusions transfer heat; they have thermal
impacts on the enclosing rocks or sedimems and may induce
compositional changes. Contact alteration is used here as a
non-genetic term referring collectively to the processes of
comact metamorphism and comact hydrothermal alteration.
Contact or thermal metamorphism involves changes in
rock texture and mineralogy of the immediate host rock as a
result of temperature increase (Yardley, 1989). The increased
temperature drives dehydration and decarbonation reactions,
and fluid migration away from the imrusion (Blan et al.,
1972; Manning and Bird, 1991). Only small volumes of
H20- and CO2-rich fluids are generated from these reactions
and thus the metasomatic effect of comact metamorphism
is negligible (Rose and Burt, 1979). Comact metamorphism
typically results in only local remobilisation but extensive
static recrystallisation of existing minerals or componems.
Contact hydrothermal alteration involves a substamial
volume ofheated fluid, typically comprising trapped seawater
and pore fluid with or without magmatic fluid derived from
the imrusion, which circulates through and reacts with the
host facies (MacGeehan, 1978; Taylor and Forester, 1979;
Polya et al., 1986; Galley, 2003). This promotes textural,
mineralogical and compositional changes in the host facies.
In submarine volcanic successions, abundam trapped
seawater means that isochemical thermal metamorphism is
rare. In addition, imeraction between hot magma and wet
unconsolidated sedimem can result in: peperitic comacts,
fluidisation of sedimem (e.g. Schmincke, 1967; Kokelaar,
1982), fluid expulsion, induration (e.g. Einsele et al., 1980),
secondary welding (e.g. Ito et al., 1984, in Kano, 1989),
brecciation of host rock, local or regional hydrothermal
alteration, quenching of the imrusion and magma-host rock
assimilation (e.g. Wilshire and Hobbs, 1962; Puffer and
Benimoff, 1997; WoldeGabriel et al., 1999).
Contactalteredzones
Comact altered zones are spatially associated with imrusion
margins and may surround the imrusion as halos or aureoles.
Successive contact altered zones reflect progressive changes
in temperature or temperature and chemical conditions in
the host succession away from the imrusion (Rose and Burt,
1979; Einsele et al., 1980; Yardley, 1989).
Comact altered halos may vary in thickness from a few
millimetres at the margins of thin, shallow synvolcanic sills
(e.g. Einsele, 1985; Boulter, 1993; Skirrow and Franklin,
1994) to several kilometres around large subvolcanic plutons
or imrusive complexes (e.g. Boulter, 1993; Schweitzer and
Hatton, 1995; Galley, 2003). They may comprise one low-
grade altered zone, a sequence of roughly concemric altered
zones, a series of asymmetric altered zones or overpriming
altered zones (Fig. 6.12).
Grades and mineral assemblages of comact altered zones
vary considerably, reflecting: temperature and compositional
differences between the host succession, the imrusion, and any
fluid; duration of the alteration system; emplacemem depth;
150 I CHAPTER
6

B
seafloor

'V ,/ ,/ '
<\ ,/ ,/
1

FIGURE6.12 I Cartoonsolthe varietyof contactalteredzones around

intrusions.(A) Cross-sectionshowingtwo sills that were emplacedinto wet
~ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ felsic . unconsolidatedsedimentat shallowlevels beneaththe seafloor.The sills both
'/ '/ least-altered devitrified zone '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ '/ volcanic rocks /
havesingle low-gradeinduratedzones,which havea lowerporositythan the
'-':""~-~~~ -';'.-,:;'.-,'.-,'~...~ --" ""::"--,---,-&-,--->--->.",.".." 7-
,/ ,/ ,quartz + sericite + albite zone ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ ,/ surroundinghostturbidites(alter Einseleet al., 1980). (S) Schematiccross-
/ / '--L~~-~ ...r¡wii!IÁ!iiJi';jfiiij"fiffi",iT'íi;í,w'1¡ffi sectionthrough roughlyconcentriczeolite and clay zones around a granite
emplacedinto lelsic volcaniclacies in the Green Tuff Selt, Japan.These zones
are, lrom the intrusionoutwards:a zeolitezone, devitrifiedzone, and least-
alteredzone (alter Utada, 1991).(C) Schematicsectionolthe asymmetric
alteredhaloaroundthe RustenbergLayeredSuite intrusionsin the Rooiberg
lelsic volcanicrocks01the SushveldComplex,Alrica (alter Schweitzerand
Hatton,1995).Abovethe intrusionis a thick (>1.4 km) halocomprisingbiotite
hornlels and quartz + sericite+ albitezones,which are enrichedin KP, MgO
and basemetals.Seneaththe intrusionis a thinner «400 m) granoblasticzone,
in which primaryvolcanictexturesare overprintedby metamorphictextures
N withoutsignificantcompositionalchanges.Schweitzerand Hatton(1995)

t
postulatedthat the reasonfor the asymmetricalzonationwas that heatedfluid
convectedIreely abovethe intrusionand hydrothermalalterationdominated,
whereasbuoyantconvectionwas inhibitedbeneaththe intrusionacting as a seal,
and thermalmetamorphismdominated.(O) Map view of the progradeolivine,
pyroxeneand actinolite+ chloritezonesassociatedwith emplacement01the
Skaergaardintrusioninto maficvolcanicrocks,east Greenland(alter Manning
and Sird, 1991, 1995).In the outer pyroxenezone and adjacentto fractures
+ in the pyroxeneand olivinezones, high-temperaturemineralassemblages
100m + are overprintedby actinolite+ chlorite,suggestingretrogrademetamorphism
occurredas temperaturesdroppedand cooler hydrothermalfluids migrated
inwardsthroughfractures.

rate of cooling; and the subsequent regional metamorphic 1995), devitrified glass (e.g. Schweitzer and Harton, 1995;
grade. Although it is difficult to generalise about the WoldeGabriel et al., 1999), palagonite or day minerals in
mineralogy of contact altered zones, there are a few indicator mafic volcanic rocks (e.g. Upton and Wadswonh, 1970;
minerals that are almost exdusively generated by intrusion- Jakobsson, 1972; 1978) or zeolite and day minerals in felsic
related hydrothermal alteration (i.e. minerals associated with volcanic rocks (e.g. lijima, 1978; Utada, 1991).
magmatic systems such as biotite, diaspore, fluorite, kaolinite, In contrast, high-grade altered zones tend to be associated
magnetite, pyrophyllite, rutile, topaz and tourmaline). with large volume subvolcanic intrusions and indude high-
Typically altered halos associated with small-volume temperature (up to 1000°C) mineral assemblages. For
intrusions emplaced at shallow depths below the seafloor example, Seki et al. (1969) reponed five high-grade altered
comprise low-grade altered zones adjacent to the intrusion, zones around a large intrusion in the Neogene Green TuffBelt,
which grade into partially altered zones at the peripheries. Japan. From the contact to the margin they were: amphibole
Low-grade altered zones may be manifest as indurated zone, actinolite zone, pumpellyite + prehnite + chlorite zone,
sediment (e.g. Einsele et al., 1980; Kano, 1989), fused glass laumonite + mixed-layer chlorite zone, and dinoptilolite +
(e.g. Ross and Smith, 1960; Smith, 1960; Christiansen and vermiculite zone.
Lipman, 1966; Schmincke, 1967; McPhie and Hunns,
 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 151
Indurated or fused zones
ounqer

Thin contact altered zones of fused or secondary welded ,:,'-.:',',

_,'e':'-/'-/<"~ -

volcanic glass are common adjacent te intrusions and lavas . ';'~ ~. ~ ~~ '~': :~'~: ~:~ '~': :~'~:: ~:~ ,~-: :~'~:: ~:~ '~': :~

in subaerial volcanic successions (e.g. Ross and Smith, 1960; ' "~~', >. >,'" ~l, '.'.
>.'" ~>, ~\>.' ~~', I

:" ~ " ,: ,/<; ~- "~ Combs Peak rhyolite ,~<; -; .- ' ','
Smith, 1960; Christiansen and Lipman, 1966; Schmincke,
'e':'-,:,',~':'l
1967; WoldeGabriel et al., 1999), and also occur around ',2e' :' ,'; . .:':';_.2e' :.- :,'.-~':', ,. ,-,
-----
intrusions in ancient submarine volcanic successions (e.g. Iro ~ ~: ~ ~~ ,~.; :~.~,: '- ~~ ,~.; :~'~: '-:~,~ I bedded tulr ---
et al., 1984, in Kano, 1989; McPhie and Hunns, 1995). ',', ,,,~l, '. >.;"-~~', 'Iused~'.~~', ,; .. ----
zones
/ ,-',
l
- ..:
".
,',
-,' -----.
Christiansen and Lipman (1966) used the term JUsed for .- -- , -; ~. 'e-:'- :'
the induration and deformation of glassy dasts resulting from
heating by adjacent lava, but emphasised that the term should bedded tuff --- --
not be taken te imply that melting (fusion) had occutred. They 5m ---~======:==::~:::-
described altered subaerial tuffs adjacent to the Combs Peak
rhyolite lavas and domes near Fortymile Canyon, southern FIGURE6.13 I Distribution
01thelusedzone adjacenttothe Combs Peak

Nevada. Three altered zones were developed parallel te the rhyolite,near FortymileCanyon,southernNevada(modifiedafter Christianseri
and Lipman,1966).
lava contact: an outer red zone characterised by the oxidation
of glass, a middle indurated or partially fused zone and an

.
inner densely fused zone characterised by fiamme and eutaxitic DEVITRIFIED INDURATED
AND
ZONES FUSEDZONES
texture (Figs 6.13 and 6.14). In this case, eutaxitic texturewas
interpreted te result from the re-heating and accompanying §~ II1II Crystalline zone

~
Denseglassyzone
D Densely fused zone

Partially
fusedzone
load compaction of originally glassy pumice dasts in tuffs O PorousglassyzoneD Redzone

beneath the lava as a result of its emplacement (Christiansen

and Lipman, 1966). The minimum temperature required for
this partial welding is 535°C (Smith, 1960).
Typically, indurated or fused zones dosely parallel lava
or intrusion contacts and may be several millimetres te
tens of metres thick (e.g. Christiansen and Lipman, 1966;
Einsele, 1985; Keating and Geissman, 1998). They are
commonly associatedwith thin « 1-1 00 m) intrusions that
have peperitic or irregular contacts indicating emplacement
into wet unconsolidated sediments (Kokelaar, 1982; Branney
and Suthren, 1988; McPhie and Hunns, 1995; Keating and
Geissman, 1998). Induration of sediment adjacent te contacts
and around juvenile dasts in peperite is typically accompanied
by changes in colour associated with thin (cm scale) carbonate,
quartz or Fe-oxide altered halos (Fig. 6.15A: Schmincke,
1967; Kokelaar, 1982; Kano, 1989; Hunns and McPhie,
1999). The most significant textural changes in this zone are
contact-parallel fiarnme and eutaxitic textures in pumice-rich
facies (Fig. 6.15B: McPhie and Hunns, 1995).
Devitrified zones
Devitrified zones are characterised by high-temperature
devitrification textures such as spherulites, lithophysae and
micropoikilitic texture (Christiansen and Lipman, 1966;
McPhie and Hunns, 1995). Ir is important te note that
devitrification textures generated from re-heating of glassy
volcanic facies by intrusions are indistinguishable from those
formed during first cooling (Lofgren, 1971a, 1971 b).
Narrow zones oriented parallel te intrusion contacts
may be completely or partially devitrified (e.g. Keating and
Geissman, 1998; WoldeGabriel et al., 1999). They may
overprint fused zones. For example, Christiansen and Lipman
(1966) described superposition of three devitrified zones on te
three fused zones in bedded rhyolitic tuffs (Fig. 6.14): an outer
porous glassy zone, a middle dense glassy zone (vitrophyre
that is commonly perlitic), and an inner crystalline zone with
microlites, spherulites and lithophysae.
FIGURE6.14 I Idealisedrelationships
betweentheCombsPeakrhyolite
(Nevada),the three lused zones and overprintingdevitrifiedzones (modified
after Christiansenand Lipman,1966).
Compositional changes associated with devitrification
are usually negligible. WoldeGabriel et al. (1999) found that
devitrification in felsic volcanidastic rocks in a 10m thick
contact zone around a basaltic intrusion at Grants Ridge,
New Mexico, was associated with minor gains in KzO and
losses in HzO, NazO, F, FeZOy The margins of the intrusion
were slighdy enriched in SiOz' KzO and PzOs and depleted
in FeZOy They conduded that the thermal effects of the
intrusion induced devitrification, dehydration and vapour-
phase expulsion in the contact zone. Vapour-phase expulsion
of Buoride, chloride, hydroxide, sulfide, and COz from silicic
glass may have been responsible for the subde chemical
variations during devitrification (cf. Weaver et al., 1990).
Zeolite, clay or palagonite zones
Low-temperature altered zones characterised by palagonite,
zeolite and day minerals in mafic volcanic rocks (e.g. Upton
and Wadsworth, 1970), and zeolite and day minerals in felsic
volcanic rocks (Utada, 1991) are common around shallow
synvolcanic intrusions in submarine volcanic successions.
Mineral assemblages in these zones typically reBect the
host rock compositions. For example, altered zones around
graniteids in the felsic volcanic rocks of the Green Tuff
Belt contain calcic zeolites (Iijima, 1978; Utada, 1991). In
contrast, palagonite dominates altered zones around dykes in
152 I CHAPTER
6
Figure 6.15 I Photographsof hand specimensfrom the induratedand fused zonesadjacentto rhyolitesills near the Mount ChalmersVHMSdeposit,Queensland.
submarine basaltic hyalodastite at Sunsey Qakobsson, 1972,
1978; Jakobsson and Moore, 1986), and chabazite, analcime,
thomsonite, mesolite, phillipsite and natrolite characterise the
zeolite zone associated with a swarm of sills in basaltic lavas
and breccias at Pito n des Neiges volcano on Reunion Island
(Lacroix, 1936; Upton and Wadsworth, 1970). Zeolites
in these zones may be accompanied by chlorite, epidote,
. carbonate and day minerals.
Compositional changes in the zeolite, day or palagonite
zones indude K20 and MgO gains, and Si02 and CaO losses
(Hart, 1969; Thompson, 1973; Honnorez et al., 1979). These
are consistent with low-temperature (d50°C) reactions
with seawater promoting oxidation, fixation of alkalis, and
exchange of seawater-Mg for rock-Ca to form smectite (Alt,
1999).
Greenschist facies zones
Synvolcanic granitoids, large composite intrusions and
dusters of sills or dykes commonly have altered zones with
epidote-, chlorite-, sericite-, biotite- or K-feldspar-bearing
mineral assemblages characteristic of greenschist facies meta-
morphism (Polya et al., 1986; Boulter, 1993; Neuhoff et al.,
1997; Galley, 2003).
For example, Schweitzer and Hatton (1995) described
a 1.4 km thick greenschist facies aureole above the mafic
A. Indurated siltstone in peperite
The irregular dasts of indurated and silicified siltstone
(grey) are mixed with feldspar-phyric rhyolite (green)
dasts in this peperitic contact between rhyolite and
siltstone. Away from the rhyolite contact, the host
siltstone is green-grey, but fades to cream or pale
green silicified siltstone in a zone about 1-2 cm wide
adjacent to the rhyolite dasts in the peperite. This local
colour change and silicification result from the thermal
metamorphism of the unconsolidated silt in contact
with hot rhyolite.
Early Permian Berserker beds, Mount Chalmers district,
Queensland.
B. Fused pumice breccia
Well-developed fiamme (F) and eutaxitic texture
characterise the fused zone in this pumice breccia
immediately adjacent to a rhyolitic sill. Away from the
rhyolite, fiamme in the pumice breccia are indistinct
and parallel to bedding, whereas in the fused zone
they parallel the pumice breccia-rhyolite contacto The
fiamme and eutaxitic texture result from the partial
welding and compaction of glassy pumice dasts during
heating associated with emplacement of the rhyolite
(McPhie and Hunns, 1995).
Early Permian Berserker beds, Mount Chalmers district,
Queensland.
Rustenburg Layered Suite in the felsic Rooiberg volcanic
rocks of the Bushveld Complex (Fig. 6.12C). The asymmetric
aureole contains a biotite hornfels zone (immediately above
the Rustenburg Layered Suite), and an ovedying quartz
+ sericite + albite zone, which grades up into least-altered,
devitrified volcanic rocks. In the quartz + sericite + albite
zone, hornblende or chlorite replaced mafic phenocrysts, and
quartz + chlorite + epidote replaced the glassy groundmass.
Primary compositions may be significandy modified
in greenschist facies zones. They are commonly enriched
in K20 and MgO and depleted in CaO, Fe203' Na20 and
MnO (Schweitzer and Hatton, 1995; Large et al., 1996).
The behaviour of Si02 is variable. The mineralogical and
compositional changes reflect high-temperature (300-450°C)
seawater-rock interactions similar to some proximal altered
zones associated with VHMS ore deposits (Galley, 2003).
Silicified zones
Silicified zones are typically pale grey in colour and can be
massive pervasive or patchy in texture, filling vesides and
fractures, or cementing breccias (Humphris and Thompson,
1978; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; Gifkins and Allen, 2001).
They comprise chalcedony, cristobalite, quartz, quartz +
feldspar, or quartz + sericite dominated alteration mineral
assemblages.
 SYNVOLCANIC ALTERATIONI 153
INTRUSION-RELATED

Skirrow and Franklin (1994) described 10 cm to 2 m A

thick silicified contact aureoles associated with unaltered
plagio clase- and quartz + plagioclase-phyric porphyry dykes seafloor
in the submarine volcanic rocks beneath the Chis el Lake
VHMS deposit in the Snow Lake district. The weakly silicified
mottled zones consist of irregular light grey patches of quartz
+ plagioclase + hornblende + magnetite :t biotite, which
coalesce into massive quartz + plagioclase rock in intensely
silicified zones.
Compositional changes include gains in total mass and , -',--'-A':",
" ,,-,,' '-:."1', '
~'- ' . ' '-'.' " ~. " '" , " " '~-, ' ' "'" \
SiOz' which may be accompanied by gains in KzO or NazO,
and losses in FeZ03' MgO, CaO and Zn (MacGeehan, 1978;
Skirrow and Franklin, 1994; Gifkins and Allen, 2001).
, - - - ~
'=.:w~=- , ~ ,,' t://:;-~-_'!.-c-~'
:t_-;".;-
~ ;1-"- "..,'.' ,
-c-:::-':::::#- {
-- , ),

Silicification is a common feature of hydrothermal B

alteration and incorporates both the addition of Si (largely
seafloor
as vein infill) and the redistribution of Si that was originally
in glass or cristobalite (Henley and Ellis, 1983). Circulating
heated seawater can leach Si from the intrusion or felsic
volcanic glass in the host succession, resulting in a solution
supersaturated with Si. Silica precipitation from this solution
can occur by several mechanisms: cooling by conduction or ',j
mixing, decompression associated with boiling, heating into
the temperature range for retrograde Si solubility, or a pH
change (Oickson and Potter, 1982; Fournier, 1985). The
solubility of Si generally increases with increasing temperature
(Fig. 6.9); however, if a supersaturated solution is heated at e
constant pressure «900 bars) it will either boil or reach a
solubility maximum and may precipitate quartz upon further seafloor
heating (Fournier, 1985). A supersaturated saline Huid may
precipitate quartz at temperatures between 300° and 550°C , ' , '

\ \
'

(Fournier, 1985). Thus Si-saturated seawater would deposit

quartz on encountering temperatures greater than 300°C
'

'
' ,

' w
' "

"'~,
' ,1'

,
"
'

,
, 1 ' ,
in the intrusion or the immediate host rocks adjacent to - ..,.:==-~- ~'!..,~;, '. . . '-'''''''''''''
""-. , - -. z.:;;; ' '
the intrusion. MacGeehan (1978) proposed this process,
'':~, .,~ . ( ," ,s": r-,
of Si leaching from volcanic glass and heating of the Huid - ~
~
~j , "'
into the retrograde solubility temperature range, to explain
-
l' '~."i ,.' ";'.1, .I"k"'-
, ''' - , '/'\.'e-, <~, '" \' ,
silicification in pillow basalts adjacent to synvolcanic gabbro
. '. " :<.
'./.', ~ " ~' ' ," ,~ ",' - ~'-"', 'j-~

sills in the Matagami district.

FIGURE6.16 I Development 01a contactmetamorphic.hydrothermal system

Genesisof contactalteredzones
Contact altered zones may develop adjacent to an intrusion
as heat is transferred from the cooling intrusion and heated
modified seawater reacts with the host succession (Fig. 6.16).
Vapour or Huid exsolved from the crystallising magma may
contribute both heat and elements to the hydrothermal Huid
(Norton, 1984). Hydrothermal Huid temperatures are partly
determined by the depth of emplacement, volume of the
intrusion and the temperature and volume of contributed
magmaticHuid (Polya et al., 1986; Eastoe etal., 1987; Cathles,
1993; Galley, 2003). For example, two active hydrothermal
systems are recognised in the Guaymas Basin (Geiskes et al.,
1982; Kastner, 1982). One is a low temperature (<300°C)
hydrothermal system associated with the emplacement
of shallow sills into unconsolidated sediments below the
seaHoor. The other is a deep high-temperature hydrothermal
system associated with dykes or magma chambers that fed the
overlying sill complexes.
in a submarinevolcanicsuccessionalter the emplacement01a synvolcanic
intrusion.(A) Initialfluid expulsionand migrationaway Irom the intrusionas
heat lrom the intrusiondrivesdehydrationand decarbonationreactionsin the
host succession.A combination01thermal metamorphismand hydrothermal
alteration,by seawaterand magmaticvolatilesand fluid, may producea contact
alteredzone.Seawaterheatedby the intrusionis buoyantand rises towardsthe
seaflooreither by diffuseflow or alongIracturesand laults. (B) In response,cold
seawateris drawndown and heatedin the vicinity01the intrusion,promoting
hydrothermalconvectionand alterationbetweenthe intrusionand the seafloor.
(C) Hydrothermalconvectioncollapsesas the intrusioncools. Cold seawater
may be drawndownalongIracturesto produceproximalzones 01hydrothermal
alterationwithin the intrusion,and retrogradezones that overprinthigher
temperaturecontactalteredzones adjacentto the intrusion.
The volume of an intrusion inHuences the temperature and
longevity of the alteration system. Large volume intrusions
(e.g. plutons and thick sills) inHuence the temperature of the
host rocks and the alteration system for longer than smaller
volume intrusions (e.g. synvolcanic sills, cryptodomes and
dykes). A small volume sill (~30 m thick) may cause the
temperature at the sill-sediment contact to rise as high as
400°C (Einsele et al., 1980). However, calculations suggest
 154 I CHAPTER
6
. ..
that the temperature at the contact will drap below boiling ..
within five years. This will significandy reduce convection
and remaining heat will be lost mainly by conduction thraugh
the contacto Generally relatively small volume intrusions
have thermal effects restricted to several metres or hundreds
of metres fram the contacts (Utada, 1973). Although the
contact temperatures may be high, high-temperature altered
zones are rare because the isotherms dip sharply away fram
small volume intrusions (Reyes, 1990).
In contrast, large volume intrusions, such as the Skaergaard
intrusion in east Greenland, which had an estimated volume
of 180 km3, may take 500,000 years to cool to ambient
temperatures (Norton and Taylor, 1979; Norton, 1984).
They may result in thick, high-grade contact metamorphic-
hydrathermal altered zones (Seki et al., 1969) and may drive
regional convection of modified seawater.

6.5 I CONTACTAlTEREDZONES
ASSOCIATED
WITHTHEDARWIN
GRANITE

Cambrian granites along the eastern margin of the Mount

Read Volcanics (Fig. 1.5) are extensively altered and
surrounded by concentric altered zones (Polya, 1981; Polya et
al., 1986; Eastoeetal., 1987; Abbott, 1992; Largeetal., 1996;
Davidson, 1998; Wyman, 2001). Well-developed K-feldspar,
chlorite and sericite zones have been mapped around the
margin of the Darwin Granite and its northward extension in
the southern Mount Read Volcanics (Fig. 6.17: Jones, 1993;
Large et al., 1996; Wyman, 2001).
The Darwin Granite alteration halo is of particular
interest because of its close spatial and possibly temporal
relationships with several small tonnage but high-grade Cu-
Au praspects (Fig. 6.17: Jones, 1993; Large et al., 1996).
These praspects occur in the Central Volcanic Complex along
the western margin of the granite and above its northern
subsurface projection fram Mount Darwin towards Mount
Lyell. The deposit styles vary systematically with increasing UJ
E
'"
distance fram the granite: fram Fe-oxide veins, stockworks '"
g....
'""'
of pyrite + chalcopyrite :!:hematite :!:magnetite and quartz +
pyrite + chalcopyrite veins, disseminated pyrite + chalcopyrite
:!:covellite, to veins containing quartz, bornite, chalcopyrite
and hematite (Wyman, 2001). Large et al, (1996) suggested Rosebery
that the Darwin Granite provided heat, metals and magmatic
Huid to form VHMS deposits in the southern Mount Read
Volcanics, such as those in the Mount Lyell field. .. ~ o
This section summarises the setting, altered zones and .
o
~. o
o
.o
o
o
o
o
o
genesis of the Darwin Granite system and presents data sheets o o o UJ
o o " E
of typical alteration facies (DG 1 to DG6). o o g
:¡s
""
10km '""'

c;:::] OwenConglomerate ¡:-.:'j CentralVolcanic Complex

FIGURE 6.17 I Geologicalmap 01the Jukes-Darwinarea in the southernMount

ReadVolcanics(westernTasmania),showingthe limitedsurfaceextent01the
Darwingranite and the thick hydrothermallyalteredhalo aroundthe granite
(modilied after Wyman,2001). Thelocations 01the six data sheetsare shown.
D DarwinGranite
l2L]TyndallGroup
f:.:.: I Easternquartz-phyric

~
sequence
Prospect
.
[J

/
Andesite

Hydrothermally
zones

Fault
altered

..
 SYNVOLCANIC
INTRUSION-RELATED
ALTERATION I 155

Geologicalsetting Alteration facies and zonation

The Darwin Granite is an I-rype magnetite series equigranular
granitoid plmon dominated by pink granite intruded by
subordinate white granite, microgranite and quartz porphyry
phases (Wyman, 2001). The surface extent of the pluton is
approximately 5 x 1 km (Fig. 6.17). However, modelling
of graviry and aeromagnetic data along the eastern margin
of the Mount Read Volcanics has suggested that a semi-
continuous body of granite extends subsurface approximately
100 km northwards to the Murchison Gorge (Leaman and
Richardson, 1989; Payne, 1991; Large et al., 1996).
In the Darwin-Jukes area, the Central Volcanic Complex
includes feldspar-phyric dacite, quartz + feldspar-phyric
rhyolite (e.g. data sheet DG 1), pumice breccia, tuffaceous
sandstone, blocky rhyolite breccia, and minor sedimentary
facies (Jones, 1993; Wyman, 2001). A thick, columnar
jointed, micropoikilitic or spherulitic rhyolite hosts the
Jukes Cu-Au Prospect and altered zones. The emplacement
age of Darwin Granite is constrained to the Cambrian as it
intruded the Middle Cambrian Central Volcanic Complex,
and both the granite and Central Volcanic Complex are
unconformably overlain by late Middle Cambrian Tyndall
Group volcaniclastic rocks, which contain pebbles of granite
near Mount Darwin (Corben, 1979, 1981, 1992; Jones,
1993; Wyman, 2001).
The altered zones associated with the Darwin Granite cover a
15 x 3 km area that extends north to Jukes Prospect (Wyman,
2001). The altered zones at Mount Darwin and Jukes Prospect
represent two parts of the same hydrothermal system: those
adjacent to the granite at Mount Darwin record the lateral
extent of the altered halo, whereas those at Jukes Prospect
occur at least 1 km above the north-plunging pluton (Fig.
6.18).
Immediately adjacent to the granite at Mount Darwin is
a thin (l0-20 m) K-feldspar:t biotite (now chlorite) hornfels
zone (Table 6.1). This grades outward into a 400 m wide
K-feldspar + chlorite zone, which locally hosts coarse
breccias with magnetite :t tourmaline matrices (Jones, 1993;
Wyman, 2001). The K-feldspar + chlorite zone grades into
a 300 m thick chlorite + magnetite zone (Wyman, 2001).
A discontinuous wedge-shaped silicified zone separates
the chlorite + magnetite zone from the outer K-feldspar +
quartz zone. At Mount Darwin the K-feldspar + quartz zone
occurs between 800 and 1000 m from the granite contacto
At Jukes Prospect the K-feldspar + quartz zone is the central
altered zone and is enclosed in chlorite, sericite and regional
diagenetic-metamorphic zones. Ir is associated with Cu-Au
mineralised rocks (Doyle, 1990; Large et al., 1996). The
peripheral sericite zone merges with the regional diagenetic-
metamorphic albite + sericite zone (Wyman, 2001).

6.1 I Characteristics
TABLE ofthecontact
altered
zones
associated
withtheJukes-Darwin
system,
western
Tasmania.

Contactaltered Width Data

assemblage Intenisty
!'v'Iineral l'éxtures !'v'Iass
changes
. zone (m) sheet!
K-feldspar
:t <20 K-feldspar:t chlorite Pervasive,hornfels
biotitehornfels (after biotite):t quartz:t
sulfides

K-feldspar+ 400 K-feldspar+ quartz Intense Magnetite:t tourmalinefill in Si02,A1203'KP and net DG2
chlorite + chlorite:t sericite hydraulicbrecciasand veins massgains
:t hematite(after
magnetite) Na20 losses
Silicified Quartz:t sericite:t pyrite Strongto Texturallydestructive, Largegainsin Si02 and DG3
:t hematite intense cryptocrystallineand net mass
microcrystalline
K-feldspar+ 200 K-feldspar+ quartz Strongto Moderatelytexturally K2O,Si02and Fep3 DG4
quartz + sericite+ chlorite+ intense destructive,pervasive, gains
pyrite:t magnetite:t cryptocrystalline,
chalcopyrite pseudomorphsplagioclase, Na20 losses
veins and veinenvelope
Chlorite+ 300 Chlorite+ sericite+ Moderate Moderatepreservation,chlorite Fe203'MgO and KP DG5
magnetite magnetite:t dolomite to intense pseudomorphsplagioclase, gains
:t apatite:t pyrite, domainalreplacementof
chalcopyriteveins groundmassand matrix Si02,AIP3' Na20 and
textures,infill in hydraulic net mass losses
brecciasand veins,vein
envelope
Sericite Sericite:t chlorite:t Weakto Sericitepartiallyto completely K20 gain and Nap DG6
pyrite strong replacesplagioclaseand
is disseminatedin the CaO losses
groundmassand matrix
156 I CHAPTER
6
w E
seawater in reaction zones around the hotter portions of the
JukesProspect discharge zones to form K- and Fe-rich alteration assemblages
-/- above the granite (Wyman, 2001). The K-feldspar, chlorite
and sericite zones in the Jukes area all show depletions in
Na20 and CaO, which reflect the breakdown of plagioclase
and mafic minerals during alteration by modified seawater.
Large et al. (1996) suggested that the distribution,
composition and zonation of alteration facies around the
Darwin Granite, regional zonation of metals with respect to
the granite, distribution ofCu-Au-rich VHMS deposits in the
Mount Lyell field and pre-Tyndall Group timing of both the
granite and mineralisation support a genetic link between the
granite and these deposits. Furthermore, magnetite + apatite
:!:pyrite veins in the Prince Lyell deposit are similar to those
adjacent to and within the Darwin Granite and are consistent
with magmatic fluid contributing to their formation. These
authors proposed a model for the genesis of the Mount Lyell
Cu-Au and related Pb-Zn-Cu massive sulfide deposits (Fig.
6.19), which involves seawater convection deep into the
Central Volcanic Complex where it mixed with Fe, Cu, Au and
K-feldspar + chloote zone
P-rich magmatic fluids exsolved from the granite. The mixed
magmatic-seawater hydrothermal system produced altered
K-feldspar + quartz zone zones, magnetite veins (e.g. Jukes Prospect) and subseafloor
Cu-Au deposits (e.g. Prince Lyell) close to the granite, and
FIGURE6.18 I Schematiccross-sectionofthe DarwinGraniteand altered contemporaneous Pb-Zn-Cu massive sulfide deposits on the
zones, illustratingrelationshipsbetweenthe Mount Darwin and Jukes Prospect seafloor (e.g. Lyell-Comstock).
alterationsystems,and surface maps presentedin the data sheets (Largeet al.,
1996; Wyman, 2001).

seafloorZn-Pb-Cumassivesulfide

Genesisof the alterationsystem

The proximity of intense hydrothermal alteration mineral

assemblages to the granite contact and the northward
extending cupola region above the buried pluton support
the interpretation that the hydrothermal system was driven
by heat from the intrusion (Eastoe et al., 1987; Large et al.,
1996; Wyman, 2001). Overprinting relationships between K- Prince
feldspar, sericite and chlorite facies indicate multiple alteration
J
Lyelltype
stages in which low-temperature mineral assemblages
, Cu-Au
~
overprinted initial high-temperature assemblages (Wyman, K-feldspar+ quartzzone J
2001).
j
Initial sericite and chlorite alteration assemblages were 1 500m
associated with fracturing and vein formation around and Central I

L
above the granite. As the fracture system evolved, the Jukes Volcanic
Complex J
hydrothermal system became part of the discharge zone. The I
well-defined zones of hydrothermal alteration are interpreted \
to have formed from diffuse circulation ofhydrothermal fluid \
through the volcanic rocks. Fluid access was enhanced by \
hydrothermal brecciation, and intense K-feldspar alteration \
and silicification was confined to the fracture zone above the \
\
granite (Wyman, 2001). \
Magnetite and tourmaline veins and breccias in the K- \
feldspar-rich zones immediately adjacent to the granite \
contact, and in the centre of the Jukes alteration system, /
demonstrate that magmatic-hydrothermal fluids were exsolved
during crystallisation (Large et al., 1996). The mass changes
(i.e. gains in K2O, Fe203' Ba, Sr, Cu, Mo, W, Th and U) in
the altered zones adjacent to the granite are consistent with FIGURE6.19 I Modelof the zonesof hydrothermalalterationand ore deposits
hydrothermal alteration of the volcanic rocks by magmatic in the Mount Lyellfield and their relationshipto the DarwinGranite,southern
fluid (Wyman, 2001). These fluids mixed with modified Mount ReadVolcanics,westernTasmania(after Largeet al., 1996).
 SYNVOLCANIC ALTERATIONI 157
INTRUSION-RELATED

Weak,regional,pervasivealbite+ sericitealterationfacies DG1

8ampleno. 143401 GJOwen Cong'omeffite

Eastem
,,,",'phy" Seo""",
Alterationfacies weak,regional,pervasive
albite+ sericite ~gci~';' phy" "'"nlo'astlo
Location JukesRoad C"." Vo'"nloComp'ex
DO,"'e
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex GRhyolfte

8uccession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massive,feldspar+ quartz-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals feldspar(3%,2mm),quartz(1%,
<1mm)
Relicttextures micropoikilitic,
porphyritic
- Ch'orite'm'gnelltelOne
Primarycompositionrhyolite [¿ISe",telOne
liliiii K,feldsp,r""",lOne
Lithofacies columnar jointed,massive DAJblte'se'ote,one
_M,gnette>toorm,lIne,,'ns
Interpretation sill ,ndbre,"as

Alterationminerals albite+ sericite+ chlorite+ hematite

Alteration
textures recrystallised
groundmass, sericite
pseudomorphs afterfeldspar,pervasive-
selectivesericite> chlorite,disseminated 100m

hematite
Distribution regional
Geochemistry
Preservation good Rb
8i02 76.17 Nap 2.29 129 Zr 280
Alterationintensity weak
Ti02 0.31 K20 3.66 8r 22 Nb 13
Timing early
AI203 13.30 P20s 0.04 Ba 822 Y 39
Alterationstyle regionaldiagenetic
andmetamorphic
Fe203 3.35 8 O Cu 4
MnO 0.10 Total 100.00 Pb 20 Al 64
MgO 0.67 (vol.free) Zn 39 CCPI 38
CaO 0.11 Th 21 Ti/Zr 6.6

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

epldote - pyrite,
and
siderlte
-
magnetite

TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot ,a'cite ankerite do'omlte tremo"te ,h'orlte
0.4 100
, , , , , , 1 1 ,
, /' x 90 - ..J - -'- - ,- - 1. - .J. - -' - _, - - 1- - L -

Y14~401 ~2
'"
80 j - J -
1
- - - 1- - L - .L - 1
Andesite-basa~'1
1
_1 - -'-
,
,
1
- 1- -
,
-/-< -
, - - 1-'*
0.3 1 "" 1 ,
I
. ,. ;t 70 - -1 - - - - ,- - ,- - -, - I
, , 1 ,
-, - - 1- - ,- -
'/' , ,¡,

l y
,
: ,1 c¡¡
c: 60
o
--,
,
,-,-,-,
1 Daei!e , 1 , 1
-1--'--'.
~ 50 - -j - - - -1- - (- - T - -+ -,- -,- - r- -
O 0.2
C\J
¡= .'~
- -- ~
: - --:-
I
- - ()
2 40
1
--1--
,
1',
"
1 , , ,
-'--1---(--.
'1 serieite
,: : '§
, 1 1 :¡: 30 - -< - - - - ,- - +- - + - -1 -1 - - Ijp~e\,!!'~
, 1 Rhyoli!e'1' ,.
0.1 :
- -,- - -,
~ ,Rhyolite-:- - -
, 1
S2-
o:: 20
()
_..J - -
1
- - L -
1'""
1. - .J. - -' _1 ,- - L -
1
:, :
,
,1 :
,
() 10
, -_I '__-'-_l_-'--'-_I_-~-
",' 1 1 ,
a'blte ",' 1 1K,fel~spar
o . O ,
O 10 20
1'"
30 40 50 60 70
1 , ,
80 90 100
O 100 200 300
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
158 I CHAPTER
6

Intense,pervasiveK-feldspar+ chloritealterationfacies DG2

Sampleno. 143278
Alterationfacies intense,pervasiveK-feldspar
+
chlorite
Location MountDarwin
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex
Succession MountReadVolcanics
~Tyndall Group
Volcanicfacies massive,feldspar+ quartz-phyric Central
Voleanie
Complex
rhyolite 0 VoleanclasUefacies
Relictminerals quartz+ plagioclase
(5%,1-2mm) D Rhyolite
[C] Daeite
Relicttextures porphyritic
Primarycomposition rhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation unknown
Alterationminerals quartz+ K-feldspar> chlorite+ sericite
> hematite+ pyrite
Alterationtextures plagioclasereplacedbysericite,
recrystallised
groundmass ofquartz -
+ K-feldspar> chlorite+ sericite,
disseminated hematite+ pyrite, Geochemistry Zr 223
selectivechlorite 71.35 0.30 Rb
Si02 Na20 259 Nb 16
Distribution local
Ti02 0.27 K20 9.27 Sr
none 80 y 46
Preservation
AI203 14.59 PPs 0.04 Ba 2463
Alterationintensity intense
Fe203 2.96 S O Cu
8 Al 97
Timing syn-to post-intrusion MnO 0.01 Total 99.72 Pb
31 CCPI 27
Alterationstyle proximalintrusion-related 0.92 Zn
MgO (vol.
free) 89 Ti/Zr 7.3
hydrothermal alteration
CaO 0.01 Th 25

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

epldote
- pyrlte.
magnetite
andslderite-
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot ea'eite ankerite dolomite tremolíte eh'orite

0.4 , 100
, , , , , , , , ,
25 ,, X 90 - .J ~ ~,~ ~ ,~ - 1. - .l - .J - -, - -,- - L -
, Q)
"O
, , , ,
, E 80 - .J - - - - '- - L - J. - J
, Andesite-basalt""
-' - -'- - '- -
0.3 -/-, - - - >--1- ~ , , "",
_20
o:> , , ,f 70 --, ,--,-,-, -,--,--,-
o
o ,* " ;, "
,,Daeite"" , , ,
~15
l ,, 143278
, :,
ea
e
O
60 - -, - - - -
,
- T- -,-"1 -,- -,- - ,-.
<J)
Q)
o:>
O 0.2
'"
- r - - -r ~ ~ -,-
, , ,
- - ~
<.)
50 - .., -
,
- - - ,- -
""
j- - T - -+ -1 - -,-
1 1
- r- -
1
e ¡= " , , 2 40 - -, - 1- - I_L j- _8
~10 , , , , § , "", 1serle;te
u
<J)
<J)
, , , , :c 30 - -' - - - - 1- - 4- - + - -1 -,- -ljPt1el'9it~'
'" 0.1 "
- -'- - - '- _Rhyolite -'- , -- 8 1 ,Rhyolite""
- _1 - -
E 5 " , o:: 20
<.) ~ ~ ~ ~j -'--143278
,
Q) " , 1 1- - - - , ,
~
:5 " , <.) 10 - _, - _,-
, 1 , , - '- - -'- - .! -
, -' -
1 -'- - '- -
1 ,
O " , albite1 , , , , 1 1K-feljJspar
.2
'" O o O ", 1 1 , , , 1 1 1 '
~8oro
""N--'o O 100 200 300 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
o.. ¡-=- Zr(ppm)
-5 Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 159

Strong,foliatedquartz+ sericite+ pyritealterationfacies DG3

Sampleno. 143237
Alterationfacies strong,foliatedquartz+ sericite+ pyrite
Location SlateSpur
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies feldspar+ quartz-phyric
rhyoliteschist
Relictminerals quartz+ plagioclase
(15%,1-5mm)
Relicttextures porphyritic,
microcrystalline,
partly
spherulitic
andpossiblyperlitic
Primarycomposition rhyolite
Lithofacies foliated
Interpretation unknown
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite+ hematite
Alterationtextures plagioclase replacedbysericite,
pervasive microcrystalline
groundmass
ofquartz+ sericite+ pyrite,hematite
stylolites,
quartzovergrowths,
schistosity
Distribution/zonation local Geochemistry
SiOz 81.77 NazO 1.54 Rb 145 Zr 142
Preservation poor
TiOz 0.17 KzO 4.51 Sr 35 Nb 11
Alterationintensity strong
Alz03 10.23 PZ05 0.03 Ba 889 Y 33
Timing syn-to post-intrusion
1.37 S O Cu 3
Alterationstyle hydrothermal FeZ03
proximalintrusion-related
alteration MnO 0.01 Total 99.92 Pb 16 Al 76

MgO 0.29 (vol.free) Zn 22 CCPI 20

CaO 0.01 Th 19 Ti/Zr 7.2

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)
- pyr;'e,
magne"'e
and
slderi'e
-
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot
epldo'e
ca'cI'e ankerite do'omlte 'remolí'e ch'orite
100 0.4 ,, 100
, , , , , , , , ,
03 80
o
o 0.3
V
,,
,
,
,,
-/-; - - - '- -1-
, ,
x"" 90
-o
E
2
;tQ, 70
80 1-
- .J - - '- - ,- - 1-- J. - -' - -, - - ,- - L -

.J - - - - '- - L - 1- - -1
,
,
Andesile-basal!""
- -, - - - - ,- - T - T - 1
,,""
,
-' - -'-

-, - -,-
, ,
- L -

- ,. -
960
'/ ' . ,. , , , ,
U) y, I, ,, 1;; 60
e - -, - - - - r - T - T -, -,- - ,- - ,- .
Q.)
O> ~ , , , o , ,Dacile""
c:
'" O 0.2
N
- r - - -; - - -,- - -
, ~ 50 - -1 -
,
- - - ,- - 1- - T - -+
""",
-, - -,- - r- -
-5 40 ¡= -j(¡ 143237 ,
()
- -;- - -,- -,--- r--8
U)
U) , I I , ~ 40
, """ serlcite
'" , I , , <5
:c 30 - --"- - - - ,- - -1-- + - -1 -,- _,jp!ce~it§'
E
- -'-, ,
- - ,'- .Rhyolite -,- S2- , ,Rhyolile", "
Q.) 20 0.1 --
"5
(5 , , , o: 20 _.J
,- - - "',," 143237* ,- - L -
- L - 1- - J.
U) , , , ()
..c I 11 I I , () 10 --'--'--'---'--~--'--'--'--'--
, , , , I , , , ,
'" O'", '" M I I , a'bl'e, , , , , , ,K.fe'pspar
000 8<E<:6,~22CSO$ o O , "" I , ,
U5¡::~<t: ~::;:::;:<..:>~>c~-'¡S: O 300
eL 100 200 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-20 Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
1"

160 I CHAPTER
6

Intense,pervasiveK.feldspar+ sericitealterationfacies DG4

Sampleno. 143360 GJOw" C<mglomerate

Ea~temq"'rtz-phyn,Sequeoce
Alterationfacies intense,pervasiveK-feldspar
+ sericite DQuartzph",,,',anl""ti'
" fa"es
Location JukesRoad Centra'
Vo'canl,Comp'"
Doa.te
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex 0 Rhyollte

Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massive,feldspar+ quartz-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals plagioclase
(2%,2 mm),quartz(1%,1
mm)
Relicttextures micropoikolitic,
porphyritic
II'!JIIChlorite'magoe"e,ene
Primarycompositionrhyolite EJ Sen"'e,ene
Lithofacies columnar jointed,massive liiiiIIK-fe'd~p,,'quartz"ne
UAJblte.sen,lte"ne

Interpretation sill - Magnetite.Iourmallne

and
b"ea" ,,;n~

Alterationminerals K-feldspar + quartz+ sericite+ chlorite+

pyrite:t magnetite
Alterationtextures pervasiverecrystallised groundmass of
K-feldspar + quartz+ sericite> chlorite, 'OOm
cleavagedefinedbysericite,plagioclase
alteredto K-feldspar> chlorite+
sericite,K-feldsparovergrowths, Geochemistry
chloritepseudomorphs offeldspar Si02 73.74 K20 7.60 Rb 161 Zr 257
microphenocrysts 0.27 P20s 0.04 Sr 38 Nb 11
Ti02
Distribution/zonation
local 40
AIP3 12.10 S O Ba 2449 Y
Preservation moderate 5.51 Total 99.97 Cu 215
Fep3
Alterationintensity intense MnO 0.03 (vol.free) Pb 17 Al 98
Timing syn-to post-intrusion MgO 0.53 Zn 57 CCPI 42
intrusion-related
hydrothermal
alteration CaO 0.01 Th 17 Ti/Zr 6.3
Style
Na20 0.13

Handspecimen photograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

- pyrlte,
magnetlte
and
siderlte
-
TiO,-Zrimmobile
elementplot
epldo'e
ca'clte ankerlte do'oml'e 'remoll'e ch'orlte
10 004 , 100
, , , , , , , 1 1
0;8
o
o 0.3
V
,
:

_/~ --
.
,
:

'
- 1--1-
x
E
2
90
"Q),

~ 70
80 j
- ..J - - '-

_J
1
,
- ,- - 1. - .1 -

'__L_.L_.!
Andesite-basalt""
,,1
.J - -, -
,
-'--'--'--
1 ,
- ,- - L -
, ,
,

~
'a, 6 1 - -, - - - -,- - ,- - ,. - -, -,- -,- - ,- -
'" , , , ,
en
ID
~
1
,
1
,
, 1 3360
,
ro
c:
o
60 --,
,
,--,-,-,
,Dacite""
-,--,--,'
g'4
'" - r - - ., - - -1- - - ~ 50 - -i - - - - ,- - t- - T - -+ 143360
..c:
u
O 0.2
F
N
.', 1 ,, o , '" 1 -, ,- -1-, ,
1 2 40 - -, - - -, - - ,_8Lt-
~2
E
,
1
,
,
1
1
,
, '§
:c 30
I
- -< - -
"""
- - ,- - -1-- + - --' -,-
serlcj'e
- ,Jp!',e'l9It§'
ID 0.1 - -'-" - - '- _Rhyolite-'-, -- 8 , ,Rhyolite", "
:2 O , , , , a:: 20 - _1 - - - - L - 1. - .1 _..J -'-8-'- - L -
o
en , , 1 , o , '" I 1 , ,
..c , , , , o 10 - -' - - - - '- - '- - .!. - -' - _,- -'- - '- -
'" 1 1 , , , """,
-2 a'blte """ K-fe'l'spar
o
N
oI O , ",""
'" O 100 200 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z
-4 Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
 SYNVOLCANIC INTRUSION-RELATEDALTERATION I 161

DG5
Stron~, pervasivesericitealterationfacies

Sampleno. 143366 GJ Ow" Coog'om"'I'

Eastem
q"rIz,phy;c S,queoce
Alterationfacies strong,pervasive
sericite f2:J Qu'rIz phyric ,olceoidas"c
,,' f,oas
Location JukesRoad C"Im' Vo'ceoicComp'"
Do,,;te
Formation ~Rhyolil'
CentralVolcanicComplex
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massivefeldspar+ quartz-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals quartz(2%,1mm),plagioclase (2%,
3 mm),hornblende «1%)
Relicttextures spherulitic,
glomeroporphyritic - Ch'onte, m'g",lil'zoco
OS,nCII'ZO",
Primarycomposition rhyolite - K,f,'dsp,,'q"rIz'00'
DAJb<,'"ncII"OO'
Lithofacies massive - M,g","I,<I"rm'"",veins
eod'..ccias
Interpretation sill
Alterationminerals chlorite> K-feldspar + sericite> pyrite
+ magnetite
Alterationtextures pervasiveK-feldspar + quartz+
chlorite,chlorite+ sericite+ magnetite
pseudomorphs afterplagioclase,
chloritepseudomorphs after Geochemistry
hornblende, recrystallised spherulites Si02 72.77 Na20 0.15 Rb 167 Zr 284
Distribution local 5.06 Sr 18 Nb 13
Ti02 0.37 K20
Preservation moderate 0.05 Ba 1323 Y 27
AI203 13.23 P20s
Alterationintensity intense 7.11 S O Cu 234
Fe203
Timing syn-to post-intrusion MnO 0.04 Total 99.97 Pb 6 Al 97
Alterationstyle intrusion-related
hydrothermal MgO 1.15 (vol.free) Zn 114 CCPI 59
alteration
CaO 0.05 Th 19 Ti/Zr 7.8

Handspecimenphotograph

0.4
TiO,-Zrimmobile
Photomicrograph(ppl)

elemenlplol
,
epidole
ca'cite
100
- , , ,
pyrite.
magoetite
aokerite
aod
,
siderite
-
do'omite
, , ,
Iremolile ch'orite

, ,
4
:*
143366
X
"
Q)
90
- ~- -'- - ,- - .L- .J.- .J - -: - -:- - ~ _
, E 80
- ~, - - - - ~-;;d~s;e-bas~'t- ~ -:--:-- :--
0>2 0.3 -'-1 - - - ~ -1- - 2 "", I ,
o , ,
o
1

;t 70 - -, - - - - ,- - ,- - -, - I -, - - ,- - ,--- -
'/ ' . " , 1 , ,
~1
~
CJ)

&0
c:
1
N
O O
N

ü5 i=
~
V
,
,
- r - -
',
,
-¡ - -
,,
-,-
,
-- ~
do
<;¡
c:
o
60

50
- -, - - - - ,- - T ,- 'T -,
, ,DaClt.
- --j- - - - ,- - ¡-- - l' - -t
I -,
, 143366
-, - -,-
, ,
- t- -
* -

ON 0.2
rn , , , o
-§ ,1 ¡:: " , , .$ 40 -~-- ' , , , :--:---~_.
CJ) , , , , §
CJ)
-¡¡¡ , , , , E 30 - ~ - -- -:- - ~ - ~- ~ -:- - :}~~~;i~t
E
<D
-2 O
N ~ 0.1 - -'-" - - '- _Rhyolite-'-, -- 8 , ,Rhyolit.", "
cu
=:í -3 Z , , , , a::
o 20 _..J , - - - - L",""
- .L - --L_.J _1-8-'- - L -
oCJ) , , , , o 10 --'--'-_'__-'-_1_--'__'_-'--'--
, , , , , , , , , , , 1 ,
-g -4 , , , , a'bite, , 1 , , I , K-fe'~spar
-5
oI O , , , , , , , , ,
O 100 200 300 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
162 I CHAPTER
6

Strong,pervasivesericitealterationfacies DG6

Sampleno. 143400
GJOwen Cong'omecate
Alterationfacies strong,pervasive
sericite E"temquartz-phyhcSequence
""",Ouartz phy¡ic,,'canic'astic
"'-""faoes
Location JukesRoad
Centrn'Vo'canicComp'"
DOa,,"e
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex ~Rhycllte

Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massivefeldspar+ quartz-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals plagioclase(2%,3 mm),quartz(1%,
1mm)
Relicttextures porphyritic,
spherulitic?
Primarycomposition rhyolite 1/11 Ch'oIile'magne"ezone

l2J1j Seh,,"e zone

Lithofacies massive ~K-feldspar'quartzzone
[JJ/>Jbrte'sehcltezone
Interpretation unknown - Magnetite,
tounnallne
"ins
andbrecei"
Alterationminerals sericite+ K-feldspar + quartz+ hematite
+ pyrite
Alterationtextures plagioclase replacedbysericite,
recrystallisedgroundmass ofsericite+ 100m
K-feldspar + quartz,hematitestylolites,
disseminated pyrite,weaklydeveloped
cleavage Geochemistry
Distribution local 75.23 Na20 0.99 Rb 173 Zr 278
Si02
Preservation poor 0.30 K20 5.18 Sr 22 Nb 13
Ti02
Alterationintensity strong AI203 13.52 P205 0.05 Ba 1232 Y 41
Timing syn-to post-intrusion Fe203 3.67 S O Cu 4
Alterationstyle intrusion-related
hydrothermal
alteration MnO 0.02 Total 100.00 Pb 3 Al 86
MgO 0.99 (vol.free) Zn 35 CCPI 41
CaO 0.04 Th 21 Ti/Zr 6.5

HandJspecimenphotograph

0.4
TiO,-Zrimmobile
Photomicrograph(ppl)

elementplot
epidote
ca'clte

100
- pyrite,
magnetile
ankerlte
and
siderite
do'omlte

, , - ,-, - L, - -', - -', - -, I- - ,-, - L, -

-
tremolite eh'orlte

x 90 - -.J - -'-

~1.5
o
01
0.3 ___,l4.34QQ.JL
~,
E
.~
80 j - .J - - -
,
. , ,
- '- - L - 1- - -1
-' - -'-
Andesite-basalt
I , ,
,
- '- -
,
o I , JI{ , , ,""
~1
'/ I . " ~'" 70 - -, - - - - ,- - I - -, - I -, - -,- - ,- -
-9
'" )1 ,, ,, 10 60 , , , ,
ID I - -, - - - - ,- - T - T -, -,- -,- - , 8
g'0.5
rn
~ I , ,
<=
o
-2 50
, ,Dacite""
..c o'" 0.2 - r- - - -r - - -,- - - '" --t '--j--T--+ -,--,-->--
<.) i= , , , u
g¡ o " , , 2 40 '""" , , ''l~~OO*~ _8
rn N N I , , , '15
--:
,
- -
serieite
E QQ , I , I :c 30 - --1- - - - ,- - -1-- + - -1 -, - _,jpl1el'9lt~'
ID
:5-0.5
I

U) 1- 0.1 - -:- - - ~ _Rhyolite-:- -- ~ , ,Rhyolite", "

o'" , , , I o::
U
20 - -.J- - - - ,- - L - -' - -'
, ",",'
-'-8-'- - L -
..c , , , ,
rn -1 I , , , U 1o
, , , - -' - - '- - '- - -'-- -'- - -' - -'-
, , , , - '-, - '-, -
I I , , albite, , , , , , ,K-fe'?spar
o o , , , , , , , , ,
-1.5 o 100 200 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)

7 LOCAL HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION
RELATED TO VHMS DEPOSITS
An understanding of the mineralogical and chemical zonation
of hydrothermally altered rocks around submarine massive
sulfide deposits is vitally important to both ore genesis studies
and to assist and focus mineral exploration. lt has led to a
vast amount of literature on hydrothermal alteration around
VHMS deposits, which various workers have summarised
(e.g. Franklin et al., 1981; Barriga et al., 1983; Urabe et al.,
1983; Lydon, 1984; 1988; Large, 1992; Madeisky and Stanley,
1994; Barren and MacLean, 1994b; Galley, 1995; Carvalho
et al., 1999; Sanchez-Espana et al., 2000, 2002; Gemmell and
Herrmann, 2001; Large et al., 2001c).
Since the pioneering work in the 1950s and 1960s, when
geologists first recognised the criticallink between volcanic-
magmatic processes and massive sulfide genesis (e.g. Stanton,
1955, 1959; Oftedahl, 1958; Gilmour, 1965; Horikoshi,
1969), it becarne widely accepted that these deposits form
on the seafloor from hydrothermal activity generated during
periods of local quiescence between volcanic eruptive cycles
(Sangster, 1972; Solomon, 1976; Franklin et al., 1983;
Ohmoto and Skinner, 1983). Ihe discovery of seaBoor
black smokers and related sulfide chimneys on the present-
day seaBoor has further stimulated research and contributed
to an improved understanding of ore forming processes in
the ancient deposits (Rona and Scon, 1993). Over the last
15 years, many researchers have questioned whether all
massive sulfide deposits form by exhalation on the seaBoor.
Although it has been recognised for some time that stringer
zones and the lower parts of some massive sulfides formed by
replacement (e.g. Large, 1997), several authors now consider
that replacement of particular volcanic units below the
seaBoor maybe be a key process for massive sulfide formation
(e.g. Barriga and Fyfe, 1988; Khin Zaw and Large, 1992;
Allen, 1994b; Bodon and Valenta, 1995; Hannington et al.,
1999; Doyle andAllen, 2003).
Ihis chapter is not a summary ofVHMS ore genesis, but
it highlights the features of alteration halos associated with
VHMS deposits, particularly in the Mount Read province,
western Tasmania, and fits the deposits and their alteration
halos in to the broad range of ore deposits that are found
in volcanic and volcano-sedimentary successions. In the later
part of this chapter we provide descriptions, including data
sheets depicting typical alteration facies, of examples from the
Mount Read province and Mount Windsor Subprovince in
I 163
eastern Australia that illustrate the range in alteration styles
and zonation associated with the spectrum of submarine
volcanic-hosted base metal ores.
7.1 I COMMONFEATURES
OFVHMS
DEPOSITS
VHMS deposits display the following features:
. Ihey are hosted by submarine volcanic or volcano-
sedimentary successions.
. Ihey are the sarne age as the host volcanic succession
(Le. the deposits are approximately synvolcanic and/or
synsedimen tary).
. Ihe host rocks vary from coherent to clastic volcanic or
sedimentary facies and range in composition from basalt
through andesite and dacite to rhyolite.
. Most deposits are hosted in thin volcaniclastic units
« 100 m thick) between major volcanic formations.
. Ihe economic parts of the deposits typically comprise
massive sulfide, principally pyrite, subordinate sphalerite,
chalcopyrite and galena. Ihe term massive implies greater
than 80 wt% sulfides (Sangster, 1972).
. Massive sulfide lenses are commonly, but not always,
aligned parallel to volcanic strata.
. Stringer (or stockwork) sulfide zones commonly underlie
. the massive sulfides and may contain economic Cu grades.
Metal contents and metal ratios vary considerably. Deposits
include Cu-rich, Au-rich, Cu-Zn, and polymetallic (Cu-
Zn-Pb-Ag-Au) types, but all contain more Zn than Pb.
. Ore metals are typically vertically zoned within sulfide
deposits from Cu at the stratigraphic base to Zn, Pb, Ag,
Au and Ba in general order towards the topo Nevertheless,
there are many exceptions to this zonation panern and
. some deposits have no Ba.
Intense hydrothermal alteration of the footwall
rocks stratigraphically below the massive sulfide, to
volcanic
chlorite, sericite and quartz is common. By comparison,
the hanging wall rocks are weakly altered or unaltered.
Over 700 VHMS deposits have been recorded around the
world. Ihey range in size from less than 100,000 tonnes to
164 I 7
CHAPTER

over 510,000,000 tonnes (Rio Tinto, Iberian pyrite belt). 1he

top 50 deposits, in terms of tonnes of contained Cu + Zn + Pb
metal, are listed in Figure 7.1. Most of these deposits are from
seven major VHMS provinces or districts (Fig. 7.2), from
oldest to youngest: Abitibi belt in Canada, Skellefte district in
Sweden, Mount Read province in Australia, Bathurst mining
camp in Canada, Southern Urals in Russia, Iberian pyrite belt
in Spain and Portugal, and Hokuroku district in ]apan.

Cu+Zn+Pb
metalcontent(milliontonnes) Mount Read provinee ./
10 40
,---,-,--,¡
] Brunswick12
KiddCreek FIGURE7.2 I Localionsollhe major VHMSprovincesaroundIhe world.
~
I!:
~ Aljustrel - all
[ ...;:;::] LaZarza
[ ::J Bawdwin
[ 11 NevesCorvo - all
[ ~ Gai- all
[
[
~...o_~'o~..M 0.."".'..,'" o J Aznacollar
-all
¡¡ RioTinto- all 7.2 I HYDROTHERMALALTERATION
[ J Buriba- all HALOSASSOCIATED
WITHVHMS
[ Oo.=::']
Sotiel-Migollas DEPOSITS
Rosebery
( 11 Uchaly
[ ] Crandon Hydrothermally altered zones proximal to VHMS deposits
~o..~:.:::::.,.... ~ Tharsis- all may indude footWall alteration pipes, stratabound altered
I ] WindyCraggy footWall zones and altered hanging wall zones.
[ ] FlinFlon
[ Previous studies (e.g. Franklin et al., 1983; Lydon,
] Arctic(BrooksRange)
1: ] Degtyarskoye 1988) emphasised the pipe-like hydrothermal altered zones
Hellyer in the footWalls of many massive sulfide deposits. 1hey are
] HeathSteele common in Archaean deposits in the Abitibi belt in Canada
] Geco
(e.g. Sangster, 1972) and in the Miocene Kuroko deposits
I MtLyell- all
I Cayell of the Hokuroku district in ]apan (e.g. Urabe et al., 1983).
~ =.w."."pp Matsumine-Shakanal However, in other districts such as the Mount Read province,
. . ... "]1 Uzelga Mount Windsor Subprovince and Lachlan Fold Belt in
(" 'M'" . J Sibay
ri":1 Podolskoye eastern Australia, the Iberian pyrite belt, and the Bathurst
I I Woodlawn mining camp, well-defined alteration pipes are less common,
rsr!b",'w-cmmww"wm_. Hanaoka-all and stratabound altered footWall zones dominate (Large,
u ,..0:!$ff:!\1¡¡¡;¡%j
Las Cruces
l' . 4 Preiska
1992). 1hese tWo styles of altered footWall zones are described
I I Madenkoy below, with emphasis on the footWall alteration pipes, because
I I Myra Falls they have received considerable attention from researchers
1..;:1 MasaValverde and their alteration mineral zonation and genesis are better

-
I I Migollas understood.
I I GoldenGrove
f,'!""'::::::::';¡¡ AguasTeñidas D Bathurstminingcamp
I I RuttanLake Abitibibelt
I IzokLake

-~ Aur(Louvem)
1111111111111!1

SouthBay
UnitedVerde
~ Iberian
-
-
Mount
pyritebelt
W SouthernUrals
Readprovince
Hokurokudistrict
Footwallalteration
pipes

Figure 7.3 is a schematic cross-section of the geology, sulfide

c::::J D Other
P
.. LuckyStrike
II Lousal
Mattagami
c::::J Scuddles
Lake
and alteration zonation related to a typical VHMS deposito
Ir is based on our understanding of the Hellyer deposit in
the Mount Read province (Gemmell and Large, 1992), but

-
c::::J Outokumpu
Selbaie- all
L l-L..Ll
also incorporates information on other Australian (Large,
1992), Canadian (Franklin et al., 1981; Lydon, 1988; Lentz
and Goodfellow, 1996), ]apanese (Date et al., 1983; Urabe
et al., 1983) and Spanish-Portuguese deposits (Barriga et
FIGURE7.1 I The 50 largesl VHMSdeposils in lerms 01conlainedCu + Zn + al., 1983; Leistel et al., 1998; Sanchez-Espana et al., 2000).
Pb lonnes.
Immediately below the thickest part of the massive sulfide
ore the footWall alteration pipe, which may be oval in plan
but is more commonly elongate along a synvolcanic fault,
contains a concentric series of altered zones. 1hese are, from
the centre of the pipe outWards: siliceous core zone, chlorite
zone, sericite zone, and albite zone, which grades into least-
altered volcanic rocks.

A
hanging
wall
voleanic
rack, barite high-gradeZn+ Pb +Ag +Au ore
loolwall low-gradeZn + Pbore
volcanicrock,
n 'tringer lone
disseminatedpyntelone
(l V!
~ pyrite-nch'tnngerlone
loolwallalteration
pipe
B in Fe/Mg ratio passing from the inner chlorite zone to the
unaltered
voleanicrack,
FIGURE7.3 I Cross-section01idealisedmineralisationand alterationzonation
patternsin a lootwall alterationpipe beneatha typical VHMSdeposit(modified
alter Gemmelland Large, 1992; Lydon,1997).(A) Sulfidemineralzonesand
geology.(B) Hydrothermallyalteredzones.
Siliceous core zones
The siliceous core zones are composed of quartz + pyrite and
quartz + pyrite + sericite :t chlorite assemblages (e.g. data
sheets HE6, RB4, TH4, WT7, HR8, HN6 and HN7). They
may not always be present, and have only been described
from a few deposits (e.g. Hellyer, Gemmell and Large, 1992;
Brunswick No.12 and other deposits in the Bathurst mining
camp, Zhang et al., 2003). Siliceous core zones are the most
intensely altered rocks in the centre of the pipes, and are
commonly intersected by networks of pyrite + chalcopyrite
stringer veins (Fig. 7.3). AlI primary rock textures within
these zones have been completely destroyed due to the
intensity of alteration. In some cases, quartz-rich alteration
assemblages have overprinted earlier chlorite-rich alteration
assemblages creating pseudobreccia textures. Mass-change
calculations indicate that gains of 50-100 gil 00 g, mainly
due to Si addition, are common within siliceous core zones
(Gemmell and Large, 1992, Fig. 11). Lentz and Goodfellow
(1996) reported Si02 gains of up to 300% in the siliceous
core zone in the centre of the alteration system below the
Brunswick No. 12 massive sulfide deposit. The siliceous core
represents the zone of maximum hydrothermal fluid flow and
highest temperatures.
Chlorite zones
Chlorite zones are dominated by chlorite (>50 wt% and
commonly >80 wt%), with subordinate quartz + pyrite +
sericite :t carbonate (e.g. data sheets HE4, RB5 and HR7).
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 165
These zones are typically fine grained, dark and massive,
preserving no volcanic or sedimentary textures. In many
deposits these zones host pyrite + chalcopyrite stringer
veins (e.g. Woodlawn deposit in eastern Australia and most
Noranda district and Iberian pyrite belt deposits). Chlorite
zones are commonly deformed during tectonic events,
resulting in chlorite schist zones, which may be strung-out
or dislocated from the massive sulfide ore (Sangster, 1972).
Studies of chlorite composition from Canadian, Australian
and ]apanese deposits indicate that the inner chlorite zones
are dominated by Mg-rich chlorite, with a general increase
outer edge of the sericite zone (e.g. Riverin and Hodgson,
1980; Urabe et al., 1983; Paulick et al., 2001). Nevertheless,
reverse trends have been recorded, where chlorite becomes
more Fe-rich towards the core (e.g. Eastoe et al., 1987; Lentz
et al., 1997). Variations in chlorite composition are discussed
in more detail in Section 4.2.
Sericite zones
Sericite zones surround the inner chlorite zones and are
characterised by assemblages of sericite + chlorite + quartz +
carbonate + pyrite (e.g. data sheets HE3, RB3, WT3, WT6,
HR6 and HN5). At Hellyer, rocks in the sericite zone are
strongly to intensely altered, with up to 70 wt% sericite
and sparse relict primary textures. In other deposits, the
alteration intensity in the sericite zone decreases towards the
outer margin, where altered rock grades into the least-altered
footwall rocks. In many cases, the sericite zones are laterally
extensive and merge with stratabound altered zones away
from the central pipe (e.g. Mount Chalmers, Large and Both,
1980). Minor disseminated sphalerite or stockwork Zn may
occur in the sericite zone, whereas Cu-enrichment is more
common in the chlorite zone.
Albite zones
Some authors have described weakly altered zones of albite
+ chlorite :t sericite that surround the main sericite zones
(e.g. Iijima, 1974; Green et al., 1981; Urabe et al., 1983;
Relvas et al., 1997; Goodfellow and McCutcheon, 2003).
Although albite zones have not been widely described or
accepted in all districts they are discussed here because of
their significance to mineral exploration. Ir may be difficult to
distinguish hydrothermal albite facies from the background
diagenetic alteration facies, as within albite zones primary
volcanic textures are commonly preserved. In the Hokuroku
district this zone has an albite + sericite + chlorite assemblage
(Iijima, 1974; Urabe et al., 1983). In some deposits of the
Iberian pyrite belt an outermost halo of Na-sericite has been
recognised (Relvas et al., 1997). In the Bathurst mining camp,
Goodfellow and McCutcheon (2003) described an outermost
altered zone of albite + Mg-rich chlorite surrounding the
footwall alteration pipe. They described an increase in patchy
albite, which replaced K-feldspar phenocrysts, in proximity
to the pipe. Similar albite-altered rocks have been recognised
adjacent to the Hercules footwall alteration pipe in the Mount
Read province (Large et al., 1996). Further research is required
 166 I CHAPTER
7
to characterise the features of these outermost albite + chlorite . lhe Kuroko deposits do not have an inner chlorite lOne.
+ sericite altered lOnes and to distinguish them from regional Shirozu (1974) described intensely altered voleanie rocks
diagenetie albite alteration facies. below the massive sulfide ore and surrounding the silieeous
Cu-stockwork ore, as strongly silicified with abundant
sericite and very little chlorite (Fig. 7.4B).
Variations in alteration zonation . Deposits in the Noranda distriet and the Iberian pyrite belt
commonly have intense chlorite core lOnes surrounded by
lhe three main hydrothermally altered lOnes (silieeous core, sericite lOnes (Fig. 7.4C), but without silieeous core lOnes
chlorite and sericite) are not present in all footwall alteration (Franklin et al., 1983; Carvalho et al., 1999; Sanchez-
pipes beneath VHMS deposits, and in some cases additional
zones, such as carbonate or tale zones, existo Some variations
from the idealised alteration pipe model outlined in Figures
. Espana et al., 2000).
In the Iberian pyrite belt, Relvas et al. (1997) recognised
a Na-bearing sericite (paragonite) lOne extending beyond
7.3 and 7.4A are: and above the main sericite lOne at both the Neves Corvo

. and Aljustrel deposits.

In the Mattagami distriet in Canada, the intensely altered
central core of the footwall alteration pipe is tale-rich (Fig.
7.4D) and surrounded by chlorite and sericite lOnes (e.g.
A
Large, 1977; Roberts and Reardon, 1978).
. In several eastern Australian deposits, Mg- and/or Fe-
bearing carbonates are common in the alteration mineral
assemblages (Large et al., 2001c). At Hellyer a chlorite
+ dolomite lOne occurs below the massive sulfide near
the top of the chlorite lOne (Fig. 7.4A, data sheet HE5,
Gemmell and Large, 1992). A more massive dolomite
lOne is developed at the western margin of the altered
stringer pipe at Mount Chalmers (Large and Both, 1980).
Carbonate-rieh lOnes are common in the footwall of many
B Iberian pyrite belt deposits, either marginal to the massive
---- sulfide or distributed throughout the footwall alteration
',~/ systems (e.g. Rio Tinto, Williams et al., 1975, Solomon et
'\,\ /
\ \ J al., 1980; La Zarza, Strauss et al., 1981; lharsis, Tornos et
\j ~\
\',
,]
f
al., 1998).
f.; \ I . Lydon (1988, Fig. 8) included an Fe-oxide zone at the top of
the pipe below the massive sulfide in his footwall alteration
\
""

W
M

I
.' pipe model, compiled from a number of deposits, but there
are few examples of this facies.
e
Strataboundalteredfootwallzones

Many massive sulfide deposits, possibly half, do not have

D and several hundred metres below the massive sulfide. lhey
I 1silieeouseorezoneI:T.J ehloritezone
serieitezone 11'" talezone
FIGURE7.4 I Differentpatterns01mineralzonationin lootwall alterationpipes,
(A) GeneralisedmodeL(B) Hokurokudistrict modeL(C) Norandadistrict and
Iberianpyritebelt modeL(D) Mattagamidistrict modeL
footwall alteration pipes, but are underlain by stratabound or
semi-conformable altered lOnes, which extend laterally for up
to several kilometres away from the deposits (Figs 3.16B, C
and 7.5). lhese stratabound zones may extend for between 30
are typically developed around sheet-like deposits, and are
mainly associated with Zn-Pb-rich deposits (e.g. Rosebery,
Scuddles and Bathurst mining camp deposits). Sangster
(1972) and Goodfellow and McCutcheon (2003) consider
stratabound altered footwall zones to originally have been
pipes that were sheared and transposed parallel to stratigraphy
during tectonie deformation. However, this does not explain
stratabound footwall lOnes in weakly to moderately deformed
voleanie successions, such as the Mount Read province and
Iberian pyrite belt. In the Iberian pyrite belt, Tornos (in press)
notes that although many previous studies have claimed pipe-
like morphologies to the footwall stockworks and altered
lOnes (e.g. Costa et al., 1995; Carvalho et al., 1999; Saez et
al., 1999), recent studies have defined irregular to stratabound
morphologies for the footwall alteration associated with most

.....
 ...

LOCAL HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATíON RELATED TO VHMS DEPOSITS I 167

,
deposits (e.g. Tbarsis, Tomos et al., 1998; Neves Corvo, A
Relvas et al., 2000). s oe\Jletion
Stratabound altered footwall zones have similar alteration upper limit of stron\\ \'13
HW
mineral assemblages to footwall alteration pipes, but the zones
FW
are distributed parallel to stratigraphy, rather than at right
angles. In some cases, the siliceous core and chlorite zones are
confined to the immediate footwall of the thickest Cu-rich chlorite zone
(+ quartz + carbonate + pyrite)
part of the massive sulfide lens (e.g. Rosebery and Tbalanga). quartz + chlorite zone
In contrast to the pipes, the sericite zones of stratabound (+ sericite+ carbonate+ pyrite)
altered footwall zones are the volumetrically dominant 100m
zones being both laterally and vertically extensive. Massive ~?~?
carbonate zones are more common in stratabound than ."
pipe-like alteration systems (Large et al., 2001c), typically B
HW
occurring immediately along strike from the massive sulfide .'¡:w-
ore lenses (e.g. Rosebery, Tbalanga and Mount Chalmers).
From an exploration perspective stratabound altered footwall
zones typically present broader targets than footwall alteration
pipes; however, they tend to be more diffuse and thus
create challenges when searching for the associated VHMS
deposits.
quartz+ seriéi.te+chlorite+ carbonatezone

Alteredhangingwallzones
20 m

Compared to footwall alteration, hanging wall alteration is

typically less intense and therefore has not received much e
attention in the ore-deposit literature. Visible hanging wall
alteration mineral assemblages are commonly sericite-rich
and restricted to a few metres above the massive sulfide ore.
However, detailed petrographic and geochemical studies have
chloritezone
extended some altered zones to several tens of metres into
seriéitezon' e
the hanging wall. Tbere are a number of exceptions to the
(:!:sericite+ pyrite
(+ Mn-carbonatetquartz t carbon
,
,
:!:chlorite:!:pyrite) I
generally limited altered hanging wall zones.
Copper-Au-rich VHMS deposits that form by replacement
below the seafloor may exhibit extensive sericite-rich altered
albitezone
-
(+ quartz+sericitej
100m
I

hanging wall zones (Fig. 7.6A). Mount Lyell in the Mount D

Read province and Highway-Reward in the Mount Windsor
Subprovince are good examples of subseafloor sericite zones chlorite+ carbonate
and are described in detail in Sections 7.7 and 7.10. HW

In stacked ore systems, such as Millenbach and Amulet FW"

deposits in the Noranda district, and Que River in the Mount

Read province, the lower ore body in the stack has an intense
least-altered
zone(quartz
altered hanging wall zone, similar to mat in the footwall (Fig.
7.6B). Tbis is due to hydrothermal fluids moving through the
lower ore lens and hanging wall on their way to depositing
quartz+ pyritezone
(:!:Chlorite)
--... -
+ seriéite+ bíotite)
+albíte

?9..!!:!

the upper ore lenses.

Significant altered hanging wall zones may have developed
in sitUations where the hanging wall volcanic or sedimentary
units were deposited while the massive sulfide was still forming
on the seafloor. Tbis is the case for the Hellyer deposit, which
has a hanging wall alteration plume that comprises a core
of fuchsite + carbonate (e.g. data sheet HE 10), surrounded
by successive halos of chlorite + carbonate, quartz + albite,
and finally patchy sericite (Fig. 7.6C, Gemmell and Fulton,
2001). Tbe interpretation that the hanging wall alteration
zones formed after the seafloor massive sulfide is not in doubt
because of sulfide and barite clasts in the directly ovedying
volcaniclastic debris-flow unit (McArthur and Dronseika,
1990; Sharpe, 1991).
Although primary plagioclase destruction is a key process
in the hydrothermal alteration associated with VHMS
FIGURE 7.5 I Examples
01stratabound
alteredlootwallzones(modiliedalter
Ashley et al., 1988;Large, 1992; Largeet al., 2001ej. (A) Seuddles,Western
Australia,in planview. (B) TeutonieBore,WesternAustralia, in eross-seetion.
(C) K lensat Rosebery,westernTasmania,in eross-seetion.(D) Thalanga,
Queensland,in eross-section.Abbreviationsare: FW = lootwall and HW =
hangingwall.
deposits, there are a few examples where albite zones exist in
the hanging wall of the deposito At the Henty gold deposit
albite + quartz is a common hanging wall alteration mineral
assemblage (see Section 7.8, data sheet HN3), and at Hellyer
albite forms one of the altered zones in the hanging wall
alteration plume (Fig. 7.6C, data sheet HE8).
In addition to these examples of obvious altered
hanging wall zones, some recent detailed lithogeochemical
 168 I CHAPTER
7

A Chemicalreactionsandmasschanges
Footwall alteration results from the reaction of hydrothermal
fluid (principally composed ofheated seawater) with volcanic
rocks. The temperature of the fluids that form VHMS deposits
are estimated to vary from about 200° to 350°C based on
fluid inclusion evidence (Pisurha-Arnond and Ohmoto,
1983; Khin Zaw et al., 1996), the study of present day black
smoker systems (Goldfarb et al., 1983) and thermodynamic
calculations of mineral stabilities (e.g. Sato, 1973; Large,
1977; Ohmoto et al., 1983). Fluid salinities approximate that
azone(chlonte
of seawater, although values of up to four times seawater have
sericite+ pynte) been recorded (de Ronde, 1995; Solomon et al., 2002). The

B
--Amu!e! '
~-~
. -.
Andesi!e -"
AmuletUpperA

orebody
pH varies from about 3 to 7 based on mineral assemblage,
thermodynamic considerations and measurements at black
smoker vents (Huston and Large, 1989; Scott, 1997).

\
\~ -
'"
alteralion ""
The principal result of interaction of this hot, mildly acidic
to neutral Huid with volcanic rocks as it ascends towards the
'" zone ') seafloor is the breakdown of feldspars and volcanic glass, and
\
their replacement by sericite, quartz, chlorite and carbonate.
Petrographic evidence of these reactions is shown in Figure
2.5 which depicts a series of progressively hydrothermally
altered pumice-rich rocks from the footwall to the Hercules
deposit in the Mount Read province.
Reactions that describe these footwall alteration processes
may include reaction R7.1 (from Sanchez-Espana et al., 2000)
100m in the sericite zone:

e albitezone
(+ quartz + sericite)
3NaAlSiPs + K+ + 2H+
albite
~ KAl3Si3O¡o(OH)2+ 6Si02 + 3Na+ (R7.1)
;¿ quartz
+albitezone sericite quartz
/~ sericite
zone
-" ." !
/,--,--
basalt
'eorisflow.
This reaction is typical of sericite replacing albite in the
outer part of the alteration system. The reaction involves a
pyrite + sphalerite + siliceous core zone gain in K from hydrothermal Huid and loss ofNa in the rock
galena + arsenopyrite
+ chalcopyrite ore chlontezone as albite is replaced. Silica is conserved by the deposition of
andesi!e
sencitezone quartz. Overall, the reaction leads to an increase in Huid pH
due to the consumption of H+. Reactions in the sericite zone
~
also involved sericitisation of K-feldspar and plagioclase in
addition to albite.
FIGURE7.6 I Examples01cross-sectionsthrough alteredhangingwall zones In the chlorite zone, there are two potential reactions
associatedwith VHMS deposits. (A) Cu-Audeposit (modifiedalter Largeet al.,
(Pisurha-Arnond and Ohmoto, 1983):
2001c).(B) Astacked ore system (alter the Millenbachdeposit, Knuckeyet al.,
1982). (C) Hellyer hangingwall alterationplume(modifiedalter Gemmelland
Fulton,2001). 2NaAlSi3OS + 3Mg2+ + 2Fe2+ + 14H20 ~

albite
Mg3Fe2Al2Si30¡O(OH)s+ 3H4Si04(aq) + 2Na+ + 8H+
studies have defined subde geochemical halos in otherwise chlorite
least-altered hanging wall volcanic rocks, which may extend (R7.2)
several hundreds of metres above the massive sulfide ore
(Large et al., 2001b). For example, at Rosebery a hanging wall
alteration halo can be defined using three geochemical 2KAl3Si30¡O(OH)2 + 3H4Si04(aq) + 9Mg2+ + 6Fe2+ + 18H20
parameters that may be applied during exploration: (1) whole- sericite
rock Ba/Sr ratio, which oudines a halo extending abour 100 m ~ 3Mg3Fe2Al2Si3O¡o(OH)s+ 2K+ + 28H+
into the hanging wall; (2) Mn content of carbonate, which chlorite (R7.3)
is anomalous over the same interval; and (3) whole-rock TI
content, which forms a halo that extends over 200 m into Note, these reactions can be written with H4Si04(aq) or
the hanging wall volcanic rocks. More detail of the Rosebery Si02 (quartz)+ 2H20.
alteration system is provided in Section 7.6. Both of these reactions involve the addition of Mg and
Fe2+from the Huid and the loss of alkalies (Na or K) and H
from the rock. However, the replacement of albite by chlorite

..
 RELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 169
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATION

involves Si loss as H4Si04' compared to the replacement of Most reactions in the altered footwall zone involve the
sericite by chlorite, which involves Si gain. Mass transfer breakdown of feldspar and loss ofNa (and usually Ca) to the
calculations in chlorite zones invariably indicate significant fluido Major gains include K in the sericite zone, Mg and Fe in
loss of Si (e.g. Gemmell and Large, 1992; Barrerr and the chlorite zone and Si in the siliceous core zone. In addition
MacLean, 1994b) suggesting that reaction R7.2 is the key to Na and Ca, other losses include Si in the chlorite zone,
reaction. Also both of these chlorite replacement reactions and very rarely Al in the siliceous coreoThe fluid pH does not
(R7.2 and R7.3) involve a release of H+ to the fluid and will show any systematic unidirectional change. Initially mildly
cause an increase in fluid acidity. This means that continued acidic fluids will become less acidic during sericitisation, but
chloritisation of volcanic rocks over an extensive area might more acidic during chloritisation. Intense siliceous core zones
produce moderately acidic fluids, which may subsequently may be related to rapid cooling, fluid mixing or intense fluid-
cause silicic (quartz + sericite), or in the extreme case, argillic rock interaction of Si-saturated fluids during the peak of the
(pyrophyllite :t kaolinite :t sericite) alteration assemblages up- hydrothermal activity.
flow from the chlorite zone. Examples of this occur at the
Neves Corvo and Lagoa Salgada deposits in the Iberian pyrite
belt where Relvas et al. (1994, 1997) have reported dombassite Alteration
boxplottrendsinalteredfootwall
and pyrophyllite in the chlorite-rich central stockwork zones zones
below the massive sulfide ores. Othet reactions in the chlorite
zone, not listed here, include chloritisation of mafic minerals The AI-CCPI Alteration box plot (Section 2.5) is a simple
such as biotite and amphibole. way of tracking whole-rock compositional changes and
In the siliceous core zone at the centre of the hydrothermal relating them to alteration mineralogy and position in the
system, three reactions ate proposed: altered footwall zones. In Figure 7.7, the fields of the major
altered zones are shown on the Alteration box plot in relation
H4Si04 (aq) --;. Si02 + 2HP (R7.4) to two alteration indices, Al and CCPI. Line AD represents
silicic acid quartz an array of altered felsic volcanic rock samples passing from
the outer edge of the altered footwall zone into the core zone
proximal to massive sulfide ore. Line ED represents a similar
NaAlSips + HP + H+ --;. 3Si02 + Na+ + Al(OH)3(aq) sample array for mafic volcanic rocks.
albite quartz (R7.5) Let us first consider line AD. Point A represents a rhyolitic
rock outside the altered zone. Sericite and weakly chlorite
altered rocks in the margins of the altered zone in crease the
Mg3Fe2Al2Si30¡o(OH)s + 4H20 + 10H+ Al due to Na and Ca depletion, whereás the CCPI remains
chlorite relatively constant. Altered samples plot progressively along
--;. 3Si02 + 3Mg2+ + 2Fe2++ 2Al(OH)3(aq) (R7.6) the AB segment of the trend toward the plorred position of
quartz sericite (phengite) on the perimeter of the Alteration box plor.
In the inner part of the sericite zone, the Al is commonly
Quartz is the main alteration mineral in this zone and greater than 90 and the trend becomes vertical due to a strong
is associated with minor sericite and chlorite. Mass balance increase in the CCPI caused by gains in Fe and Mg related to
calculations indicate that considerable Si02 gains. Aluminium
is commonly immobile (Gemmell and Large, 1992; Barrerr
and MacLean, 1994b), but is significantly diluted by large . pyrite, magnetite and siderite ..
Si gains. Quartz is probably deposited in the siliceous core epidote
calcite ankerite dolomite actinolite tremolite chlorite
zone according to reaction R7.4, as this involves mass gain of 100
chlorite
Si without loss of Al. Enrichment of Si in the hydrothermal
X
Q)
'"O 90 -,u,, r F zone
carbonate + chlorite
,-
I
zone
and
fluid may be due to leaching of Si from the footwall volcanic E I siliceous
I -11 ' I l' I core zone
. 80
rocks during chloritisation (reaction R7.2). Leached Si is then >. - ~ - 1- ~ - -: - :- - ~ r
Y
o...
deposited in the hydrothermal vent immediately below the 70 I- 1-
+ - +- - -1 - ~ - _'-
i I I '
seafloor. Silica deposition may be caused by rapid conductive
Q)
c¡¡
c: 60
- L - J - -.J - E - 1- - L 1
cooling (Fournier and Porrer, 1982), mixing with seawater, o
..o I I1 I I l' i T I inner

or intense fluid-rock interaction at high-fluid-rock ratios. (¡¡ 50

() - LI - ~I volcanic ..r-r1- - ,L.t
least.altered
rocks
-, sericite
zone

Replacement of both chlorite and albite by quartz (reactions

+ 40
_L_JJ-~- . ~ sericlte

~ B:
.
R7.5 and R7.6) requires a strongly acidic fluid and results o
:c 30
_~_~I_~_~_~'-_I I
(phengite)

in loss of Al as Al(OH)3(aq). Aluminium mobility of this I I1 I I 1 I 1- T I - ., I

8
type is rate in VHMS systems, but may occur in intensely o::
20 - ~ - -l- ~ -:-- ~ ~- ~~ T - I - -1 - -
() I I I , , I I I ,
silicified zones associated with acid alteration. Mass balance () 10 - I - 1 - I - -,- -1- - I - T - 1 - -,--
albite I I I I I I I I muscovite
calculations suggest this was the case in the siliceous core zone O K-teldspar
of the Henty volcanogenic gold deposit (Callaghan, 2001, see O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
also Section 7.8). Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
In summary, by writing simple chemical reactions to
describe replacements in the major altered zones, it is possible FIGURE 7.7 I The AI-CCPI Alleralion box plol showing Irends lor allered
to gain some idea of the chemical processes, elemental gains lootwal! zones. These dala are based on case sludies presenled in Large el al.
and losses, and variations in pH of the hydrothermal fluido (2001a).
170 I CHAPTER
7
increasing pyrite and chlorite in the rock (segment Be). 1he
final segment CD represents the chlorite zone, where CCPI
reaches its maximum (80-100), due to the abundance of
chlorite and pyrite proximal to massive sulfide ore. Although
quartz is not plotted on the Alteration box plot, due to the
absence of Sial from the two alteration indices, samples from
the siliceous core zone commonly plot in the CD segment
due to the presence of minor chlorite and pyrite. If carbonate
is present in the chlorite zone, as at Hellyer and 1halanga, the
samples typically plot between F and D.
In cases where the footwall comprises mafic volcanic
rocks, ED is the common trend from the edge to centre of
the footwall alteration pipe. 1his difference is due to the fact
that mafic rocks generally have higher Fe and Mg contents,
and thus greater initial values of CCPI compared with felsic
rocks (Fig. 2.10). Consequendy, chlorite is generally more
abundant in the outer sericite zone and the combination of
increasing chlorite and pyrite gives a trend along ED toward
the core of the footwall alteration pipe (e.g. Hellyer, Section
7.5).
The genesis of footwallalterationpipes
1he presence of tighdy constrained altered zones, in a
circular or more commonly elongate pipe, suggests that
hydrothermal fluids were focussed along synvolcanic faults or
fault intersections, and massive sulfide deposition occurred
where the faults intersected the seafloor. 1he zonation in the
footwall alteration pipe is commonly interpreted to reflect a
decreasing thermal gradient away from the fluid conduir (e.g.
Large, 1977; Riverin and Hodgson, 1980).
Source considerations
1here are two competing models for the source of fluids
and metals that form VHMS deposits (Fig. 7.8A and B): (1)
evolved seawater, and (2) magmatic fluido 1he first model
involves seawater convecting through a volcanic succession
above an intrusion or magma chamber. As the seawater heats
A. Seawaterconvectionsource B. Magmaticsource
SO 2-
4, v , ~
)J! SO 2-
~
,'\:i;.~Q
~\ Pb-zn-cu
y v
,:'dli;;~
Vv vv Vv Vy Vv
v v
heat source
1 km
+ +
FIGURE7.8 I Modelslorfluid flow and metalsourcein VHMS hydrothermalsystems(alter Large, 1992).(A) Metalsare derivedlrom deep seawaterleaching01
the volcanicsuccessionand basement.(B) Metalsare sourceddirectlylrom the magmaticvapourplume,with no significantleaching01volcanicrocks. (C)A mixture
01volcanicand magmaticsources,with low-solubilitymetals (Le.Cu and Au) providedlrom magmaand high-solubilitymetals(Le. Zn, Pb andAg) lrom seawater
leaching 01volcanicrocks.
up, and becomes more acidic due to fluid-rock interaction,
metals are leached from the volcanic succession (e.g. Kajiwara,
1973; Spooner and Fyfe, 1973; Solomon, 1976; Large, 1977;
Ohmoto, 1996). Alternatively, metal-rich magmatic fluid may
be derived from the crystallisation of a magma, which is also
the source of volcanism (e.g. Urabe and Sato, 1978; Henley
and 1hornley, 1979; Sawkins and Kowalik, 1981; Stanton,
1985, 1990). For supporting evidence and relative merits of
these two models the reader is referred to recent discussions
by Lydon (1996) and Ohmoto (1996).
Recent research suggests that both fluids and metals are
probably derived from magmatic and seawater sources (e.g.
Fig. 7.8C). Distinguishing criteria for the source includes
the deposit style, proximity to volcanic centres, alteration
mineralogy, metal ratios of the deposits and the salinity
and composition of primary fluid inclusions. For example,
Large (1992) suggested that relatively soluble chloride-metal
complexes, such as Zn, Pb and Ag, are probably derived
principally from seawater leaching of the volcanic succession,
whereas the less soluble metals, such as Cu, Bi and Sn, may
be sourced direcdy from the magma chamber. Gold could
be derived either by seawater leaching of volcanic rocks as a
bisulfide-Au complex, or direcdy from magma as a chloride
complex or in a volatile phase (Fig. 7.8C). Goodfellowand
McCutcheon (2003) proposed a similar dual metal source
for the massive sulfide deposits of the Bathurst mining camp,
with the largest deposits having a major magmatic-metal
component. Recendy Solomon et al. (2004) have compared
the salinity and composition of fluid inclusions in the stringer
zones of the Hellyer VHMS deposit with those of porphyry
Cu deposits, and concluded that the metals at Hellyer had a
magmatic source.
Fluid-rock interaction in the alteration pipe
1he concept that the alteration zonation in footwall alteration
pipes is a function of decreasing temperatures and fluid-rock
ratios has recendy been tested by Schardt et al. (2001) using
a thermodynamic model of fluid-rock interaction between
heated evolved seawater and an andesitic precursor (Fig.
C. Mixtureof metalsources
v v \
i:\<
v
v
magmaticvaour
--- Iume- Cu, b,
v v v
v v
IVo\ n, H2S, Au, Ag
v
'x x
+ I + +
+ +
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 171

7.9). 1his modelling was based on geochemical
the Hellyer deposito 1he classical sequence of altered footWall
zones observed in many VHMS deposits (fram the core to
the margin of the pipe: quartz -+ chlorite -+ sericite) was
repraduced by simulating the reaction betWeen a 250-350°C
Huid, with a pH of 4.5-5.0, and andesite under conditions
of decreasing Huid-rack rario and temperature. Simulated
cooling fram 350° to 100°C repraduced the full range of
footWall alteration mineral assemblages. 1he pH of the Huid
showed litde variarion, fram 4.5 to 4.0 (Schardt et al., 2001).
Mg-rich chlorite formed in the inner chlorite zone, and Fe-
rich chlotite developed in the oUtermost parr of the seticite
zone, similar to the pattern observed at many massive sulfide
deposits. 1his modelling was cartied oUt using a Mg-bearing
data from Huid, with the assumption that a componenr of seawater-
detived Mg was incorporated into the Huid at depth.
1he modelling has shown that sericite zones form at
temperatures below 250°C fram the reaction of andesitic
rocks with mildly acidic solUtions (pH = 4.0--4.5). Extensive
Mg-chlorite zones are favoured by higher temperatures (250-
300°C) and less acidic Huids (pH = 4.5-5.5). At lower pH,
kaolinite and pyraphyllite are likely to develop in the sericite
zone. At higher pH and lower temperatures «200°C), K-
feldspar is developed at the outer margin of the sericite zone
and in least-altered andesitic racks (Schardt et al., 2001).
Although carbonate alterarion was not taken inro accounr by
this modelling, it is likely that chlotite + carbonate assemblages,
such as those developed adjacenr to massive sulfides or at the

A 100 ,
- ..:-
300.C
, 250.C+-:~200.C.:-150.C-:" '100.C

CHLORITE SERICITE KSP ANDESITE

I
80 , I
,,
,,
I
,,
,,
,
~
".' albite

, ,
'-' 60 ,
,
,
, K.feldspar.
.':
, ,
(¡¡ , , .:
.'
a.
:E
C)
. 40
:muscovite . r: .'.',
I
~ '
I

,.:,,
,,
20
pyrite ,clinochlore ,,
,
, ,
hematite I
/ muscovite
phlogopite
01 -
:.:::::-
clinochlore

0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 10(

log reactionprogress(grams rack)

- Increments
oftitratedrock
B
37 40- - 100.C I
)-
---

K-feldspar
zone
--- 36 40

sericite
zone

--
'"
e
O
N
'" . unaltered
:; andesite
) (.)
'"
-:::1 1L-_-
O
'"
,g
.¡¡;

0.01 10.05 13
---

,zone
) l l"- .Q1 1 0.08 300.C

conduit
inflow
- decreasing
flowrateandfluid-rockratio ---

FIGURE7.9 I Thermodynamicmodelof tluid-rackinteractionbetweenheatedevolvedseawaterand Hellyerandesite

(modifiedafter Schardtet al., 2001). (A) Modelledmineralogicalvariationsresultingfrom tluid-rock interactionwith
decreasingtemperatures.(B) Schematicrepresentationof simulatedwater-rackinteractionas a functionof temperature.

172 I CHAPTER
7
periphery of many footwall alteration systems, are indicative
of more alkaline conditions. 1hese may develop where hot,
near-neurral hydrorhermal Huids have mixed with and heated
seawater, leading to saturation of carbonate at the margins of
the hydrothermal up-How zones (Large et al., 2001c).
A model for the development of footwall alteration pipes
Using the results of the thermodynamic modelling of Schardt
et al. (2001), numerical Huid-How modelling by Yang and
Large (2001), and previous thermodynamic modelling
of metal-sulfide growth by Huston and Large (1989), it is
possible to speculate on the progressive development of
subseaHoor zoned alteration pipes (Fig. 7.10).
Stage 1 (Fig. 7.10): Initial hydrothermal Huid How is
upwards along a sub-vertical permeable fault zone towards
the seaHoor. As the rising hydrothermal plume approaches
within 1 km of the seaHoor, secondary near-surface seawater
convection above the plume head may enhance normal
diagenetic reactions in volcanic rocks adjacent to the fault,
causing increased formation of zeolites, smectites and Mg-rich
chlorite, and albite replacement of primary feldspars. During
ongoing diagenesis and subsequent metamorphism this will
produce an outer albite zone (albite + sericite + chlorite),
which is commonly difficult to distinguish from regional
diagenetic and metamorphic mineral assemblages.
STAGE1: ALBITE
.
b:J albitelone
O
O
T
chloritelone
serlcitelone
siliceouscorelone
= 50-150°C
STAGE3: CHLORITE(+ Cu + Zn + Pb)
T = 250-300°C
pH=4.5-5.5
FIGURE7.10 I Modellortheevolution 01thelootwallalteration
pipeina mound-style massivesulfidedeposit.Stage1:aninitiallow-
temperaturehydrothermalsystem producesan albitelone. Stage2: increasingtemperatureresultsin the development01the sericite and
Zn + Pb-richsullide lones. Stage 3: highertemperaturesproducethe chloriteand Cu + Zn +Pb-richsulfide zones.Stage4: maximum
temperaturesand low pH resultin the siliceouscore and Cu + Pb + Zn-richsullide lones. This modeldoes not applyto all VHMS
deposits, some01which maylorm in brine pools(Solomonand Groves,1994; Solomonand Quesada,2003).
--~
Stage 2 (Fig. 7.10): As low-temperarure and mildly acidic
hydrothermal Huids, (T <250°C, pH = 4.0--4.5) continue
to move upwards to the seaHoor, sericite-rich alteration
overprints the early albite zone and expands our from the
Huid conduit to form a pipe-like sericite zone. During this
stage sphalerite + galena + pyrite massive sulfides deposit on
the seaHoor above the sericite zone. Minor pyrite + sphalerite
+ galena stringer mineralisation may also occur in the core of
the sericite zone at these temperatures (Eldridge et al., 1983).
Convective near surface reHux of seawater leads to an albite +
chlorite zone extending laterally into the least-altered volcanic
rocks surrounding the sericite zone.
Stage 3 (Fig. 7.10): As the hydrothermal system intensifies
and the temperature of the discharging Huid rises above
250°C, Mg-chlorite is stabilised adjacent to the main conduit
and a chlorite zone develops in the care of the footwall
alteration pipe. Under these high-temperarure conditions,
the Huid is capable of carrying significandy more Cu (e.g.
Huston and Large, 1989), which is deposited in srringer veins
in the central chlorite zone and in the base of the massive
sulfide. Within the massive sulfide mound, Cu progressively
displaces Zn upwards. Eldridge et al. (1983), Huston and
Large (1989) and Hannington and Scott (1989) described
this zone refining process. As the alteration system evolves,
the pH of the Huid initially increases during formation of
the sericite zone (from 4 to 5.5) due to consumption of H+
(reaction R7.1), and subsequendy falls during the formation
of the chlorite zone (reactions R7.2 and R7.3).
STAGE2: SERICITE(+Zn + Pb)
T = 150-250°C
pH=4-4.5
ZnotPb
Cu otZn
FeotCu.
IJII]
IDII
disseminated and E::J
vein sulfides
STAGE4: SILlCEOUS(+ Cu + Pb+ Zn)

Stage 4 (Fig. 7.10): With increasing temperature (300° to
350°C) during chloritisation, Si is continually leached from
the volcanic rocks (reaction R7.2) and the Huid becomes
supersaturated in Si. Consequendy, quartz is precipitated
(reaction R7.4) in the upper-central part of the alteration
pipe, forming a siliceous core zone. Maximum metal
precipitation in both the stringer zone and massive sulfide
is commonly associated with this stage. Subsequendy, the
hydrothermal system wanes and collapses with an inHux of
heated near-surface seawater that leads to overprinting by
lower temperature mineral assemblages, which are commonly
dominated by carbonates or barite, depending on the
oxidation level of the overlying water column.
Some previous workers have suggested that the zonation
in alteration pipes, from Mg-Fe chlorite in the core to sericite
at the margins, relates to the entrainment and mixing of
Mg-bearing seawater with a Mg-poor hydrothermal Huid
below the massive sulfide (e.g. Roberts and Reardon, 1978;
Lydon and Galley, 1986). However, Riverin and Hodgson
(1980) suggested that the presence ofMg-rich chlorite in the
central and most intensely altered zone of the alteration pipe,
and the abundance of Mg-chlorite in pyrite + chalcopyrite
veins in the stringer zone, is consistent with Mg derived
from hydrothermal Huid rather than seawater. In the model
oudined in Figure 7.10, we have assumed the hydrothermal
Huid is Mg-bearing, possibly either due to entrainment of
seawater at considerable depth (>1 km) below the seaHoor or
due to the leaching of Mg from mafic volcanic rocks deep in
the volcanic succession.
Although near-surface entrainment of seawater is
considered to be important in stages 1 and 2 of our model,
it is likely to result in an increase in the rate and consequent
grade of diagenetic alteration. Ihis would lead to Na-Mg
metasomatism and albite + chlorite formation at the margins
of the alteration pipe, rather than Mg metasomatism and
chlorite development within the core of the pipe, as previously
proposed (c( Franklin et al., 1981).
In the thermodynamic modelling ofSchardt et al. (2001),
temperature and pH were shown to be the principal factors
controlling the balance between chlorite and sericite zones in
the footwall alteration pipe. However, two other factors also
need consideration: (1) the composition of the immediate
footwall volcanic rocks, and (2) the initial chemistry of the
modified seawater as it rises up the conduit (e.g. Large, 1977).
In the first case, particularly at low Huid-rock ratios, chlorite
alteration is favoured in mafic host rocks and sericite alteration
in felsic host rocks. However, at high Huid-rock ratios typical
of the central parts of the hydrothermal pipe, the alteration
mineral assemblage is controlled by Huid chemistry rather than
rock chemistry. In the second case, seawater-rock interactions
in deep rhyolite-dominated footwall volcanic successions,
similar to those in the Hokuroku district and southern Mount
Read province, will generate modified seawater hydrothermal
solutions enriched in K and Si, but generally depleted in
Mg, Fe and Ca. Ihese Huids will result in sericite zones as
they approach the seafloor. In contrast, footwall volcanic
successions dominated by andesite and basalt, similar to those
in the northern Mount Read province and the Abitibi belt,
will generate evolved seawater Huids enriched in Mg, Fe and
Ca, with lesser K and Si, and are more likely to develop zoned
chlorite-sericite alteration pipes.
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 173
In summary, the footwall alteration mineral assemblages
in VHMS systems are probably controlled by three factors:
(1) the initial composition of the convective seawater-
dominated ore Huid, which is constrained by the relative
abundance of mafic versus felsic volcanic rocks deep in the
succession; (2) the temperature and pH regime during Huid-
rock interactions in the footwall discharge zone (i.e. lower
temperature, acidic conditions favour sericite development,
whereas higher temperature and/or more neutral pH
conditions favour chlorite formation); and (3) the composition
of the immediate footwall host rocks.
Genesis of stratabound altered footwall zones
Stratabound altered footwall zones (e.g. Rosebery, Scuddles
and Teutonic Bore; Fig. 7.5) are interpreted to result from
hydrothermal-Huid How parallel to volcanic strata (Fig. 7.11),
rather than at right angles to the stratigraphy as in the case
for footwall alteration pipes. Alteration pipes are commonly
developed in relatively impermeable footwall volcanic rocks
(e.g. the coherent or clastic facies of lavas and synvolcanic
intrusions) where Huids are focussed along sub-vertical syn-
volcanic faults (Fig. 7.10). In contrast, stratabound altered
footwall zones are more commonly developed in volcanic
rocks with moderate- to high-stratal permeability (e.g.
volcaniclastic facies such as pumice breccia and volcanic
A seafloormassivesulfide seaflaar
~;~?";é: >:(,~~}'~: >.~{~:~.;~.\
~ ,~-: ::'; : : ,'~,~-::;':: : ~ ~ ~ '~::, :-'
, pyiiticcu-Áu-beanng
massive~
"
anddisseminated zones "
impermeable
" volcanicfacies
"
, ,
B baritic sulfide lenses
seaflaar
permeable
volcanicfacies
FIGURE 7.11 I Genetic models for the formation of stratabound altered
footwall zonesrelatedto VHMS mineralisation.Fiuidflow below and parallei
to the seafloorand stratigraphyis controlledby the distributionof permeable
volcanicfacies (e.g. volcaniclasticunits),or impermeablecap-rocks(e.g. sills
or lavas).(A) Strataboundsubseafloorreplacementmineralisedand altered
zones (e.g. Mount Lyelldeposit, Mount Read provinceand TAGdeep Cu zone,
MiddleValley,Juan de Fuca Ridge).(B) Strataboundore lens and altered
zonesconfinedbelow an impermeablevolcanicunit such as a sill (e.g. K lens at
Rosebery,Mount Read province).
174 I CHAPTER
7
sandstone). In high-permeability rocks, hydrothermal fluids
move laterally along the strata, sub-parallel to the seafloor,
and metals are deposited due to the mixing of hydrothermal
fluids with seawater and/or cooling. In these cases, fluids are
poorly focussed and alteration tends to be of lower intensity
and greater in lateral extent (Fig. 7.11). Sericite-altered rocks
dominate stratabound altered footwall zones, and chloritic
and siliceous zones are restricted to the immediate proximity
of massive sulfides, where temperatures and fluid-rock ratios
were at a maximum. At K lens in the Rosebery deposit,
Allen (1994b) proposed that rising hydrothermal fluids were
constrained to flow laterally below an impermeable quanz
porphyry sill. As a result, stratabound massive sulfide and
associated stratabound altered zones developed beneath the
sill by replacement of more permeable and chemically reactive
felsic pumice breccias (Fig. 7.11B).
Significance
ofpyrophyllite
andkaoliniteinVHMS
systems
Pyrophyllite and kaolinite are generally rare in VHMS
altered zones; however, because they are only stable under
relatively acidic conditions their presence warrants some
discussion. Kaolinite has been reponed from the sericite
and montmorillonite zones of some of the ]apanese Kuroko
deposits (e.g. Iijima, 1974; Ohmoto, 1996). Ir has also
been reponed in the altered footwall zone of the Mount
Chalmers Cu-Au VHMS deposit in Queensland (McLeod,
1987). Pyrophyllite exists in the sericite zone of the Western
Tbarsis VHMS deposit in the Mount Lyell field, Mount
Read province (e.g. data sheets WT4 and WT5: Huston and
Kamprad, 2001), and is also reponed in the stockwork zones
of several VHMS deposits in the Iberian pyrite belt (Relvas
etal.,1997).
Figure 7.12 shows that the stability relationship between
kaolinite and pyrophyllite is temperature dependent:
pyrophyllite being stable above 280°C, whereas the stability
between muscovite and pyrophyllite is controlled by the
aK)aH+ ratio. For a fluid with aK+varying from 0.1 to 0.01,
which is considered the range for VHMS-related fluid, then
pyrophyllite is stable at pH values of less than 3-4 units.
pH (al aK+= 10-1)
2 3 4 5
400 r andalusite
EQ)
K-feldspar
::; muscovile
ro I pyrophyllite
a; 300
o..
E Australia (Large, 1992; Gemmell et al., 1998; Gemmell
2
kaolinite
200
1 2 3 4
log aK+/aH+
FIGURE7.12 I Slabilityrelalionsamongselecledsilicaleminerals
al 500bars
pressure(modifiedaflerBeaneandTilley,1981).
Tbere are two ways that acidic fluids may be generated
to stabilise kaolinite or pyrophyllite in VHMS systems. Tbe
first is by acid-producing fluid-rock reactions, such as the
replacement of albite (and volcanic glass) by Mg-Fe chlorite
(reaction R7.2). Tbis may result in a reduction in fluid pH
by about 1 unit (from 5.5 to 4.5); however, buffering by
sericite + chlorite assemblages in the rock will generally
prevent the pH dropping below 3.5, which is needed for
kaolinite and pyrophyllite formation. Tbese acidic alteration
minerals can only form by this method in volcanic rocks that
contain negligible K (e.g. tholeiitic basalts) and thus contain
no sericite to buffer the pH. Tbe second method is by the
introduction of magmatic volatiles at some stage during the
life of the hydrothermal system (Ohmoto, 1996). Cooling
of a magmatic gas containing S02 at temperatures below
400°C will increase fluid acidity to levels below pH = 3.5 by a
reaction similar to R7.7 (Burnham and Ohmoto, 1980):
4S02(g) + 4HP(1) --7 H2S(aq) + 3H+ + 3HS04- (R7.7)
Researchers have recently argued that the presence of
pyrophyllite or kaolinite in VHMS altered zones supports
the theory that these deposits are not simply the products of
seawater convection, but that their genesis involves input of
a magmatic-derived, low-pH fluid (e.g. Sillitoe et al., 1996;
Huston and Kamprad, 2001).
Metamorphism
ofalteredzones
Few detailed studies have been published on the effects of
contact and regional metamorphism of VHMS-related
altered zones. Medium- to high-grade metamorphism of
chlorite and sericite zones leads to assemblages containing
cordierite, anthophyllite, garnet, biotite, andalusite, staurolite,
gahnite, hornblende and plagio clase, depending on the bulk
composition of the altered zones (Franklin et al., 1981).
Cordierite + anthophyllite assemblages commonly result from
metamorphism of chlorite-rich altered zones, with a sporred
texture due to cordierite porphyroblasts, leading to the term
dalmatianite (Fig. 3.7A: Riverin, 1977). Some examples of
mineral assemblages from metamorphosed hydrothermally
altered zones are provided in Table 7.1.
6
7.3 I THE SPECTRUM OF VOLCANIC-
HOSTEDDEPOSITSAND
ASSOCIATED
ALTERATION
PATTERNS
Our research into the Palaeozoic VHMS deposits of eastern
and Herrmann, 2001; Large et al., 2001c) has revealed
considerable variation in terms of volcanic environment, ore
body shape, metal ratios, metal zonation, alteration mineral
5 assembalges and zonation, and ratio of massive to stringer
and disseminated styles of ore. Large (1992) identified 10
major styles of deposits in Australia (Fig. 7.13), only one of
which was the classic mound style and associated footwall
alteration pipe depicted in Figure 7.3. A number of factors

TABLE 7.1 I Mineralassemblagesrecordedin medium-lo high-grademelamorphosedhydrolhermallyallered zones locallo VHMS deposils.
"''"'"''''~~~
<,-~:~~!~ . Metamorp~icassemblage
Mattabi Chloritoid+ siderite+ andalusite
Mattabi Quartz+ chloritoid+ andalusite
+ kyanite
Coronation Cordierite
+ anthophyllite
AndersonLake Mg-chlorite
+ biotite+ kyanite
AmuletA Anthophyllite
+ cordierite
Geco Biotite+ quartz+ chlorite+ muscovite
+ almandine
+ cordierite+
anthophyllite
+ staurolite
Balcooma Chlorite+ quartz+ staurolite+ biotite+ cordierite
+ garnet
Balcooma Quartz+ muscovite
+ biotite
DryRiverSouth Quartz+ muscovite
+ biotite+ staurolite
+ andalusite
Skelleftedistrict Chlorite+ cordierite
+ andalusite
Boliden Sericite+ quartz+ andalusite
+ corundum
including temperature and salinity of the hydrothermal Huid;
oxidation and H2S/S04 characteristics of the hydrothermal
Huid and seaBoor environment; composition of volcanic
and sedimentary rocks deep in the succession; permeability
of the footWall volcanic rocks; and depth of seawater control
the metal carrying capacity of the Huid, and the chemical
reactions that occur beneath and at the seaHoor, leading to
a broad range of deposit styles and associated local alteration
halos.
1he spectrum of VHMS deposits found in submarine
volcanic successions indicates that there may be continuum
of deposit styles betWeen the end members that form the
basis for the current deposit classification in volcanic arc
and rift environments: VHMS Cu-Zn-Pb, porphyry Cu-Au,
epithermal Au-Ag and SED EX Zn-Pb-Ag deposits. Recent
workers have emphasised the possible continuum betWeen
VHMS and epithermal deposits (e.g. Lydon, 1996; Sillitoe
et al., 1996). Large (2000, 2004) and Large et al. (2001c)
extended mis approach to include porphyry and SEDEX
deposits. Sillitoe et al. (1996) introduced high-sulfidation
and low-sulfidation VHMS deposits based on mineralisation
style, hypogene alteration and sulfide mineralogy, seawater
depth, and volcano-magmatic setting. High-sulfidation
VHMS deposits develop in shallow-water environments,
proximal to volcanic centres, and tend to be associated wim
zones containing argillic alteration minerals (e.g. pyrophyllite,
allunite, kaolinite, diaspore) and high-sulfidation sulfide
minerals (e.g. enargite, luzonite, bornite, tennantite). For most
geologists the high-sulfidation-Iow-sulfidation classification
scheme has proven difficult to embrace because these terms
were originally based on the chemisrry of the ore Huid and
environment of mineral deposition, rather than a series of
geological criteria that could be measured and applied in
the field or in drill coreo For this reason we do not endorse
adoption of the high-sulfidation-Iow-sulfidation terminology
for VHMS deposits.
An alternative approach, suggested by Large et al. (2001c)
and expanded here, is to place individual deposits within a
range of features defined for ores in volcanic arcs and rifts. A
diamond-shaped diagram (Fig. 7.14) shows deposits plotted
LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 175
RELATED
izone
Altered Reference
,-
Chlorite Franklinet al,(1977)
Silicacore Franklinet al,(1977)
Chlorite Whitmore(1969)
Chlorite Franklinetal,(1981)
Chlorite BeatyandTaylor(1979)
Chlorite Stanton(1984)
Chlorite Hustonet al,(1992)
Sericite Hustonet al,(1992)
Sericite Hustonet al,(1992)
Chlorite Weihedet al,(2000)
Centralzone Nilsson(1968)
in terms of their attributes relative to end-member deposit
models for VHMS, epithermal Au, porphyry Cu and SEDEX
Zn-Pb deposits. 1he main eastern Australian deposits
described in this chapter, and the Bathurst 12 deposit from
the Bathurst mining camp, are plotted on the diagram.
Hellyer plots very close to the ideal VHMS deposit end
member. 1his is because the deposit exhibits most of the
features of the idealised VHMS alteration-mineralisation
system outlined in Figure 7.3.
Mount Lyell (Western 1harsis, Section 7.7) and Highway-
Reward (Section 7. 10) plot toward the porphyry end of the
spectrum wim a significant magmatic component. 1his is
because these deposits are Cu-Au-rich subsurface replacement
ores that formed in proximal volcanic environments dominated
by synvolcanic rhyolitic intrusions. Mount Lyell also contains
alteration minerals typical of an acid Huid or high-sulfidation
epithermal environment (pyrophyllite and zunyite), which
may suggest that magmatic Huid was involved (Huston and
Kamprad, 2001). 1hese Cu-Au-rich massive sulfide deposits
and others like them (e.g. Mount Morgan, Boliden, Bousquet)
are considered to be hybrid VHMS-epithermal-porphyry
deposits that are not easily classified as end members in me
VHMS-epithermal-porphyry spectrum (Large, 2004).
Henty is a gold-rich, base-metal-poor volcanic-hosted
deposit within the Mount Read province (Section 7.8). 1he
gold ore occurs in a stratabound subseaBoor replacemenr zone
surrounded by concentric altered zones dominated by quarrz,
sericite, carbonate and albite. 1he deposit is neither a typical
VHMS nor an epithermal deposit, but has some features of
both, and is best described as a hybrid VHMS-epithermal
deposit.
Rosebery is a Zn-Pb-Ag-Au massive sulfide deposit
(Section 7.6). Ir differs from the classic VHMS deposit in its
low Cu content, sheet-like srratiform nature with no stringer
zone, and lack of a well-defined footWall alteration pipe. Ir is
hosted in proximal and distal volcanic facies dominated by
pumice breccia, volcanic sandstone and siltstone, and black
shales. Rosebery and other sheet-like Zn-Pb-rich deposits,
such as those in me Bamurst mining camp, have many features
similar to SEDEX deposits even though they are in volcanic
176 I CHAPTER
7

A. Classicmound(e.g.Hellyer) hanging-wall F. Layered (e.g. Scuddles)

,' ,. ,' ,. .. ,. .' ,' .' .. ..
, ,massivePb+Zn:tBa:tCu
, ' , ' . . ,\, massivepy-(Cu)zone
. ,l. ' , ' . . v~~~t~C ,, ' , .. .... ,
, ,
;eak ;er-;tz-p~
alteredzone ~ .~
, \
,
,
tringer py-(Cu)zone
strongchl-ser-qtz-py v , ,
footwall
volcanic
'~="=--~
,
... ~=~'~,-"~=i~"- ,-; ""-v

, , ' ,.' '.\

alteredzone
rocks
G. Stacked (e.g. Que River)
B. Asymmetric mound (e.g. Mount Chalmers)
, ' . ' , . . ' .

, H. Cu stockworkldisseminated (e.g. Mount Lyell)

, ,. . ' ,' .. . ' ,' .' ,' , ' . . .'
~

,
, , ,
, " " , ,
, ,
, , , , " "
,
,
, " , ,
, ,
,
l. Au-Ag-Pb-Zn stockworkldisseminated
D. Sheet (e.9. Rosebery, Thalanga) (e.g. Que River PQ lens)
..' ,..'
, , , ,

, ' . ' , ' .

FIGURE 7.13 I Schematicrepresentationof

/ ' the various shapes and alteration zonation
I " pattens associated with VHMS deposits
1" " " "
(modified after Large, 1992).
l'

successions.Recognising their hybrid natures and range in
features we have plotted the Rosebery and Brunswick No.12
deposits on the boundary between VHMS and SEDEX
deposits (Fig. 7.14).
Hydrothermalalterationrelatedto the spectrumof
deposits
Deposits in the VHMS spectrum exhibit a continuum of
alteration zonation patterns that are depicted in Figure 7.15.
1he shapes of the alteration halos, their mineral assemblages
and zonation, change progressively along the spectrum-
Porphyry Cu (-Au) deposits (Fig. 7.15A) exhibit a series
of very extensive roughly concentric altered zones. 1hese
indude potassic zones in the cores (K-feldspar and/or biotite),
enveloped by phyllic zones (quartz + sericite + pyrite), and
finally propylitic zones (carbonate + chlorite + epidote) at the
margins, which merge with the regional diagenetic or meta-
morphic facies.
Hybrid massive sulfide Cu-Au deposits (Fig. 7.15 B) exhibit
similarly shaped, but less extensive, altered hanging wall
zones compared to porphyry Cu deposits. Although they
lack potassic zones, they comprise siliceous and/or chlorite
core zones, which contain Cu-Au ore, and are surrounded
by sericite zones and propylitic halos. Alteration minerals
characteristic of highly acidic alteration (e.g. pyrophyllite,
kaolinite, zunyite, topaz) may occur in the sericite zone in a
similar pattern to porphyry systems-
Classic mound or lens-shaped Cu + Zn :t Pb-rich VHMS
deposits have both massive sulfide and footwall stringer zones
with well-zoned footwall alteration pipes (Fig. 7.15C) and
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEO TO VHMS DEPOSITS I 177

Porphyry(Cu-Au)
( - -
A~/\ '-
KEYALTERATIONMINERALS
kaolinite
serieite
biolite
~:!eld~~~!.

Low
VHMS sulfidation
epithermal
propylitie lone
(carbonate + ehlorite
+ epidote )
500 m

KEYALTERATIONMINERALS
B quartz
ehlorite
serieite
t pyrophyllile

SEDEX

PorphyryCu-Au
(magmaticfluid)

High sulfidation
epithermal(mixed
magmatic-meteoric)

VHMS Lowsulfidation e KEY ALTERATION

quartz
MINERALS
albitelone
(+quartz+ serieite)
Cu-Pb-Zn- epithermal
Ag-Au Au-Ag
ehlorite
serieite
(earbonate)
~
ehlorite + earbonate lone
(heated (heated
meteoric .~ quartz+ albitelone
seawater)
water) (:3 serieitelone
I /'~~ basalt
debris

/\
pyrite+sphalerite+ \ \
galena+ \ \ 1
arsenopyrite
+ \ andesile
ehaleopyrite
ore \ \
\
100m
SEDEX \
Zn-Pb-Ag
(sedimentarybrines)

FIGURE7.14 I Schematicrepresentationof the spectrum01ore depositsin

VHMS-porphyry-epithermal-SEDEX
space.

100m

E KEYALTERATIONMINERALS
subordinate hanging wall altered zones, unlike the previous Fe.Mnearbonates

members of the spectrum where altered rocks dominate the

hanging wall. Mg-bearing altered zones (Mg-chlorite or talc)
are common features of these deposits dependent on the
chemistry and temperature of the fluids.
Sheet style VHMS deposits are Zn-rich, strata parallel
and have extensive stratabound altered zones (Fig. 7.15 O).
Stringer zones are less common, but where present they
are stratabound rather than pipe-shaped. Carbonates are FIGURE7.15 I Variations in alteration halos lorthe spectrum 01 deposits lrom
common alteration minerals, particularly around the margins porphyryCu-Auto SEDEXZn-Pb-Ag.(A) ClassicalporphyryCu-Au deposit (e.g.
of the massive sulfide ore. El Salvador,alter Gustalsonand Hunt, 1975; McMillanand Panteleyev,1998).
(B) Hybrid Cu-Aumassivesulfide deposit(e.g. Mount Morgan, Mount Lyell,or
SEDEX Zn-Pb-Ag deposits are at the distal end of the
Highway-Reward,alter Large et al., 2001c).(C) Classic mound-styleVHMS
massive sulfide spectrum in terms of proximity to volcanic Cu-Zn or Cu-Zn-Pbdeposit(e.g. Hellyer,alter Gemmelland Fulton,2001). (D)
centres, ratio of sedimentary to volcanic host rocks, and Sheet-styleVHMS deposit(e.g. Rosebery,alter Largeet al., 2001b). (E) Classic
temperature of formation (Fig. 7.15E). Alteraríon halo s are SEDEXdeposit (e.g. HYC,alter Large et al., 2000).
178 I CHAPTER
7
commonly stratigraphically controlled and dominated by
carbonate minerals (ferroan-dolomite, ankerite and siderite,
Large et al., 2001c). Chlorite and siliceous zones are rare,
and a sericite zone is usually restricted or entirely absent.
Manganese and TI are common alteration halo indicators in
SEDEX and sheet style VHMS deposits, but are less common
in the mound-style VHMS, hybrid Cu-Au deposits and
porphyry Cu deposits (Large et al., 2001c).
7.4 I COMPARISONS
BETWEEN
ARCHAEAN,PALAEOZOIC
AND
CAINOZOICVHMSALTERATION
SYSTEMS
Australian
Palaeozoic
VHMSalteration
halos
1he altered zones around eastern Australian Palaeozoic
VHMS deposits have diverse morphologies and mineral
assemblages related to variations in their volcanic settings and
modes offormation (Large, 1992; Large et al., 2001c). Well-
defined footwall alteration pipes are relatively uncommon, or
perhaps unrecognised because of subsequent deformation.
In Australian deposits, footwall alteration pipes are mainly
associated with synvolcanic faults (e.g. Mount Morgan, Taube,
1986) and with relatively impermeable footwall rocks (e.g.
Hellyer and Highway-Reward, Gemmell and Large, 1992;
Large, 1992; Doyle, 2001). Laterally extensive stratabound
altered footwall zones are more typical, especially beneath
sheet-like Zn-rich polymetallic deposits, such as Rosebery,
Hercules and 1halanga. Stratabound altered footwall zones
are attributed to non-focussed discharge and lateral migration
of hydrothermal Huids in permeable volcanidastic units in
the footwall (e.g. Rosebery, Green et al., 1981).
Quartz + sericite + pyrite assemblages are volumetrically
dominant in all types of alteration halos. 1he proximal
altered footwall zones are typically quartz rich, containing
less than 20% phyllosilicates but greater than 5% pyrite in
disseminations and veins. Much broader footwall feldspar-
destructive altered zones, with mineral assemblages dominated
by sericite or sericite + chlorite, a lower proportion of quartz,
and a few percent of disseminated pyrite, envelop them.
Chlorite-rich assemblages tend to be restricted to small zones
immediately beneath ore lenses (e.g. Rosebery and 1halanga,
Green et al., 1981; Paulick et al., 2001), and in several cases
are associated with carbonate (e.g. Hellyer, 1halanga and
Woodlawn, Davis, 1990; Herrmann and Hill, 2001) . Where
there are footwall alteration pipes, chlorite exists in the medial
zones, usually between a quartz-rich core and a surrounding
sericite zone (e.g. Hellyer and Highway-Reward, Gemmell
and Large, 1992; Doyle, 2001). However, the chlorite-rich
footwall alteration pipes that are characteristic of many
Canadian Archaean deposits do not seem to be present in
the Australian Palaeozoic deposits. Several of the Tasmanian
examples are virtually devoid of chlorite, such as Henty,
Boco and Chester (Boda, 1991; Green and Taheri, 1992;
Callaghan, 2001). 1hese are base-metal-poor systems; some
of them contain aluminous minerals such as pyrophyllite and
kaolinite. Recent interpretations suggest they are analogous to
seaHoor acid-sulfate epithermal systems, and possibly involve
significant magmatic Huid in their formation (Large et al.,
2001c).
1he sheet-like Zn-rich deposits do not have extensive
visually recognisable hydrothermally altered hanging wall
zones, although there may be subde hanging wall geochemical
halos (e.g. Rosebery, Large et al., 200lb). However, some
deposits with vertical pipe-like footwall alteration and/or
mineralised zones exhibit altered hanging wall zones that
extend for several tens to hundreds of metres above the
deposito For example, the 200 m thick basalt unit overlying
the Hellyer deposit contains an upward Haring plume of
distinctive green, Cr-bearing muscovite (fuchsite), which is
more or less concentrically endosed by discontinuous chlorite
+ carbonate and quartz + albite and sericite zones (Gemmell
and Fulton, 2001). A stratabound quartz + albite (:1:chlorite)
altered zone up to 100 m thick exists above the pyritic zones at
Henty (Halley and Roberts, 1997). 1he altered hanging wall
zones at Hellyer and Henty contain only traces of pyrite,
which suggests that they formed from Huids of very different
composition to those in the footwall. In contrast, the quartz
+ sericite + pyrite zones extending above the Highway and
Reward massive sulfide bodies are essentially similar to the
footwall stringer zones. 1his supports the interpretation that
these deposits formed entirely below the seafloor (Doyle and
Huston, 1999).
Carbonate alteration facies are common features of the
Australian Palaeozoic polymetallic deposits. 1hey are typically
thin stratabound zones that endose, lie immediately above,
or are laterally equivalent to, the sulfide lenses (e.g. Rosebery,
Henty and 1halanga, respectively). Except at Henty, the
hydrothermal carbonates are generally not calcic; they have
various Ca-Mg-Fe-Mn compositions, which in some cases
vary systematically towards ore (e.g. Rosebery, Large et al.,
2001b).
zeolite zone (+ montmon!tonite:!: calcite)
/ /' ~;;cite zone(+inter-Jayered
'-.."
ílJíte/smectite
+ chloríte+albite+ K- "
feldspar) ""
\
/
\:
'""
, '-"', ~
/
/~
-~\ ( chJoritezone
quartz+ sericitezone (sericite + Mg chJorite+
montmoriJlonite)
FIGURE7.16 I Idealisedcross-sectionofthe four alteredzonesaround Kuroko-
type massivesulfidedeposits,Japan (modifiedfrom Franklinet al., 1981).

Japanese
Cainozoic
VHMSalteration
halos
lhe Miocene deposits of the Hokuroku district in northern
]apan generally have similar hydrothermal alteration facies to
the Australian deposits, although the transitions to diagenetic
facies in the host succession is dearer because they are not
deformed or metamorphosed. lhe idealised Kuroko deposit
model has four altered zones surrounding the sulfide deposit
(e.g. Fig. 7.16: Franklin et al., 1981). lhese indude an inner
quartz + sericite zone immediately beneath the sulfide deposito
lhe inner quartz + sericite altered zone typically endoses a
quartz + pyrite stockwork zone (Keiko ore) that underlies
the massive sulfide ore (Oko and Kuroko ores) (Ohmoto
and Skinner, 1983) and is analogous to pyritic stringer zones
beneath some Australian deposits. lhe inner quartz + sericite
zone is laterally surrounded by a sericite + Mg-chlorite +
monrmorillonite zone that extends in a thin layer over the
top of the deposit. Ir is succeeded outWard by mixed-layer
day alteration facies (mineral assemblages of sericite + inrer-
layered illite/smectite + chlorite + albite + K-feldspar), which
may extend for up to several kilometres laterally and 200 m
inro the hanging wall. lhe oUtermost zeolite zone typically
conrains relict plagiodase in mineral assemblages progressing
from analcime + monrmorillonite + quartz :t calcite, through
mordenite + montmorillonite + quartz :t inrer-layered
illite/smectite, to the background diagenetic dinoptilolite +
mordenite alteration assemblage.
lhere is some deposit-specific variation within that
idealised Kuroko alteration zonation pattern. For example, at
the Fukuzawa deposits the sericite + Mg-chlorite zone in the
hanging wall conrains relict plagiodase, and analcime seems
to exist in more distal parts of the zeolite zone than mordenite
(Date et al., 1983). Alteration mineral assemblages in the
altered footWall zones around the Uwamuki deposits broadly
conform to the idealised zonation bUt indude peripheral
zones of kaolinite in (presumably disequilibrium) mineral
assemblages of sericite + chlorite + quartz + albite + pyrite
(Urabe et al., 1983). lhese authors noted that kaolinite is
not otherwise common around Kuroko deposits and, where
presenr, usually occurs in the core zones with pyrophyllite
:t diaspore. Subsequenr work around the Uwamuki deposit
by Shikazono et al. (1998) indicated that the kaolinite
zones are greater than 200 m from ore and extend inro the
hanging wall and therefore may not have been direcdy related
ore deposition. Marumo (1989) also found kaolin minerals
in the hanging wall of the small Inarizawa sulfide deposits
and conduded that they formed during a low-temperature
waning phase of the ore-related hydrothermal system. lhe
existence of kaolinite :t pyrophyllite :t diaspore assemblages,
characteristic of low pH, acid-sulfate systems, suggests that
the Hokuroku district also conrains a spectrum of volcanic-
hosted deposits similar to those recendy recognised in the
early Palaeozoic belts of Tasmania and north Queensland
(Large et al., 2001c).
Carbonate-bearing assemblages have not been widely
described in the Hokuroku district. Nevertheless, Shikazono
et al. (1998) reported that magnesite, siderite, dolomite and
calcite were common and characteristic in the ore horizon
and hanging wall rocks. Based on isotopic and Huid indusion
data from Uwamuki they conduded that carbonates
precipitated in a post-ore hydrothermal stage by inreraction
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 179
of hydrothermal Huids with biogenic marine carbonates. lhe
erratic distribUtion and the post-ore formation of carbonates,
and indications of complex overprinring of differenr systems
(VHMS and acid-sulfate) leaves some doubt aboUt the
genetic relationships betWeen the massive sulfide deposits and
carbonate assemblages.
Canadian andAustralian
Archaean
VHMS
alteration
halos
lhere are tWo major dasses of altered zones associated with
Canadian Precambrian massive sulfide deposits: (1) well-
defined narrow footWall alteration pipes, and (2) broad
irregular altered footWall zones that are transitional to deep
semi-conformable alteration facies, with or withoUt localised
pipes (Morton and Franklin, 1987; Kerr and Gibson, 1993;
Gibson et al., 1999). lhe former are commonly associated
with small «5 Mt) Cu-Zn deposits and are inrerpreted to have
formed in deep water in dominandy coherenr mafic volcanic
rocks. lhe latter generally exist beneath larger deposits of
variable metal associations formed in relatively shallow water
(~500 m) and in dominandy felsic volcanidastic rocks.
Pipe-like altered footWall zones are epitomised by the Cu-
Zn deposits of the Noranda district in the Abitibi belr. lhese
characteristically have upward Haring footWall alteration pipes
that are roughly circular in plan view, generally with slighdy
smaller diameter bUt greater vertical extenr than the overlying
massive sulfide lenses. lhey are commonly recognisable for
up to 1 km below the deposits (Franklin et al., 1981). lhe
upper part of the footWall alteration pipe (Fig. 7.17) endoses
a stringer zone or stockwork of pyrite :t chalcopyrite :t
pyrrhotite veins in a core dominated by Fe-chlorite passing
laterally and upward through Mg-chlorite to an oUter zone
dominated by sericite :t cWorite :t quartz (Lydon, 1984; Kerr
and Gibson, 1993). Lydon (1996) noted the existence of talc-
bearing or aluminous assemblages in the upper parts of some
footWall alteration pipes.
Depletions of Si, Na, Ca and K and additions of Mg and
Fe generally characterise the alteration of the chloritic core,
\~
\ ¡
\ 01
\ /
Mg-chlorite
J zone
.1
I
~ sericitezone
( (::!:chlorite ::!:quartz)
I
sulfidestockwork
(pyrite + chalcopyrite
::!:pyrrhotite)
Fe-chloritezone
FIGURE7.17 I Idealisedcross-section01a typical zoned lootwall alteration
pipe beneathNoranda-typemassivesulfide deposits,Abitibi belt, Canada
(modifiedfrom Lydon, 1984;Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
180 I 7
CHAPTER
whereas small additions of K and possibly Si occur in the
sericitic shell (Barrett and MacLean, 1994b). 1his generally
results in significant net loss of mass, due to Si loss, from
the overall alteration pipe (Barrett and MacLean, 1991). In
a few unusual cases there may be net mass gains (e.g. Norbec
deposit: Barrett and MacLean, 1999). Footwall alteration
pipes of this type may represent zones of hydrothermal
discharge that were focussed by synvoleanic faults. 1heir
vertical extent suggests that the hydrothermal Buid sources
were very deep. Overprinting relationships indicate that the
footwall alteration pipes were initially zones of sericite :t
quartz altered rock. As the hydrothermal system intensified,
sericite was replaced by chlorite concurrent with metal zone
refining in the sulfide lenses (Kerr and Gibson, 1993).
Non pipe-like, broad altered footwall zones have more
variable morphologies and mineral assemblages as exemplified
by the differences in the Horne and Mattabi deposits. 1he
Horne deposit has a poorly defined altered footwall zone of
quartz + sericite :t chlorite that is many times wider than the
massive sulfide bodies (MacLean and Hoy, 1991; Kerr and
Gibson, 1993). Caleulations by MacLean and Hoy (1991)
indicate that the Horne footwall alteration was accompanied
by significant net mass gains; mainly gains of Si, Fe and
K, slightly offset by losses of Na, Ca and Mg. Beneath the
Mattabi deposit are siderite + chloritoid :t andalusite, kyanite
and pyrophyllite zones, which narrow with depth and are
transitional downward and laterally into an extensive semi-
conformable ankerite + chlorite + sericite + quartz zone
(Franklin et al., 1975; Morton and Franklin, 1987). Gibson
et al. (1999) suggested that the aluminous assemblages at
Mattabi (and several other deposits that are notably Au rich)
were analogous to the advanced argillic assemblages formed
by low pH Buids in acid-sulfate epithermal systems.
1he Archaean massive sulfide deposits of the Panorama
district in the Pilbara ofWestern Australia occur near the top
of a 2 km thick basaltic to rhyolitic voleanic succession above
a large synvoleanic granite pluton (Brauhart et al., 2001).
Large, semi-conformable altered zones of feldspar-destructive
sericite + quartz and chlorite + quartz alteration assemblages
occupy the lower and middle parts of the voleanic succession
and extend almost the entire exposed strike length (20 km).
Locally transgressive chlorite + quartz altered zones, bounded
by synvoleanic faults, extend upwards from the semi-
conformable altered zones to beneath the massive sulfide
prospects. Mass changes in the feldspar-destructive altered
zones were modest: small gains of Si and losses Ca, Na, Fe
and K in the lower sericite + quartz zones, and small gains of
Mg, Fe, Si and losses ofK, Na, Ca in the transgressive chlorite
+ quartz zones.
In the Golden Grove district of the Archaean Yilgarn
craton, Western Australia, the voleanic succession that hosts
the Scuddles and Gossan Hill massive sulfide deposits also
exhibi ts the effects of regional-scale, intense feldspar-destructive
alteration. 1he entire footwall succession of altered andesitic
to rhyolitic voleanidastic units, although preserving primary
voleanic textures, is composed essentially of quartz + chlorite
(:t minor sericite). 1he alteration process, interpreted as a
syn-depositional or early hydrothermal regional metasomatic
event, virtually removed all Ca, Na and K from the rocks
and added substantial Si, Fe and Mg (Sharpe and Gemmell,
2001). At Gossan Hill the regional quartz + chlorite alteration
facies is overprinted by two alteration facies related to sulfide
mineralisation. A narrow stratabound chlorite (:t siderite,
ankerite tale and andalusite) zone envelops the lower Cu-rich
massive magnetite + sulfide ore lens. An intense quartz zone
underlies the upper Zn-rich massive sulfide lens and endoses
a discordant zone of sulfide stringer veins that connects the
upper and lower lenses (Sharpe and Gemmell, 2001).
1here is considerable diversity among alteration facies
aroundArchaean massive sulfide deposits. Features that appear
to be common to most Archaean districts are large semi-
conformable altered zones and localised discordant altered
footwall zones. Brauhart et al. (2001) highlighted some of the
differences in mineral assemblages and mass changes between
Panorama and the Canadian semi-conformable altered zones.
However, the well-defined discordant footwall alteration
pipes are typically chlorite rich (if not metamorphosed to
higher grades) and characterised by significant net mass loss,
which is attributable to major Si loss and only partly offset by
Mg and Fe gains.
Comparisons
Despi te the manyvariations in mineral assemblage, morphology
and extent of alteration facies associated with VHMS deposits,
both within districts and across geologic time, there is one
feature that is common to all: proximal altered footwall zones
do not contain feldspar. Feldspar destruction is usually manifest
in the presence of sericite, chlorite or smectite days, or their
higher grade metamorphic equivalents. One or more of these
Al-bearing phyllosilicates is almost invariably present because,
although VHMS-type hydrothermal Buids readily transport
silica, alkalis and other cations, Al is generally immobile in
these moderately acidic systems. One suspects that pyrite is an
equally ubiquitous component of proximal altered footwall
zones but it is frequently not mentioned in alteration mineral
assemblages, due to the unnatural distinctions that many
authors make between alteration and mineralisation. It is also
becoming increasingly apparent that alumino-silicates such
as kaolinite, pyrophyllite, andalusite and others exist locally
in altered zones across the entire age spectrum of VHMS
deposits, from Archaean to Cainozoic, and that there may
always have been continua between moderate and low pH
submarine hydrothermal systems. Because of the consistent
feldspar destruction, alteration indices such as Al (Ishikawa
et al., 1976), CCPI and S/Na20 (Large et al., 2001a) should
be effective indicators of alteration intensity in all kinds of
VHMS districts, at least at prospect scales.
Footwall alteration facies of the Australian Palaeozoic and
]apanese Cainozoic deposits are typically more sericitic than
chloritic, and their proximal zones tend to be quartz rich.
1he limited mass change data available indicate they have
typically undergone moderate to large net mass gains, which
are dominantly attributable to gains in Si that significantly
outweighed losses and gains in other components. 1his
predominance of sericite is probably not due to low availability
of Fe and Mg. !ron may be significantly added as pyrite and
Mg commonly appears in carbonates or chlorite in upper or
upper-peripheral altered footwall zones.
In contrast, chlorite dominates the well-defined footwall
alteration pipes that underlie many Canadian Archaean
 LOCAL HYOROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 181

deposits. lhese zones are characterised by significant net mass

loss, in which the large loss of Si outweighed addirion of Mg
7.5 I HELLYER:
A MASSIVE
ELONGATE
POLYMETALLlC
LENS
and Fe. Although there are some exceptions (e.g. Panorama),
major Si and net mass losses are indicated wherever chlorite lhe Hellyer deposit is located in the northern part of the
is dominant In an alteration mineral assemblage. lhis Cambrian Mount Read province, western Tasmania (Fig.
generalisation also applies to Australian Palaeozoic systems; 1.5). lhe pre-mining resource was 16.2 Mt of 13.9% Zn,
for instance the small chlorite-rich zones in the Hellyer 7.1 % Pb, 0.4% Cu, 168 glrAg and 2.5 glrAu (Gemmell and
alteration pipe (Gemmell and Large, 1992) and lhalanga Large, 1992; McArthur, 1996). lhe deposir is a single elongate
footwall (Herrmann and Hill, 2001). lens of massive sulfide about 800 m in length (north-south)
In terms of mass change, the major difference between by 200 m in width (east-west) and with an average vertical
Archaean deposits with chloritic footwall alteration pipes, thickness of 45 m (Fig. 7.18). Ir occurs in the mainly calc-
and Palaeozoic to Cainozoic deposits wirh quartz + sericite- alkaline, intermediate to mafic Que-Hellyer Volcanics at
dominated altered footwall zones, is that the former lost mass the base of the Mount Charter Group, which is equivalent
and the latter gained mass. In addition, in all cases, the major to the western volcano-sedimentary sequences (Corbett and
contributor to net mass change was Si.
lhis difference in the behaviour of Si is probably related
to the evolution of the hydrothermal systems and particularly 5600E
the compositions of hydrothermal fluids, which originated
as seawater in both cases. Evidence of chlorite overprinting
sericite :t quartz assemblages in the Canadian footwall
11000N
alteration pipes suggests that fluid compositions changed as
the hydrothermal system intensified. lhe initial fluid was
probably over-saturated in Si and deposited quartz along
the discharge zone to the seafloor as it cooled, whereas the
later fluid, possibly ofhigher temperature and associated with
Cu enrichment of the sulfide deposit, was undersaturated
and leached Si from the core of the discharge zone. lhis /(
/ .-1
change may be explained in terms of the regional deep semi- / 1
conformable altered zones associated with Archaean deposits. I 1
lhe lower semi-conformable altered zone is typically a zone Easternore
/ I block
of silicification at temperatures greater than about 400°C / I
(Kennedy, 1950; MacGeehan, 1978; Fournier, 1985; Galley, I I
1993; Skirrow and Franklin, 1994), attributed to down-going Western
ore)
block /
modified seawater being heated up to the range of retrograde / /, .
Si solubility at 400-600°C (Fournier, 1985). If fluid deposited B / 1,
Si in the deep semi-conformable altered zone, ir would then / /
be undersaturated in Si as it ascended the discharge zone, / I J

even if it cooled as it ascended. ) I

lhe link between Archaean deposits and regional semi- I /
conformable altered zones, which are generally not recognised \ /
in the younger VHMS districts, suggests that Archaean \ \
crustal conditions (thin crust and large high-Ievel plutonic \ \
intrusions) favoured large, intense and presumably long-lived \ \)
systems. Palaeozoic and younger VHMS districts are not
\
I
typically associated with large high-Ievel plutons analogous
/
to the Flavrian pluton of the Noranda district (Kerr and
/
Gibson, 1993) or the Strelley granite at Panorama (Brauhart
/ D Sericite+ quartzzone
et a\., 2001). lheir absence may account for the less extensive,
\ ~ .] Sericitezone
perhaps less evolved, altered footwall zones associated with \ Chloritezone
Si and net mass gains that are most common beneath the \
Palaeozoic and younger massive sulfide deposits. \ NI Quartzzone
10400N
-/
/
\
\
\

FIGURE7.18 I Hellyer planshowingthe alteredzones immediatelybelowthe

massivesullide ore (approximately400 RL).The blackline is the outline01the
base01the massivesulfide. Modiliedalter Gemmelland Large(1992).
182 I CHAPTER
7
Komyshan, 1989). 1he massive sulfide lens is bisected and
offset by a major north-south trending fault, the Jack fault
(Figs 7.18 and 7.19). Beneath the massive sulfide lens is
an elongate, carrot-shaped, zoned, footWall alteration pipe
(described in detail by Gemmell and Large, 1992). Above the
deposit is a moderately well developed altered hanging wall
zone (Gemmell and Fulton, 2001).
1he massive sulfide lens exhibits classical metal zoning,
with minor Cu concentrated in a pyritic core, followed by
low grade Zn + Pb, and then high grade Zn + Pb + Ag in
the upper parts of the massive sulfide lens (McArthur and
Dronseika, 1990; Large, 1992; McArthur, 1996). The centre
of the massive sulfide deposit is capped by a quartz + pyrite
zone, which is flanked by thin irregular lenses of barite that
¡j
¡j
¡j
are direcdy over the high-grade massive sulfide (Sharpe,
1991). Barite and massive sulfide clasts occur in volcaniclastic
mass-flow units flanking the deposit.
Geologicalsetting
1he Hellyer ore body occurs above a footWall comprising
feldspar-phyric andesitic and basaltic lavas and sills that
consist of coherent and autoclastic facies, which are mainly
hyaloclastite and peperite (Fig. 7.20: Waters and Wallace,
1992). Basalt (Hellyer basalt) and black mudstone (Que
River Shale) dominate the hanging wall (Komyshan, 1986).
The abundance of basalt-mudstone peperite indicates that
most of the basalt units are sills that intruded the black
mudstone (McPhie and Allen, 1992; Waters and Wallace,
1992). Very thick, graded quartz-bearing rhyolitic pumiceous
and volcanic lithic breccias interbedded with turbidites and
mudstones of the Southwell Subgroup occur in the upper
parts of the hanging wall (Corbett, 1992; McPhie and Allen,
1992). The ore lens position is marked by a 0--40 m thick
volcaniclastic unit, which mainly consists of coarse polymictic
volcanic breccia, sandstone and laminated volcanic siltstone
(Waters and Wallace, 1992).
Trilobites in the Que River Shale, very thick sections of
black mudstone and the abundance of graded mass-flow units
collectively indicate that the Hellyer massive sulfide formed in
a moderate to deep (>1000 m) submarine setting (Large et al.,
2001a). The volcanic facies association indicates proximity to
intrabasinal vents for efFusive,basaltic and andesitic eruptions
and synvolcanic intrusions.

Alteration facies and zonation

30 m

Gemmell and Large (1992), and Gemmell and Fulton

(2001) provided detailed description ofboth the footWall and
B
Basalt Silicacap Baritecap hanging wall alteration facies, and zonation at Hellyer. The
following section summarises their work.

'1
'/

"
/ Footwall alteration facies and zonation
/
/ ¡j
"- 1
"- I J
"- A zoned carrot-shaped footWall alteration pipe extends for
"- I I
¡j
"- I I I at least 500 m beneath the Hellyer deposit (Figs 7.6C and
"- I I I ¡j
\
I I I 7.20). At the centre of the alteration pipe, immediately below
¡j \ / I /
\ ¡j the massive sulfide lens, is a siliceous core zone dominated by
\ / I I
\ / I I intense, pervasive quartz + sericite + pyrite alteration facies.
¡j
/ I I This zone is progressively enclosed in chlorite, sericite and
rn Andesite
Chloritezone stringer envelope (or sericite + quartz) altered zones (Fig.

.
f:~-;'1Polymictic volcanic breccia Sericitezone 7.6C).
Fuchsitezone Quartz(siliceouszone) The moderate, selective sericite + quartz alteration facies
(e.g. data sheet HE2 in the stringer envelope zone) is the
&\u Chlorite+ carbonatezone D
..
Sericite+ quartz
(stringerenvelopezone)
10-50 m wide outermost part of the alteration pipe and
(~I Albitezone Chlorite+ dolomitezone
grades outWard into weak, selective-pervasive albite + chlorite
alteration facies (least-altered footWall, data sheet HE1).
FIGURE7.19 I Crass-section oftheHellyerdepositshowingthedistribution Primary volcanic textures are preserved (although modified),
of rack types, mineralisedzones, and alteredfootwall and hangingwall zones,
lithic fragments exhibit sericite-altered margins, and feldspar
(A) The ore lens and alteredzones are offsetalongthe Jack fault (modifiedafter
Gemmelland Large, 1993),(B) Reconstructed10740 N/10870N cross-section phenocrysts are pardy altered to sericite. The Al shows an
showing the massivesulfide and footwall alterationpipeprior to folding and increase from background values of around 30-55 to values
faulting (modifiedafter Downs,1993). of 60-70 (Fig. 2.8B).
 =

LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 183
RELATED
SoulhwellSubgroup:cryslal-nch
volcaniclaslic
shale,greywackeandminor
lelsiclava

QueRiverShale:blackshaleandminor
sandslone

Hellyerbasal!:massivelo pillowedbasall,
pillowbreccia,hyaloclastite
andandesitic
lava

Mixedsequence:polymict
volcanicbreccia,
massiveandauto-breccialed
daciteand
massivesulfideore

v v v v v v
I
Lower andesiles and basalis: andesilic,
dacilic and basallic lavas, hyaloclasliles
v v v v v v v I and minor volcani-claslic lacies

~ ~ ~ , ~v ~"'~~ . . ~v
v ~v v v v v v v v v v v
FIGURE 7.20 I Schematic
, v , v
v ~ stratigraphicsectionthrough the
v v v v ~"
4 "
v v v v v " Que-HellyerVolcanicsshowingthe
, " " "

" " " , , , , ,

" """~
" " " " " ,
T~ I
""
,
Lowerbasal!:massivelo pillowedbasalls,
hyaloclaslilesandpillowbreccias
extent 01alteredzones at the Hellyer
and Que River deposits, Modified
alter Waters and Wallace(1992).

Sericite :t chlorite dominates the strong, selective-
pervasive alteration facies in a 10-15 m wide zone marking
the outer extent of an intense hydrothermal alteration system,
recognised by obliteration of volcanic textures, presence of
minor sulfides (mainly pyrite) and complete replacement of
feldspar phenocrysts and feldspathic groundmass by sericite :t
chlorite (e.g. data sheet HE3). 1he Al is typically between 70
and 85. On the Alteration box plot samples from this facies
plot along a line from the least-altered footwall field toward
the chlorite comer.
In the intense, pervasive chlorite alteration facies, all
primary minerals and glass in the footwall andesitic rocks
are completely replaced by fine-grained chlorite with minor
pyrite, sericite, quartz and carbonate (e.g. data sheet HE4).
1he Al is between 90 and 100 and the CCPI between 80 and
90. In the upper parts, immediately below the massive sulfide,
this zone indudes an intense, spheroidal chlorite + carbonate
alteration facies (Fig. 7.6C), which has up to 50% dolomite
in a fine-grained matrix ofchlorite (e.g. data sheet HE5).
1his alteration facies has a lower Al (50-80) than the intense
chlorite alteration facies due to the elevated whole-rock CaO
related to the dolomite component in the rock.
In the siliceous core zone, all volcanic textures are
completely destroyed and the rock is composed of afine
intergrowth of quartz + sericite + pyrite + chlorite (intense,
pervasive quartz + sericite + pyrite alteration facies, data sheet
HE6). 1his zone also contains a series of sub-vertical pyrite +
quartz + sphalerite + galena:t chalcopyrite :t carbonate :t barite
veins, interpreted as hydrothermal feeders below the ore body.
Alteration indices in the siliceous core zone are extremely high
with values ofbom Al and CCPI exceeding 90.
Hanging wall alteration facies and zonation
Hanging wall alteration facies at Hellyer are less well
developed than the footwall alteration facies; however,
recent detailed studies by Gemmell and Fulton (2001)have
recognised an upward flaring zoned alteration system that is
centred above the thickest part of the massive sulfide lens. 1he
altered hanging wall zone extends through the hanging wall
pillow basalts up to the contact with the overlying Que River
Shale (Fig. 7.19). Data sheet HE7 is an example of the least-
altered hanging wall andesite. 1he distribution and intensity
of alteration facies in the altered hanging wall zone is patchy,
with pillow margins more intensely and pervasively altered
(e.g. data sheet HE9) than the pillow interiors. 1he outer
margin of the altered hanging wall zone is defined by weak
sericite alteration facies grading inwards to a pink-white,
strong, pervasive albite alteration facies (e.g. data sheet HE8),
moderate, pervasive chlorite + carbonate alteration facies (e.g.
data sheet HE9), and in the centre of the system, a distinctive
green, strong, pervasive fuchsite alteration facies (e.g. data
sheet HE10). 1here is no systematic trend in the alteration
in dices in the altered hanging wall zones. Al and CCPI values
are commonly low in the albite alteration facies due to high
NazO, and low MgO and FeO values (e.g. data sheet HE9).
Oregenesis
Based on geological, textural, and metal zonation studies,
McArthur (1989, 1996), Large (1992) and Gemmell and
Large (1992) conduded that the Hellyer massive sulfide
deposit grew as a mound in a seafloor depression. 1he metal
zonation from Fe ---<>Cu ---<>Pb-Zn ---<>Ba was interpreted to
be an expression ofhydrothermal zone refining (Large, 1992),
which developed similarly to that described by Eldridge et
al. (1983) for the Kuroko deposits. Solomon and Khin Zaw
(1999), however, presented fluid indusion data (indicating
high ore fluid salinities: averaging 11 wt%) to propose that
sulfide deposition occurred in a seafloor depression brine-
pool, directly above the footwall alteration pipe. Solomon
and Gaspar (2001) provide textural evidence in support of
sulfide accumulation in a brine pool. Solomon and Groves
(1994) and Solomon et al. (2004) suggest mat the abnormally
high salinity, and other chemical characteristics of the Hellyer
fluid indusions, are strongly suggestive of involvement of
magmatic fluids in the hydrothermal system.
 ...-

184 I CHAPTER
7

Weak,selective-pervasive
albite+ chloritealteration
facies HE1
Least-alteredfootwall

Sampleno. Hfw-LAA(FPS-1) - QueRivershale

Alterationfacies weak,selective-pervasive
albite+ chlorite = =~ Hellyer
basalt

.
.
Location footwall
=- -
-
:::¡;;::;J Hanging wall voleani.
clastiesequenee

Formation
v. v c:J Footwallandesites
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics ---- -: v Massivesulfideore
Succession MountReadVolcanics v 1lllIiIJJ!IL--'--- v v v
v
' ' '
v v v v v

Volcanicfacies monomictic
maficbreccia
v
~v
v
v
v
o
v
v
v 'v
v
v VI /:1,
v "f;".""
,,,,

v
v
v
v
v
v v

'v/vvvv

Relictmineralogy feldspar , , ,
,
Relicttexture feldsparphenocrysts,perliticfracturesand "~I
" ,',' " , , 'i
curvi-angular cm-scaleclasts,areasof , ,
" ,
jigsaw-fitclasts , ,
, ,
Primarycompositionandesite
Lithofacies

Interpretation
massive,matrixsupported
sorted
andesitichyaloclastite
andpoorly

Alterationminerals albite+ chlorite+ sericite+ calcite

..
O

O
Albite(~ehlonte
~ caleite)
zone
Hangingwall sencitezone

Hanging
wallalbite!quartz
zone

Chlonte+ carbonatezone
,\ ,
" O
-
O
Hangingwall luehsitezone

Footwallseneite+ quartzzone
Footwallseneitezone

Footwallehlontezone

Silieeouscorezone(quartz+seneite+pyIite)
'
,

Alterationtextures selective-pervasive chlorite+ calcite+

sericitein matrixandchlorite+ sericitein
clasts,chloriteinfillin perliticfractures,
Geochemistry
sericite+ calcite-altered plagioclase
Si02 54.69 K20 1.55 Rb 68 Zr 125
Distribution regional
Ti02 0.64 P20S 0.12 Sr 299 Nb 7.0
Preservation good
AI203 17.92 S 1.92 Ba 500 Y 19
Alterationintensity weak Fe203 7.65 CO2 Cu O
Timing synvolcanic? MnO 0.09 Total 97.96 Pb O Al 36
Alterationstyle diagenetic MgO 3.79 LOI 3.96 Zn O CCPI 57
CaO 3.14 Sb Ti/Zr 30.9
Na20 6.45 TI

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

pyrite,magneme
&sideOte-
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) TiOrZr immobileelementplot oaloite ankerite dolomite j,emolite ohlorite
100 ""'"

, , ~ 90 U_(u:u--l---L---~---;---1-~_~_h~~-
:¡:: 80 ---:_h
w'
-:---¡---;---
, , ,
0,8 I Andeslte-basalt' Hfw-LAj4 'E
---mu_,uu--- >- 70 _h,h- ,
(L .
_J Ch_'_h

-- - -- - ~- - - - - - - - ui-- --t-. ~ --- --~- <b60 h_:h_"h--'h>,,_'_-"-""-_h--_U_'_u

]g ~*Hfu7-liA
0.6tu- ,. .¡ / .
. tu/uLl)acit~_~muu~,
.8
~
50

40
--_'h_."--'---'
_u;--- : Dac'!e: : t
.--~---;
' , .
.;-
.'-'-J
--,
'_h'---
C---'-h

I
11300 1600
I
1900 ~::!m[;~m1mm1~:m
j
<3
~ 20
8 10
30

---:---

---l
alo"e
:
um
---i--- --L-L-L-L
:
!h-+_+---:
: ::
Rh'yolite:
--U:---:_h_~---'-
: -L-~---L--1Phengite
: : :
!--+--!---+--
::::
-: :---,---

1~.1~~~~:;;
,
50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 185
RELATED

Moderate,selectivesericite+ quartzalterationfacies HE2

Footwall
Sampleno. Hfw-SEZ -- -- -- ---~,--~, -- -- u- -- -- -- -- _u '--~'---~'--~'--- -- -- -- --- TIOue Rivershale

== == == ====== == == == == == == == ====== =~ == ====:: ~ Hellyerbasalt

Alterationfacies moderate,selectivesericite+ quartz
Location
Formation
Succession
footwall
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics
MountReadVolcanics
v
v

v 1I!I!!!iJ!JJ:..-v~.

v
~v
v
v
v

v
v.
----
v
il--"v
v

v
V
v

v
- -

v
- [] Footwallandesites
~

V
v .
= = = :: i::J ~~~~~n~e~~~~~~cani-

V
V
Massivesulfideore
v

V
V
V

V
V
V

V
V
V

V
Volcanicfacies polymictic
maficbreccia v v v v 'v V V V V V

Relictminerals feldspar , , , -,
, ,
Relicttextures porphyriticandperliticc1asts,
areasof , , '1~0,n; : ,1
jigsaw-fitc1asts,
c1asts withcurviplanar
margins ,
,
Primarycompositionandesite-basalt ,
,
,
'1

.
Lithofacies , ,\ , Hangingwall fuchsitelone "
massive,c1astsupported, poorlysorted
D Albite(ichlorite . calcile) lone " O Footwallsericite+ quartz lone ' ,
Interpretation resedimented polymictichyaloc1astite

.
Hangingwall sericitelone Footwallsericitelone

Alterationminerals sericite+ chlorite+ quartz+ albite+ calcite D Hangingwallalbite quartzlone . FootwallchloritelOne

+ pyrite Chlorite+ carbonatelone Siliceous core lone (quartz + sericite + pyrite)

Alterationtextures selectivedomainal, calciteveininfill,

disseminated pyrite,albite+ sericite+
calcite-altered
feldspars
Geochemistry
Distribution alterationzonearoundpipe 3.34 Rb 127 Zr 123
Si02 57.38 K20
Preservation moderate Ti02 0.58 P205 0.13 Sr 97 Nb 7.0
Alterationintensity moderate AI203 15.33 S 4.15 Ba 6700 Y 26
synmineralisation Fe203 7.76 CO2 Cu 300
Timing
MnO 0.10 Total 96.27 Pb 2700 Al 63
Alterationstyle peripheral
hydrothermal
MgO 3.51 LOI 7.89 Zn 4500 CCPI 69
CaO 2.71 Sb Ti/Zr 28.3
Na20 1.29 TI

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

--- py,it"
mag",tit,
&,id"it,
-
caloit, aok"i" dolomi" t"molit, ohlmit,
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100 , , , , , , , , ,

0,8 x 90 m;m_:_m~;_~m\m+~+"~.
<1> , And"it,-bmlt"" " -.

! :: :::;:.~"~,,,,~,,:;
Andesite.basalt
, 8 : -~
:-
H-fw~ S E Z
C
0,6 - -HfW.-SEZ. ---:----,. -';" -- o. '
m : : 8 $ 60 m~m ""c,,-;- -c---:- _~""Cm:"-
¡g :
-2 50 -":"-,-""" ., , , )
>,,,,.,,_>_L_",, _L--
~04
. +n".cn . y 40 m¡m
1 : D',cit':: r "'" " ,"-
O
F

I I I
2200
0.2 Cmlmnm

iRhyolite ¡
~ 30 mL-
<5
~
:
20 "-i-,,
[5 10 m;",,!,,+
[tj]mL.L-L-Lj"L-L"~Ph,"9i"
: Rhyolit': : : : :
_m~m~m_~m;
+---im+-++-+
: : : : : :
++-+"

I
11300 1600 1900 25001 alb,t, , , ~-y;~~~::;
50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zo(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 'O"

186 I CHAPTER
7

Strong,selective-pervasive
sericite+ chloritealterationfacies HE3
Footwall
Sampleno. Hfw-SZ - Que Rivershale

Alterationfacies strong,selective-pervasive
sericite+ = EJ Hellyerbasalt

Location
Formation
Succession
chlorite
footwall
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics
MountReadVolcanics
vMflii1lr

v
~.
v
v
'-v-v
v

v"

v
v.
----

.-,v
v
v

v
v

v
V

v/
-:
_.
. -

v !J.t
v
[3j
c:J

vvvvv

v
v
~~~~~n~e~~~~~eani-
Footwallandesites

Massivesulfideore

v
v
v
v v v ,"v
Volcanicfacies massivepolymictic
breccia
'v/vvvv

Relictminerals rarefeldspar
, "~O,,:' J
Relicttextures deformedfeldsparphenocrysts
and
andesiteclasts
, , , ,\,
Primarycompositiondacite-basalt , " '. \' "
Lithofacies ,' , , ' , ~,
massive,matrixsupported,
poorlysorted ,\ , - Hanging
wallfuehsite
zone

Interpretation resedimented polymictichyaloclastite O Albite(fehlorite t caleite)zone " O Footwallsericite+ quartzzone

.
11 Hangingwall sericitezone Footwallserieitezone
Alterationminerals sericite+ chlorite+ quartz+ pyrite+
ankerite+ (albite)
O Hangingwallalb,e t quartzzone - Footwallehloritezone

Alterationtextures selectivepervasive, ehlorite+ earbonatezone O Siliceouscorezone(quartz+sericite+ pyrite)

vein-halo(pyriteetc.),
disseminated pyrite,andintill(carbonate)
Distribution pipe
Preservation Geochemistry
poor
Si02 54.50 P205 0.10 Gu 500 Al 79
Alterationintensity strong 0.52 S 6.02 Pb 5100 GGPI 77
Ti02
Timing synmineralisation AI203 14.51 G02 Zn 7800 TilZr 33.4
Fe203 10.93 Total 97.92 Sb
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MnO 0.21 LOI 8.11 TI
MgO 5.16 Zr 94
GaO 1.47 Nb 6.0
Rb 117
Na20 0.90 y 18
Sr 121
K20 3.58
Ba 4100

ti
. ~ lI!Ii

Hand speeimenpholograph Pholomierograph(xn)

- py'ite.
magoeme&
';de';'e
-
SlaekedSWIR speelra (huI!quolienl) calcite aokente dolomlte tremoll'e chlarite
Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol 100. , , , , , ,

0.8 x 90 u+m:_m~mjuu~u_Lu+~-~---l!-
Andesi!e-basal!
~
-;;
80
:
m ~m m.~ode',ite-ba',aItHfW-SZ:.i:
: ~ : : , ~ :
h; m

-
0.6 tuu

iI' I
,u_

,*
_uu_+_uJ-.i-uu-

,'.
. U,_U_- -n,mmm-
.~ 70 ---:_h
0.'
*e 60 m~m
rn
,
.8 SO --_;m
:
m_:m:-m:'m;4

m_~-.~_m:---j-
""'"
.u~m;_m~m;-
: Oaci'e: :
-:uu:m!-_-
, ,
_~_m~m!m
,

-~uu~---;---
: : :
~ 04 rmuuu_~uuu__~_Thv-S
c;> 40
.j!¡
u-;'--'
: ::
, u:uu,u-;'u
::
~
O
30 u_~---
:
hu:m~_m:m;-
: Rhyolite::
_+m:m;u-1pheogite
: : :

I I I :Rhyoli!e ~ ~: ::I::-:::::;:::;::::::::;:-T::;:::;:::
11300 1600 1900 2200 25001 alMe : :: ::: I~-j:,~~~::;
50 100 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteratian Index)
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 187
RELATED

Intense,pervasivechloritealterationfacies HE4
Footwall
Sampleno. Hfw-CLZ - - - - - QueRivershale

Alterationfacies -= -= -= -= r:=::J Hellyer basalt

intense,pervasive
chlorite
Location
Formation
Succession
Volcanicfacies
footwall
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics
MountReadVolcanics
~ = == =~

v/..
~

l;J
v,y
. - ~

.. v
v
v
~~~8;n~e~~~~~~eani.

Footwallandesites

Massivesulfideore
v

v
v
v
V
v
v
V
v

v v
coherentfeldspar-phyric
andesite .v/v v v v v v
Relictminerals nil , ,
,
Relicttextures porphyritic,
perliticfractures , ,'1~0n;, J
Primarycompositionandesite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation indeterminate
Hanging
wallfuchsite
zone ',,1
Alterationminerals chlorite+ pyrite+ (quartz+ sericite+
calcite+ galena)
Alterationtextures pervasive,

Distribution pipe
chloriteinfillin perliticfractures,
chlorite+ quartz-altered feldspars
.
D Footwallsencite+ quartzzone
Footwallseneitezone

Footwallehlontezone

Silioeousoorezone(quartz+ 50ncite+ pyJite)

~

Preservation moderate
Alterationintensity intense Geochemistry
SiOz 37.69 KzO 1.82 Rb 79 Zr 140
Timing synmineralisation 0.12 Sr 39 Nb 8.0
TiOz 0.59 PzOs
Alterationstyle hydrothermal Alz03 16.08 S 8.65 Ba 2000 Y 25
FeZ03 18.86 COz Cu 400
MnO 0.41 Total 96.35 Pb 5200 Al 95
MgO 11.38 LOI 12.29 Zn 9300 CCPI 94
CaO 0.64 Sb Ti/Zr 25.2
NazO 0.12 TI

-
Handspecimenpholograph Pholomicrograph(xn)

--- pydte,magneMe&slderite
calelte anke,itedolomite t,emoilte ehlorite
SlackedSWIR speclra (huI!quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol 100

0.8
Andesile-basall
¡ 90 --';'--~-_nf---;nnfn;H0-C~Z
-g 80 n_; --. --. Andesite-basa~' : :
:*
~

L..TTI:::::::

~
0.6 ~ 70 n-j--- ---~ln~
~O 60 nn~-.;nn~---;-
n_;n_:nn_n__nn_n n
' .- .~...; ~---;.
-¡¡¡ 50
O
n_:n_,__.C...,
'
: D~eite:
, , ,:.
,C--_,.L_"nnCn_'n-
~04 f ~--

I
00-i -.- -- ~- 0000 - - --
:Rhyolile :
-: - - 0000 00ni
¡ :::tU_Uh+h,rm:m;m
O : : Rhyol.,: ,-~nn~n-;n-1Pheng.e

11300
I
1600
I
1900 2200 25001
~ ~: :;I::.:::::~:::;::::~:::;:_:J::::t:::¡:::
, : : : : : I~-~~:~::;
50 100 150 200 250 3DO o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 ,...-

188 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,spheroidal
chlorite+ carbonate
alteration
facies HE5
Footwall
135756 --------------
Sampleno. Que Rivershale

Alterationfacies - - - - - - ~ .~.- - --= -= -=-=:: c:::J Hellyer basalt

intense,spheroidal
chlorite+carbonate

.
Location footwall
= = = = = ::. ¡;;::;;j Hanging wall voleani-
"elastie sequenee
v v. v CJFootwallandesites
Formation Que-Hellyer
Volcanics v
-: v Massivesulfideore

~,. "
v v v v v v
Succession MountReadVolcanics . .". "

J;I
" "
v v V'W v v v
,. -v -, v v " .,.

Volcanicfacies coherent,feldspar-phyric
andesite v
v
v
v
v
v
IT-,v
v 'v
V V/ v v v
'v/vvvvv
Relictminerals nil , , , , , ,
, ,
Relicttextures porphyritic , ,
, , >' ',"~O n:' ,1
Primarycomposition andesite ,
, , '1
Lithofacies massive , , , , ,
, , , ,
, '1
interpretation indeterminate , , ,
,\ , - Hangingwall luehsitezone

.
Alterationminerals chlorite+ dolomite+ (quartz+ sericite) O Albite(tehlorilet calcite)
zone O Footwallserieite+ quartzzone

Alterationtextures nodules-spheroids 111Hangingwallseneilezone I!:J Footwall serieite zone

Distribution local O Hanglngwallalbilet quartzzone Footwallehloritezone

l1li Ghlorile+ earbonatezone O Siliceouscorezone(quartz+serieite+ pyrite)

Preservation poor
Alterationintensity intense
Timing synmineralisation Geochemistry
Alterationstyle hydrothermal Si02 34.88 P205 0.13
Cu 300 Al 75
Ti02 0.60 S 4.13
Pb 7200 CCPI 93
AI203 15.63 CO2 Zn 11500 TilZr 29.0
Fe203 12.89 Total 88.72 Sb
MnO 0.80 LOI 15.40 TI
MgO 13.07 Zr 124
CaO 4.86 Rb 66 Nb 9.0
Nap 0.01 Sr 58 y 28
K20 1.73 Ba 1200

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

oy,I",
mag""I'e
&,lde,I'e-

*
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) calclte aoke,I'e dolomita ',emollle chlori'e
Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,' .

90 ---i :uu~---i
' ,'.
~13.q75Q--~---i---
0.8
x" ,
:""'::. Aode,i!e-basaH""
Andesile.basall

D.6 : 1~51~-6.-ti-----
~ :: :::;:::_:::~~u~uu~uT
(L ,
TI::::::
u:---, -: ~
Dacile
~
.8
60
50
u_( ~-.j--u(-j-.-~
u_~uu.uc---~uuC-u~-L
"U_'---
ucu_'u-
~O.4 <;; : : Daci!e: :
:-_uu , c;>40 ---;u_' . u,uue-u,u-
(J
>=
r
:: - 2:
:¡¡ 30 u_;--- _u_~u-:UU"---:-
: : : :
-~uu~u-;---1oheogl'e
0.2 fuuuuu~, '-U-'h '--------- B : Rhyolite: ::::
~ 20 ---,--- ~---:u+u;- +u~---;---
I I ! !Rhyolile 8 10 ---; u u:----~---! u u:--- -! u u[-- u~ --- i---
1600 1900 25001 al"'e : : : : : :: I~-~~~~~:::
50 100 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
le (ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteratian Index)
r\
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 189

Intense,pervasivequartz+ sericite+ pyritealterationfacies HE6

Footwall
Sampleno. Hfw-SCZ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - '~ QueRivershale

Alteration
facies intense,pervasive
quartz+ sericite+ pyrite ===============
- - ---=-==== ¡:] Hellyerbasalt

Location footwall
===== - - - ======= - = '=~= -==:: b:::J . Hangingwallvoleani-
elastiesequenee
v v v v61 v v v c:J Footwallandesites
Formation Que-Hellyer
Volcanics v v ~ - - _v- -: v. v vMasSlvesulfideore
v v v
Succession MountReadVolcanics v ~-v .. v v v v

Volcanic
facies feldspar
-phyricandesitebreccia v
~vv
v v "",V V/ {;3
v
v
vvv
v v v
v v v v 'v 'v / v v v v
Relictminerals nil ,
,
Relicttextures porphyritic,
perliticfractures,
jigsaw-fit , , : ' : : 1~0,n; : ,1
clasts
, '; , ' , , '1
Primarycompositionandesite l '"
, ,
Lithofacies massive
,1 , - Hangingwall fuehsitelone
Interpretation in situ hyaloclastite
O Albite(~ehloritHealeite)
lone " O Footwallserieite+ quartzlone
Alterationminerals quartz + sericite+ pyrite+ (chlorite) 11 Hangingwall sericitelone Footwallserieitelone

Alteration
textures pervasive,pseudomorphsof feldspar O Hangingwallalbite~ quartzlOne - Footwallehloritelone

:!:pyroxene?,quartzand sericiteveins l1li Chlorite+ earbonatelOne O Siliceouscorezone(quartz+ sericile+ pyrile)

disseminatedpyrite,feldsparovergrowths
on phenocrysts
Distribution coreof pipe Geochemistry
Preservation moderate Si02 67.42 Kp 2.17 Sr 15 Nb 4.0
Alterationintensity intense Ti02 0.30 P205 0.05 Ba 14800 Y 28
AI203 8.13 S 8.87 Cu 2200
Timing synmineralisation
FeP3 12.34 CO2 Pb 8000 Al 91
Alteration
style hydrothermal
MnO 0.07 Total 101.12 Zn 9800 CCPI 85
MgO 1.42 LOI 7.74 Sb Ti/Zr 24.7
CaO 0.32 TI
Na20 0.03 Rb 79 Zr 74

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ oy,ite,
magnetite
'sidente
-
calcite anke,ite dolomite "emolite chlo,ite
StackedSWIRspectra(huI!quotient) TiOrZr immobileelementplot 100., "" ,

0.8
Andesite-basalt
-¡j
~
90

80
'E 70 m,m
m;-_nm-l-n;m,l,uL,,~,~L,¡,~,
:'
uTu m.:..
'm~m,'m~u"
~nd.~ite-bas~,t:
: T T'f
,ouu~mtm
HfW-SCZ *
0.6 ___,n ,.,
,__n__n_-"-, , ""'" , , ,
n - - - - - n -f n -
'
~. .:+n -;. -. j~.
--- -
'
nn n

~
e, 60 mim _~m_:m!m
, , ,

~
.8 50 m,m -ouu~m¡m
¿ O4ln n n l.. --- --- nl--- - - ---, L ~~~i~~-L n--- "': : : :
y 40 u-;-n ,'uu'u-;-u
8" I Hfw-SPZ*: j : !

~ 30 .)m u)---:')mj, -~uu~m;u'1ohengite

O : : Rhyolit.: : : : :
o~'mmmL mnn~n:m ~ 20 m,m 'm:m:'m:m:' ,:uu:m!m
I I I :Rhyolite (5 10 m'm':m+u;uu~u-;-u~m'~m¡m
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 albite : ' : : : : : : I~-j~~~~~
50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z, (ppm) Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
190 I CHAPTER
7

Subtle,pervasivealbite+ chlorite+ calcite alterationfacies HE7

Hangingwall
Sampleno. 142562 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- ~ --~ -- -- --- ~ QueRivershale-
-= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -= -== ~
Alterationfacies subtle,pervasive
albite+ chlorite+ calcite
Hel~erbasan

-
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~=
.
Location [:J ~~~~n~e~~~;:can.
hangingwall , . 'JII{"
..L 142562
' ,/' . . . ';, [T"l Footwallandesile,

Formation Que-Hellyer
Volcanics
v ~--v
, .:- ~ -'_v
.. v
- , <:'

v v
, , ,

v
, /
v .:
v
'
vv
L I

vMassive
v sulfide
v orev
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies v
~vv
v v .- '-v v (!).
.
v/ /;!J v
vvvvvv
v v v v
massive,feldspar-phyric
amygdaloidal v v ",v 'v / v v v v v v
andesite , ,,', , ;¡- ,', , , , , , , ,
Relictminerals plagioclase , , '" \ .''~ f' .}, /, " "'100 m' !
, "\, \:~\' ~~ ..;i,/"" "~,!
Relicttextures massive,porphyritic,
weaklyamygdaloidal " '" \ '\',\ '. '¡:-I' t ' , , , , , , , 'i
, , , , , , , , ~'\- ~'. ' '1 ' 1 ' , , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , ,1, \¡ \ ' .; , , , , A A , , , A ,
Primarycompositionandesite
\"'rfl
.

~\ ' ,{./, ~ A A , , , , A , ,

Lithofacies massive
A
A
,
,
, AA AA , A , , ,
A
,
,
,
A
A
A
. ,

, ,\ . A ~;,
, A
,
\A
,1,
\ At A { (1..'. '1 A A ,
' L'
, , ,
,
, A A ,
A , A , , , , ' , ,
\¡,. \ ' l''''

. D
, , j Hanging wall fuchsite zone
I
Interpretation lava , \ "'\\" I~. , ,
O Albite(zehlorite z caleite)
zone l' 1, ',..4' l' O Footwall
,ericite+ quartzzone -
Alterationminerals chlorite+ albite+ calcite+ quartz+ ILJIFootwallsericitezone

.
Hangingwall sericitezone
(chalcopyrite) O HargingwallalbitH quartzzone liIiI Footwallchloritezone
Alterationtextures selective-pervasive,chloriteorquartzinfill Chlorite
+ carbonate
zone O Siiceous
corozone(quartz
+sericite+ pyrite)
inamygdales, quartz+ calciteveins
Distribution regional
Preservation good Geochemistry
51.14 0.42 Rb 21 Zr 151
Alterationintensity weak SiOz KzO
TiOz 0.55 PzOs 0.60 Sr 125 Nb 7.1
Timing synmineralisation
Alz03 14.77 S 0.06 Ba 226 Y 21
Alterationstyle diagenetic
to metamorphic 8.82 COz 4.76 Cu 745
FeZ03
MnO 0.21 Total 99.91 Pb 6 Al 38
MgO 5.56 LOI 8.17 Zn 147 CCPI 75
CaO 5.44 Sb 1.1 Ti/Zr 21.8
NazO 4.19 TI <0.5

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- pyrite.
mag,etüe&
siderite
-
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) caJate aokerite dolom" ttemolOe chlome
Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100 , , , , . , , , ,

0.8 : : : : : ~ :::1:::J:::-::::~::-:;:-:J:~:t:::t
90
Andesite-basalt : : : E 80 : .: *142562 : e :

I I
300 1600 1900 " albile : : : : : : : : I~.~=
50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 60 90 100
Zr (ppm) Al (Ishikawa Meration Index)

~
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 191

Strong,pervasivealbitealterationfacies HE8
Hangingwall
Sampleno. 142622 - Que Rivershale

Alteration
facies - - -= -= -= c=J Hellyer
basalt
strong,pervasive
albite

.
-----
Location - = = ~ ~:: [:;J ~;~N¿n~e~~~~g~cani-
hangingwall
Formation
V. v ~ c:J Footwallandesites
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics -.--- -: v Massivesulfideore
-v
Succession MountReadVolcanics v~ .. v v v
v ,bY v v v v
~v v v
Volcanic
facies feldspar-phyric
basaltbreccia v
v
v
v
v
v
<r- ,v
v 'v
v
14~<<<<
I
V

Relictminerals alteredplagioclase , , '''' , " ,

, , , , , , '"
Relicttextures porphyritic , ,\, , '1~0n;' .1
, " \
Primarycompositionbasalt
Lithofacies massiveandjigsaw-fitbreccia . , , ,\,
,\ '
\ ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,

..
Interpretation lavaor sill , ,' ,' ,' , ,\ ,
,\ , O Hanging
wallfuehsite
zone '
Alteration
minerals albite+ chlorite+ calcite+ (pyrite)
Alteration
textures pervasive, albite+ chlorite,massive
chlorite+ pyriteveins,patchy
calcitedomainspossiblyirregular
pseudomorphs
O
O
Albite(tehlorite
t caleite)
Hangingwall sericitezone
zone

Hangingwallalbitet quartzzone

Chlorite+ earbonatezone
"

.
D
D

O
Footwallserieite+ quartzzone

Footwallserieitezone

Footwallehloritezone

Siliceouscorezone(quartz+ serieite+ pyrite)

-

Distribution local,plume?
Preservation poor Geochemistry
Si02 48.98 K20 0.10 Rb 4 Zr 75
Alteration
intensity strong
Ti02 0.51 0.36 Sr 419 Nb 5.0
Timing postmineralisation P205
AI203 15.39 S 0.53 Ba 255 Y 16
Alteration
style diagenetic-hydrothermal? Fe203 4.95 CO2 7.32 Cu 86
MnO 0.16 Total 99.28 Pb 304 Al 19
MgO 3.76 LOI 8.86 Zn 1759 CCPI 55
CaO 9.45 Sb 25.8 Ti/Zr 40.8
Na20 6.73 TI <0.5

"

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

--
oaloite
pyOte,
magoetite&
,ide,ite
aokerite dolomite
-
"emolite ohlo,ite
StackedSWIRspectra(hull quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100. , , , , " "

90 . --i-. - .i. mlm; m.lm¡m~. ~ .l...; .~.

0,8
¡ :' ~Od"'it'-b,,'alt: : : ~
! :: :::;:::
Andesile.basall

0..'
:::~f--~_mf--:;~ :~:::~:::;:::
, , ,
0.6 ~--- h h -. f- h ::. ;.., ~, -- <--~.
, ------ ------ ,
- :~
142622 : , : J :: ~~~~~~::t:~;::::t:::j:
:t:t:j:::
~04 f ':---~ }4
, r~.~~~le+------
,. --- --- ---
y

~
6
a; :
40 mim

30 ---1m
: Daci',: : : : :

:
--)mL)---1.
: Rhyol.,: ::::
.~.m~m;m

.~m.~---1m~PheOgit'

-- --i. --. ~.-- -- -- h. ¡ h h ! iE20 _--:m ,m, ,--_,--: :---:---

I I jRhyolile
! 8 10 mlm.i--+.-j-.+.-j i--+--im .
11300 1600 1900 alMe : : : : : : : ' I:<'.~;:~~
50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 ,.....-

192 I CHAPTER
7

Moderate,pervasivechlorite+ carbonatealterationfacies HE9

Hangingwall
-------
Sampleno. 142593 ------- ~ Que Rivershale
----- ------
Alterationfacies moderate,
pervasive
chlorite+ carbonate -----
----- -------
- := =:=:=:: c::J Hellyer basalt
--------
= = = = =r;:::;J ~::w~n~e~~~~~~cani-
Location
Formation
Succession
hangingwall
Que-Hellyer
Volcanics
MountReadVolcanics v ~
v
v

" , "
v

--v~
v

V
v.
----
v
V
v
v
v

V
v

v
~

v v.
v .
- c:J Footwallandesites

v vVV
Massive sulfide

V
ore

Vv
Volcanicfacies monomictic
basalticandesitebreccia V
V
V
V
V
V
"""v
v ",v
v v/~v v
.v/vvvvv
Relictminerals alteredfeldspars , ,-,;
Relicttextures porphyritic,
jigsaw-fitclasts , '1?0': ' "
Primarycomposition basaltic
andesite
Lithofacies massive , ,
, ,
Interpretation pillowlava
Alterationminerals chlorite+ calcite+ sericite+ (albite+
quartz) .
O Albite(fchlori!e f calcite)zone
,\ ,
"
-

O
Hangingwall fuchsitezone

-
Footwall sericite + quartz zone

1[']Footwallsericitezone

.
Hangingwall serici!ezone
Alterationtextures pervasive, spheroidalandrhombiccalcite, O Hangingwallalbi!ef quartzzone 111Footwallchloritezone
calciteveinswithchloritevein-halo Chlorite+ carbonatezone O Siliceouscorezone(quartz+sericite+ pyrite)
alteration
Distribution local,plume?
Preservation good Geochemistry
Alterationintensity moderate Si02 42.34 K20 1.92 Rb 55 Zr 140
Ti02 0.61 P20S 0.35 Sr 281 Nb 8.8
Timing postmineralisation
AI203 11.78 S 0.07 Ba 737 Y 21
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
Fe203 5.41 CO2 13.00 Cu 109
MnO 0.12 Total 99.46 Pb 4 Al 28
MgO 4.34 LOI 15.99 Zn 51 CCPI 76
CaO 15.44 Sb 0.6 Ti/Zr 26.2
Nap 1.06 TI 0.7

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

-- py,ite,
magoeMe&
,ide",e-
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot calcite aokedte dolomite t,emolite chlo,ite
100 "",'

0.8
Andesi!e.basall

, .¡~~_~~93
i
-;;; ::
~
o.. 70 m1m
'
*
:::;:::r:-~~~~~t~::a~:I;-:::-:J:~r:~::
142593 ~ ::
:m1uu:m:,
-
"
-:_m:'m¡-
"
~ t
_mn
60 u_( uu~-.(_~mj- -~uu~---(
Daci!e
~ 50 m~m .--~uDa;c;';u~-u;- -:m_~u_:u-

J::¡m 'm~Jm y
2
~
40 m;m'

30 _u~m
:
m_~_--;_m~m:-
::::::
. , -:m_~u+u

-~ ~m;m1pheogite
0.2 rmuum, ~-L
-nm'uu~mL -_u n______----- eS : ,Rhyolile: : : : :
~ 20 m:-- m_,m!uu:---:- -:uu:u_:m

1300
I
1600
I
1900
100 150 200
!
Rhyoli!e
250
¡
300
8 10 m;m_:_m~m;m+--;m_:_m~m¡--
alblte: : :'
10 20 30 40 50 60
::'
70 80 90
I~-1:~~~:::
100
Zr(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteratian Index)
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 193

Strong,pervasivefuchsitealterationfacies HE10
Hangingwall
Sampleno. 142643 ~ QueRivershale

Alterationfacies strong,pervasive
fuchsite - - - =-=-=:: r=J Hellyer basalt
------

.
Location hangingwall - = = :=¡;;::::¡ ~::IT~nie~~~~~cani-
v v v. v - c:J Footwallandesites
Formation Que-Hellyer
Volcanics v v
--~-
Succession MountReadVolcanics v
~

. v

.
v
Massive sulfide
v v v
ore
v

Volcanicfacies massivefeldspar-phyric
basalt
v~vvvvv
v v v CJ--,V
v 'v
v v/ /;a
VYi
v
v
v
v

.V¡V v v
Relictminerals feldspar , ,
, '\' " "100m'
Relicttextures porphyritic,
minaramygdales , , , " ,\, ,¡, ,~,
, , , I

Primarycompositionbasalticandesite ,, ' , ' , ' ,

, , "
, '> ' "
, \,
Lithofacies massive ,
,
Interpretation lavaor sill
,\ , Hangingwall fuehsitezone "
Alterationminerals sericite(fuchsite)
~
.
+ calcite+ ankerite+ O Albite(zehloritez ealcite)zone " O Footwallsericite+ quartzzone
chlorite+ pyrite 11 Hangingwall serieitezone !LTI Footwallserieitezone
Alterationtextures pervasive, disseminated pyrite,sericite O Hangingwailalbltez quartzzone Footwallehloritezone

cleavage, calcite:t sericitepseudomorphs 11 Chlorite+ earbonatelOne O Siliceousoorezone(quartz+ serieite+ pyrite)

afterfeldspar
Distribution plume
Preservation poor Geochemistry
Alterationintensity strong Si02 26.32 KP 5.00 Rb 143 Zr 74
Ti02 0.54 PP5 0.21 Sr 176 Nb 4.9
Timing post mineralisation
AI203 17.35 S 0.08 Ba 4473 Y 18
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
Fe203 3.38 CO2 19.48 Cu 162
MnO 0.25 Total 99.15 Pb 2 Al 23
MgO 1.88 LOI 21.13 Zn 43 CCPI 50
CaO 22.67 Sb 8.1 TilZr 43.9
Na20 0.00 TI 18.3

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

- pyrite,
magnetite
&siderite
-
calcite ankerite dolomite tremolite chlorite
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiOrZr immobileelementplot 100

0.8
Andesile.basall .. ,,

0.6 t-""""-~ ""+"-it~-",,- --~"" f "---

, ,..¡ 14264~ ¡ ¡

i
'i
~i~...~t..tny
40 ---;,,1 2643 Da,cite:: ---
~ 04 f """;---~"---i "---1---~_~~~IJ"" :
0.2 _L

1300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 25001
jRhyolile ¡ I :.Iu,U"tI,jLI"'-
: :: , , ¡museovite
K-feldspar
50 tOO 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

194 I CHAPTER
7
7.6 I ROSEBERY:
A POLYMETALLlC
SHEET-STYLE
DEPOSIT
1he Rosebery massive sulfide deposit is a sheet-sryle
polymetallic Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag-Au VHMS deposit in the northern
Central Volcanic Complex of the Mount Read Volcanics,
western Tasmania (Fig. 1.5: Green et al., 1981; Large, 1992).
1he mining resource is 32 Mt at 14.7% Zn, 4.5% Pb, 0.6%
Cu, 146 glt Ag and 2.3 g/t Au (data from Pasminco Mining
and Exploration). Compared with the Hellyer deposit, which
comprises a single ore lens (described in the previous section),
Rosebery is composed of at least 16 separate ore lenses (Fig.
7.21). 1hese vary in size from 0.1 to 5 Mt. Unlike the carrot-
shaped footwall alteration pipe at Hellyer, the Rosebery
ore lenses are enclosed in strata-parallel altered zones. 1he
ore lenses are principally composed of massive and banded
sulfides of sphalerite, galena, barite, pyrite and chalcopyrite,
with minor tetrahedrite-tennantite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite,
hematite and magnetite. In some sections of the mine (e.g.
A and B lenses, Huston and Large, 1987) barite-rich lenses
overlie the Zn-Pb-Cu ore lenses.
Geologicalsetting
1he Rosebery, Hercules and South Hercules polymetallic
ore bodies are hosted by the same stratigraphic sequence in
the upper part of the Central Volcanic Complex, west of
the Henry fault (Solomon, 1964; Green et al., 1981). 1he
footwall comprises a thick (up to 500 m), poorly stratified
rhyolitic-dacitic succession of weakly graded, feldspar-phyric
pumice breccia, which is interpreted to be the product of
large volume submarine caldera-forming eruptions, and
500m S
3000m RL
2000m RL
FIGURE7.21 I Long-section01the Roseberymine,westernTasmania,showingthe drivesand mainore lenses,labelledalphabetically(providedby
Zinilex Roseberymine,2004). K lens is at depth at the north end 01the mine.
, -
rhyolitic and dacitic sills (Hercules Pumice Formation: Lees,
1987; Allen, 1994b; Large et al., 200lb). 1he ore lenses occur
in the 5 to 10m thick, finely stratihed pumiceous siltstone,
sandstone, crystal-rich sandstone and claystone top (host
rocks) of the footwall pumice breccias (Lees, 1987; Corbett
and Solomon, 1989; Allen, 1994b; Large et al., 2001b). 'Ihe
host rocks are overlain by black mudstone, which represents
a hiatus in volcanism marked by non-volcanic sedimentation.
1he hanging wall comprises a 5 to 400 m thick succession
of massive to stratified, feldspar + quartz-phyric rhyodacitic
volcaniclastic units of the White Spur Formation, interbedded
with blackmudstone (Lees, 1987; Allen, 1994b).1he footwall
rhyolitic pumice breccias have Ti/Zr of7-9 (Fig. 4.5), whereas
the host interval porphyry sill has Ti/Zr of 12-14, and the
volcaniclastic facies 10-30 (Large et al., 2001b).
Bedforms and textures within the footwall pumice
breccias and host rocks are consistent with deposition from
volcaniclastic turbidiry currents, debris flows and suspension
in a below-wave-base environment (McPhie and Allen, 1992).
'Ihe footwall pumice breccias are interpreted to represent the
submarine deposits from a large, felsic explosive eruption
(Allen, 1994a). 1he host rocks may have been derived
from water-settled suspension sedimentation or the influx
of volcaniclastic turbidites from distal rhyolitic volcanic
centres (Large et al., 2001b). 'Ihe hanging wall volcaniclastic
units probably comprise the medial to distal facies from an
extrabasinal felsic volcanic centre (Allen, 1994a).
A below-wave-base submarine setting for the Rosebery-
Hercules succession is indicated by the presence of sedimentary
structures in the footwall pumice breccias consistent with
deposition from cold water-supported graviry flows and
water-settled fall, rare intercalated black pyritic mudstone and
the associated VHMS deposits (Gifkins and Allen, 2002).
;1500m N
, iIií ~

I
! LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 195
RELATED

Alterationfaciesandzonation Genesisof the ore lensesandalterationsystem

Four strata-parallel aItered zones endose the Rosebery ore Most previous workers have interpreted the Rosebery deposit
Ienses. From the periphery to the core of the alteration system to be synvolcanic exhalative in origin (e.g. Braithwaite, 1974;
these are: sericite zone, chIorite zone, Mn-carbonate zone, Green et al., 1981; Huston and Large, 1987; Green and Iliff,
and quartz + sericite zone (Fig. 7.5C: Large et al., 2001b). 1989; Large, 1992; Khin Zaw et al., 1999). Solomon and
Outside the altered footwall zone, least-altered rhyolitic Groves (1994) consider rhat the sheet-like form, stratiform
volcanic rocks contain plagiodase crystals in a pumice- and sulfide banding, large size and high Zn-Pb metal conrenr
shard-rich matrix (e.g. data sheet RBl). 1his matrix is weakly indicate that Rosebery formed within a brine pool from
sericite + chlorite + quartz altered, commonly enhancing the relatively high-saliniry fluids, similar to the genesis of many
shard and pumice texrures. Plagiodase crystals are weakly SEDEX deposits. However, the ore lenses are not associated
altered with disseminated fine-grained sericite and albite with well-developed stringer sulfide zones or alteration pipes
overgrowths. 1hese rocks have Al = 30-60 and CCPI = 15- rypical of seafloor systems. Instead, there are footwall zones
40 and pIot in the least-altered box of the Alteration box plor. of disseminated sulfides, with altered zones that are aligned
Data sheet RB2 is an example of the least-altered hanging wall parallel to the ore lenses and the volcanic strata. 1hese
rocks. features, combined with textures in the massive sulfides
1he outer part of the hydrothermal alteration system is a indicative of replacemenr, suggest that the ore lenses did
broad sericite zone with scarrered Mn-carbonate blebs, which not form immediately above hydrothermal venrs, but may
extends up to 300 m into the footwall, but less than 25 m have formed from lateral fluid flow, eirher on the seafloor,
into the hanging wall rocks (Fig. 7.5C). Ir extends along the or below the seafloor by replacemenr of rhe fine-grained tops
upper contact of footwall pumice breccia for at least 1000 m of permeable pumice breccia units (Fig. 7.11: Allen, 1994a;
beyond the ore lenses (Large et al., 2001b). One textural- Doyle and Allen, 2003; Martin, 2004).
compositional variant of this enveloping zone is represented
in alteration facies data sheet RB3. 1he white mica contents of
the facies varies from about 20 to 60% as plagiodase crystals
are increasingly replaced by carbonate and sericite, and the
glass shard-rich matrix by fine sericite, with proximiry to
massive sulfide. 1he Al increases from 60 to 95 as the sericite
proportions increase.
Intense, schistose chlorite alteration facies (e.g. data sheet
RB5) is concentrated in the immediate footwall of the ore
lenses forming a thin (rypically less than 5 m thick) chloritic
zone, which is commonly thickest (5-10 m) beneath the Cu-
rich sulfide lenses at the south end of the mine. 1his alteration
facies has variable chlorite (15-50 wt%) and sulfide (10-
30 wt%) contents. 1he Al is between 95 and 100, and the
CCPI between 70 and 90.
Commonly overlying the ore lenses is a zone of intense,
proximal Mn-carbonate alteration facies up to 10 m thick
(e.g. data sheet RB6), which is dosely associated with massive
sulfide, but locally extends several tens of metres beyond the
Iimits of known sulfide lenses. 1he intense, proximal Mn-
carbonate alteration facies rypically has a spotry texture, with
25-60% Mn-carbonate spots in a sericitic, or locally chloritic,
matrix with low sulfide contento Carbonate composition in this
faciesvaries from rhodochrosite (MnC03), to manganosiderite
((Mn,Fe)C03) and kutnahorite (CaMn(C03)2) (Braithwaite,
1974; Large et al., 2001b).
Typically the massive and semi-massive sulfides occur
in strata-parallel zones of intense quartz + sericite alteration
facies. 1his alteration facies has a bleached appearance with
textures that vary from massive-pervasive to spotry and augen-
schist textured (e.g. data sheet RB4). 1he larrer comprises an
anastomosing fabric of strongly foliated sericite dominated
domains wrapping around siliceous knots of quartz with
minor sericite. 1he intense quartz + sericite alteration facies
continues laterally beyond the margins of the ore lenses, where
it contains 1-10% disseminated sulfides (pyrite, sphalerite,
galena).
 ..".....-
i
II
196 I CHAPTER
7

Weak,selective-pervasive
albite+ quartz+ sericitealteration
facies RB 1
Least-alteredfootwall
Sampleno. 139602
D.AJbit,.quartz.serieite,,",
Alterationfacies DS'heit'''"'
weak,selective-pervasive
albite+ quartz , D Q"rtz.serieit,
zo",
+ sericite l1li Chlorit, zo",

Location footwall f!!'!!IMn-cerbooat,zo",

Formation KershawPumiceFormation
(CVC)
Succession MountReadVolcamics
Volcanicfacies feldspar-phyric
pumicebreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Relicttextures plagioclase
crystalsandcm-sized
plagioclase
porphyritic
tubepumiceclasts
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive,clastsupported,poorlysorted
Interpretation subaqueous massflowdeposit 2300m'

Alterationminerals albite+ sericite+ quartz> chlorite+ pyrite

+ hematite I:.::;.;:¡ Rhyolítief,'dspar.phyhe pumice brecda

Alterationtextures selective-pervasive, disseminated, foliated, E E

sericite:tchloritefiamme,sericite+
hematitestylolites,albite+ sericitealtered
plagioclase,feldsparovergrowths on Geochemistry
plagioclase Si02 73.26 K20 2.38 Rb 110 Zr 257
Distribution regional Ti02 0.32 P205 0.04 Sr 257 Nb 14.2
Preservation good AIP3 14.13 S 0.01 Ba 866 Y 33
Fe203 2.11 CO2 Cu 1
Alterationintensity weak
MnO 0.03 Total 98.20 Pb 3 Al 41
Timing synvolcanic
to burial 0.97 LOI Zn 26 CCPI
MgO 31
Alterationstyle diagenetic CaO 0.99 Sb 0.0 Ti/Zr 7.5
Na20 3.87 TI 0.0

Hand specimen pholograph Pholomicrograph(ppl)

Slacked SWIR speclra (huI!quolienl)

pyrlt', ma9","te
&slderite
-
Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol
0.8 100 calolte ,"karite dolom', tremollte chlorlte

A"deslte.basalt
0.6 "T.mm,,:...
1:: t::L.~.;o.'~"j9:~~
ID
: :: :
mmD~ai~uuU
170 .<m':"..C. .~. .~...:....
, 1~740:
~

71
60 t
~04
o
'"
¡::
-'0.

."...~. u. u... i ~... u. l. u.. ~.-*

<=
~ 50 ...¡
'" ,
'o.""'l"':"'~;;it~
,

o.i.m~.m:.
.t t:LL.
y 40 ~ "':0.
c1! ~13960~ : lmj13.9~~8.
300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 250
0.2

0.0
o
umm.',

50
.o.m;u~.J.139602

100 150
Rhyolite

200 250 300

~
o
30
=- 20
tL
o
010
albite
"m.~~*-o.o.o.:'
139588:
.: :
:
~
Rh~olit'~.
97t7
:' .;...~
.;
:'0.

10.0.;0.
~.o.lph"gite

mu""it,
K.t"dsp"
Zr(ppm)
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
----...-

LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 197
RELATED

Subtle,selectivealbite + quartz+ sericitealterationfacies RB2

Least-alteredhangingwall
I Sampleno. 139586 o AJbóte.quartz.seriOtezone
O Seridtezone
Alterationfacies subtle,selectivealbite+ quartz+ sericite , EJJQuartz. seriOtezone
.Chlori1ezone
Location hangingwall íJI Mn<artxmate zone

Formation WhiteSpurFormation
Succession MountReadVolcamics
Volcanicfacies feldspar> quartzcrystal-rich
pumiceous
sandstone
Relictminerals plagioclase
andquartz
Relicttextures clastic(feldsparandquartzcrystals,and
pumiceshards)
Primarycompositionrhyolite-dacite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation subaqueous
mass-flow
deposit
Alterationminerals albite+ sericite+ quartz+ chlorite
Alterationtextures selectiveclastalteration,disseminated J~ RhyoOitic fe!dspar-phyric pum;ce brecda

E E
sericite,albite+ sericite-altered
plagioclase §
Distribution regional
Preservation good Geochemistry
Alterationintensity subtle Si02 74.40 K20 1.99 Sr 261 Nb 10.8
Timing synvolcanic Ti02 0.35 P20S 0.05 Ba 1472 Y 33
Alterationstyle diagenetic AI203 14.34 S 0.03 Cu 3
Fe203 2.06 CO2 0.27 Pb 62 Al 34
MnO 0.04 Total 99.26 Zn 142 CCPI 27
MgO 0.57 LOI Sb 0.0 Ti/Zr 10.6
CaO 0.58 TI 0.0
Na20 4.41 Rb 75 Zr 197

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

pyrite.magne,"e&s;derite -
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot ealdte ankerite doIom"e ""mo"e chldrite
0.8 100

Andesite.basalt ¡ 90 ---~,--~uu~u,:--u:u':'--':'--';9740
~ 80 ---; --- . --- 'Ande;'..'a..' u ~. .; u. ~-- --~. ~

i:: ::.:--- ::::::--:.:::::::::: ;~~~::::::---

300
I
1600
I
1900
Rhyolite
¡~ :;ITm:u:mF;;.j~
'E
~
o 30 u.:--.

20 .u;
:
: uu~"
: 139s02:
--".",
," '
n:n--:.
:1 717 :
.;u.~un~.nlpheng"e
--.J.n.'uu
:

o ' --1~95~6 Rh~olite

i. .
o 10
'
u.'u.,nu,n--,--u,un,. ,,'h-,-u"'U
150 200 250 300 alb;te: : "': I~.~=
Zr(ppm)
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 90 90 100
Al (IshikawaARerationIndex)
198 I CHAPTER
7

Moderate,foliatedsericitealterationfacies RB3
Footwall
Sampleno. 139747 Ol>Jbite'quartz'seclcite,ooe
OSenOte"ne
Alterationfacies moderate,foliatedsericite , O Quartz'senelte,ooe
Location footwall .Chlonte"ne
~Mn-caroonate'ooe
Formation KershawPumiceFormation
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies feldspar-phyricpumicebreccia
Relictminerals plagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic,
fibroustubepumiceclasts
0¿

Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive,normallygraded '"
e-::J
Rhyol;(ieto dacltie
stlls
pumlce beeccla, la""s and

Rhyciltleteldsp"'qcartz-phynepumlcebrecda
Interpretation syneruptive, mass-flow-emplaced deposit ~ andsandstone
Alterationminerals sericite+ albite+ quartz+ carbonate [~ Blackshale

Alterationtextures foliated,schistose,stylolites,fiamme?, F3
~ CiJ Stralffied e",tal-neh "Icanlelastie sandslene

Rhyolltie quartz. teldsp'" blollte po'l'hyry slU

fracturedandalbite-altered plagioclase,
~.... 1-2%dlsseml naledsulfides 2300mN
2-5%dlssemlnatedsulfides
. . .
quartzveinlets Mas""lseml-mas""sulfide

Distribution local ]~ Rhyolltie teldsp,,-phy,le pumlce bceooa

Preservation poor E ~
¡;¡ ¡¡
Alterationintensity moderate
Timing synmineralisation
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
andmetamorphic Geochemistry
Si02 71.46 K20 4.16 Rb 182 Zr 229.9
Ti02 0.32 P20S 0.06 Sr 56 Nb 12.6
AI203 12.93 S 0.06 Ba 1042.5 Y 32
Fe203 2.44 CO2 1.87 Cu 3
MnO 0.11 Total 98.02 Pb 5 Al 67
MgO 1.65 LOI 3.89 Zn 29 CCPI 41
CaO 1.49 Sb 2.7 Ti/Zr 8.3
Na20 1.36 TI 0.9

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

pyelte,
magnetlte&
slde"'e-
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot calelte "'eclte dolomlte te,mollt, ehloelte
0.8 100

Andesite.basalt

0.6
Tn---D~aie
V : , 1~Lu uFF:L,.;.[;.'~
l04
o
'" ; ;139}~7:p '" , 'Oae,le':

¡::
~ 50 ---i--- ;n-rnn+~n_E;7::~~-
I I
0_2 .'I~.unn -~40 -~- . '*°2: 139!-47LL_1Pheo9lte
300 1600 1900
Rhyolite
!o ::--;t~~8tRh:omel;n_L_L-
0.0 010
- -;- --- ~n n;- n -~- - -~ - - - -.n - -~ - n
o 50 100 150
Zr(ppm)
200 250 300 alblte: "" Imuseo,lte
K-feldsp"

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 199

Intense,augenschistosequartz+ sericitealterationfacies RB4

Footwall
Sampleno. 139778 o AIb<e' q",rtz, senote lOn'
O Sericite
zone
Alterationfacies intense,augenschistose
quartz+ sericite , [J Quartz,
- zone
. C!<oritezone
Location footwall . Mn-<arbonat,
lOn,

Formation KershawPumiceFormation
(CVC)
Succession MountReadVolcamics
Volcanicfacies feldspar-phyric
pumicebreccia
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures foliatedclasts(pumice)
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation indeterminate
Ó Rhy~lticq"'rtz'f"d,p"'tiI,m,_."
Alterationminerals sericite+ quartz+ sulfides ~o o 1-2%dl,semlnatedsulfldes

Alterationtextures augenschistose,sericite:!:sulfide
_ 2-5% dl'semlnate<f suffides
Ma_'-mass'"suffid,

cleavage 1~ _feldspa'-¡Jf1yricpunlcetireccia

Distribution local E
;;¡ ~
Preservation poor
Alterationintensity intense Geochemistry
Timing synmineralisation SiOz 72.95 KzO 4.24 Rb 202 Zr 224
Alterationstyle hydrothermaland metamorphic TiOz 0.27 PzOs 0.04 Sr 18 Nb 13.2
Alz03 12.86 S 1.94 Ba 1767 Y 35
Fez03 2.58 COz 0.40 Cu 239
MnO 0.17 Total 98.19 Pb 4300 Al 95
MgO 1.14 LOI 3.57 Zn 6900 CCPI 45
CaO 0.27 Sb 7.5 Ti/Zr 7.2
NazO 0.01 TI 4.5

M,' ",,,i
" ,. ~",~,,;-
er;~ - ,~--
I!!I ',- j~
'v:
s ~
f.,..
¡¡,
- t
J!!o, a~ . ~--
"'21
,
'fi,,v'
... 'f,
' ,ElJi Ii

l'"m.;L- "

.~ lt
.;""f..
11 ~'"

r
¡¡;
' ' r ,,"

m,. -

'..
y
L .
,, ,

< 1'",u ,
,

'.
.
-
,,_, , ,

",'
f'
.
' "

1, '-

11
~1?1
..... /I~
i"\ b,/
,

"ií! "-. !r
¡ : ~- -
,

"'t!
"
,

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

pyrite.magnetite'Siderite-
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot calclte en'erite OOfomite 'emof'e "'Iortte
0-8 100

-'---+_u.u-
Andesite.basalt
X
" 90 fmim~u)_L-:) , 139743
~ - - - -'Ande;ne-ba;'K
-- - m~_m~_~-
- ---D~~¡i~
--- -n U
" 80 -,
,
,,
,
,,
,
,-
,
~ 70 ,---,-
"-
- _u,-- _00,00__,'00
, , .,.' ,.00:- m:m-
1:j9740: :
, , , ,
2'" 60 ....C_-.'....'...-'. '-- -"u uC 00-
c: :, OaClte:
:,
~'" 50 u.
,, ,
, ,
',u..,..
,,,
u,' u.,.
,,
~40 , ,, ,
.:~~9~~\
'. .
g
: 139s02: :' ;
300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 250
~30
()
u u

13958&
m
'
m:- m: - L ~m -~ 001 pheng'e

0,0
Rhyolite
g r
20 u u:u u :' Rhy'"te :-

O 50 100 150
Zr (ppm)
200 250 300 -u1u-
: :
() 10 _--'n_~uu,uu~
aI""e
, '_u_'_u_~u_;_u~uu~u-
: ': , : ,: ,
mu""","e
IK-le-
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa AKerationIndex)
200 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,schistosechloritealterationfacies RB5
Footwall
Sampleno. 139743
DAlbit,.quartz's'rici"zone
Alterationfacies intense,schistosechlorite DS,ricit,zone
, E]Quartz'seriert,zone
Location footwall lI1iIIII
Chlorit,zone
_Mn-ea"'o",',zone
Formation KershawPumiceFormation
(CVC)
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies feldspar-phyric
breccia
Relictminerals nil '"
Relicttextures porphyritic?
'7:' Rhyoli"e lo daciüe pumlce b""la, '"as and
Primarycomposition rhyolite -=:J ",]s
RhYO
liliet,,,spar.quartz-Phyriepum,ceb,,,,,a
Lithofacies massive ~ andsandstone
.~DBlackshal'

Interpretation indeterminate ~ F
[TI
.
S'rnM,d crystal~'" "Icanlda,"e sandstone

Alterationminerals chlorite+ pyrite+ sphalerite

+ quartz+ G Rhyolitiequartz.t'''spar'blotlt,porphy~sl''

~.... 1-2%dlssemlna'" suffides 2300mN

sericite 2-5%dlssemlna'''suffides
Masslve/seml-massN,sulfid,

Alterationtextures foliated,schistose I~ Rhyolitief,"spar-phyriepumicebre"ia

Distribution local , ,
Preservation poor
Alterationintensity intense
Geochemistry
Timing synmineralisation Si02 44.22 K20 3.37 Rb 174 Zr 247
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
andmetamorphic Ti02 0.33 P205 0.06 Sr 14 Nb 12.0
AI203 14.48 S 7.18 Ba 948 Y 35
Fe203 16.58 CO2 0.95 Cu 1678
MnO 1.49 Total 91.03 Pb 604 Al 97
MgO 2.22 LOI 7.55 Zn 68200 CCPI 83
CaO 0.10 Sb 3.9 TifZr 8.0
Na20 0.05 TI 7.1

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

~
StackedSWIR spectra(hull quotient)
pyrite,magn"it,'si"rite
-
TiOrZr immobileelementplot ooleite ank"it, 'olomite 'remo"te ehlonte
0.8 100
, , , I
X 90 mi ~--;--139743
A"desile-basall O) ,
0.6 - u --- --- ------ - ---u --- u, u-- ~ 80 t mi --'And';it'-ba;all---
uD~ai~uu
.~ 70 Imj_u --'uu,u--,- ;.u:uu:.
a.
'2
LO.4
"
¡g
60 , ,
-."u_.u--'-.
, Oaeite'
, .'.,
,
1""740:
-
'

o'" E
~ 50,u_,u- j - u -,--
i=
y 40 :139~8..
,1:! : 139602 :' 717 : :
300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 250 "'rm;;:~:"
, , ' Rh~olite:
~ 30
()

~ 20
_u_.--.-
'.. '
139586:
.'uu.-
- ~-- u~ u -1 pheogit,

() _uu;u':' Rhyoli'e,'- -
0.0 () 10 - ,-- u,u u,--
O 50 100 150 200 250 300 albite : ' ,

Zr(ppm)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 201

Intense, proximal Mn-carbonate alteration facies RB6

Hangingwall
Sampleno. 139740 DAlblte'qua""sericite"ne
DSerieltezone
Alterationfacies intense,proximalMn-carbonate , D Qua"" sericitezone
. Chloritezone
Location hangingwall li"iIMn-cartJonatezone
Formation WhiteSpurFormation
Succession MountReadVolcamics
Volcanicfacies feldspar-phyric
pumicebreccia?
Relictminerals nil %

Relicttextures rarefeldsparcrystals
~ Rhyolitietodacitiepumlcebcoeela,¡""acd

Primarycompositiondacite -L::..; ,IIIs

~0
' qua"'-phyrie
RhYOitie,eldsP" pumlce
b,ecela
acdsandstone
Lithofacies massive [O Black,hale .

Interpretation indeterminate ~ 1CJ Stratifie<fO)'SlaI~chvolcenld"besand'lone

Alterationminerals rhodochrosite
2 Rhyolltie
qua"" 'eld,p,,' blobtepo,phy~slll
+ sericite+ pyrite
....
~
1-'%dISSemlnateds ulfides
'-5%d,ssemlnatedsulfides
.
2300mN

Alterationtextures nodular-spheroidal
rhodochrosite,
MasslveJseml-masSlvesulfide

disseminated
pyrite,sericite-altered ) [;,;;] Rhyolitiefeldsp"-phyriepumlceb,eccla

feldspar E
E

Distribution local,immediate
hangingwallofsulfide
lens
Preservation poor Geochemistry
Si02 16.79 K20 3.64 Sr 27 Nb 7.2
Alterationintensity intense
Ti02 0.39 P20S 0.13 Ba 4297 Y 20
Timing synmineralisation 10.73 S 3.24 Cu 20
AI203
Alterationstyle hydrothermal Fe203 7.50 CO2 22.20 Pb 674 Al 73
MnO 29.36 Total 98.64 Zn 995 CCPI 70
MgO 1.97 LOI 23.35 Sb 8.8 TilZr 16.5
CaO 2.04 TI 24.6
Na20 0.05 Rb 183 Zr 142

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(ppl)

pyrite,magnetlte&"d"'te
-
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiO,-Zr immobiteelementplot ,,'cite "'e"te dolomlte tcomo,"e ehlorite
0.8 100
, " , ,
-x 90 --eu-.uu,_u_.u_.u_." +-
Andesite.basalt w , , , , , : 139743
0_6 ~u- --;u
~ 80 - - --'Ande;,te-ba;alt- - - , -~-~

_u ~ ---r--/i D~~¡i~- ["- 70 u_!---

,
u U,u
, , U,"
, ","
, *:
9.l40,,~
t m:m - - - - - - - - -- - - -,_1.
: ~ , , ¿, 60
~ :" Daclte' :
~
,
~04 r u u u mjm u m -i/~~: e. .,.
~m

I 139740 ¡.:
mm_~mmu ¡umu--- .8
ro
50,_u,_u
y 40
uU,uU,"
:
-,- ","
:'397i,8 .
~ : 139602: :' g;F
u_,uu,-"-

: :
uu:uumm~u--- '
~ 30 ,,'m.- -I"u'- - ,u - ~u u~ u -, p'oog,te
300
I
1600
0.2
o '. '
139586:
Rhyolite ::::20.-
":",,L Rhyolttee-,I - : --- -:u u:"
"- ,
8 10 l---!---~uu: ;-
50 100 150
Zr(ppm)
200 250 300 alblte ,
I~-~;~~~::;
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
202 I CHAPTER
7
7.7 I WESTERN
lHARSIS:A HYBRIDCu.
AuVHMSDEPOSIT
Western Tharsis is a stratabound disseminated pyrite + chalco-
pyrite deposit in the northwestern part of the Mount Lyell
mining field, western Tasmania (Fig. 1.5). Ir contains around
12.4 Mt at 1.3% Cu and 0.3 g/t Au (Huston and Kamprad,
2001). Although discovered in 1897, it is theonlynon-exploited
deposit of at least 22 deposits in the Mount Lyell field, which
together produced a total of 113 Mt of ore at average grades of
1.36% Cu, 6.8 glt Ag and 0.4 glt Au (Corbett, 2001).
The mineralised zone is a sub-vertical stratabound lens,
up to 150 m thick and narrowing towards the surface, with
a down dip extent of greater than 1000 m and strike extent
of about 300 m. Most of the deposit consists of disseminated
pyrite + chalcopyrite in a gangue of quartz + sericite :t chlorite
and, locally, magnetite. Smaller bornite-rich mineralised
zones similar to the North Lyell ores exist in the upper parts,
particularly associated with quartz and quartz + pyrophyllite
alteration assemblages. The bornite zones also contain minor
chalcocite, chalcopyrite, mawsonite, digenite, enargite, molyb-
denite, woodhouseite and barite.
Geologicalsetting
The Lyell ore bodies and their altered halos are focussed along
the Great Lyell fault and occur at a variety of stratigraphic
intervals in the Central Volcanic Complex and in the
overlying Mount Julia Member of the Comstock Formation,
Tyndall Group (Corbett, 2001). Western Tharsis is situated
in a steeply west-dipping, overturned, east-facing succession
of altered intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks assigned to the
Central Volcanic Complex of the Middle Cambrian Mount
Read Volcanics. In the Mount Lyell area, these volcanic rocks
are reverse-faulted to the east against the late Cambrian to
Early Ordovician silicidastic conglomerate and sandstone of
the Owen Group. AlI the Mount Lyell field deposits lie within
a 6 x 1 km pyritic altered zone adjacent to the complex fault
contact (Corbett, 2001).
Two units of rhyolitic volcanidastic rocks with subordinate
interbedded volcanogenic sandstone and siltstone comprise
the immediate stratigraphic footwall and host rocks at
Western Tharsis (Huston and Kamprad, 2001). These units,
each several hundred metres thick, contain some ash- to
lapilli-sized dasts but primary volcanic textures are typically
obscured by alteration and their volcanidastic origin is largely
interpretative. They are separated by a 10-50 m thick group
of andesitic volcanidastic rocks and locally amygdaloidal
coherent lavas or sills. The stratigraphic hanging wall consists
of a 200-300 m thick complex of intercalated felsic and
intermediate volcanidastic rocks. A thin unit of felsic quartz
porphyry, possibly a correlate of the lower Tyndall Group,
occurs between the altered Central Volcanic Complex and the
faulted contact with the Owen Group. In this part of the field,
the (North Lyell) fault contact dips at 70° to the southwest.
Deep drilling indicates that the Western Tharsis mineralised
zone may intersect the fault at around 1500 m below surface
(Corbett, 2001).
The presence of thick, graded beds in the Central Volcanic
Complex at Lyell indicates a subaqueous environment of
deposition for the host succession. The occurrence of exhala-
tive massive sulfide bodies, limestone with shallow marine
fauna, and welded ignimbrite in the Tyndall Group at
Comstock suggest a shallow marine setting for mineralisation
Gago et al., 1972; Corbett et al., 1974; White and McPhie,
1997; Corbett, 2001).
Alteration
faciesandzonation
Corbett (2001) showed that the deposit is endosed by a
400-500 m wide zone of quartz + sericite + pyrite schist
adjacent to the North Lyell fault. This is part of a pyritic core
zone extending 4 km from the Lyell Highway to the Lyell
Comstock mine. This proximal, strong to intense, feldspar-
destructive altered zone grades outwards to less intense sericite
+ chlorite alteration facies in felsic and intermediate volcanic
rocks. At surface above Western Tharsis and around the upper
mineralised zone, the proximal quartz + sericite + pyrite
alteration facies indudes numerous bodies up to 20 m across,
of microcrystalline quartz :t pyrite, termed silica heads.
Huston and Kamprad (2001) subdivided the Western
Tharsis system into five main alteration facies. An intense,
pervasive, proximal quartz + chlorite + pyrite :t sericite alter-
ation facies (e.g. data sheet WT8) exists in the chalcopyrite +
pyrite mineralised zone at depths greater than 350 m below
surface.
An intense, proximal quartz + pyrophyllite + pyrite
alteration facies (e.g. data sheets WT4 and 5) occurs in a
150 m wide zone associated with the bornite + chalcopyrite
mineralised zone between 100 and 400 m below surface
and in a 50 m thick zone extending along the stratigraphic
footwall to 750 m below surface. This facies indudes narrow
zones of quartz + topaz assemblages (particularly in the upper
parts, which may correspond to Corbett's silica heads) and
locally minor phases induding fluorite, barite, zunyite and
woodhouseite.
A strong, pervasive, medial quartz + sericite + pyrite alter-
ation facies (e.g. data sheets WT3, 6 and 7), which endoses
the two proximal facies above, and extends up to 150 m
outwards into the stratigraphic footwall and through most of
the hanging wall. The outer margins, adjacent to the weak,
medial chlorite + sericite :t carbonate alteration facies and
in upper part of hanging wall succession, contain minor
disseminated carbonate.
A weak, pervasive, medial chlorite + sericite :t carbonate
alteration facies (e.g. data sheet WT2) occurs in the peripheral
zones. Ir exists in both footwall and hanging wall, about 150-
200 m outwards from the mineralised zone, particularly in
andesitic volcanic rocks with minor pyrite or hematite.
A weak, selective quartz + chlorite + sericite + carbonate
alteration facies (e.g. data sheet WT1) grades westward into
least-altered rocks composed of quartz + albite + chlorite (:t
sericite and carbonate).
Sericite compositions in the outer zones are slighdy
phengitic (up to 0.5 Fe + Mg atoms per formula unit) grading
to essentially non-phengitic and slighdy sodic (molecular Na/
Na+K <0.15) in the proximal to medial zones. This variation
has potential as a deposit-scale exploration vector, which can
be effectively measured by short wavelength infrared (SWIR)
spectral analysis (Herrmann et al., 2001). SWIR spectrometry

is similarly effective in delineating pyrophyllite, topaz and
zunyite-beating zones (see Section 8.2 for more detail).
Chlotite compositions are moderately Fe-rich (molecular
Mg/Mg + Fe ratios = 27--48) with asubde trend to Fe enrichment
towards the mineralised zone. Carbonates in the distal to
medial alteration facies are anketitic to sideritic in composition.
1hey show a distinct trend of Fe enrichment from the footWall
towards the mineralised zone (Huston and Kamprad, 2001).
Carbonates in the hanging wall are moderately manganiferous
(up to 0.2 Mn atoms per formula unit).
Oregenesis
Metallogenic interpretations of the Mount Lyell deposits
have fuelled geological debate for over a century and remain
controversial today (Corbett, 2001; Huston and Kamprad,
2001). Early models that related mineralisation to Devonian
or Cambrian intrusions were succeeded, during the 1960s,
by acceptance of Cambrian synvolcanic origins. In the 1980s
and early 1990s, the North Lyell type bornite ores were
popularly attributed to re-mobilisation during Devonian
deformation. Large et al. (1996) revived the magmatic
connection, interpreting Cambrian granites to be the source
ofhydrothermal fluids and metals. In recent years, a magmatic
connection has been further supported by wider recognition
of advanced argillic type assemblages, which are consistent
with the involvement of magmatic volatiles and acidic fluids.
Nevertheless, there is still disagreement over the timing
of mineralisation. Huston and Kamprad (2001) pointed
to an apparent (Pb-isotopic) 40 Ma age difference betWeen
stratiform synvolcanic Pb + Zn + Cu sulfide lenses at Lyell
Comstock and the disseminated Cu + Au deposit at Princé
Lyell. 1hey suggested a tWo event history: Middle Cambrian
MiddleTyndall
voleaniclastie
sandstones
mostlysandstone
C-;;;rlesite ,"V" "nrl ",pccio ~ o limestone
.
"
exhalatlvezoneb
~ eL""'.
~ " o Ó e"~?b-Z
"o ~ b ~.
¡ . breeeiasw~'asts .. . . t ..
. siliea
capzone
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 203
syngenetic stratiform Pb + Zn + Cu mineralisation followed
by a 40 Ma petiod of tectonism that culminated in high-
sulfidation type Cu + Au mineralised zones derived from
deep Ordovician granites. However, the more extensive
field evidence gathered by Corbett (2001) indicates that all
the alteration and mineralisation was restricted to Middle
Cambrian, and ceased during deposition of the lower part of
the Tyndall Group.
Rather than a temporal overprinting of different styles,
Corbett (2001) envisaged a single, vertically extensive,
submarine volcanic, hybrid magmatic-seawater hydrothermal
system. Ir produced disseminated chalcopytite + pytite (and
locally magnetite + apatite) mineralised zones in the deeper
parts, high-sulfidation type bornite mineralised zones and
intense siliceous altered zones in the upper subseafloor zones,
and deposited exhalative Pb + Zn + Cu massive sulfide lenses
at the seafloor. 1he Western 1harsis zone encompasses the
transition betWeen deep chalcopyrite + pytite and upper high-
sulfidation types of mineralisation (Fig. 7.22).
Corbett's diagrammatic representation shows the system
as sub-vertical, cutting through sub-horizontal volcanic
strata and focussed along or adjacent to the Great Lyell fault.
However, the Western 1harsis deposit appears to be sub-
vertical and stratabound. 1his is possibly a misinterpretation;
ptimary volcanic textures and facies associations are largely
obscured in the intensely altered zones. Furthermore, Corbett's
(2001) model suggests diapir-like upward movement of the
phyllosilicate-rich altered volcanic rocks on the hanging wall
side of the fault zone, which may have disrupted the volcanic
sequence.
1he arguments about Mount Lyell are not yet settled.
Nevertheless, the emerging recognition of high-sulfidation
ore deposits may renew interest in exploration in western
Tasmania.
LowerTyndall
(Lynehford
Member)
o ~ o. o , o ó Ó e o o'
.. :.: ~...-.
""O,
ó" o,
.-.
FIGURE7.22 I Cross-section model01theMountLyell,
verticallyextensive,submarine,hybrid magmatic-seawater
hydrothermal,alterationand mineralisationsystem, western
Tasmania(modiliedalter Corbett,2001).
204 I CHAPTER
7

Weak,selectivechlorite+- sericite+-quartz + carbonatealteration facies WT 1

Least.altered
footwall
Sampleno. 113084
l:-t'Ql Owen G,,"P' s;l;ci,l"b,
Alterationfacies weak,selectivechlorite+ sericite+ quartz
L2J ,ooglom,rnt, "d s"dstoo,

+ carbonate ITJ Low"Tynd,IIG,,'p"IT""'?

O""'p"phy~
CenlmlVolom;, Compl"
Location >250mstratigraphicallybelowmineralised [TI :;;:;;:'~:::I'¡;:~~~:;~"b'
¡,,;es
zone Q:J
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex CJ
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massiveplagioclase + quartz-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals phenocrysts ofalbitisedplagioclase
>
quartz
Relicttextures porphyritic
Primarycompositionrhyolite DChlorit""rici',.q""""'bo,,',zoce
.ChIOrit""rici"'''rboo'',zon,
Lithofacies massive
Do""'.s,,;CIt,.py,It,,oo,
Interpretation rhyolitelava lIIIIJo""'.py,,phylllt,.py,It,zoce
1500RL
DO"""chl,,It,.py,It""';Cltezone
Alterationminerals sericite+ chlotite+ carbonate > quartz
Alterationtextures selective-pervasive, matrixalteredto20-
40 IJmchlorite,alignedsericitecleavage,
albite+ sericite-altered
plagioclase Geochemistry
Distribution regional? Si02 75.69 K20 3.33 Sr 37 Nb 13
Preservation moderate Ti02 0.26 P20s 0.04 Ba 243 Y 40
AI203 13.00 S 0.37 Cu 3
Alterationintensity weak
Fe203 2.45 CO2 1.17 Pb 14 Al 65
Timing synvolcanic
andsyndeformation MnO 0.04 Total 99.32 Zn 28 CCPI 40
Alterationstyle diagenetic
andtectonic-metamorphic MgO 0.78 LOI 3.12 Sb 0.7 Ti/Zr 5.4
CaO 1.04 TI 0.9
Na20 1.15 Rb 112 Zr 291

Hand specimenpholograph Pholomicrograph(xn)

~ pyrlte,
m'gnetlte
&slderlte
-
calelte an'erlte dolomlte tremo"te ehlorlte
100
Slacked SWIR speclra (huI!quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol 1 1 '8' 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
"
X 90
"O
- ,- - T - -, - -,- -,- - ,- - ,- - T - -,- -

0.8 S. 80 -~- --1--1_8_1--r- ~-~--:-e-

2 t 1 1 I 1 1 1 1
;t;, 70 ~

,
Andesite.~asalt - +- - - Andesite-basal!- - ~ +- - - -1 - -

1 1 ,.
1iJ - L - - -1- -1- _1- - L L - ~ - _1- -
e 60
o
iij 50 - ~- - _: _Dac:~- :-- ~~ - --:--
U 1 I 1 1 1 1 1
, 1 1 1 1 1 ,
:'0.4~
O
- - --
"
~ 40
- T -
~
113084-'--
;=
~ 30 -
1
- - -:- -:- -:- - ~
1 Rhyolite1 ,
~ - ~ - -:- _Iphenglte
1 1 ,
D.. 20 - i- - - -1 - -1- - 1- - r i- - ~ - -1- -
U
U 1 1 1 ,
Rhyolite 10 -t- -1- -1- -1- - ~ - +- - -' - -,--
I I ~

1300 1600 1900 al bite 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I museov;!e

K-feldspar
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 205
RELATED

Weak,pervasive,medialchlorite+ sericite:!:carbonatealterationfacies WT 2

Sampleno. 113086
rn ~~;o~~e~; ~~~~~:~;'ooo
Alterationfacies weak,pervasive,medialchlorite+ sericite [i:::JOuartzpo~hy~
Lowec
Tyo'a"Group
co"e'ate?
:t carbonate
Ceo""V'",oieComp'"
Location -200 m stratigraphicallybelow [E] ::i;:~¡:~f;:¡~;~1astie facias

mineralisedzone re:--, An'e.tie"',,,o;e','tie

L-J faoas.'"as 00''''''
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex F"l Rhyolitie ,,'caoidastie
Lc.-'.J",o'stooooo',,",'ooe
ticaceia,

Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies alteredandesite
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycompositionandesite
Lithofacies massive DCh,ohte,seheite,qUartz,,,,roonatezone

Interpretation indeterminate .Ch'ohle,seeieite.camooa,ezooo

DOuartz,seeieite,pyh,ezooo
Alterationminerals chlorite+ carbonate
> sericite .Ouartz'pycophyllite'pyhtezooo
1500RL
Alterationtextures pervasive,
foliated,carbonate-altered DI Ouartz'eh'mite
, pyhle, sehcite
2000

plagioclase,
carbonate veins
Distribution
Preservation poor Geochemistry
Alterationintensity weak Si02 47.78 K20 1.47 Rb 46 Zr 72
Ti02 0.51 P20S 0.09 Sr 83 Nb 3
Timing synvolcanic
andsubsequent
syndeformation AI203 14.56 S 0.04 Ba 367 Y 17
Alterationstyle diagenetic
andtectonic-metamorphic Fep3 12.59 CO2 7.84 Cu 10
MnO 0.19 Total 97.30 Pb 6 Al 45
MgO 4.63 LOI 10.71 Zn 199 CCPI 82
CaO 5.53 Sb 0.8 TilZr 42.5
Nap 2.07 TI 0.5

Hand specimenpholograph Pholomicrograph(xn)

~ pyeite.
magnetite
&siderite
-
ca'cite ankerite do'omite 'remolite ch'orite
100
SlackedSWIR speclra (huI!quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol , ,--,.'r-
, , , I, ,, ,, ,, ,,

.,
"
X 90
'O
- , - T - -,- -,- - ,- - , - T - T - -,- -

0.8
E 80
2
- ~ - --, :-- r ~- ~ --:-.-
Andesite.~asaU ';;,
"- 70 - ~- -An~esitU~~~_6
- ~ ~ -. --:--
, I ' , , ,
413(}~ ~ ~
*c:o 60 - L - - -, - -,- -,- - L L - J - -,- -
0,6r - -

*: I
- - - - -/- - Bacite- - - -

,
',-
- - - - ~ - -

-fe
'" 50
()
- ~
,-
,
- _: _D~:~ - :--
""'"
""
~~ -

I , ,
- --: --

:04~ ~
--
---- 2 40 -r- r-T-~--
o
- - - - - - -
,
,
:s , ""'"
F E
8
30 - ,, - - -,-
, Rhyolite,
-,-
, , , ,
- ,- -, T - , - -,- - phengite

- -- -- -t -- -. -: - ¡¡: 20 - t- - - -, - -,- -,- - t- + - -t - -,- -

,
,
---r----
,- --
()
() , , , ,
10 -1-- -, - -,- -,- - '- - -1-- ~ - -,- -
I I I : ,: Rhyolite albi'e, , , , , , , , muscovite
1300 1600 1900 2200 250 K-feldspar
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
206 I CHAPTER
7

Strong,pervasive,medialquartz+ sericite+ pyritealterationfacies WT 3

Sample no. 113092 "'Ol Oweo G"up' silloelaslle

Ld::J cooglomernteaod seodsloc,
Alteration
facies strong,pervasive,
medialquartz+ sericite [i:J LowerTynda" Geoupco"elate'
Ouartzp"phy~
+ pyrite Ceottalvotea'" Comp.,

Location -100 mstratigraphically

belowmineralised [TI ::i;;,;,a~:~ef;:::;;:,~as'cfac'es
zone re:--,
L-J
AAdesroe"'eaoloas'e
faaes, '"as aod "lis

Formation CentralVolcanicComplex r=-"lRhyol'e";eao'oasheb,,,,'a,

"-'-Jsaodslooeaodsllstooe

Succession MountReadVolcanics 2000RL

Volcanicfacies volcaniclastic
rhyolite
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures relictgranulartexture,possiblyclastic

.
Primarycomposition rhyolite
Lithofacies Deh""".,,'e"e .quartz.e"booate,oce

indeterminate Chlome'
,,'cite'eamocat,
''''
Interpretation U O"rtz,,,',;t,.pyrlt"'"
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ siderite lIiiII Ouartz.py"phymte.py'" ,,,e
1500RL
Alterationtextures pervasive, DOuartz'chlo''''pY""""it,,,oe
mosaicofsutured20-60011 ->0.5%Cu

fracturedquartzgrainswithinterstitial
sericiteandpatchescoarsesiderite
Distribution
Geochemistry
Preservation poor Si02 70.58 K20 3.63 Rb 126 Zr 246
Ti02 0.23 P205 0.04 Sr 19 Nb 13
Alterationintensily strong
AI203 12.12 S 0.02 Ba 758 Y 42
Timing synmineralisation
Fe203 8.03 CO2 3.11 Cu 18
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MnO 0.11 Total 98.92 Pb 5 Al 92
MgO 0.68 LOI 4.44 Zn 63 CCPI 67
CaO 0.16 Sb 2.5 Ti/Zr 5.6
Na20 0.21 TI 0.9

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ pyríte,
magoetite
&slderite -
ealeite ankerite do'omlte tremollte ehlorite
100
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot ,, ,, 'e' ,1 11 11 11 ,,
, ,
X 90
"
'O
- , , - - -, - -,- -,- - , - T - , - -,- -
0.8
E 80
2 -
,
~
- --: --:_e_l--
'"
r ~ - ~ --:-.-
1 1 1 ,
Andesile-pasall ;t 70 - ~-
,
-Andeslle-basal!
- - >- -1--, - .oi.iL-
1 1 ~
*e 60 - L - - -, - -,- - 1- - L L - -' 113092
o
~ 50 -
,
l - 'Caeí!e'1 '.
- -' - -'- _,- - L. 1. - ~ - -'-
I -
() , '" 1 1 1 ,
, '" 1 1 1 ,
.~ 40 -r- T-~-~--
o , '" 1 1 1 ,
:E 30 - r - - -, - -,- -,- -, T - -, - -,- - phenglte
<:¿ , ,Rhyolile, 1 1 1 ,
D- 20 - t- - - -, - -,- -1- - t- + - -t - -,- -
, ()
() , 1 1 ,
I I I : 113092 ,, Rhyolile 10 -1-- -, - -,- -1- - >- - +. - -' - -,- -
1300 1600 1900 2200 250 , , a'blte, , , 1 1 1 1 , museov,te
K-fe'dspar
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Allera!ion Index)
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 207
RELATED

Intense,proximalquartz+ pyrophyllite+ pyritealterationfacies WT 4

Sampleno. 113102 "'01 Ow" G""p' slllele'astle

Ld:J cooglome"!e
,"d""dst"e
Alterationfacies intense,proximalquartz+ pyrophyllite
+ [iJ Low"Tyodall
Gcoup
Ouartzp"phy~ coITela!e?
pyrite ec"," Voearne
Comp'"
Loeation proximalto uppermineralisedzone [TI ::i;;;,a~:;:'ef;:1~;~laslle
facies
fT"l Aodesltie"lea"ld"lIe
Formation CentralVoleanie
Complex L..J faa", ,,," ,"d "lis
F"l Rhyol.e"'e,"lel,,lIe '"cela,
Sueeession MountReadVoleanies '-'-"Jsaodstooe,"d"'tsto",

Voleanie
facies alteredrhyolite 2000RL

Relietminerals nil
Reliettextures nil +

~
c + ~~
Primaryeompositionrhyolite 0°,
e ~o~
+,' 00~
Lithofaeies o~°0
+, °0°, DChorile'''rici!e.q''rtz."''"a!e,,,e
Interpretation indeterminate 'o °0 o
+ 00°0 '
,°0°, .ChlOrite'"ricite>ea"o"telO",
Alterationminerals quartz + pyrophyllite> sericite+ pyrite '+ 'o °0 o,
0000'
DO"rtz. "ricile' py,lIe,,,e
00°0 l1li O"rtz. pyrnphylllle.
py,lIe
,,,e
Alterationtextures pervasive,mosaieof sutured40-400 IJm 1500RL
°0°,
D Ouartz.
ehlorite.
py,lIe
>"riellelO",
quartzgrainswith raggedpatehesof semi- el.: ~~;
roa
+,o, °e
0- 100
m
alignedpyrophyllite,minorsericiteand
disseminated,fraeturedpyrite
Distribution Geochemistry
Preservation poor Si02 80.78 P205 0.05Cu 72 Al 80
Ti02 0.24 S 1.61Pb 7 CCPI 54
Alterationintensity intense
AI203 12.25 CO2 0.40Zn 6 TilZr 5.8
Timing Fe203 2.21 Total 99.49Sb 0.6
MnO 0.01 LOI 3.08TI <0.5
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MgO 0.12 Zr 249
CaO 0.03 Rb 31 Nb 13
Na20 0.36 Sr 117 Y 5
K20 1.43 Ba 1170

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ pyrile.
magoetlle
&slde,lIe
-
calclte aokcelte dolomlte ltemo"'e chlorile
100
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot ,, ,-, ,'.' , ,, ,, ,, I, ,,
X
"
-o
90 - , . T . .,. .,. .,. . , . , . T . .,. .
0.8
so 80 . ~. u, u:...:u ~ ~. ~ u:-.-
,
I
,
.i'J , ""'"
I , , :t¿, 70 . ~.
, -Andeslte-basalt-. f-
, ,. ,. .,. -

Andesite-~asalt,
__L
' - - - ,- &acite- - - -
I
~
,
I

:
- - - -
~o
~
U
60

50
. L.

.
,
L.
,,
..,

. .'.
. .,.
'Dadte'"
"'"
""'"
.'.
. ,. . L

. '. . L
.L.

L - *J. . .,.

113102
.'.
I
.

t'- 06~
O.4 -- -- -.: .:
l 2 40
-- -- --
I ' ,-- 'r' T'~'~"

* ',:
§ , "'" I ,
o'" ~
I ~-:--1-13102:
' . ~ 30 . r'
,
..,. .,.
,Rhyolite"",
'1' " " -r . .,. . pheoglle

F t ---r-.- - - -- ¡¡: 20
U . t-. ..,. .,. .1. . r -¡-. ~ . .,. .

U , I , ,
- - -- -- -- -- ,, Rhyolite 10 ... . ., - .1. . l. . L . -1-. -' . .,. .
I I I alblte I I I I I I , , muscovlte
1300 1600 1900 2200 250 K-Ieldspa,
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z,(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 208 I CHAPTER
7

Intense, proximal quartz + pyrophyllite + pyrite alteration facies WT 5

Sampleno. 113105
rn ~~;o~~~¡;~~~~:~~;tone
Alterationfacies intense,proximalquartz+ pyrophyllite
+ [iJ Looo,T",dall
Geoop
ca,ee'ate'
Ooa'"po",hy~
pyrite Centre'
Vo'canie
Comp"

Location -200 mstraigraphically

abovemineralised [E] ::;:~;:::Ie f;:;~:i~1astle
facias

zone r¡"""l Andas.e,,'canielastie

L.: J fucias,la"sand sills

Formation CentralVolcanicComplex F7l RhyQlitie,olcanielastieti,ecela,

Lc-'..!sandstoneands<ltstone

Succession MountReadVolcanics 2000RL

Volcanicfacies alteredrhyolite
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycomposition rhyolite
Lithofacies DChlorite.sericite.qoa",.e"tionete"ne

"ChlOrite.seridtez",bonete,,",
Interpretation indeterminate
Dooa"'.se"te.pyrite,one

Alterationminerals quartz + topaz + pyrite> carbonate I11III Ooa"'.pyrophyllite.pyrite"ne

1500RL D Ooa"'. chlorite. pyritez ,,,Icite "ne
Alterationtextures pervasive,domainal50-100 IJm
microcrystallinequartz andgranulartopaz,
minordisseminatedpyrite,irregularmm-
scale patches> carbonateveinlets Geochemistry
Distribution 68.25 0.07 Cu 10 Al 36
Si02 P20s
Preservation poor Ti02 0.28 S 0.37 Pb 21 CCPI 96
AIP3 18.13 CO2 3.11 Zn 14 Ti/Zr 4.6
Alterationintensity intense
Fe203 1.35 Total 95.14 Sb 0.1
Timing MnO 0.30 LOI 8.19 TI <0.5
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MgO 1.12 Zr 364
CaO 2.05 Rb 1 Nb 14
Na20 0.05 Sr 33 Y 10
K20 0.06 Ba 171

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ py,ite,
magnetite
&sideeite -
eateite ankeeite dolomite !cemolite ehlmite
100
StackedSWIR spectra (hull quotient) TiOTZr immobileelementplot
X 90
: : :*: : : : : :
(l)
"O - T --113105
T - ,- - , - T - T - -, - -
0.8
, I
E 80
2
- ~- --, --:_8_,-- r ~ - ~ --:-.-
Andesite-pasalt : ;tQ, 70 - ~-
, -An~esite;basalt'-
- ~ ~ -~ - -: - -
I ,.
, ,
0.6r - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - ~ Bacite-

., ,, .' ,
,
,
- - - ~ - - - -
,
,
- - -
15
c:
o
~
o
60

.& 40
50
- L-

-r-
I
~
I
-
- _1- -,-

--:
,
,
~ac~~
-,-

- :--
""
"'"
- L

~~ -

r-~-~--
,
'- - ~ - _1- -

--:--
I

~ot - -- -- --: - -- - ~- i-- - -- -- i --11-

3-105 § , ""'"
, .' * ~ 30
- T-
,
- -,- -,- -,- -,
,Rhyoiite, '"
T - T - -,- -
,
phengite

- - - - - -'-
,
- - -. - - - ~
,
- - - - - - - eL 20
o - i- - - -,- -,- -,- - t- i- - -+ - -,- -
o , , , ,
I I I ,, ,I Rhyolite 10
albite,
'- - -, -
,
-,-
,
-,-
,
- ~ -
,
'- -
,
~
,
- -,-
,
-
museovite
1300 1600 1900 2200 250 , , K-feldsp..
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z, (ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

.
 -
LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION
RELATED
TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 209

Strong,pervasive,
medialquartz+ sericite+ pyritealteration
facies WT 6

Sample no. 113110 h"Ql Ow,nGr",: sllleldastie

r..ri:J oonglom,rnteandsandston,
Alteration
facies strong,pervasive,
medialquartz+ sericite [f] LowerT,"da" Gro" ooIT,lal,'
O"''''porphy~
+ pyrite Cerrtral
V.eanleCom,I"
Location -100mstratigraphically
abovemineralised [TI :~¡;:,;a;:::;':;~~;i~1asticfaeles

zone fI'" Andes!tie

"'eanldastie
L J faoes,l"as"d si",
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex F""'l Rhyolltie
"Ieanlelas'etirecela,
lc..LJsandston,and"lIslon,

Succession MountReadVolcanics
2000RL

Volcanicfacies altereddacite
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycomposition dacite
Lithofacies DChloril" seridte.,","" eartxmate
lOn,

indeterminate 111 Chlorite . serielte

. carbonal,
lO"'
Interpretation Do",",.serielte.pyritelO",
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite> chloriteand 111 o","" pyro,hy"It,
. pyrite
lOn'
carbonate 1500RL DO",,,,,,,,,,,'!,.,yril,.,,rielt,lOn,
- '0,5%C,
Alterationtextures pervasive,50-100¡.Jm microcrystalline
quartzwithinterstitial
shredsandseams
of alignedsericite,disseminated
euhedral
Geochemistry
pyrite,somehighlydeformedandre-
Si02 60.29 K20 3.97 Rb 120 TI 1.0
crystallised
quartz+ carbonate > chlorite
veins/patches Ti02 0.35 P20s 0.08 Sr 25 Zr 182
Distribution AI203 12.84 S 6.28 Ba 1737 Nb 9
Preservation Fe203 10.77 CO2 2.64 Cu 88 y 23
poor
MnO 0.52 Total 100.21 Pb 214
Alterationintensity strong
MgO 1.08 LOI 8.09 Zn 138 Al 78
Timing CaO 1.26 Sb 1.0 CCPI 72
Alterationstyle hydrothermal Na20 0.13 Ti/Zr 11.5

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ ,yrlte, magnetlte& slderlte ~

calc,te ankerlte dolomlte tremo"'e chlorlte
100
StackedSWIRspectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 1
1 1
I '."
1 , ,, 1
1 ,, 1
1 ,,
X 90
Q)
'O
- T - T - -,- -,- -,- - , - T - T - -,-
, . -

".*
.!: 80 I I 1 , 1
0.8
~ -¡--
1
--'--'--I--r-
""
"113110'-'- '
Andesite-~asalt ~ 70 - +- - - Andesit,-basalt - - f- +- - - -1 - -
¿, 1 '

0.6 Oí
c: 60 - L - - _1 - _1- - ,- - L L - J. - -,- -
o
-e
'" 50 - ~
I
- --:
'"
_D~~~ - :-- ~ ~ !,
1 ,
- --:--

1
u
2 40 1 '" 1 1 , I
-r- r-~-~--
§ , '" 1 , 1 1
:E 30 - ,- - -,- -,- -,- -, T - , - -,- - ,henglte
2. 1 ,Rhyolit'1 1 " ,
"- 20 - ¡- - - -, - -,- -1- - t- ¡- - -t - -1- -
U
U 1 1 1 1
Rhyolite 10 ~ - -1 - -1- - 1- - '- - ~ - J. - -1- -
I I I alblte I 1 1 , 1 I 1 1 muscovlte
13DO 1600 1900 2200 250 K-felds,ar
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 r

210 I CHAPTER
7

Strong,pervasive,
medialquartz+ sericite+ pyritealteration
facies WT 7

Sample no. 113284

Alteration
facies strong,pervasive,
medialquartz+ sericite
rn ~~;o~~~¡; ~~~~:~~;,,",

[I] Low"Ty"d,1I
Gm,pcoce,I",?
+ pyrite O,"'zpcrphy~
Centrol
V""'no Compl"
Location deepmineralisedzone !:TI :~::~:::','~::~:~1,S"CfuC;'S
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex f"i'" Andes.c"',,,;c',,"c
L..J "oes,,"" andsllts
Succession MountReadVolcanics G:J
, , Rhyotl'c"I",;"""c b"";,,
s<",dstoneands"'stone

Volcanicfacies alteredrhyolite 2000RL

Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies
Interpretation indeterminate DChkthte.sehcite'O"rtz'C",b,",tez,",
.Chlom,.sehci"" ",b,",tezo"
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite+ chalcopyrite DO"rtz.sehCIt,.py,lt,z,",
Alterationtextures pervasive: 50-100IJmmicrocrystalline .O"rtz'pymphylli,'py,lt,z,",

quartz,interstitial
shredsandseamsof
1500RL

->0.5%C,
o O"rtz'chloh',' pyhte" se,;clt,z,",

sericite,disseminatedeuhedralpyrite,
> chalcopyrite
Distribution
Geochemistry
Preservation poor Si02 72.75 K20 2.80 Rb 64 Zr 200
Alterationintensily strong Ti02 0.22 P205 0.35 Sr 111 Nb 11
Timing AI203 10.11 S 4.17 Ba 1330 Y 12
Fe203 6.11 CO2 0.02 Cu 13800
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MnO 0.01 Total 97.28 Pb 21 Al 89
MgO 0.36 LOI 4.22 Zn 32 CCPI 67
CaO 0.33 Sb 99.2 TilZr 6.6
Na20 0.05 TI <0.5

Hand specimenpholograph

Slacked SWIR speclra (hull quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol

Pholomicrograph(xn)

100
~
cale'Ie

1
1
ank"lte

1
,
,y,lte,

'.'
1 1
magnetl'e
dolomlte

,
,
&s;dehle

1
I
'cemotl'e

1
I
-
1
I
1
,
ehlmlte

X 90
<l> - r - T - -,- -,- -,- -, - T - T - -,--
'O
0.8
1 ,
~ 80
'" - ~
1
- -~: - -1_8_,- - r
1 1 , 1
~ - ~ - -'-'-
1 1 ,
Andesite.~asalt
1 ,
:
,
;t., 70 - +--
,
- Andesite-basalt
- - f-
'1
... -.. - ~
1 ~
-

06r ~- - - - - - -:- Bacite- - - - ~ - - - - - - -

15
c: 60

.: 1 .
- - - - - - - o - L - - _1- _1- - 1- - L 1. - .1113284
' , - ~, - - _,1- Cacit, _,-1 - L
1 1- .,
~ 50 -'- .L ~ - -'- -

~
, , o , 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,
$ 40 , 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,

~ °t -- -- - --: -- -- ~- j-- - -- -- ~ -- -- ---

§
~ 30
-r-

- r -
,
,
- -,-
"
-,-
IRhyolit', 1 "
-,- -,
1 1
r-T-~--
1
T - , - -,-
, ,
,
- ,hooglt'
~ - - - - *- _!'. - _.~ - - - - ~-- ¡¡: 20 - t- - - -1 - -1- - ,- - r- - t- - -t - -1- -
o
o I 1 , 1
I I 113284 : Rhyolite
I 10 .\- - -1 - -1- - ,- - '- - .\- - ~ - -1- -
1300 1600 1900 I alblte 1 , 1 1 I I I 1 museovlte
K-"'ds,..
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z'(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

"'
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 211

Intense, pervasive,proximal quartz + chlorite + pyrite ::tsericite alteration facies WT 8

Sampleno. 113264
"'Ol OwecGcoup:slllelelasbe
t:...a::J cocglom'mteacdsecdsto"'
Alterationfacies intense,pervasive,proximalquartz+
[iJ Low" TycdenGmup co,eelete?
Oue"'p"phy~
chlorite+ pyrite:t sericite C'ntmIVo'cec;eCompl"
Location deep mineralisedzone [E] ::;;:~;¡:1,f;:;~:~1esbe fec;es

Formation CentralVolcanicComplex ~
Succession MountReadVolcanics c;::;]
Volcanicfacies altereddacite 2000RL

Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies
+o DChlo'te.se'dte.que"'.e"bo",!"",
Interpretation indeterminate
Z+0°0°0'o .Ch'orit'. s"lelt,'"ro"at,zo",
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ chlorite+ pyritechal- '+ 'o °0 Doue"'.se'elt,.pyrit',,,,
°0 °0
copyrite '+0 °0 °0 ROue"'.pycophylllt,.pyrit',,,,
, 'o °0 °,
1500RL
Alterationtextures pervasive:mosaicof 40-200 ¡.Jmdusty
-!;°0 °0 o
'0°0°0'
~Oue""ehl"lte'PY,lte's"'elt"'"
, ~o °0 °0 100m
quartz,interstitialandanastomosing +.0,°_°-

sericitecleavage,irregulardomainsof
chlorite+ sulfides
Geochemistry
Distribution
Si02 58.74 K20 3.45 Rb 92 Zr 167
Preservation poor
Ti02 0.49 PPs 0.27 Sr 36 Nb 13
Alterationintensity intense S 5.38 Ba 2097 Y 25
AI203 13.65
Timing Fe203 12.66 CO2 0.17 Cu 12000
MnO 0.23 Total 97.08 Pb 15 Al 95
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MgO 1.75 LOI 6.73 Zn 99 CCPI 79
CaO 0.26 Sb 0.9 TilZr 17.6
Na20 0.03 TI <0.5

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~ py,ite,
magne!ite
&s;d"lte-
calclte €Ck"lte dolomlte '"moli'e chlorlte
100
StackedSWIRspectra(hullquotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot ,, ,, '.' , , ,, ,I ,, ,, ,,
" - ,
X 90

0.8
,,
"O
.s 80
.lB -j--,
,
- T - -, -

'"
-,-

""'" - - ~ T113264*
--,--,--,--~
.-,- - r - T - T - -,- -

, ;t" 70 - +-- - Andesite.basalt 4- -. -

,
Andesite.~asalt
I """.

.:, /.,
~ ~ ~ - 1;J60 - L - - -, - -,- -,- - L .L - -1 - -,- -
o6r
. - - - -- --
, - - - - - - , Elacite- - - - , - - - - - - c:
o
, ~ 50 - ~
I
- - _: _Dac~~
""'"
- :u ~~ - u: u
o
~ I ""'"
~0+
i=
-- - -- -- ~ o
40 I
I ""'"
" - T - -, - -

~ 30
¡¡: 20
- ,-
I
- -, - -,-
, Rhyolite,,
- ,- - r T - T - -, - -
, , ,
phenglte

o - j- - - -, - -,- -,- - t- + - ~ - -,- -

o I , , ,
Rhyolite 10 " - -, - -,- -,- - ~ - 4- - -' - -,- -
I I I muscovlte
1300 1600 1900 2200 250 albiteI , , I , , , , K-feldspar
100 200 300 400 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

212 I CHAPTER
7
7.8 I HENTY:
A VOLCANOGENIC
GOLD
DEPOSIT
1he Henty volcanogenic gold mine and nearby Mount Julia
gold prospect are hosted by Cambrian Mount Read Volcanics,
near the junctions of the North and South Henty faults
and the Great Lyell fault (Fig. 1.5). 1he deposit comprises
at least six steeply dipping, thin, stratabound, disconnected
siliceous lenses of up to a few hundred metres vertical extent,
distributed over about 2.5 km of strike length (Callaghan,
2001). 1he estimated total geological resource in Oecember
2001 was 2,154,000 tonnes at 12.1 glt Au (838,8000z.).
1his induded production of 820,000 tonnes at 17.5 glt Au
(462,0000z.).
Geological
setting
1he ore lenses lie in a laterally extensive but narrow stratabound
altered zone (A-zone ofCallaghan, 2001) at the stratigraphic
boundary between the Central Volcanic Complex and the
base of the Tyndall Group. In the Henty area these units
trend NNW to NNE and face east, with steep easterly to
slighdy overturned steep westerly dips. 1he Henty fault zone,
trending about 015° and dipping at 70° to the west, obliquely
truncates the volcanic succession. 1he stratabound altered and
mineralised zones occur in the immediate footwall of the fault
zone, extending about 200 m down-dip from the fault (Halley
and Roberts, 1997; Callaghan, 2001). 1he intersection of the
fault and the favourable stratigraphic horizon plunges at a
low angle to the south. 1his is a consequence of the gradual
change in trend and slight overturning of the host sequence,
from NNW with steep easterly dip in the south, to NNE
and steep westerly dip in the northern part of the mine area
(Halley and Roberts, 1997). As in many Au deposits, grade
cut-off s rather than lithological differences define the ore
zones (Callaghan, 1998). Most of the high-grade ore exists in
thin lenses or sheet-like bodies up to 7 m thick in the intense,
massive quartz (MQ) alteration facies (Halley and Roberts,
1997) but this facies is not uniformly auriferous (Callaghan,
2001). 1he stratigraphic upper part of the mineralised A-zone
typically has a high disseminated base-metal-sulfide content or
is spatially associated with lenses of massive pyrite or massive
to banded sphalerite + galena (Penney, 1998). Oiscontinuous
massive pyrite lenses up to 2 m thick exist at this stratigraphic
level for 600 m of strike but extend less than 150 m down-dip
from the Henty fault.
Feldspar-phyric to aphyric dacitic lavas and rare basaltic
lavas intercalated with dacitic to basaltic hyalodastite and
polymictic volcanic breccias of the Central Volcanic Complex
dominate the stratigraphic footwall between the Henty
fault and A-zone (e.g. data sheet HNl: Callaghan, 1998).
1he footwall succession indudes discontinuous calcareous
volcanidastic units and hematitic fossiliferous limestone.
Immobile element ratios indicate that the protoliths of the
altered and mineralised zone were compositionally uniform
dacitic volcanic units.
1he stratigraphic hanging wall, immediately east of the
A-zone, comprises massive, andesitic, feldspar crystal-rich
volcanic sandstone (e.g. data sheet HN2), dacitic volcanic
breccia, lavas and polymictic volcano-sedimentary breccia,
,
intercalated with calcareous volcanic sandstone, hematitic
fossiliferous limestone and minor mudstone.1his lithologically
diverse part of the hanging wall succession, up to 200 m
thick, is recognised as the Lynchford Member: the lowermost
unit of the Tyndall Group (Callaghan, 2001). Ir is succeeded
eastwards by the Mount Julia Member consisting of graded
rhyolitic breccia, quartz + feldspar-rich volcanic sandstone and
minor siltstone intruded by southward thickening quartz +
feldspar porphyritic rhyolite sills, cryptodomes and associated
hyalodastites. Overlying this is a thick succession of quartz-
rich epidastic sandstone and volcanolithic conglomerate (Zig
Zag Hill Formation), which passes conformably eastwards
into silicidastic and micaceous sandstone and conglomerate.
White and McPhie (1996) interpreted the massive
crystal-rich volcanic sandstone of the Lynchford and Mount
Julia Members as originating from large subaerial or shallow
marine explosive eruptions that produced pyrodastic flows,
which transgressed into a shallow marine environment. 1he
fossil assemblage in the limestone units Qago et al., 1972)
and local welded ignimbrite units in the Mount Julia Member
(White and McPhie, 1996) also indicate that the Henty host
rocks, or at least those immediately overlying the mineralised
zone, were deposited in a near-shore, shallow-marine setting.
Alteration
faciesandzonation
1he distribution of alteration facies in this elongate and
stratabound alteration system reflects decreasing alteration
intensity down-dip away from its intersection with the Henty
fault zone, and differing thermo-chemical conditions from
footwall to hanging wall. Table 7.2 summarises the features of
the Henty-Mount Julia alteration facies.
A moderate, footwall sericite + quartz :t carbonate alter-
ation facies (MA) occupies the wedge of stratigraphic footwall
between the Au-bearing A-zone and the Henty fault.
1he A-zone has a discontinuous sheet-like inner zone
of intense, massive quartz alteration facies (MQ, e.g. data
sheet 7), which is composed of microcrystalline quartz with
multiple generations of fine veinlets of quartz + calcite :t
sulfides (pyrite, chalcopyrite and galena, which contain most
of the Au). Ir grades outwards (stratigraphically up and down
as well as down-dip away from the fault) through intense,
proximal, domainal quartz + sericite alteration facies (MV,
e.g. data sheet HN6) to intense, foliated sericite + quartz +
chlorite + pyrite alteration facies (MZ, e.g. data sheet HN5).
1hese enveloping alteration facies have progressively less
quartz and greater phyllosilicate contents and exist in variable
proportions in different parts of the deposit. 1hey typically
have sericitic groundmasses with foliated to schistose fabrics
anastomosing around small siliceous domains that possibly
represent silicified lithic dasts (Callaghan, 2001). Massive
pyrite lenses at the stratigraphic top of the A-zone grade
laterally and down-dip to massive carbonate alteration facies
(CB, e.g. data sheet HN4) in peripheral areas. 1his facies
indudes massive rocks composed of carbonate + chlorite,
and thin bands and lenses of carbonate that are difficult
to distinguish from fossiliferous limestone. Some of the
carbonate bands contain fragments of red jasper.
A zone of strong, selective, hanging wall albite + quartz
alteration facies (e.g. data sheet HN3) lies either immediately
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 213

above (Callaghan, 2001) or 20-40 m stratigraphically above
the mineralised zone (Halley and Roberts, 1997). In proximal
areas, the hanging wall albite + quartz alteration facies is up to
100 m thick, possibly extending up to the base of the Zig Zag
Hill Formation (Callaghan, 1998). Ir is considered to be of
hydrothermal origin, distinct from regional-scale diagenetic
albite alteration facies.
Oregenesis
Halley and Roberrs (1997) interpreted Henty as a Au-rich
volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit because ofits association
with conformable pyrite and carbonate lenses, colloform
textures in pyrite, the presence of red jasper clasts that resemble
siliceous exhalites, and C-, 0- and Pb-isotopic data that
indicate a Cambrian synvolcanic origin for the stratabound
alteration system. 1hey suggested that its unusual highAu/Ag
ratios, extent of footwall silicification and high proportion of
base-metal sulfides disseminated in the upper altered footwall
zone were due to the shallow-marine, near-shore setting where
input of meteoric water produced low-salinity hydrothermal
fluids, which boiled and cooled at some depth below the
seafloor. Although the Au in the intense, massive quartz
alteration facies exists largely in late-stage veinlets related to
Devonian brittle deformation and remobilisation, there is no
evidence for addition of metals during this evento
Callaghan (2001) proposed synvolcanic inputs of
magmatic volatiles, fluids and metals to account for the Au
+ Cu + Bi + Ag + Te metal association and Al mobility in the
intense, massive quartz alteration facies, which are atypical of
seawater dominated VHMS systems. He envisaged a low pH,
high salinity, submarine, subseafloor type of pulsed magmatic
plus seawater, high-sulfidation epithermal system. 1his model
invokes the proto-Henty fault as a magmatic volatile and fluid
conduit that reactivated during Devonian deformation to
dislocate the eastern and western halves of the hydrothermal
system.

Table7.2 I TheHenly-Mounl
JuliaalleralionfaciesandIheirdefiningcharaclerislics
(Callaghan,
1998).
Alterationfacies Code Mineralassemblage Sulfides Gold Distribution
('Yo) (g/t) "..
Intense,massive MQ Quartz:t(carbonate, sericite, -2 Variable; ThinlensesincoreofA-zone.
quartz pyrite,chalcopyrite, galena, average36
gold)
Intense,proximal MV Quartz+ sericite:t 0.1to5 0.1to 1 Enclosingandgradationalto intensemassive
quartz+ sericite (carbonate, pyrite, quartzalteration
facies.
chalcopyrite, galena,
sphalerite)
Intense,peripheral MZ Sericite+ quartz+ pyrite 2-10 0.5to2 Peripheral,
enveloping the¡ntenseproximal
sericite+quartz+ + chlorite:t(carbonate, quartz+ sericitealterationfacies.
chlorite+ pyrite chalcopyrite, galena)
Massivecarbonate CS Calcite :t chlorite <10 ? Discontinuous stratiformlensesatstratigraphic
topofA-zoneinperipheral partsofthesystem;
laterallyequivalent
to massivepyritelenses.
Moderate, footwall MA Sericite+ quartz:t <2 ? Stratigraphicfootwall,infelsicvolcanicrocks
sericite+ quartz:t (carbonate,pyrite) betweenHentyfaultandA-zone.
carbonate
Strong,hangingwall AS Albite+quartz:t (chlorile) O O DirectlyadjacenlloA-zoneandextendinguplo
albile+ quartz 100miniohangingwallsuccession.
 ....

214 I CHAPTER
7

Moderate
albite+ chlorite+ calcitealteration
facies HN1
Least-alteredhostrock

l..
Sample no. 255005 , ,' , ,
.AJ",'O""""""
Alteration
Facies moderatealbite+ chlorite+ calcite ", ,, D Mass',earbonatezo",
Massi" p,,""OO'

, , ,,
Location downdipofA-zone , o Sencit,. o"''''.
chlom" pyMl,zo",

Formation CentralVolcanicComplex , ,, , D Q",'""''''''00'

, o IIhI Massi"
o"''''zo"'
Succession MountReadVolcanics , o IIhI AJ",'ehk,m,' ealeito
zo"'

Volcanicfacies massiveplagioclase-phyric
dacite ,
Relictminerals albitisedplagioclase
phenocrysts ,
,
Relicttextures porphyritic ,
Primarycompositiondacite ,
Lithofacies massiveto brecciated , TYNDALLGROUP
Zig Zag Hi" Foona'oo

Interpretation dacitelava , 'o' Q","'.nch"IeaoieCQoglom"ate

lS'..J saod"oo,
MI JoIiaMom'"
aod

Alterationminerals albite + chlorite+ calcite+ quartz '0\ o IIhI ~~~::;~~;:,~¡ :i:cia, saodsto""
Lyochto",Momtiec

Alterationtextures selective-pervasivein irregularchloriteand [ZJ Aodesmef,'dsp" ""tal.neh ',oleaoie

saodsto"",.eaoog"" """'"
calciteveinletsand blebs,albite :t sericite- , limestoo"od
m"d"oo,
'o.\ CENTRALVOLCAJNIC COMPLEX

altered plagioclase .o' ,~\ CEIDacitic,

lochyo,"ela,"S,mooomietie
"Ieao>etxoooasaodm"ochmeslooe
Distribution regional
Preservation moderate
Geochemistry
Alterationintensity moderate 0.97 Sr 114 Nb 40.9
Si02 58.40 K20
Timing synvolcanicplus subsequentfault-related Ti02 0.46 P20s 0.17 Ba 327 Y 28
deformation
AI203 12.50 S 0.01 Cu 7
Alterationstyle diageneticandtectonicdeformation 6.82 Pb 8 Al 15
Fe203 4.42 CO2
MnO 0.13 Total 99.15 Zn 139 CCPI 48
MgO 1.51 LOI 7.91 Sb 1.2 Ti/Zr 14.7
CaO 8.71 TI 0.5
Na20 5.05 Au 0.005 Zr 188

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

100
.
ealcit,
p,m"magnelit,
&sideeit,-
an'e",e dolomit, !cemotite chlo'ite
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot
_90
~ :
0.8 ~O>80 --.m:m.m: I
...:..u
, ,A...
, , , :,
.E 70 m.:uu u.,uU,uu,uU,'
, , , ,
u
>.
a. ,, , , , ,
'--.uu,uu,uu,. ..
~---- --: --- --- i u- ~u; u,:/- -;- --- u " * , , , ,
u u u

0.6 60 .u;m. , , , ,
e ,
Andesile-basalt: :/8: Dacite: , 'Dac'" ,

;*255005: ~ 50 55005-:-m;.m:.
, , , ,
u
uu*

40
:~ <'?
.s

~ 30
uu~m

.L.--'_.--C.
:
-- phengite
O ,
,,"yolile
, ,
: ,
¡¡:
O r ,
20 ..¡¡¡:.m
010
,
U',U'-,U",-_u,-
, , ,

1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 albite m",covite

K.leld,pa'
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr Al (Ishikawa Alleralion Index)
 iI
, ,-

LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 215

Weak,selectivealbite + chlorite+ calcitealterationfacies HN2

Least-alteredhangingwall
Sampleno, 255024
r
Alteration
facies weak,selectivealbite+ chlorite+ calcite r
r r

Location lowerhangingwallunit+ downdipofA-

zone
r
r

r r
.:i: ¡: ¡. .
Formation ::'/,t' ~':' ~ o Massi"quartmoe
Lynchford
Member(TyndallGroup) ':<ro' ~ '0' ~ o Albite'ch"hte'calcite",,,
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies massive,feldsparcrystal-rich
volcanicastic <:,,\:: : ::: : '
sandstone
r
Relictminerals albitisedplagioclase
crystals
):)\f:::: OWENGROUP
~
Relicttextures abundant sand-sized
crystalsandsparse .;: '; ',)0'
. " .'", o
.o.
'
o Silicidaslicsandstooeandconglom"ate
r ,e,;"':"'o' TYNDALLGROUP
lithicclasts,subangular , ','.:: ,""" 'o .°. ZigZagHiI","na'on
Primarycompositionandesite ,'., :,'c':\ ,°,
, ", " ," \ o
GJ;;:':d':i;~~"'canicconglomerateand
MtMa Memb<;,

Lithofacies massiveto crudelybanded,moderately ,::\',

.'..
',::, ,i"
'.'."',\0 .
o D Rhyolilic,,'canicb,,,,cia,sandstone,
c~ptodomesandsi"s
:::.:;, ::'. "'o', LynchfocdMembe,
wellsorted,matrixsupported
. " :> " ;'t ,° ~ ~~~¿;;:~:~~~~~0e~~t;~~~anic
Interpretation volcaniclastic
mass-flow deposit ; "":;" '''.~'::, ,'; . ~ limestoneandmudstone
ej.:,.,:
' ' ' " .,'.'; '.'-.',,;< ,°. o CENTRALVOLCANICCOMPLEX
Alterationminerals albite+ chlorite
+ calcite> sericite ~ , [[] Dac,t"to"yol.cl"as,monomiclic
;
~ 25,5 024
:::":;'~"':~
'-,'" ,,'.,- I. o. \
'
"'can"b,eooasandm,,oclimestone
Alterationtextures selective-pervasivealbite+ chlorite-altered "; .::>" "",,:,,'.',",C' '." '
r r ,. ,.,' 100m
matrix,irregulardiscontinuouscalcite
veinlets,domainalmicrocrystalline quartz+ Geochemistry
chlorite+ pyrite Si02 54.90 K20 0.29 Au 0.005 Zr 130
Distribution regional Ti02 0,64 P20S 0,09 Sr 134 Nb 29.6

Preservation moderate AI203 14.40 S 0.08 Ba 127 Y 22

Fep3 3.73 CO2 6.97 Cu 7
Alterationintensity weak
MnO 0,19 Total 98,89 Pb 5 Al 12
Timing synvolcanic 1.81 LOI 8.72 Zn 132 CCPI 42
MgO
Alterationstyle diagenetic
andtectonicdeformation CaO 9.05 Sb 0.8 Ti/Zr 29,5
Na20 6.74 TI 0.5

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

... py,i1e,
magnetite
&sidehte -
caleite anke;ite dolomite 1;emolite ehlohte
100
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot
,,90
'"
0.8 ~ 80
'"
.+.
: 255024: ~
D. 70
0.6~mm:n..u:m.--:
, '*' $ 60 ..
:. : Dacite oge

N°.4
Andesile-basalt:
.. '" 50 ----:....
-e
u
A?40
.*2 502
o
F
i5
1: 30 phengite
S2..
o:: 20
u 8:-- --
u 10
albite musocvite
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 K.feldspa,
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr Al (Ishlkawa Alteration Index)
216 I CHAPTER
7

Strong, selective, hanging-waU albite + quartz alteration facies HN3

Hangingwall
Sampleno. 255038 ,
, , , lIII>Jbll"q"",,,",
Alteration facies strong,selective,hangingwallalbite+ r
, , ~MaSSI"earbona1ezooe

quartz(AS) , , .Massl"pyM1ezo",

Location hangingwall,+ 70mstratigraphically , 01I11III Senel1e'q,,",'chlome'pyrilOlooe

, D Q,,", "ene'Olone
aboveA-zone , o 1LT'3IMasslvequa",zone

Formation MountJuliaMember(TyndallGroup)
, ' o ID AIMe' ehlome'cale'Olone

Succession MountReadVolcanics o

Volcanic facies massivevolcanicastic

sandstone , o
Relict minerals
,
quartzandalbitisedplagioclase
crystals
Relict textures sparsecrystalsandfewlithicclastsin
TYNDALLGROUP
10-20¡.1mmatrix ZigZag H;;IFonnation

Primary composition rhyolite 'o' Q,,",-neh

lS'..Jsandslone
MI Julia Membe<
volean. conglomern1e and

Lithofacies massiveto crudelybanded -o" 01 D ~~~¡~~~~:~~¡ ::,¡,ooa, sandslone

LynehfoldMembe<

Interpretation volcaniclastic
mass-flow
deposit , D Andesilie fe~spac aysfal-lieh
sandslone,volcanogeniebleccia,
voleanie

IImee'oneandmudslone
Alteration minerals albite+ quartz> sericite> chlorite+ calcite ~.\ CENTRALVOLCANICCOMPLEX
-0.1 ~ mvoleanieblecclasac'dminollimesfone
,- Daeltie lo rt1y~"e lavas, monomictie
Alteration textures selective-pervasive alteredmatrix,
microcrystalline albite+ quartzmatrixwith
minorinterstitialchlorite,quartz+ calcite
infillirregularveinlets,sericiteinlater Geochemistry
parallelveinlets Si02 77.70 K20 0.29 Sr 47 Nb 14.6
Distribution localandstratabound inhangingwall Ti02 0.16 P20S 0.01 Ba 100 Y 26
sequence AI203 12.10 S 0.00 Cu 4
Preservation moderate Fe203 1.13 CO2 0.99 Pb 2 Al 8
Alteration intensity strong MnO 0.02 Total 100.09 Zn 100 CCPI 17
MgO 0.36 LOI 0.90 Sb 0.9 TilZr 5.3
Timing albite+ quartzprobablysynvolcanic,
CaO 0.75 TI 0.5
sericiteveinletssyndeformation
Na20 6_57 Au 0.005 Zr 182
Alteration style hydrothermal?

Handspecimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot

100
~
caleile
PYlile.magoelite &sidacile
aokacile dolomile lcamolite
- ehlol"e

90
xQ)
0.8 ~ 80
Q)
'E
>- 70
Q.
,.
0.6 "------ 2 60f~-----
~
Eso
<ti
C\jOA
'-? 40
,g¡
o
¡:: ~
o
30 pheogile

~
o
20

010
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 museov"e
K-feldspal
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Zr Al (Ishikawa Meration Index)
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 217
RELATED

Massivecarbonatealterationfacies HN4
Host-rockequivalent?
Sampleno. 255050 ,
, IIIIl'Jb',.q,,"'''"'
,
'.m
Alterationfacies massivecarbonate
, ' l1li Massl" pym",",
Mass"" carbonat,
zon,

Location upperA-zone,laterallyequivalent
to ,
massivepyrite
, , o
O °"'" ",""",",
Serie','q""" chlorit,.py'",,"'

O lO Massl"q,,"'''"'
Formation LynchfordMember(TyndallGroup)or O Alblt,. chlom,' cale', zo",
CentralVolcanicComplex
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies marinelimestone withminorvolcaniclastic
component
Relictminerals calcite+ plagioclase
+ quar!z
Relicttextures plagioclase
andquartzcrystalfragments TYNDALLGROUP
Zlg Zag HIII Formaboo

r;;-1 O"",.'eh"'caolecooglom,rn,,aod
Primarycomposition '-"-J saodsto",
MtMaM,mber

Lithofacies massivetothinlybedded . ~\ 01 D ~~~::;~~~~¡ ~,~'a. saodsto",

LyochfordM'mber

Interpretation impuremarinecarbonate , [i'J Aodesme

saod~o""
f'ldspar e<ystal-<ich "'caole
"'cao09oo" brewa,
IIm,sto", aod mudst,",
Alterationminerals calcite? ~ .\ CENTRALVOLCANICCOMPLEX

~ [[J
Alterationtextures 10-50IJmmicrocrystalline
calcite,calcite , ,
o . \
Dacltle,fo rnyolme ,,,''. mooomletle
"'cao,, b_a"",, mloor IIm,~o",

veins,stylolites
Distribution localandstratabound
in peripheralupper
par!ofA-zone Geochemistry
Si02 22.80 K20 0.58 Sr 263 Nb 1.0
Preservation moderate
Ti02 0.18 P20s 0.08 Ba 476 Y 16
Alterationintensity weak 4.16 S 0.72 Cu 21
AI203
Timing synvolcanic
diagenesis,syndeformational Fe203 2.33 CO2 24.70 Pb 76 Al 4
dynamicrecrystallisation MnO 0.26 Total 94.44 Zn 100 CCPI 60
Alterationstyle diagenetic
andtectonic-metamorphic, 0.85 LOI 29.11 Sb 10.0 Ti/Zr 22.0
MgO
doubtfulhydrothermal
carbonate CaO 36.40 TI 0.5
component
Na20 1.38 Au 0.017 Zr 49

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

pyrlt,.
magn,';',
&sldedte-
"'erl" dofomlte tremollte ehfo""
StackedSWIRspectra(hull quotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot
'X 90
Q) :
~ 80 -- -. --- -,----" -- --,--
0.8
Q) ::
, , , ,
~
Q.
70 ','
, u,u
, ','
, --,-
,
0.6
,
~- -- ---; ---
'.'
---; - n - n;--- 0+ --:u ':-
~ 60
Andesile-basalt: :' ~ 50 m_
:-- . - :,--Dacite:, u:--
(3 . .
~o 40t -- --~-- .
.
,,
, , ", ,
,
§0.4
' - -- L- --,----c-- - 0- phenglte
---;~~~~~--- -t - ,-- :c 30 :-::
S<. ,, ,, ,, ,,
0.2 1 J:..-~ ¡¡: 20 -- -, -- --,--", -- - ',"
o --.:----
010 museov'e
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 alblt,
K-feldspa'
o 50 100 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 ..

218 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,foliatedsericite+ quartz+ chlorite+ pyritealterationfacies HN5

Footwall?
Sampleno. 255030 ,
.Alb;t,.,""",,",
Alterationfacies intense,foliatedsericite+ quartz+ chlorite ", , ¡¡¡¡¡']Massi",,"'onat'''"'
.Massi"py<it'''"'
+ pyrite(MZ) o 'II1II S€rieit,. ,oartz. chlomo< pyrit, "",
Location peripheralalteredzone , , CJ Ooartz'",rie',,,",

o 'CJ Massi",oartzzo",
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex , o ICJ Alb;t,.ehlorit,.cale'Olo",
Succession MountReadVolcanics ,
Volcanicfacies volcaniclastic
breccia ,
Relictminerals minorquartz ,
Relicttextures blockyclasts
Primarycompositiondacite , TYNDALLGROUP
Zig Zag Hill FmmaliDO
Lithofacies indeterminate 'al Ooartz-rieh
,,'eanieconglom,,,', and
LZ.J sand~o",
MIJ"liaM,m'"
Interpretation indeterminate
. ~\ 01 O ~~~¡:~~:~~¡ ~i~a, sa"dslo""
Alterationminerals sericite+ quartz+ pyrite+ chlorite Ly",liforoM'm'"

CJ ""desitie f'ldsp" e<ystal-liehyoleanie

sandslo"" "'canogenie"''''ia.
Alterationtextures foliated,semi-mylonitic,
disseminated IImeslDO,andm""st""

~-\ CENTRALVOLCANICCOMPlEX
pyrite,non-foliated
domainsofquartz+ . ~
o - \ [[]
,- Dacitie lo rhyol.e
"'canlO '"ceias
lavas, mDOomietie
and minm limesloo,
calcite> sericite
Distribution local,enclosingmineralised lens
Preservation poor Geochemistry
intense Si02 65.30 K20 5.35 Sr 15 Nb 29.4
Alterationintensily
Ti02 0.53 P2°5 0.12 Ba 475 Y 25
Timing synmineralisation
AI203 15.00 S 3.31 Cu 22
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
andtectonic-metamorphic 0.88 Pb 30 Al 83
FeP3 6.18 CO2
MnO 0.03 Total 99.32 Zn 100 CCPI 54
MgO 1.28 LOI 4.85 Sb 3.1 Ti/Zr 18.5
CaO 0.97 TI 2.0
Na20 0.37 Au 0.424 Zr 172

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

.,¡
caleite
100
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot
90
x
'"
0.8 ~ 80
'"
'E
>-70
c..
0.6 ~u u u:--- - u; --- ~u~u- cb 60 .--m

Andesiie-basalt: ,-
¡g ,
.8 50 '.'
¡¡; :
",004
o
~ 40 -- --~-- ,
i= ~
o
30 p"cogil'

0.2 "u u-
. iio 20 [ --.:--,
010
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 aJbite m"",oyite
K-feldspar
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o
Zr
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 219

Intense,proximal,domainalquartz+ sericitealterationfacies HN6

Footwall?
Sampleno. 255053
r r o 1l1li AlbO..q"cmoe
Alterationfacies intense,proximal,
domainalquartz+ r r r 13!'!11
Massi"eart"mate,ooe
,-
sericite(MV) l1li Massi" pyrit"ooe
o 1l1li Serie'e' q"rtz' chlorite' ,yrite ,one
Location proximalalteredzoneenclosingand O o"rtz'""ie'e,one
transitional
to mineralised
MQ o lO Ma"SI"q"rtz"oe

Formation ,- o IO Albite' ehlorite'ea"e "oe

CentralVolcanicComplex
Succession MountReadVolcanics
Volcanicfacies indeterminate
Relictminerals ni!
OWEN
GROUP
Relicttextures nil ~ Silieielas"e,,'dstooesad co'glom"ale

TYNDALLGROUP
Primarycompositiondacite Zig Zag Hill Formation

~ O"rtz-hch,,'ea'ieco'g'om"ate sa'
Lithofacies indeterminate l2..J "sa'"lone
MIJulia Memb€r

indeterminate ,- . .'\ 01D ~~b::;~~~::;~~;;roa, ",,'"Ione

Interpretation L,"hford Memb€r

Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite r [i'J AA'esitie feldspa, e<ys~l-heh "Iea"e

"sa'stone, ,,'ea'09"" b"",a,
, IImestooesadmudstooe
Alterationtextures 10-40IJmmicrocrystalline suturedmosaic " .1 CENTRALVOLeANle eOMPLEX
,
.,~ [TI
\
,- Daclbe lo rhyoliticla"s, monomictie
"Iea,ie b"caas "d mico, limeslooe
ofquartz,selectivedomainalsericitewith
o

cleavage,disseminated pyrite
Distribution local,enclosingmineralisedlens
Geochemistry
Preservation poor 1.94 Sr 9 Nb 12.2
Si02 88.10 K20
Alterationintensity intense Ti02 0.44 P205 0,03 Ba 100 Y 14
Timing synmineralisation AI203 6.29 S 0.54 Cu 913
Fe203 1.21 CO2 0.37 Pb 24 Al 85
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MnO 0.01 Total 99.63 Zn 100 CCPI 41
MgO 0.31 LOI 1.44 Sb 1.6 TilZr 14.8
CaO 0.31 TI 0.9
Na20 0.08 Au 0.318 Zr 178

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

~
ealeite
100
StackedSWIR spectra(hullquotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot
90
X
"
0,8 ~ 80
"
.E
>- 70

0.6~mm~_-
, '.
--~----- --~uu ~" 6° .-~--- ,
Andesite-basald " ,
~ ---r.-
50
O 40 u.u -
~ 1
u,

,he'gile
§0.4 r mm ¡m m;- ;/uu, ~ 30 '
0,2
¡¡:
O 20 u.iu ,
t
010 '
1600 atbite museovrte
1300 1900 2200 2500 K-felds,ac
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
220 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,massivequartzalteration
facies HN7
Footwall?
Sampleno. 255044 ,,,
./>Jbite.,,,,,,,,,,,,
Alterationfacies intense,massivequartz(MQ) ,, ~Massi"carbooatezone

Location centralsiliceouscoreofA-zone , , .Massi"pyritezone

, ol.Serieite.,,,"'.chIOrite.p,"lezo",
[Jo,,"'.serie'ezo",
Formation CentralVolcanicComplex
, o '[] Massi",,,,,,zo",
Suceession MountReadVolcanics o I[J />JMe.
chlorite.
calcitezone
, o
Volcanicfacies indeterminate
,,
Relictminerals sparsepolycrystalline
quartzcrystals?,
pseudomorphs offeldspar?
,
Relicttextures porphyritic? OWEN GROV?
0 Siliciclastesandsloneandconglomecate
Primarycompositiondacite
,, TYNDAll GROV?
ZigZagHiIlF"ma"on
Lithofacies indeterminate ~ Ouartz.rieh,,'canieconglomemleand
lS'..Jsandstone

Interpretation indeterminate , MIJulia Membec

, '" olD Rhyolitie"'canieb",,,ia,sandstone,

e~plodomesand""s
Alterationminerals quartz+ calcite+ pyrite+ chalcopyrite lyochfornMembec
l1:J Andesitie feldsp" ",stal-fieh ,,'canie
sandSlone, "'canogen" b,,,,ia,
Alterationtextures 20-40 [.1mmicrocrystalline in coarse IImeslo", and mudslone

~J
~ [[],
CENTRALVOlCANIC COMPlEX
and fine equigranulardomainsof quartz, . Daeitie lo rnydoe '"as, monomictie
o . \ "'ean" b>ecoasandmin"limestone
disseminatedcalcite blebs,possiblecalcite ,
pseudomorphsafterfeldsparcrystals,
pyrite+ chlorite:t calciteveinlets
Distribution Geochemistry
local,ore lens 87.70 K20 0.24 Au 0.048 Zr 163
Si02
Preservation poor Ti02 0.39 PPs 0.04 Sr 23 Nb 2.3
Alterationintensity intense AI203 0.80 S 0.22 Ba 100 Y 12
Timing synmineralisation Fe203 1.17 CO2 4.25 Cu 1690
MnO 0.07 Total 100.35 Pb 47 Al 6
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MgO 0.12 LOI 4.33 Zn 100 CCPI 80
CaO 5.29 Sb 1.6 Ti/Zr 14.3
Nap 0.05 TI 0.5

'"

".""

,
. t-

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- py'ite,
magnetite&
sid"ite
-
calcite ank"ite dolomite l>emolite chlorite
100
StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

0.8
, ,
"
x- 90

~
" 80. * ','~'

255,
'
44;
.;.m:nn~nn:u

m .:m.
"'''.nu'uuO.
: An'-+' :
-- --:.'-'nOn..un'nn

, , ~ 70 m.:nu..
',un,' n~m~u.

I '., ..

0.6~--m.~mmt r-- Dacite D"',

",OA Andesi!e-basalt
o -.-/---:*
I
i ~ !. ~ 40 m~--- ,,: ,";
F
_~B- ' 55044 : n."----'u_.O.
,. ,:
--'-:.
+ui.-:.n
I phengite
r
: 8 : :'o.,",,.',,,,
SI. 30 u.~nn
""yol",: ' n.; :u..~ --~--.;nn:

0.2
1:
~ 'T~I...;m~=,mlum~:
()
20
10
".:'---,
'
--.:u
~. .;--n:
u~m.:.
~nn:.n.~--.;--
n:---:mnm

1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 alMe : ' , , , , , mUSCQvite

K.feldsp"
o 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr Al (Ishikawa Meration Index)

7.9 I THALANGA:
A POLYMETALLlC
SHEET.STYLE
DEPOSIT
1he 1halanga deposit is located near the western end of the
Early Ordovician Mount Windsor Subprovince (Fig. 1.7). Ir
was the most economically significant deposit in the Mount
Windsor Subprovince. 1he sulfide lenses were up to 25 m
thick and distributed over about 3000 m strike and 400 m
vertical extent. 1he pre-mining resource estimate was 6.6 Mt
grading 1.8% Cu, 2.6% Pb, 8.4% Zn, 69 glt Ag and 0.4 glt
Au.
Geologicalsetting
1he 1halanga deposit consisted of several semi-connected,
thin, stratabound and stratiform massive sulfide lenses hosted
in a distinctive quartz crystal-rich volcanic unit, which
is sandwiched between the underlying rhyolitic Mount
Windsor Formation and the overlying mixed andesitic-dacitic
Trooper Creek Formation (Fig. 7.23). 1he host unit (known
as the 1halanga horizon or favourable unit) is composed of
quartz + feldspar crystal-rich volcanic breccia, sandstone
and siltstone, and co-magmatic, peperitic quartz + feldspar
intrusions (Paulick and McPhie, 1999).
Sedimentaryfacies
~ Thinlybeddedsandstone
:t siltstone,dominantly
~ volcanicprovenance
¡-::::.::::j Massivesandstone:tsiltstone,mixed
.: ::.:: :: continental
andvolcanicprovenance
Syneruptiveandresedimentedvolcaniclasticfacies
1::~: 1 Mafic breccias
¡ ~ :f ~j Felsic breccia and crystal-rich sandstone
G Felsicpumiceousbrecciaandsandstone
FIGURE7.23 I Schematicfaciesarchileclure01Ihe submarinevolcanicsuccession,lrom the MounlWindsor Volcanics,
Ihrough Ihe TrooperCreek Formalion,lo Ihe RolIslonRangeFormalion,northwesl01Ihe Thalangamine, Queensland.
Modiliedalter HiII(1996).
LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 221
1he ores are massive to semi-massive lenses dominated
by pyrite and sphalerite with variable proportions of galena,
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite and barite (Gregory et
al., 1990). Barite-rich zones exist in the up-dip and western
pe~ipheries of the West and East 1halanga lenses. Chlorite +
tremolite + carbonate rocks, interpreted as metamorphosed
chlorite + carbonate alteration assemblages (Herrmann and
Hill, 2001), are dosely associated with the West 1halanga
ore lenses. Magnetite-bearing quartzite bodies in the
peripheral or upper parts of some of the sulfide lenses, and
also intercalated with volcanic siltstone of the host unit to
the west, are interpreted to be metamorphosed exhalative
siliceous ironstones (Duhig et al., 1992).
1he stratigraphic footwall is a laterally extensive,
1200 m thick, submarine rhyolitic succession. Ir is domin-
ated by sparsely quartz + feldspar-phyric coherent rhyolitic
lavas (e.g. data sheet THl) and domes that may have
formed a low volcanic rise in the 1halanga area (Paulick and
McPhie, 1999). Rhyolitic hyalodastite breccias and volcanic
sandstones are locally significant, particularly in the upper
part of the footwall beneath the western sulfide lenses. lhe
hanging wall succession is composed mainly of unaltered
to weakly altered coherent lavas and sills of feldspar-phyric
to aphyric dacite (e.g. data sheet TH2), and minor basaltic-
andesite. At 1halanga, it in dudes minor volcanidastic rocks
Lavas, domes, synvolcanic sills
1 > ~A>j Basalt/andesite
.
0
Feldspar-phyric
dacite
t:~ j",;1
~ Quartz+ feldspar-phyricrhyolite
Massivesulfide
222 I 7
CHAPTER
of mixed dacitic-rhyolitic derivation, including lithic mass-
How breccia, sandstone and massive to laminated cherty
siltstone, which increase in proportion westward. Paulick and
McPhie (1999) interpreted the volcanic facies assemblage
to indicate that the deposit formed in a below-storm-wave-
base environment on an elevated, lava-dominated, rhyolitic
centre. 1he compositions of the footwall and hanging wall
successions, respectively, indicate that they were rhyolitic
magmas derived from crustal melting, and mixed-mafic-felsic
magmas from subduction-modified mantle, in an extensional
back-arc-basin setting (Stolz, 1995).
Regional deformation and metamorphism, related to
Mid-Late Ordovician granitoid intrusions produced upper
greenschist facies metamorphic mineral assemblages and
a near-vertical foliation, particularly in phyllosilicate-rich
hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks.
Alteration
faciesandzonation
Underlying the 1halanga deposit is an extensive zone of strong,
pervasive quartz + sericite + pyrite :t chlorite alteration facies
(e.g. data sheet TH3) characterised by 1-4% disseminated
pyrite and an absence of primary feldspars. 1his alteration
style was pervasive in both clastic and coherent rhyolites,
and typically produced pseudoclastic breccia and mottled,
domainal alteration textures (Paulick and McPhie, 1999). 1he
zone extends beneath the entire strike length of the deposit
and is at least 200 m thick in the Central area, pinching out
to less than 50 m near the lateral and down-dip extremities
(Herrmann and Hill, 2001). Ir has a broad, upward Haring
shape and gradational boundaries with the surrounding least-
altered rhyolites.
Within the broad zone of feldspar destruction there are
semi-stratiform stringer zones of intense, pervasive quartz +
pyrite alteration facies (e.g. data sheetTH4) up to 50 m thick.
1hey extend obliquely up through the footwall at about ISO
to the host unit and intersect it beneath the East, Central and
eastern edge of the West 1halanga ore lenses, suggesting that
they were paths of maximum hydrothermal Huid How.1hese
zones are composed essentially of quartz and up to 20% pyrite
in disseminated grains and anastomosing veins. 1hey typically
contain less than 20% phyllosilicates (sericite :t chlorite).
Intense, microcrystalline quartz + K-feldspar alteration facies
(e.g. data sheet TH5) exist in the immediate footwall, lateral
to the sulfide lens and stringer zone at East 1halanga, and also
stratigraphically lower in the footwall succession at Central
and West 1halanga.
Stratabound chlorite + dolomite altered zones, sub-
sequently metamorphosed to chlorite + tremolite :t carbonate
assemblages, formed in permeable volcaniclastic footwall
rocks close to the palaeo-seaHoor and lateral to the West
1halanga ore lenses (stratabound alteration facies; data sheets
TH6, 7 and 8). Local zones of non-pyritic, foliated altered
rhyolite with relict plagioclase (moderate, foliated sericite
+ chlorite alteration facies; data sheet TH9), exist within
the least-altered rhyolite, mainly around the peripheries of
the feldspar-destructive, strong quartz + sericite + pyrite :t
chlorite alteration facies, and may represent low-temperature
hydrothermal recharge zones.
Oregenesis
1here is consensus amongst researchers that 1halanga is
a sheet-like, synvolcanic, deformed and metamorphosed
VHMS deposit formed in a deep-marine back-arc rift.
Isotopic data suggests that the hydrothermal Huid and sulfur
were dominantly of seawater origin (Hill, 1996; Herrmann
and Hill, 2001). 1he hydrothermal system pervasively altered
a very broad zone in the mainly coherent rhyolitic footwall
succession to quartz + sericite + pyrite :t chlorite assemblages.
1he ore-forming Huids were focussed in low-angle quartz +
pyrite stringer zones. 1hese pyritic stringer zones have a semi-
stratiform distribution, which suggests control by volcanic
facies related permeability contrasts. However, some appear
to cut through coherent rhyolite units and thus may represent
deformed synvolcanic fault zones (Paulick and McPhie,
1999).
A major proportion of the massive sulfide ore was
deposited in thin, extensive, stratiform and stratabound
lenses, either directly on the palaeo-seafloor or a few metres
below it. 1he distribution of massive pyrite and Cu-rich zones
suggests that the down-dip eastern parts ofWest and Central
1halanga ore bodies, and central part of East 1halanga, were
sites ofhigh-temperarure hydrothermal discharge (Hill, 1996;
Paulick et al., 2001). Subordinate stratabound semi-massive
ore lenses were formed by subsurface replacement and/or
infilling of coarse volcaniclastic units of the host unit, which
were deposited by syneruptive, synhydrothermal mass Hows
on top of the accumulating seafloor massive sulfide lenses.
Chlorite + carbonate (pre-metamorphic) alteration mineral
assemblages intimately associated with the West 1halanga
sulfide lenses, probably formed by mixing of hydrothermal
Huid and cold seawater in permeable volcaniclastic units
immediately below the palaeo-seafloor, in proximal to medial
parts of the hydrothermal discharge system. Apart from
disseminated and vein-type pyrite in the altered footwall
zones, all the sulfides were deposited at the top of the rhyolitic
Mount Windsor Formation, or in the quartz crystal-rich unit
that immediately overlies it. 1he massive, coherent dacite
lavas and sills of the hanging wall succession are essentially
unaltered and unmineralised; their emplacement appears to
have ended local hydrothermal circulation.
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 223

Weak, patchyquartz+sericitealteration
facies TH 1
Least-alteredfootwall
Sampleno. 140802
surtaee
Alterationfacies weak,patchyquartz+ sericite
Location Thalangafootwall
Formation MountWindsorFormation '

t
, -"
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
I
I
" / 1 I I ~I I

-/ " // ,' ,,- Trooper

CreekFormation
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric ,'-
- l' 1\
I /
'I~Daeite
r--=I

rhyolite I I 1 - 1"'""""71 Ouartz+ feldsparporphyryand

-
/ ,/ ~ assoc;ated
voleanielastie
facies
Relictminerals quartzandalbitisedplagioclase '140802 Mount WindsorFormalion
I I I

phenocrysts , ,~- D

-
I I I
Rhyolite
Relicttextures porphyritic I - Massive
andsemi-massive
1 11/~_sulfides
Primarycomposition rhyolite 'A/',,_"J
Lithofacies massive - / I \ / / ,- ,-1
- I ' 1 ' / 1 Strataboundtremolite I
Interpretation rhyolitelava , I - , - ehlori!e I carbonate zone
I , I " l' I
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ biotite+ chlorite I I I / , ,1- Ouartz+pyritezone

Alterationtextures
\J-"I'
' " - \
--
,. D Ouartz
+serieite
+pyrite
I
selective-pervasive
microcrystalline
(patchy)
quartzmatrix,weakly I' -,
\ I
I
\
-- I
ehlorite
zone
Mieroerystalline
quartz+
K-feldsparzone
, '1 I I ,
aligned sericite :!: biotite in cleavage -/ " // ' " -
Distribution regional,broadlystratabound,
succession
footwall
1
I ,-¡
- I -
,1 \
l'
¡ ¡
-
1 , ,
L-.J
Serici!e
+ ehlori!e
zone
Regionalseleetivequartz I
senClteIalblte zone

Preservation moderate Geochemistry

Alterationintensity weak Si02 76.40 K20 4.04 Rb 110 TI 0.5
Timing synvolcanic Ti02 0.11 P20s 0.02 Sr 82 Zr 146
Alterationstyle diagenetic AI203 11.90 S 0.01 Ba 1056 Nb 13
Fe203 1.64 CO2 <0.1 Cu 5 y 40
MnO 0.04 Total 98.52 Pb 20
MgO 0.67 LOI 0.60 Zn 48 Al 56
CaO 1.42 Sb 0.2 CCPI 25
Na20 2.27 Ti/Zr 4.5

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

-
ep'dote pyr'''.magootiteaod''derlle
-
oalolle aokerite dolomlle 'remoll'e ohlorite
StackedSWIR spectra(hullquotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100
, , , , ,., , I ,
0.40 x
~
90 - --' - _,- - ,- - l - -' - .J - -,- - ,- - L
1
. '.' I
E 80 - ~ - - - - '- - L - ~ - ~ _, - -'- - L -

Andesi'e-basall
,
. ~
ir 70
:
- -, - - - - 1-- T - I - -,
.
+nde'~e-basf't:::: " - -,- - ,- -
0.30 ~ - - - - - - - r - - - - -
,, ;" , , ,
~ 60 - ,- - - - ,- - T - -, -, -,- ',- - ,-
o , 'Daoite 1 , , , 1
~N :, -¡,¡ 50 - ~ - - - - ,- - ¡- - T - ~ -1 - -,- - t- -
Q
l ------- o
;, 40 --,-
, 1 1 1 I 1 ,
'--I--¡--
,
>- 0.20 o_o,
'1S
:c 30
'
- -< - - - - ,- - + - ~ - -1
'Rhyolitel 1 ,
-, - -1-
1 ,
- ~ -
. phenglle

/ _~~40~~2;"-.~----
, . , ~ -~
8
20
1 '140802*'"
~-~.' , -:--:--~-
:
1300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 25001
,. :¡ , Rhyoliteo
() 10 --:-
alblte
,
-:--+-~-~,-
'"
"'" 1 ,
-:--¡e-

I1 ,, K-feld,pac
50 100 150 2~ o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
224 I CHAPTER
7

Subtle,selective-pervasive
quartz+ albite alterationfacies TH2
,Least-alteredhangingwall
Sampleno. 140799
surtace
Alterationfacies subtle,selective-pervasive quartz+
albite
Location ~jj \ J
Thalangahangingwall \, " , ,
/
Formation TrooperCreekFormation , 11g

-~
Succession
Volcanicfacies
MountWindsorSubprovince
massivesparselyplagioclase-phyric
dacite
\
/

'- ,
J -
//

j
\ '
~./

II!
/

/1I[2]oaeite
~
TrooperCreekFonnation

Quartz+feldsparporphyryand

-
, , /, ~ ,assoeiatedvolcaniclastie
facies
, , MountW,ndsorFonnation
Relictminerals plagioclasephenocrysts \ , ' , JI /1,, -" :::- D' Rhyolite
Relictextures weaklyporphyritic,faintlyflowbanded I~
"
, / -
,II//:Blllllllllsulfides
Massiveandsemi-massive
Primarycomposition dacite -
Lithofacies
Interpretation
massivetoflowbanded
dacitelavaorsill ,
,Z ("
"ffA

- -' /'
I

,//,-,]
, - , ,-
- /
, ./

,
'

..IIJ

Stratabound
ehlorite
,
tremollte ~
~ carbonate zone

Alterationminerals quartz+ albite:t (chlorite+ actinolite:t

epidote)
[- ,-
\ "",
,'" '-:':¡-
- -
',' - t:::J
Quartz+pyritezone
Quartz + sericite + pyrite ~

" -
ehloritezone
Alterationtextures selective-pervasive;
mosaicof20¡Jm -I
-.:
, 11 , - Mieroerystalline quartz +

quartz+ albite,dissemiated chloriteand -'1

\

,m/" ,:-' -
/
"n
11 ,,'-
,
I -',
11
'./
"
11 11
-
K-feldspar zone

Serieite+ehloritezone
acicularprismsactinolitedefiningweak
relictflowbanding,quartz:t calcite ,
¡ ,- n'- : - 11 /_" D Regionalselectivequartz ~
serieite~ albitezone
veins
Geochemistry
Distribution regional,broadlystratabound, hanging Si02 74.00 K20 3.82 Rb 64 TI 0.5
wallsuccession 0.33
Ti02 P205 0.06 Sr 76 Zr 164
Preservation good
AI203 12.70 S <0.01 Ba 1285 Nb 9
Alterationintensity subtle
Fe203 1.47 CO2 Cu 3 y 26
Timing synvolcanic MnO 0.03 Total 98.50 Pb 11
Alterationstyle diagenetic 0.52 LOI 0.47 Zn 29 Al 44
MgO
CaO 1.47 Sb 0.2 CCPI 19
Nap 4.10 TilZr 12.1

Hand specimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

,pldol'
- pV"",
mago"'"
aod
,","" ---
Stacked SWIRspectra (huI!quotient) oalo', ao'"II, do'omll, lIOmo"" oh'ml"
TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot 100
, , , , ,', , , ,
0,40 x 90 _.J - -'- - ,- - l - ~ - J - -, - - ,- - L 1)
~, '.' 1
E 80 - ~ - - - -'- - L - 1 - ~ -'- -'- - '- -
'" 1 ",'" 1
,,
Andesite-basalt
'i" , A¡1desitr-b"~It"" .
ir: 70 --, ,--,-,-, -,--,--,--
o~~
,
r----- '" , , ,
, , ¡g 60 - -, - - - - ,- - T - I - -, -,- -1- - I -
~'"
Q 020
>- l :, ,
1
,
.8"
'" 50
O"
-~
Dadt' ,
'--¡--T-~
, 1
,
,
, 1 1
-,--,--¡--
, 1 1
,
--------
, 1--- --- ,,40 -..,-- ,--,--¡--
,, ,, ~ 1 , Rh om,' ,
i , 1 , .ohOO9"'
:~ .:.
~
:c
2-
~
30

20
- -<- - - - ,- -

-~
1
- + - -<
"'.""
~-*~-~
-,- -1- - ~ -

-:--:--~-
I I I
...'
..,
. 1 Rhyole,'
1 It
' o 10 - -'- -'- -'- 140799 J - -'- _1- - ~
, , , , , , , "
' -

1300 1600 1900 2200 25001

50 100
:
150 20'
O alb';'
O 10 20 30
: : : : : : : : 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
K-f''',p21
Zr(ppm)
Al(IshikawaAlterationIndex)
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 225

Strong, pervasive quartz + sericite + pyrite :!: chlorite alteration facies TH 3

Footwall
Sampleno. 140808
surtace
Alterationfacies strong,pervasive
quartz+ sericite+
pyrite:!:chlorite
Location Thalangafootwall
I
Formation MountWindsorFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince '- Trooper
CreekFormation
I
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric I
/ ~D Oacite
- ~ Quartz+ feldsparporphyry
and
I / ,/ ~ assoeiatedvoleanielastie
facies
rhyolite
Relictminerals
I / / -' .: ' MountWindsor
Formation
quartz \ / \
,,- D /
Rhyolite
Relicttextures porphyritic I
Primarycomposition rhyolite
I
Lithofacies massive
Strataboundtremolitef
Interpretation rhyolitelava ehloritef earbonatelone

Alterationminerals quartz + sericite+ chlorite+ pyrite Quartz+ pyritelone

I Quartz+ serieite
+ pyritef
Alterationtextures pervasive,microcrystallinequartzmatrix ,,-
LJ
\ ehlonte
lone
with stronglyalignedsericite(cleavage), , ', -,
/
/
\
-/ /
Mieroerystalline
K-feldspar
lone
quartz+
,/ \ I ,
scattered1-2 cm ellipticalchlorite-rich
domains ,- /
-
" // '
/
/' - Sericite+ ehloritelone
..
\' / ,\ /,,---¡ Reg,onal
seleetive
quartzf
Distribution local,broadlystrataboundin footwall - I - "- L-.J senClte
Hlb,te lone

beneathentireThalangasystem,
Geochemistry
>200m thick,thinninglaterally 75.70 2.39 Rb 64 Zr 128
Si02 KP
Preservation poor 0.07 0.01 Sr 8 Nb 14
Ti02 P205
Alterationintensity strong
AI203 11.40 S 0.65 Ba 326 Y 36
Timing synmineralisation Fe203 5.14 CO2 <0.1 Cu 18
Alterationstyle footwallhydrothermal MnO 0.08 Total 98.03 Pb 11 Al 96
MgO 2.38 LOI 2.75 Zn 77 CCPI 73
CaO <0.01 Sb 0.2 TilZr 3.3
0.21 TI <0.5
Nap

Handspecimenpholograph Pholomicrograph(xn)

-
epldote py,ite.magoe';'eaods;de,ite
-
SlackedSWIR speclra (huI!quolienl)
ea'eite aokecite do'omite "emo"te ehlorite
Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol 100
, , , , ,', , , ,
0.40
~ 90 _~--'__L_L~_L_:.-:--~.

.
E 80 - ~ - - - -'- - L - J. - ~ -'- -'- - '- -
2 ' Ándesil..bas,lt""
,,
Andesile.basalt ." , ",""
0.30 f- - - - - - - -
,
r - - - - - q:- 70
'" - -, - -- - ,-- ,- - I - -, , , f4D808
-,- -,- , .
, ¡g
O 60 - -, - - - - ,- - T - -, -,
, 'Dacite, , -,-
, -,-
, - r -
,
~ :,
,

,
,
l 50 -~ '--r-T-~ -'--'--f---
N -¡¡¡
Q () , """,
f-- 0.20 - - - - - - - ,- ~------- ¿, 40 - -i - - ,- -,- - r-
,
/ ' '. -. ~
:E 30
'
- -J - - - - ,- - -1-- + - ~
'RHyolite"'" -,- - ,- - ~ -
.pheogite

I I
: ~ - - - J~D8Q8. - - ~~ -. - - - -
,.: * : Rhyolite
e
I~ Q

()
20
10
-~
- -: --:--
, "'.""
:--~.~-~
:-- +- ~- ~-
-:--:--~-
-:-- ¡.-
I - - -'

1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 ,

,
'
O a'bite
, ,
, , , \
,
'
, , , , , , ,
""'" K-Ieldsp.,
50 100 150 20' O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm) Al (lshikawa Alteration Index)
226 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,pervasive
quartz+ pyritealteration
facies TH4
Footwall
Sampleno. 140724
surtace
Alterationfacies intense,pervasive
quartz+ pyrite
Location Thalangafootwall ~/1I ' -'
Formation MountWindsorFormation
\ 1" ,
'

/
~
I
\\
'
\\ 11 ,11
11
""

ff
'lo

Succession MountWindsorSubprovince ,-
- ,- / " // '~
/
Trooper
Ir=¡
CreekFormation
\ - /,' ,1I~Daeite
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric /, ,- 11 - ~ Ouartz
+ feldsparporphyryand
/ '1 ~ assoeiated
voleanie!astie
facies
rhyolite -

-
- , / / MountWindsorFormation
Relictminerals quartzphenocrysts , \ , ,/ , \ - :::- D Rhyolite
\\ ' \ /
Relicttextures porphyritic ' ~ , ' - Massive and semi-massive

Id-'I /II/IIII~
- -"
sulfides

Primarycomposition rhyolite
..
" /"' ~ "'
I
- 'l.' ,,, ~
Lithofacies massive - " -' " StrataboundIremolite:t
/ ' In-- , n_, -, ehlorite:tcamonate
lone
Interpretation rhyolitelava
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite> biotite:!: \ , [
,J24 ~,', /:" '; ..:/Bkl!ill Ouartz+pyritelone .
,- 1¡---¡ Ouartz + seriClte
/ +pynte
:t -'
chlorite I
--;, -
- L-J \\ /,
,
ehlontelone.

/ ~ : , 11'
'lo' " Mleroerystalline
quartz+
Alterationtextures ~ 1- ": K-feldspar lone
pervasive,mosaicof 100-200~mquartz ,
ff

11
- ,"' /"'
/
- ~
Serieite+ chlorite
lone
andpyritewithinterstitial
shredsof semi- '1O'f "I , ,- 'l.",' Regionalselectivequartz:t
alignedwhitemica>biotite l / - - n'- 11- '_" D sericite:t
albitelone

Distribution local,broadlystratabound infootwall, Geochemistry

discretesheet-like zonesat-150to host 67.00 1.99 Sr 16 Nb 7
SiOz KzO
unit,intersecting
it beneathsulfidelenses 0.01 Ba 2300 Y 44
TiOz 0.05 PzOs
Preservation poor
Alz03 6.60 S 10.61 Cu 22
Alterationintensity intense 14.34 <0.1 Pb 16 Al 97
FeZ03 COz
Timing synmineralisation MnO 0.02 Total 102.40 Zn 74 CCPI 88
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MgO 1.67 LOI 8.24 Sb 1.1 TilZr 3.8
CaO 0.05 TI 1.9
NazO 0.06 Rb 68 Zr 79

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- py,ite.magoetiteaod,idecite
-
epidote
oaloite aoke,ite dolomite ',emolite
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiOTZr immobileelementplot 100
ohlorite
I I I I " I , , ,

0.40 I
x 90
.g;'
_..J_-'--'__L_~_~__'__'__l
'.' ,
I .E
m 80 -~ , '__L_~_~
'" I -'--'--140724
I I ,
Andesi,e.basalt . 'E I A¡1desit¡>-basjlj,
, ,.
I ,t 70 - -, - - - - ,- - I - -, - -, -, - - ,- -
0.30 ~ - - - - - - - ,.- - - - -
I
I
~
e
60 -
'
_' - - - -
"- - - - ~I - , -'
, - -'-
, - ~ -
,
~N :
.8
ro 50 -~
I 'Dacit.1
I--t--T--+
" "
-'--'--e--
Q
f- 020l -------- I U I " I I I I I
. I 2 40 - -j - -,- -,- - e- -
I
I
I
~I
I . -.
j
~
S?
30 - ~--
I
-- :- ~hto~.
~ - ~ -:--:--
" '.' I ,
~-
,
. pheogite

I .'
"
I .
e-.-_---
I
~ 20 -~ ~-~.~-~ -:--:--~-
I I I : Rhyolite U 10 --: - - :-- + - f - ~ - -:-- ¡.-
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 I
O albite ,I ,I ,, ,I
K-teld,p., II I, ,I ,,
I
50 100 150 20< O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteraticn Index)
,
LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 227
RELATED

Intense, microcrystalline quartz + K-feldsparalteration facies TH 5

Footwall
Sampleno. 140902
Alterationfacies surlace
intense,microcrystalline
quartz+ K-
feldspar
Location Thalanga footwall
Formation MountWindsorFormation ,-
r
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince ,- Trooper
CreekFormation

Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric ,- / ~D Daeite

--
- rr::;r¡ Quartz
+ feldspar
porphyryand
rhyolite ,- 1,/ ~ assoaatedvolcan!elastie
facies

Relictminerals quartzandalbitisedplagioclase
/ /1 -' -.: I MountWindsorFormation

phenocrysts
,- \
\ I
\
,- D Rhyolite

Relicttextures
't ;¡~ , / - Masslveand semi-masslve
porphyritic I'I\I~ sulfides
~A 1 , --' - ~ 'J
Primarycomposition rhyolite - 1 I \ / / ,- ,"1
Lithofacies massive l'
-
-

/
/
I - "
,
\

/ "
- ;'/
/
-
I Strataboundtremolite
chlonte:rcart)Qnate
+
zone
Interpretation rhyolitelava I \ / / , l/m Quartz+pyntezone

- : ~-, ~ ~- 'D
Alterationminerals quartz+ K-feldspar> tracepyrite ,- \ r' \ - . Quartz+senate+pyrite:r
\ I \ 1 ehlonte zone
Alterationtextures , / -
selective-pervasive;
microcrystalline
matrixof 10-50IJm
quartz+ K-feldspar,
I
1 -
\
1 -,
1 1 \ I
/
\
Mieroerystalline
quartz+
K-feldsparzone

albitisedplagioclase,
quartzveinswith 1 -1 " 11 ' --' - Sencite+ ehlontezone
-
feldspar-alteration
selvage
\
- I /-
\ I
1
\
-- D/
/
I Regionalselectivequartz t
seneite
:ralbite
zone
Distribution local,lozengeshapedzones,broadly
stratabound infootwall Geochemistry
Si02 84.20 K20 5.87 Sr 42 Nb 9
Preservation poor
Ti02 0.06 P205 0.01 Ba 1936 Y 20
Alterationintensity intense
AI203 7.40 S 0.48 Cu 3
Timing synmineralisation 0.60 Pb 70
Fe203 CO2 Al 93
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MnO <0.01 Total 99.15 Zn 118 CCPI 9
MgO 0.08 LOI 0.49 Sb 0.4 Ti/Zr 4.5
CaO 0.11 TI 1.5
Na20 0.34 Rb 94 Zr 80

Handspecimenphotograph

StackedSWIRspectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

Photomicrograph(xn)

,pido"
calo'"
-
, , , , ,.,
'"',,'"
py,It',m,g""""d"d"'"
dolomlte '''moll',
-
, 1 ,
ohlcelt,

0.40 100

Andesi~e-basalt . i::
.,*
= j =='==:==:
: 4ndesije-b's~~::':
=: = ~ - =:~=:==~~
.
, ir 70 - -, - - - - ,- - I - -, - -, -, - - 1--
0.30 f- - - - . - " " ~ '" , , ,
, " - " " ",

, 1!1 60
o
- -, - - - - ,-- - T - I -,
, 'Daei!"""
-,- - ,- - I -
lN : ,
~
. l
50 -", - - - -,- - t- - T - -+
2 020 , '" 1 , -,-, - ,~ -
-,-
"
,
c '.------- o
,
. 1 40 - -, - -,- -,- - t- -
1 .-g ,- 'Rhyolitel 1 , , , p"ooglt,
:c 30 ...j - - - ,- - '- - + - ~ -, - -,- - ~ -
1 /' :.- 8 , ",.',"
: 04D902
..J.c' . ~ -- -- " - ~~ ... - -
- --
¡¡: 20
o
--,--

, 1- - ,L - ~.
1 ~, --.J 11 -:-140902
I I I 1'. ::
I ,
Rhyolite
o 10 - -' -
,
"bite - :- - + - ~ - ~ - -: - -:- - *"
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001
50
,
100 150 20'
O
O 10 ~
,
~
: : : : : :
~ W 00 m 00 00 100
,
4 K-Ie'd,p,'

Z'(ppm)
Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
228 I CHAPTER
7

Intense, pervasive, stratabound chlorite + tremolite alteration facies TH 6

Footwall
,
Sample no. 145401
surface
Alteration
facies intense,pervasive,
stratabound
chlorite
+ tremolite
Location Thalangafootwall
,- ,- ~JJ \ I

MountWindsorFormation
,- ,- \, ,
Formation ,- ,- " /, \\ //

Succession MountWindsorSubprovince ,- -/ ~ ~ // / TrooperCreek Formation

,- ,-
0
'- / \' /II[C]Dacite
Volcanicfacies quartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyolitic /,
\

I - 11 - \ - Quartz+ feldsparporphyry
and
volcaniclastic
breccia? ,- , -, / \'
- / " '// 0MountWlndsor
.assoeiatedvoleanielastie
facies
'- - ",
-
/ Formation

':::: - D
\ ,/ /
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures
Primarycomposition rhyolite
nil ,-
,- /

'''",,\\II~
¿Y:
-
' \\
, /
/,
- .. /
Rhyolite
Massive
sulfides
and selni-massive

,-
..
" " ~ - ' uJ
Lithofacies indeterminate -''',/ /-:,,-¡
Strataboundtremoli!eI
- / ' " - /- 11
11 - - ehloriteI carbonatezone
Interpretation / , / ,- " /

Alterationminerals phlogopite + chlorite+tremolilte> minar - "- \\ /" , / "'- Quartz+pyritezone

Alterationtextures
pyrite,sphalerite,chalcopyrite
,- \°,///

I
¡-
l' -
/, - '/ ' -
,,'
\\'
--

-
:o Quartz
+serieite
ehlonte
zone
+pyrite
I

pervasive, foliatedphlogopite :t chlorite, ,,', " / Microerystallinequartz +

/
\
I # ,
-,
"" \\ //
/ K-feldspar
zone
30%coarseprismsandbandsof , 1
-
" "," , , ~ - Serieite
+ ehlorite
zone
randomlyorientedtremolite I I \\ ,- ,"',,,- / / "~ R"9ionalseleetivequartzI
- 11/- - L-.J senelteI alb,tezone
Distribution local,stratabound, typicallyimmediately
/

belowsulfidelenses Geochemistry
Preservation nil 44.57 3.48 Rb Zr 171
Si02 K20
Alterationintensity intense Ti02 0.135 0.04 Sr Nb 10
P205
Timing synmineralisation AI203 13.06 S 1.66 Ba 38300 Y 32
Alterationstyle footwallhydrothermal Fe203 3.88 CO2 0.30 Cu 1500
MnO 0.15 Total 91.89 Pb 200 Al 75
MgO 17.67 LOI 3.23 Zn 5900 CCPI 85
CaO 6.76 Sb TilZr 4.7
Na20 0.18 TI

Hand specimenpholograph Pholomicrograph(xn)

Slacked SWIR speclra (hull quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol

epldote
-
oa'oI"
pyrite,magoe,"eaod'ide,ite
-
aokerite do'omita t"mo"" oh'orite
100
, , , , ,', , , ,
0.40 ¡-g 90 _.J,__'__L_L_~_~__~:--~.
' ".,.
80 JI'It:, ,
-;; -, u - -,u ,- ~-'"145401-,--
Andesife.basall
,
'i=
it 70
, A,nde'it~-b"jlt"" .
- -, - - - - ,- - I - -, - I " -, - -,- - ;- -
O~~ r-----
,, ¿" " , ,
, ]g 60 - -, - - - , -e,clte'
T - -, -, -,- -,- - , -
¿N
Q
020 l
--------
:, ,,
,
.8"
;¡; 50
'-'" -., '--t--T-~"
,
, , , -'--'--r-
, , ,
, , ,
. , - - - - - - I - - - - - - - ¿, 40 - -, - ,- -,- - r -
, '145401 'g , , Rhyollte', , , , .pheogite
---~
:
~
,
:
~~
,
* ¡¡:
6 30
'-'"20 _.J- - _L - J.,., J , _.J , -,-, -,- , - L-,
-~uu~-~-~.~ -:u:u~-

I I I ". : . : Rhyolile '-' 10 - -:- -:u +- f - ~- -:u ¡.-

1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 : Oalbl:e:::::::: K-teld'p",
50 100 150 20' o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Z,(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
.,
1
LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 229
RELATED

Intense,stratabound,pervasivechlorite+ tremolite+ calcitealterationfacies TH7

Hostrock
Sampleno. 145417
surtace
Alterationfacies intense,stratabound,
pervasive
chlorite+
tremolite+ calcite . ..sa

Location Thalangahostrock I
I
Formation MountWindsorFormation
TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
k

Volcanicfacies quartz+ plagioclase-phyric

rhyolitic I
/ ~D
- r"'71
Quartz+ feldspar
porphyryand
Oaeite

-
/ ,/ ~ assoeiatedvolcanielastie
facies
volcaniclastic
breccia? ,-
, ,1 MountWindsor Formation
Relictminerals nil \ / ¡¡-:;--, .
'- ~
Rhyohte
, \ '
Relicttextures nil ,- Massive
andsemi-massive
/, /\/~_sulfides
Primarycomposition rhyolite -
Lithofacies
Interpretation
indeterminate
?
Alterationminerals chlorite+ tremolite+ calcite> pyrite+
/-,
,

-
"
1 /

:..
-
/ -

\
,
/,
/ / \ '

'/
IJ
/ ,- .-1
/ \ 1 - ' 1
/ "
,
~

Strataboundtremoute:!:
,
/'
-
'

..
/ III!IIIIIII
,1-
ehlorite:!:carbonatezone

Quartz+pyritezone

chalcopyrite+ sphalerite+ galena

\

/ -
"/
,,- / \ -

\ '
-

\
,_o D Quartz+serieite+ pyrite+
ehloritezone
-

Alterationtextures pervasive; coarseinterlockingprismsof I -, / - Mieroerystallinequartz +

tremolitewith10%interstitialsulfidesand ~I I 1: ~~ \ I ~ K-feldsparzone

raggedcalcitepatches
, -
1 / '- // ' ~ - Serieite
+ chlorite
zone
- /
- D
/n; \ \ \ / I Regionalselecfivequartz:!:
Distribution local,stratabound,proximalto medial, / - / /- " /, serieite:!:albrtezone

closelyassociated withorlateraltoWest Geochemistry

Thalangasulfidelenses Si02 33.10 K20 0.58 Rb Zr 89
Preservation nil 0.060 0.15 Sr Nb 6
Ti02 P205
Alterationintensity intense AIP3 6.48 S 4.82 Ba 8700 Y 13
Timing synmineralisation Fe203 4.82 CO2 7.10 Cu 7500
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MnO 0.57 Total 92.41 Pb 4200 Al 55
MgO 19.00 LOI 5.86 Zn 23800 CCPI 97
CaO 15.60 Sb Ti/Zr 4.0
Na20 0.13 TI

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

,pldoto
- PY''''.
ma9oem'and
,'d,"to
---
oalo'to an',r", dolom", lromolll' ohlo"to
StackedSWIRspectra(hullquotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100
1 , , ,,-, "
0.40 x 90 _.J__'__'__l145417--'__I__L.
~,
E 80 -~ '__L_l._-L-
'.'
-'--'--'--
,
Andesife-basalt iD 2 ' Ándes~e-bas'lt
1 1 , ,
, ;t,¡" 70 - ~- -- - :-- ~ - + - ~ -: -
1 ,
- ~~
,
OM~
,~ : ,, 1!!
o 60 - -, - -
, - ,- - T - -, - -, - -,- - ,- - [" -
1 Dad!" I 1 , ,
~N :, ,, ~
Q
t- 0.20 l - - - - - - - , 1
------------

,
,
O
2
50

40
-

-
~

-i -
,
- -

-
- -1-
1
- ,.
1
- -¡- -
1
~
1
- -1-
1
,-
-,-

-1-
,
-

-,.
r
1
-
-

'§ 1 'Rhyolitel 1 , 1 , phOO9'"

* .
iD :c 30 - -1 - - - - ,- - ~ - + - -1 -,- -1- - ~ -
>2. , "'.""
- - -V
, - - ~ - - - - - - ~~ -.
' '
- - - --
~ 20 - -: -- - ~ - ~... ~ - ~ -:--:-- ~-
I I I , ~;14:)417 :, Rhyolite O 10 - -:--:-- + - f - ~ --:--:-- ¡.-
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 1 '
100
1 1 1 , '
150 20'
O
O 10 20 30 40 50 60
1 : : : : : : : : 70 80 90 100
K-I'Id,par

Zr(ppm)
Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
230 I CHAPTER
7

Intense, stratabound tremolite + dolomite + calcite alteration facies TH8

Hostrock
I

Sampleno. 145418
surtaee
Alteration facies intense,stratabound
tremolite+ dolomite
+ calcite
r ,- ,11, ' \\
" -
\\ 11
Location Thalangahostrack
,- ,- \ }. . ~ 11 '\.
Formation MountWindsorFormation r r " / I \\ 11 .. 11 #

-- ..
, ,- -,-
Succession Trooper
CreekFormation
MountWindsorSubprovince ,- / // ;./ /
r--=I
r ,- / ' .. / 11 LC..-J Daeite
Volcanic facies quartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyolitic /, 11 - 1"'"""71 Quartz+ feldsparporphyryand
volcaniclastic
breccia? ,- , -, / \' / , ,/ ~
- assoeiatedvolcanielastiefacies

--
r - , / / MountWindsorFormation
Relict minerals nil r
1/'/ /,--
'- b¡¡-:::---]/ .
Rhyohte
\\ / ,
Relic textures nil r
1~ - Massiveand semi-massive

-
, /
'II,\\II~ sulfides
Primary composition rhyolite r "'p' , ./ _/'_"J
Lithofacies indeterminate {- ',/ ,,]
- / ' 11- / 11 Strataboundtremolite
I
Interpretation ? 11 - , - ehloriteIcarbonate
zone
/ , / " ,'/
Alteration minerals dolomite+ calcite> minor tremolite '!... \\ / ,/;- Quartz+pyritezone
IN- ,- -. 'r l Quartz+ serieite + pyrite +
+ chlorite+ pyrite+ chalcopyrite+
I
ff ~ '
' / 11

-
/

\\ / ,'- " J ehlorite

zone -

- - ": ,~ :
sphalerite+ galena ' '\.' -, / - Mieroerystalline quartz+
~1 K-feldsparzone
Alteration textures pervasive; mosaicof 1mmsutured
#

11 ' "' " ' ./

\\ 11 /
- Sericite
+ ehlorite zone
spheroidal dolomiteandinterstitialcalcite, /0/.,,; J
/
\\"
,-
-
U /-
.."
11 - / / 11
- D RegionalseleetivequartzI
sene,teI albltezone
disseminated sulfidesandsparseragged
tremoliteprisms Geochemistry
Distribution local,stratabound, praximalto medial, Si02 11.20 K20 0.05 Rb Zr 29
closelyassociated withor lateraltoWest Ti02 0.007 P205 0.78 Nb 2
Sr
Thalangasulfidelenses
Preservation nil AI203 1.13 S 1.44 Ba 5800 Y 10
intense Fe203 1.71 C02 29.40 Cu 4600
Alteration intensity
MnO 0.64 Total 93.46 Pb 5700 Al 38
Timing synmineralisation
MgO 17.80 LOI 19.40 Zn 9500 CCPI 100
Alteration style footwallhydrathermal,
seawatermixing?
CaO 29.30 Sb Ti/Zr 1.4
Na20 0.00 TI

Hand specimenphotograph

StackedSWIR spectra (huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

Photomicrograph(xn)

epidote
,a"ite
100
---

, ,
a"ecite
py,ito,magootiteaod ,ide"e

"
dolomite

,', , , ,
-
\cemoli!e ,h'o,'e

0.40 x~, 90 -.J--'-145418-~-~--'__'__L.

'.' ,
E 80 -~ '__L_~_~ -'__'__L-
. '" , '."""
Andesi,e.basalt 1:: , A¡1deslt¡>-bas~~"" .
, iL 70 --, ,--,-,-, -,--,--,--
0.30~ - - - - - - - r - - - - - '" " , ,
~'"
,
, , j!i 60 - -, - - - - ,. - T - , -"1 -, - - ,- - I -

8020 l :
L
,
,
L______-
.8
o<;;
'
, 50 - -j - - - - ,- - t- - .,. - ~
'Daco,"'"
""", -, - -, - - r -
. , - , 2 40 - -,- - ,- -,- - r-
,
,
,
,
,
, .
'§
:¡: 30
,
- -J - - - - ,- - ~ - + - -J
, Rhyont,', ,
-,-
, ,
- ,- - " -
. phe'gite

, .' S<. ' "'.""

- - - -- - - -- - - ~- ~-. - - - --
~ 20 -~ ~-~.~-~ -:--:--~-
I I I ,. :,, -- -.- - -

,: Rhyolite o 10 --:--:--:--
o albite,
+- ~ - ~ --:- -:-- ¡.-
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 , , , ,, ,, ,, 60,, 70,, 80,, 90,, K-fe'd,p"
50 100 150 20' o 10 20 30 40 50 100
Zr(ppm) Al(IshikawaAlterationIndex)
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 231

Moderate,foliated sericite + chlorite alteration facies TH9

Footwall
Sampleno. 140727
surtace
Alterationfacies moderate,
foliatedsericite+ chlorite
Location Thalangafootwall
Formation MountWindsorFormation ,-
Succession Trooper
CreekFormation
MountWindsorSubprovince k

Volcanicfacies
/ ~D Dacite
massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric - ~ Quarlz + feldsparporphyryand

-
/ ,/ ~ associated
voleanidastie
facies
rhyolite ,-
Relictminerals I 1, :: ~ MountWindsorFormation
quartzandalbitisedplagioclase I
\ ,,-
/

D Rhyolite

-
Relicttextures porphyritic ,- Massiveand semi-massive
I I \ I ~ I!IIIIIIIIII sulfides
Primarycomposition rhyolite ~A/"/"-"J
- / / \ I I ,- ,"1
Lithofacies massive, foliated - I I I I Slratabound Iremolite
+
" / - " ' - I!IIIIIIIIIIehloriteotoarbonatez~ne
Interpretation rhyolitelava -1,
/ \
1,-/'1
I / , I /1IíIIiI Quarlz+pyritezone
Alterationminerals sericite+ quartz+ biotite+ chlorite '-
\~'I/

-
/" - 1--

\
\ "- t:::J Quarlz+ serieite
ehlonte
zone
+ pyrite:t

Alterationtextures
I I
- /

selective-pervasive50-100 ¡.1m / .
I
-,
I / \ I
I

/
\
Mieroerystalline
K-feldsparzone
quarlz +

microcrystallinequartz matrixin
" '- / " // " /" - Sericite
+ ehlorite
zone
<1 mm lenseswrappedby foliated I
/ \ \ \- -/ \ /
,-\ I I
- I ~
L-J Re~ional
selective
senelte:t quarlz:t
albltezone
sericite:t biotite(augentexture),
brokengrains,cleavage,sericite
Geochemistry
alteredplagioclase
Distribution local,strataboundin upperpartof SiOz 70.90 NazO 1.05 Rb 145 Zr 162
medialto distalfootwall,particularly TiOz 0.10 KzO 3.92 Sr 40 Nb 19
downdip of ore zones Alz03 14.50 PzOs 0.01 Ba 952 Y 54
Preservation moderate Cu 3
FeZ03 1.69 S <0.01
Alterationintensity moderate MnO 0.04 0.10 Pb 5 Al 87
COz
Timing synmineralisation MgO 3.94 Total 96.37 Zn 231 CCPI 52
hydrothermal,
tectonic-metamorphic CaO 0.12 LOI 2.67 Sb 0.2 TilZr 3.7
Alterationstyle
TI 2.6

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

StackedSWIRspectra(huliquotient)
epldote
- py,ite,mago"'eaod,,de,ite
oalo'e "ke,ite
-
dolom'e tiemo';te ohlo,ite
Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100
1 , , , ,., 1 , ,
0.40
~
E 80
90 - ul- - 'u L~ ~ - ~ - -:.-:u ~
1 - ~ - - - -'- - L - ~ - ~ -'- -'- - '- -
.
Andesile.basalt . ~ , ÁOd,,¡ie-ba,'1t 1 1 I ,
, 1 I I " ,.
I
, ~" 70 -l
1
r-r-1-1 ~-
1 ,
-r-
,
O~~ ~ ~
, ¡g -~ r-T-~-~
, o 60
~--r-r-

lN : ,
, -e
'" 50 - ~- - - -:- _D~oite~ - ~ -: - -:*~ -
Q
f- 020
. l --------
I
,
, -------
I
o
2 40 u: u ' , 1 I -:-14-0n7-

/ :.
I §
:c 30
, 1 Rhyolijel I
- -<- - - - ,- - +-- + - ~
1 , 1
-1- -,- - ~ -
pheoglle

.: 2-
I
, "'.' 1 I ,
¿ ~
1300
I
1600
I
1900
I
2200 25001
:

,. :
-- -- ~ - -- --
I
I

, , , ,
- ~~*t40n{

,
I
I
Rhyolite -I o
20
10
o
-~uu~-~.~-~
u:u:u:u+-f-~u:--:u¡'-
albite
, ,, I1 11 1I 1,
-:u:u~-

11 ,, I1 K-feld'pa,
50 100 150 20' o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Zr(ppm)
Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

232 I CHAPTER
7
7.10 I HIGHWAY.REWARD:
A PIPESTYlE
Cu.AuVHMSDEPOSIT
1he Highway- Reward Cu -Au deposi t, in the central part of the
Mount Windsor 5ubprovince (Fig.1.8), represents a contrast
in sryle of deposit and stratigraphic setting. Ir consists of two
discordant, vertical pipe-like bodies of massive pyrite about
200 m apart, hosted in the proximal facies of a non-explosive,
submarine felsic volcanic centre located near the top of the
Trooper Creek Formation (Fig. 7.23).
Geological
setting
1he lithofacies association at Highway-Reward represents
a deep marine intrusion-dominated felsic volcanic centre.
Doyle and McPhie (2000) recognised at least 13 coherent
feldspar- and quartz + feldspar-phyric dacitic to rhyolitic
synvolcanic sills, small cryptodomes (e.g. data sheets HRl
and 4) and lavas in the immediate area. 1he abundance and
complex overlapping relationships of coherent intrusive units
indicate a proximal volcanic setting. 1hin volcanic sandstone
and siltstone units and thicker units of crystal- and pumice-
rich sandstone and breccia separate the intrusions. 1he crystal-
and pumice-rich facies were mainly derived from explosive
eruptions and deposited in the submarine basin from water-
supported graviry flows. 1he succession is upright and dips at
20-30° to the southeast.
Massive pyrite :t chalcopyrite exists in two vertical pipe-
like bodies about 150 m aparto Both are discordant to bedding,
parallel to a locally developed northeast trending sub-vertical
deavage (54) and have irregular-amoeboid oudines with plan
dimensions of about 200 x 75-150 m. 1he western pipe
(Highway) has a vertical extent of250 m and the eastern pipe
(Reward) of at least 350 m (Doyle and Huston, 1999). 1hey
are dominandy composed of fine-grained «0.5 mm) pyrite
with interstitial chalcopyrite, minor tennantite, sphalerite,
quartz and sericite, and traces of chlorite, galena, barite,
hematite and aikinite (PbCuBi53). 1he massive sulfide pipes
are intersected by chalcopyrite, barite, quartz + carbonate and
anhydrite veins, and contain indusions of quartz + sericite +
pyrite altered volcanic rocks in their margins. 1he Highway
and Reward massive sulfide pipes contain approximately
2 Mt and 5 Mt of pyrite, respectively. 1hey indude hypogene
sulfide resources estimated at 1.2 Mt @ 5.5% Cu, 1.2 glt Au
and 6.5 glt Ag in the Highway pipe and 0.2 Mt @ 3.5% Cu,
1 glt Au and 13 glt Ag in the Reward pipe.
1he pipes are enveloped by a broad 200 x 500 m halo of
vein and disseminated low-grade Zn + Pb + Ba sulfides. Within
that are several small zones of massive to laminated sphalerite
+ pyrite + galena + chalcopyrite + barite. A 20-30 m thick
stratabound lens of sphalerite-rich massive sulfide exists in
volcanidastic rocks 50 m above and south of the Reward
pipe. Ir has a pyrite-rich base that thickens northwards into
a discordant lens of massive pyrite lying above the southern
edge of the Reward pipe. 5phalerite-rich sulfides also exist
locally in narrow discordant zones at the margins of the main
Highway and Reward massive sulfide pipes.
r
Alteration
faciesandzonation
A discordant zone of feldspar-destructive hydrothermal alter-
ation envelopes the massive sulfide pipes. Ir has an elliptical
area of 500 x 250 m in plan and extends from 60 m above
to at least 150 m below the massive sulfide bodies (Doyle
and Huston, 1999). Doyle and Huston's (1999) alteration
zonation is here simplified down to six alteration facies.
Intense, stringer quartz + sericite + pyrite alteration facies
(e.g. data sheet HR8), locally flanked by intense, pervasive
chlorite + pyrite alteration facies (e.g. data sheet HR7) occupy
feeder zones which extend vertically beneath both pipes and
possibly meet at depth. Zones of similar quartz + sericite +
pyrite altered rocks extend into the hanging wall above the
southern parts of both massive sulfide pipes (Doyle and
Huston, 1999). 1hese intensely altered zones pass laterally
outwards to enveloping zones of intense sericite + quartz +
pyrite (e.g. data sheet HR6) and strong, pervasive chlorite
+ sericite + quartz + pyrite alteration facies (e.g. data sheet
HR5). 1hese locally endose, and in turn grade late rally and
upwards in to, non-pyritic zones of moderate, pervasive
chlorite alteration facies (data sheet HR3). 1he weak, regional,
selective albite :t hematite alteration facies (e.g. data sheet
HR2) exists at greater than 50-200 m from the massive sulfide
pipes. Ir comprises two sub-facies with mineral assemblages
of feldspar :t carbonate :t quartz :t chlorite :t sericite and
hematite :t quartz :t sericite :t chlorite :t albite, which are
regionally distributed in the Trooper Creek Formation and
are respectively attributed to aIteration during diagenesis and
synvolcanic low-temperature fluid convection.
Oregenesis
1he deposits were initially thought to have had a two-stage
origin (Beams et al., 1998). 1he stratiform Zn-rich zone was
interpreted as a syngenetic Cambro-Ordovician sulfide lens
and the pyrite + chalcopyrite pipes as 5iluro-Devonian syn-
deformational deposits, because of their discordance to host
volcanic rocks, parallelism to the youngest deavage (54) and
the observation that anhydrite overprinted the dominant
53 deavage. However, Doyle and Huston (1999) refuted
this microtextural relationship and argued for a syngenetic
volcanic-associated, subseafloor replacement origin for the
massive sulfide pipes. Lead isotopic ratios, the gradation from
stratiform Zn-rich sulfides into discordant Cu-rich massive
pyrite, relict framboidal sulfide textures, hydrothermal aIter-
ation facies and their relationships to primary volcanic facies,
and the 53 tectonic overprint are all consistent with Early
Ordovician synvolcanic formation of all the sulfide zones.
1he Highway-Reward massive sulfide pipes have some
similarities with disseminated to massive Cu-Au deposits in
the Mount Lyell field (Large et al., 2001c). 1he similarities
indude metal ratios, dominance of pyritic subseafloor
replacement sryle mineralisation and low C\345values; mosdy
in the range 5 to 7.5%0 at Highway-Reward and 5 to 10%0 at
Mount Lyell (50lomon et al., 1969; Doyle and Huston, 1999).
Given the emerging evidence for involvement of magmatic
fluids at Mount Lyell (Corbett, 2001; Huston and Kamprad,
2001) it is reasonable to similarly dassifY Highway-Reward as
a hybrid seawater-magmatic hydrothermal system.
 LOCAL HYDROTHERMALALTERATIONRELATEDTO VHMS DEPOSITS I 233

Weak,selective-pervasive
quartz+ sericite+albitealteration
facies HR1
least.altered rhyolite
SampleNo. 137068 ~
AlterationFacies weak,selective-pervasive
quartz+ sericite
+ albite
Location uppermedial,50meastof Highwaypipe
(10075N)
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals quartz,plagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation partlyextrusivecryptodome DCh""""'d"',"' D'"".."."""o",,P""'"
I::.:II! Ch',,,, (t aohy,""t gypsum
t pyrit,)""' D,,,,,,""_'~"Plob~;'
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ albite?> (calcite,pyrite) Eilo."'''''''Cit,.qu,''''PY'''''"' D _p'-_""o,,,,"'~h~d"pp'
lbJ s"hci!.. qu,""01;'" ""' [;J"""""''''',re
Alterationtextures selective-pervasive,microcrystalline DOu''''''''C!',.py;it,,,"' ."""_',h"OOPYI",
groundmass, albite+ sericiteorcalcite- R"bit'''"'
alteredplagioclase
Distribution regional Geochemistry
Si02 75.08 K20 2.22 Rb 50 Zr 158
Preservation moderate
Ti02 0.30 P205 0.06 Sr 46 Nb 9
Alterationintensity weak 12.75 S 0.51 Ba 1382 Y 22
AI203
Timing Fe203 1.57 CO2 Cu 43
Alterationstyle diagenetic MnO 0.08 Total 97.37 Pb 14 Al 60
MgO 2.02 LOI 2.88 Zn 104 CCPI 44
CaO 0.61 Sb 2.2 Ti/Zr 11.4
Na20 2.16 TI 1.0

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

StackedSWIRspectra(hullquotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

0.8
. n' n n'n n. n.'.
~ 70
." , , 1 ,
Andesite-basalt
6;'
" 60 ---;nn
1tí f
,
'
---n-{) ..
...
Dacite 15 50
.o
.:n..---;. .,. n.' n n'n n

~
2
40,n',nn 1*7~6~u:u

~:: ¡nn'nnn,~nnnn. '15

:c
30 u,u ',' ',' ... ~... .: 1phengite
Ryol"¡
..L. .......
: ..' ' '....
0.2In n'-../m..;. (2.20

Rhyolite ti 10 ~ .~---;---+---~; u:- .~. u'u musco""e

"bite, : : : IK.fe'dspar
I I I 50 100 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 234 I CHAPTER7
Weak,regional,
selectivealbite+ hematite
alteration
facies HR2

Sample no. 137105

~
Alteration
facies weak,regional,selectivealbite+ hematite
Location upperperiphery,
250meastofReward
pipe
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals quartz,plagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic,
glomeroporphyritic
plagioclase,
microcrystalline
groundmass
Primarycompositionrhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation synvolcanicsill Dehloh"'sehci""", D F__'''''"d'Op''d~"
Alterationminerals quartz + albite + chlorite> (sericite+ E'!I Chlorne
(" ,ohydeit,
"gyp,cm
'pyh"l'ooe Q F_pro'''''~I~"'b."i"
111Chloh"'sehcil,'q"""pyh",ooe D F',",p"__""""'''''''~'~,,"d''oo.
calcite + hematite) IL!ISeha'e'q"""pyei"'oo, o-".,,"'
Alterationtextures selective-pervasivein groundmass;20-60 [JI 0",,,,'sehcite
, pyeile
""' . p".'~""'"",,
~,"brt"oo'
IJmmicrocrystallinequartz + albite:t
calcite-alteredplagioclase,disseminated Geochemistry
chloriteand hematitepatches 70.58 K20 0.34 Rb 8 Zr 161
Si02
Distribution regional
Ti02 0.33 P205 0.06 Sr 142 Nb 9
Preservation good 13.75 S <0.01 Ba 92 Y 21
AI203
Alterationintensity weak Fe203 2.41 CO2 Cu <2
Timing synvolcanic MnO 0.05 Total 98.07 Pb 5 Al 24
Alterationstyle MgO 2.26 LOI 2.42 Zn 38 CCPI 39
diagenetic
CaO 1.78 Sb 0.8 TilZr 12.3
Na20 6.51 TI <0.5

Handspecimen pholograph

Slacked SWIR speclra (huI!quolienl) Ti02-Zr immobileelemenl plol

Pholomicrograph(xn)

100
-
calcite ank"ite
pyeite, magnelí'e
dolomite
&sideri'e
'"molite
- chloeite

90 ','
,
',uu,UU¡ ','
,
u,u ','U',uu

0.8 ' ~ 80 .u;.;uu~u.~. .~.'

-g : !\ndesite-basalt:

~
, ' '
, '
Andesite-basalt
0.6 .mmm"uu_uLeu u_~uuu--j l::
¡;;
u;m- m; u:ui- u:::::_u-:-:.

~ 50

~
u';

¿OA
'"
'mu--
+ un"~nnu ! "'~!. 8 40-+000
~ne _¡me,
1371 O5""""'¡
- u i-'
u,u
O
í=
~ u - u u

'§ 30 L-L-~+ '~'~lumT ..phengíle

0.2 '00_00- l _mu"_m !13710~k

:
:¡:
S¿20
a:
."uu'_u_'-
R~yolOe '

Rhyolite 810. .
alMe
oo, - u.u --'u
m"scovite
K-feldspa,
I I I 50 100 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
11300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)

l~
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 235
RELATED

Moderate,pervasivechloritealterationfacies HR3

Sampleno. 137079
~
Alterationfacies moderate,pervasivechlorite
Location upperproximalzone,betweenHighway
andRewardsulfidepipes
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyolite
Relictminerals quartz,maficphenocrysts?
Relicttextures porphyritic,
amygdaloidal?
Primarycomposition rhyolite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation partlyextrusivecryptodome
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ chlorite
Alterationtextures

.
pervasive, microcrystalline
mosaicof DChIOrite'''ri,;te"" D"""",OO,'¡""doOProdomeo

D ,,",') ",,,
Chlorit,(" ,"hydrite" gypsum' Q""".."~',""'O,"b'~oi"
quartz+ chlorite+ sericite,sericite .Chlorit,.s";,,,,.qu'''''PYrite,,,, DF"'",",",b;="""d"","""Oh"~""OO
pseudomorphs afterplagioclase o Seri"te'q"'''''py,It,,,c, w"",",,"',""'oo
phenocrysts, anastomosing wispysericite Do",""s'ri'ite'PYrite"c, """"'Py""~.ropy"
~PJblte"c'
foliation,recrystallised
overgrowths on
quartz Geochemistry
Distribution local;medialto proximalzoneslaterally 71.21 3.27 Rb 70 TI 1.5
Si02 K20
equivalent to upperpartsofsulfidepipes 0.30 0.05 Sr 21 Zr 165
Ti02 P205
Preservation moderate topoor 1791 Nb 9
AI203 14.09 S 0.01 Ba
Alterationintensity moderate 23
Fe203 3.40 CO2 Cu 6 y
Timing synmineralisation MnO 0.15 Total 96.61 Pb 7
Alterationstyle hydrothermal 3.59 LOI 3.61 Zn 120 Al 93
MgO
CaO 0.39 Sb 0.8 CCPI 66
Na20 0.16 Ti/Zr 10.9

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)
- ,yrite,
magcetite
&,ideclte
-
calclte ackeri'e dolomITe tremoli'e chlorite
StackedSWIRspectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

x
100
90 ~ ---: + --:---~u.j :--:
, , , , : e
0.8 ~ 80,.
.s . 'de¡¡;:b;'¡":'
.
,
.u.u--,--
, .c., .L
,
, , , ,
Andesile.basall : PO
D..
'
' -G7b79*
~m:..
:
-----.
0.6 L ~ ' u--~---e ,,60 ---;--- u- m

1ti f : , , , ,
50 u.;u u:---e:. .;.
Dacile 15
-" , ,
e
u,- u - ,-
~04
O
t
,
~ 40,---,--- ,
.,.
, ,
._,_u_,u_,-
,
--:u ul phengITe
;= t : '1530
:¡:
820 _Lu
:
,
Ryolit
-'u
,
uCU'
,
:
L
,
¡¡: ~ "
, , , ,
(510. albITe -;. -~-- u:- --- ~-- --:--
:: 'K.leld,par I
musco'ITe

I I 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1300 1600 1900 Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlteration Index)
 236 I CHAPTER
7

Weak,pervasive
albite+sericitealteration
facies HR4
least-altered
dacite
Sampleno. 136919 50m

Alterationfacies weak,pervasive
albite+ sericite
Location Highway,medialfootwall
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massive,sparselyplagioclase-phyric
massivedacite
Relictminerals plagioclase
<1mm
Relicttextures porphyritic
andmicropoikilitic
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies massivetoweaklyflowbanded
Interpretation cryptodome
Alterationminerals albite+ chlorite+ sericite> (zeolite?, DChlo"""ri,;t"", DF-""',''''",''''<Odomoo
quartz) E!! Chlori"
(t aohydri"t gyp"mt "rit,)'''' D F_,,,,'m,'w""'ob,~',

Alterationtextures pervasive 111 Chlori",,,ri,it,,q",'" ,,,,,,,,"' D F_p'm"b_"doo'"'~b"",""oo

groundmass, microcrystalline E!! Sericit,
, q","" ",it, '''' [;:J-,,,-
partlypreserving micropoikilitic
texture, Do",,,,,,,,,it,,,,ri"'''' .""""-,~"'"''''''
albite:tsericite-altered
plagioclase, ¡¡¡¡¡¡¡AJbit'''"'

chloriteveinlets
Distribution Geochemistry
regional 66.74 1.81 Rb 44 Zr 161
Si02 K20
Preservation good 0.55 P20s 0.10 Sr 68
Ti02 Nb 9
Alterationintensity weak AI203 16.63 S 0.00 Ba 515 Y 25
Timing synvolcanic Fe203 4.30 CO2 Cu 1
Alterationstyle diagenetic MnO 0.18 Total 97.38 Pb 2 Al 48
MgO 2.48 LOI 2.42 Zn 162 CCPI 51
CaO 0.19 Sb 0.3 Ti/Zr 20.5
Na20 4.40 TI <0.5

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph

(xn)
- pyrlte.magnetite&sld,rit'
-
calcite an'erit, dolomite tremollte ,hlorite
StackedSWIR spectra(hull quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100

90 u+u-
x
.g 80
'
m~ - m u-.
"u--,-- u,-
,
u ,-
-
---,_u_,_u-
0,8
.f : Andesite.bas¡
,'uu,- , u_"-, uL :,
u-
Andes;'te-basalt : : 136919; .~70
>-
+' ," , , ,,
, , ;-
0.6 ---uuu_~uju
"-
¿, 60 u_~u
;¡; :
'
,u1'36919- um + u -;-..
Dacite § 50 m;_m -..uiu*u
.
-u'_u_'uu

.o '
(¡; :
~04 +u---u_~. y 40 +
o " 2 : , , , ,
F : A § 30
:¡:
-~-
,
-, - u -,uuo- u,-
, , , , -.phengite

() : Rpyolit :
0,2 Luu---u~- - 20 u_L _L uL- -L_u'- u'- u_, u u'-
¡¡: :
Rhyolite () 10 :
() alblte -I-u'_u-'u
- u-: m -:- mi ~-~:~~~~~
I I I 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
11300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa AlterationIndex)

..
 LOCALHYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION TOVHMSDEPOSITSI 237
RELATED

Strong,pervasive
chlorite+ sericite+ quartz+ pyritealteration
facies HR5

Sample no. 137127 50m

Alteration
facies strong,pervasive
chlorite+ sericite+
quartz+ pyrite
Location Highwayfootwall,100meastofstringer
zone
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massivequartz+ plagioclase-phyric
rhyodacite
Relictminerals quartz+ alteredplagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic
Primarycompositionrhyodacite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation cryptodome Dehlom,.",;e;tezo", D F,"'"'~.,;¡'.", OYP'od~w

D ehlorit,
(" 'nhydrite"
gypsom"
pym,}zon, Q "". pro.~lw""',bre".
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite+ chlorite:t rutile lIIehlorit,.",;elt,.qo,,,,.,,rit,zon, O F..."_b""","d,,,,",.","~",",oo,
EJI Serie;te.
qoa'". py,It,'''' D""""""""'
Alterationtextures pervasiveingroundmass, millimetre [:J Qoa"'."rielt,.pyrite,,,, ."""''''''''""roP~''
patchesof microcrystallinequartzand ~~blt'zon'

wispydomainsofalignedsericite,some
brokenquartzphenocrysts Geochemistry
Distribution Si02 64.55 K20 4.53 Rb 92 Zr 149
local;medialto proximalzoneslaterally
equivalentto upperpartsofsulfidepipes Ti02 0.44 P205 0.08 Sr 28 Nb 8
Preservation poor AI203 17.02 S 2.97 Ba 3683 Y 25
Fe203 5.54 CO2 Cu 16
Alterationintensity strong
MnO 0.04 Total 97.43 Pb 32 Al 94
Timing synmineralisation
MgO 1.87 LOI 4.93 Zn 68 CCPI 59
Alterationstyle hydrothermal CaO 0.20 Sb 2.0 TilZr 17.8
Nap 0.18 TI 2.0

Handspecimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)
- pyrite,
magne,"e&
s;de"e
-
calelte ankerlte dolomlte t,emollte chlorite
StackedSWIR spectra(huI!quotient) TiOz-Zr immobileelementplot 100

-,-

0.8
X 90 fu+---c
.¡g 80
, " , .
E - -
, --,--
,
de¡¡:bI;
, ,
- -: -
_o. -'_uO-
Andesite.basalt : .~ 70 u'u

: : :.
u o u u'u u

. ¡'"
k
-u~---
0.6 .u-
' u_~m_u-i- 60
f '
- ---;u-O---
-137)27-"
-~uuu_u-:--- ! Daeite i e
.c 50
O
'
' _.- _o. -,.. u ~u u'u u

.
u

~0.4
! : 137127! ii;
U 40
8;=
,_uuuuJ.u ---u¡A'u: .
~ - u_'u_-,-- -,- -,- -.phenglte
.2 30
-'" Ryol;t
U
0.2 --'--'_uu_Ouu
:::-20
Il. ---:---lu~
, , :, ,, ,1 , ,, ,- u -'u,
Rhyolite 810
. alblte
-, - --,- u_,
,,
,
,,
,
u_, u u,u
,,
,
,,
,
u,
, , mUSC0"te
K-feldsp"

I I I 50 tOO 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

11300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
238 I CHAPTER
7

Intensesericite+ quartz+ pyritealterationfacies HR6

Sample no. 137080

~
Alteration
facies intensesericite+ quartz+ pyrite
Location upperproximal,20meastof Highwaypipe
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massive,sparselyplagioclase-phyric
dacite
Relictminerals alteredplagioclase
Relicttextures porphyritic
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation cryptodome
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite

.
OChome...',;te"" o F__'.,"_d,~
Alterationtextures pervasive, D Chome (> aohydrit, > gyp"m > pyrite),,,e D F,"".",.., w"",,"'~"
polycrystalline
quartz IIIchome...";te.""".py;;""" O F_~""'''''''''~d"".CO",~"t,,'
pseudomorphs afterplagioclase, ~Se,,;t,',","'pyrite'''e c:::J -,...~
microcrystalline
matrixofquartz+ sericite Dao,,,...',;te.py'te,,,e M=Mt_.-=",
L:J ~,",,,,,
> pyrite
Distribution local,proximalzoneenveloping Highway Geochemistry
sulfidepipe Si02 73.82 K20 3.65 Rb 78 Zr 107
Preservation poor 0.41 P20S
Ti02 0.06 Sr 14 Nb 6
Alterationintensity intense AI203 12.23 S 2.89 Ba 2222 Y 13
Timing synmineralisation Fe203 4.55 CO2 Cu 1385
Alterationstyle hydrothermal MnO 0.02 Total 98.56 Pb 10 Al 96
MgO 0.76 LOI 4.09 Zn 90 CCPI 57
CaO 0.09 Sb 1.3 Ti/Zr 23.0
Na20 0.08 TI 5.3

Hand specimenphotograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- py'te,m'gne"'e&side'te
-
"Id'e ,nkecitedolomite 'remolí'e ,hlorite
StackedSWIR spectra(hull quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100
90
x , , , ,
.g: 80 '--, u u,u u eu - -'
0.8
.f Andes,e-bas"t
-.,
Andeslle-basall
po 37080
---,'
~ 60
0.6 I,mum_~uuu--ju ,l,u._/~ +--, '"
!% ¡ Dacile:
! 137080 .8 50 '-04iteu- u. u';
.
~0.4
N
o
m
() 40
~030
;=
JmI2' '-u'u "_u_------
:¡:
()
:::- 20
(L
tJ10 . ,Ibit,
-

-
-,'

u_'uu'--
Rhyolít
-e'

_t,
','

,o.
phengite

! Rhyolile ' museovite

K-feldspar
I I I 150 200 250 300 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1300 1600 1900 2200 2500 Zr(ppm) Al (Ishikawa Alteration Index)
 -
LOCAL HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION RELATED TO VHMS DEPOSITS I 239

Intense,pervasive chlorite + pyrite alteration facies HR7

Footwall
Sampleno. 137083
~
Alterationfacies intense,pervasive
chlorite+ pyrite
Location Highwayfootwall,adjacenttostringer
zone
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies altereddaciticpumicebreccia?
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycompositiondacite
Lithofacies indeterminate
Interpretation indeterminate
Alterationminerals chlorite+ pyrite> quartz DChlon"."n'iI,"", D --.""''''Y,to,-
Alterationtextures pervasive cryptocrystalline
groundmass
B Chlorit, ""'
(" "hyd,it,'gyp"m'pyrite) QF"'.""'~'~"",ob'~"
lIiIIChlorite."n,ite.q""'.py,ite,,", o F"",,__;, '"""''''.,;,h 00"'01,"'
or matrixof chlorite,cleavage,
5% [] Serie"'.qua"'.py,i1elO", E:;:J-'.tooo
disseminated euhedralpyritewithquartz []Q"",."ndte.py,i1e,,", ."""'''''.'''''OOPY'"'
lli3IAJbite,oce
pressureshadows
Distribution local;narrowzonesenveloping footwall Geochemistry
quartz+ pyritestringerzone Si02 24.90 K20 0.01 Rb <1 Zr 169
Preservation nil 0.61 0.12 Sr 9 Nb 9
Ti02 P205
Alterationintensity intense AI203 18.79 S 6.37 Ba 21 Y 27
Timing synmineralisation Fe203 16.73 CO2 Cu 102
hydrothermal MnO 0.35 Total 90.83 Pb 12 Al 99
Alterationstyle
MgO 22.70 LOI 13.80 Zn 522 CCPI 100
CaO 0.21 Sb Ti/Zr 21.7
Na20 0.04 TI

Handspecimenphotograph

StackedSWIRspectra(huI!quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot

Photomicrograph(xn)

100,
-, "
pyrite.
magnetite&
calcite ankerite dolomite
.,
siderite
-
'remolite .chlorite

90 u_~_m~u_j__-:u)u_~m-:---iu_J37083
0.8 "~ 80 mjmL-;uL-~. I tl!..u!..!m

Andesite-basalt
~
: : :., uuu_"_uu_uu
t::-,uII~t.tI[:--_LI~
70;m~u:m~m_:_m

~
06Iuuu-ru_m
U~-13708:f- - m¡ u Dacite¡ .D
;:0.4
mmuuluuum,.u m+umuu~muu : ~40 -,
2
,. . -,_u,u

8
F
t
:: :~A- : '§ 30
:c
u;u u~ _m:- mlph,ngite

S2.20 u'- n_' n n'n n

¡;:
Rhyolite 810. . musccvite
alblt,
K./,'dspac
I I I 50 100 150 200 250 300
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlterationIndex)
240 I CHAPTER
7

Intense,stringerquartz+ sericite+ pyritealteration

facies HR8
Footwall
Sampleno. 137129 ~
Alterationfacies intense,stringerquartz+ sericite+ pyrite
Location Rewardfootwallstringerzone
Formation TrooperCreekFormation
Succession MountWindsorSubprovince
Volcanicfacies massive
Relictminerals nil
Relicttextures nil
Primarycompositionrhyodacite
Lithofacies massive
Interpretation synvolcanic sill?
Alterationminerals quartz+ sericite+ pyrite
Alterationtextures pervasive, DCh"",e.""'ite,,", D '_"""'''"d'cypWoomw
irrregularsericite ¡;;¡;¡;¡jChlome(>aohyd"te> gypsom> pyme)""' Q _,","~I~",',bre~l,
pseudomorphs afterfeldsparin<10IJm l1li Chlorite'"""te. ,,,"'. pY"te
'"e D '"'''''''''"=''Md''Y'"'''''",d'""
microcrystallinequartz,interstitial
sericite .Se",'e.,,,,,,.py"te,,,e D"""""""'''
~Q"""""'ite.py'ite'''e .""",,,,,,,.~,,,,p~,,
groundmass, disseminated 5-10% Iji¡j ~bit""e
euhedralpyrite
Distribution local;footwallstringerzonesbeneath Geochemistry
sulfidepipes SiOz 75.78 KzO 1,80 Rb 30 Zr 52
Preservation nil TiOz 0,18 PzOs 0,02 Sr 13 Nb 3
Alterationintensity intense Alz03 5,87 S 7,16 Ba 1404 Y 8
Fep3 9.89 COz Cu 11
Timing synmineralisation
MnO 0.02 Total 101.21 Pb 3 Al 90
Alterationstyle hydrothermal
MgO 0.26 LOI 5.81 Zn 12 CCPI 83
CaO 0.20 Sb 1,2 TilZr 20,8
NazO 0,03 TI 1,2

Handspecimen photograph Photomicrograph(xn)

- py,i!e,magne!i!e&
sideri!e
-
calcile ankeoi!edolomile !"moli!e chlorile
StackedSWIR spectra(hull quotient) Ti02-Zr immobileelementplot 100

0.8
I :
Andesite.basalt
, , ,
:
, ,,
~ 70
rt I ' ..
0.6 l. n. n. n.~. n n i'" n ~. ~"';""'" n: n..
,;, 60 t.u~----
ro '
...
, , , 'Daeite j § 50
.c
u,. u.". u "00 u

. ne' :¡. u.l. 001. .

~0.4 [340
o
N . ~.. ./. :.. m n n.:. n n n
2 ,
,
'
'
F !A § 30
:E .;. , ,,. . .
":" .1 phengi!e

. n.
,
,., n n.
,
n n ,.. n n. m'.
,
n n.. n. () --- ;. u Rhyolit
"00 u, u.". :
0.2
,,
,
,,
,
,,
-20
a:
! ! Rhyolite ' 810
albite
. t...]..
' , , : : I:::]:::::..:
: :
~.. .j. ~:
'
m"scOYile
IK.,eldspa,
I I I 50 100 150 200 250 300 o 10 ZO 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
1300 1600 1900 2200 25001 Zr(ppm) Al (IshikawaAlteratianIndex)

8 FINDING ORE DEPOSITS IN ALTERED
VOLCANIC ROCKS
Recognising alteration facies that may be genetically related to
ore deposits is an important step in mineral exploration. Even
more helpful is the abiliry to identifY alteration facies that
are likely to be associated with particular ore deposit rypes
and mus prioritise exploration targets. Tbe characteristics of
alteration facies have the potential to be used as exploration
vectors, guiding explorers to the most prospective altered
zones in a system, and mereby enabling efficient and early
testing of the best targets, avoiding expensive, protracted
exploration programs, and improving the chance of success.
Tbe processes that alter volcanic facies and the range of
textures and mineral assemblages they produce are complex
and challenging. As described in previous chapters, there
are a variery of alteration processes, which can produce a
broad range of alteration mineral assemblages and textures.
Ancient volcanic rocks commonly contain a complex
assemblage of overprinting alteration minerals and textures,
which reflect multiple episodes of alteration by a variery of
processes: diagenesis, hydrothermal alteration, deformation,
metamorphism or weathering.
In early Palaeozoic volcanic regions, like the Mount
Read Volcanics, western Tasmania and the Mount Windsor
Subprovince, north Queensland, patience and experience
are required to unravel the complexities of altered rocks
and recognise those altered zones that are 'red-herrings'
to mineral explorers. In facr, numerous geologists have
initially doubted mat the foliated, weathered and moss-
covered rocks encountered in western Tasmania really were of
volcanic origino Several intensive, protracted and ultimately
unsuccessful exploration programs have been conducted in
the Mount Read Volcanics on unfavourable altered zones.
On the other hand, there may be altered zones that remain
under-explored because favourable alteration facies were
not recognised. Recognising the occurrence of altered rocks
and identifYing favourable or prospective alteration facies
and zones are important steps toward minimising risk and
expenditure during exploration in these environments.
Tbis chapter draws together the descriptive and
geochemical techniques described in Chapters 2, 3 and 4,
and an understanding of the different alteration processes that
modifY submarine volcanic successions. Ir proposes methods
for discriminating alteration facies associated with particular
processes, identifYing favourable altered zones for mineral
I 241
exploration, and guiding exploration within those zones
toward potentially mineralised areas.
8.11 PRINCIPLESOFDISCRIMINATING
BETWEENDIAGENETIC,
HYDROTHERMALAND
METAMORPHIC
ALTERATION
FACIES
Diagenetic
facies
As discussed in Chapter 5, the characteristics of diagenetic
facies are:
. Tbey are rypicallywidespread with district or regional-scale
distribution.
. At local scales, they display variable alteration intensiry
and patchy distribution. Tbis is mainly controlled by
distribution of coherent versus clastic volcanic facies,
and variations in the primary composition, permeabiliry,
porosiry and the proportion of glassy to crystalline facies.
. Tbey occur in vertically-stacked, extensive, sub-horizontal
altered zones, which have mineral assemblages that reflect
increasing temperature with depth.
. Tbey have undergone relatively minor (dO wt%) chemical
changes that are predominandy in response to hydration or
alkali-exchange reactions between the volcanic facies and
modified seawater. Mass transfers are generally small, an
order of magnitude less than those in intense hydrothermal
alteration facies. Tbe scale of migration of elements is also
small (millimetres to tens of centimetres) and thus on a
larger scale (Le. basin scale) the changes are essentially
isochemical.
. Tbeir mineralogical and textural changes vary from subde
to strong. Quartz phenocrysts, for example, are relatively
stable and commonly well preserved, whereas mafic
phenocrysts and volcanic glass are relatively unstable and
rypically completely altered.
Tbese changes are commonly overprinted or obscured
 242 I CHAPTER
8
by subsequent alteration as diagenesis is often the earliest
preserved post-emplacement process.
Metamorphic
facies
Metamorphic facies share some characteristics with diagenetic
facies, but also differ significantly in these ways:
. Distribution varies in scale: contact metamorphic facies
associated with intrusions may be as narrow as a few
centimetres and up to several kilometres wide. Regional
metamorphic facies (either burial metamorphism or
metamorphism associated with deformation) can be tens
or hundreds of kilometres wide and several kilometres
thick.
. Metamorphic facies are uniform and pervasive: they are
not typically patchy at a scale of metres to tens of metres.
Primary volcanic textures have virtually no influence on
high-grade metamorphic facies, which are principally
determined by whole-rock compositions and metamorphic
conditions.
. Chemical changes are minor; metamorphism is generally
a process of phase-change in response to changing
temperature and pressure at low water-rock ratios, which
limits the redistribution of chemical components in and
out of the system. 1he most common metamorphic
reactions are dehydration and decarbonation reactions. 1he
composition and mineralogy of metamorphic facies are
generally strongly influenced by the primary composition
.
of volcanic facies.
Mineralogical and textural changes vary from subtle
to intense depending on the degree of metamorphism.
Typically, primary volcanic quartz phenocrysts are well
preserved up to about amphibolite grade, but fine-grained
or glassy facies and some mafic phenocrysts are unlikely
to survive even low grades of zeolite and greenschist facies
or contact metamorphism. Metamorphic re-crystallisation
produces a wide variety of distinctive textures, such as
granoblastic, porphyroblastic, decussate, schistose, and
gneissic, which are not easily confused with primary
volcanic or diagenetic textures.
Hydrothermal
alteration
facies
Hydrothermal alteration facies are unlike diagenetic and
metamorphic facies in their potential for major compositional
change. 1his is because hydrothermal alteration typically
involves large volumes of fluid, which facilitate large-scale
mass transfers into, out of, or around hydrothermal systems.
Depending on the intensity of alteration, this characteristic
determines or limits the other characteristics of hydrothermal
alteration facies.
. Hydrothermal alteration facies gene rally have local
distribution, limited to tens or hundreds of metres and
rarely exceeding a few kilometres.
. Hydrothermally altered zones commonly have high aspect
ratios (i.e. narrow lateral and great vertical extents) because
convecting, typically ascending, fluids produce them.
. Locally, on small-scales, the distribution of hydrothermal
alteration facies is generally uniform, or pervasive. However,
..
the distribution is mainly dependent on permeability and
porosity; therefore hydrothermal alteration facies may be
restricted to fractures and vein selvedges in coherent or
otherwise impermeable rocks.
. 1he degrees of mineralogical and textural preservation, and
chemical changes are extremely dependent on alteration
intensity and pre-hydrothermal alteration composition and
texture of the facies. Pre-existing textures and minerals are
less likely to be preserved in proximal zones ofhydrothermal
systems, through which hot reactive fluids are flushed,
than in peripheral zones with lower temperature, partly
neutralised fluids and lower fluid-rock ratios. As in the other
types of alteration, quartz crystals in felsic volcanic facies
tend to survive intense alteration, except where major loss
of silica is involved (e.g. in chlorite zones). Other primary
crystal phases are commonly progressively replaced (e.g.
feldspars altered to sericite) and may be useful as indicators
of alteration intensity. Hydrothermal alteration facies rarely
preserve primary textures in originally glassy facies.
. Hydrothermal mineral assemblages are largely controlled
by fluid composition and physicochemical conditions, and
are not noticeably influenced by primary compositions; at
least in the intensely altered zones, which had high fluid-
rock ratios. 1hus, an intensely hydrothermally altered zone
may cut across volcanic lithofacies of different primary
compositions and textures (e.g. coherent andesite and
rhyolitic breccia) and comprise only one alteration facies
in which the protoliths are mineralogically and texturally
indistinguishable.
. Hydrothermal alteration commonly involves significant
mass transfer of chemically mobile elements. Elements
may be gained through precipitation or lost through
dissolution. 1hese mass transfers may produce large
positive or negative net mass changes within particular
alteration facies (generally with implications for volume
change) or balance each other out to produce negligible net
change. Significant mass changes are commonly evident
in composition data and derivative alteration indices. For
example, Na depletion typically accompanies hydrolysis
and sericitisation of plagiodase. However, substantial mass
changes in some major elements are commonly obscured
. by the constant sum effect; this applies especially to Si.
Major chemical modifications are frequently reflected in
exotic mineral assemblages. For example, VHMS-related
alteration facies commonly contain disseminated pyrite
or base-metal sulfides, and several types of Zn deposits are
associated with Mn-rich mineral assemblages.
Ir is important for economic geologists to recognise
hydrothermal alteration facies, which may indicate the large-
scale transport and deposition of economically valuable
elements, and to discriminate these from alteration facies that
result from other alteration processes that are unrelated to
ore deposition. In some cases, examination of an individual
altered sample can reveal important facts that help to identify
the alteration process. For example, a rock with gneissic fabric
is metamorphic; a rock composed essentially of quartz and
pyrite is probably ofhydrothermal origino However, alteration
textures and mineral assemblages may not easily distinguish
some weak hydrothermal alteration facies, perhaps in
peripheral zones, from diagenetic or metamorphic facies.
One of the main criteria distinguishing hydrothermal

from other alteration facies is the distribution or extent of
the altered zone. lhis cannot be determined by observation
of an individual specimen or outcrop. Ir requires systematic
prospect-scale mapping and knowledge of the district-scale
geological contexto Unfortunately, in the last decade of the
20th century there has been a significant decline in in-field
and on-ground geological data collection, particularly in the
mineral exploration and mining industries. lhere is a trend
towards using high technology remote sensing to rapidly
explore large areas at continuously improving resolutions.
However, to ensure meaningful interpretation of these data,
it is imperative that this virtual geology is not disconnected
from real rocks. lhe combination of a variery of criteria, and
high-qualiry mapping, willlead to the best interpretation of
alteration facies.
8.2 I EXPLORATION
VECTORSAND
PROXIMITY
INDICATORS
Mineralzonation
Mapping of sulfide distribution, particularly pyrite, is an
important exploration technique. Sulfide abundances are
easily estimated by eye, even in weathered samples, and should
be applied at an early stage of exploration wherever geological
exposure permits. VHMS deposits commonly have extensive
footwall zones of disseminated pyrite. Far example, the Mount
Lyell Cu-Au deposits (western Tasmania) alllie in a zone of
greater than 1% disseminated pyrite, which is 6 km long and
1 km wide at the surface (Corbett, 2001). Such pyritic zones
provide very large exploration targets for initial area selection.
lhey have the potential to be delineated into high-abundance
zones, in order to reduce the size of the targets for intensive
exploration and drill testing. Interpretation of sulfide vectors
is straightforward: more is better, and sulfide proportions
generally increase with proximiry to sulfide deposits.
Other components of alteration mineral assemblages that
are easily recognisable in all sample rypes and may be spatially
zoned around mineral deposits include silicates, carbonates
and Fe-oxides. lhe ratios of quartz to phyllosilicates,
sericite to chlorite, and carbonate to silicates are commonly
systematically zoned around VHMS deposits, and recognition
of the zonation patterns can provide useful exploration
vectors, at least on a prospect scale.
Unfortunately, interpretation of the patterns is rather
complex. Australian VHMS deposits are rypically associated
with siliceous proximal zones (Section 7.4) but there are many
variations even within mineral fields and districts. lherefore
it is unwise to be too strictly empirical or model-driven
in applying this approach. Ir is better to map out mineral
distributions and relate them to alteration intensities, rather
than rely on the recognition of specific zonation patterns,
which may relate to an ore deposit model. Carbonate +
chlorite assemblages, for example, are indicators of ore
proximiry in some VHMS deposits, such as Rosebery, Hellyer
and lhalanga deposits, but only occur in the peripheral or
least-altered zones of the Western lharsis deposit (Mount
Lyell field). lherefore, rigidly applying a carbonate + chlorite
FINDING ORE DEPOSITSIN ALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 243
vector could be misleading and potentially guide exploration
away from some Cu-Au deposits in the Mount Lyell field.
Mapping of mineral zonation is effective where large
systematic datasets are available (Le. where there are plenry of
outcrops or drill cores) and mineral assemblages are visually
distinctive or can be determined by simple field tests (e.g.
effervescence in acid for carbonate or sodium-cobaltinitrite
staining for K-feldspar). However some mineral assemblages
that are not readily identified visually, are discretely zoned
and may be diagnostic of a deposit sryle. New field-based
mineralogical tools, such as portable SWIR spectrometers
(Section 2.4), will facilitate majar improvements, which will
not only aid exploration, but also contribute to understanding
these deposit systems (lhompson et al., 1999). SWIRspectral
studies have recently shown some spectacular examples of
mineral zonation, particularly in acid-sulfate rype systems
(e.g. case studies in lhompson et al., 1999, and Huston and
Kamprad,2001).
Majorelementlithogeochemistry
Although intense hydrothermal alteration frequently
produces simple alteration mineral assemblages, the minerals
are commonly fine grained. lhese minerals may be difficult to
recognise visually, and it can also be difficult to estimate their
abundances. In these cases, lithogeochemistry can frequently
help to identify minerals and quantify compositional changes
even in less intensely altered rocks that contain incipient,
overprinting or domainal alteration minerals. Analysis of
whole-rock samples to determine major element abundance
is a way of supporting and augmenting estimates of mineral
proportions and alteration intensiry, which have been
determined visually or by other methods (e.g. Section 2.4).
Quantitative lithogeochemical data can be used in two
ways: (1) to indicate alteration intensiry, and (2) to estimate
mineral proportions in mineral assemblages where the mineral
species and their individual compositions are known.
Interpreting exploration vectors based on compositional
data seems straightforward. lhe data can be plotted as contour
maps or cross-sections (e.g. Figs 2.7 and 2.12), down-hole
line graphs (e.g. Fig. 2.14) and so on, and the vectors inferred
based on expected variations in mineral abundance or
composition. Decreases in Na20 contents of volcanic rocks,
for instance, are usually related to increasing sericite or chlorite
at the expense of plagioclase. Na20 depletion is a popular and
reliable vector used in VHMS exploration (e.g. Na20 halo
maps of the Fukuzawa area in Date et al., 1983). Variations in
carbonate content, both increases and decreases, are rypically
evident in CO2 data and in CaO, MgO or Fe203' depending
on the carbonate species. Sulfide content can be quantified
by sulfur analyses. Weight percent sulfur is generally nearly
equivalent to volume percent of pyrite in felsic rocks, if pyrite
is the only sulfur-bearing phase. lhis is due to pyrite having
a densiry of just under twice the densiry of felsic rock, and
sulfur comprising just over half the mass in pyrite.
However, major element data are subject to distortion
by closure, otherwise known as the constant sum effect.
lhis phenomenon is more fully explained in Section 4.1.
It particularly affects the dominant chemical components
(e.g. Si02, Al203 and Fe203) and can be significant in
 244 I 8
CHAPTER

hydrothermally altered rocks with large net mass gains.
Although additions of exotic hydrothermal components such
as sulfur and CO2, and depletions of Na20, are relatively
immune to the effects of closure, it seriously compromises
the use of some other major components as exploration
vectors. For example, Si02 may not provide effective vectors
in hydrothermal systems where mineralisation was associated
with silicification. If closure in major element data is likely
to obscure the effects of alteration on the compositional data
and exploration vectors, then it is preferable to estimate the
individual component mass changes (by immobile element
techniques, Section 4.1) and use those as exploration vectors.
The alternative approach is to convert quantitative major
element lithogeochemical data to modal mineral proportions
using a method such as MINSQ (Herrmann and Berry,
2002) or GENMIX (Le Maitre, 1981). This does not remove
the effects of closure, but is a way of quantifying mineral
proportions, which can then be used as vectors in mineral
exploration. This approach was used by Large et al. (2001 b,
Fig. 6) to demonstrate systematic variations in proportions
of alteration minerals around the Rosebery K-lens sulfide
deposit (Fig. 2.14).
Alteration
indices
Alteration indices formulated from two or more components
of major element analyses (Section 2.4) enhance the
compositional contrast between variably altered samples and
thus are frequendy more effective as exploration vectors than
single component lithogeochemical data.
For example, sulfur and Na20 proportions in the footwall
of the Rosebery K-lens deposit range from 0.01 % (limit of
detection) up to about 7.2% and 5.6%, respectively (Large
and Allen, 1997). However, the ratio S/Na20 ranges from
0.002 to 194, because those components increase and decrease
respectively in response to increasing alteration intensity
(Large et al., 2001b). Both components vary over two to three
orders of magnitude, whereas S/Na20 varies across about five
orders of magnitude. Carefully formulated indices can in this
way amplify compositional changes and reflect variations in
more than one mineral composition or abundance.
Where systematic lithogeochemical data are available,
plotting and contouring ofalteration indices on plans and cross-
sections provides numerical indications of alteration intensity
(e.g. Fig. 2.7). Datasets of alteration indices are of assistance
in guiding exploration towards potentially mineralised altered
zones, especially when used in combination with alteration
facies or mineral zonation maps. Mineral explorers have
increasingly applied these techniques to VHMS exploration
over the last two decades; however, few results or case studies
have been published.
Exploration data are commonly limited to a few
samples or drill holes and are not suitable for contouring.
Nevertheless, useful vectors can be inferred from sparse but
strategically or fortuitously located data. This is exemplified in
lithogeochemical data from a few drill holes near the northern
end of the Rosebery deposit (65R, 109R, 113R and 128R;
Table 8.1). If, in a VHMS exploration scenario, the first two
holes were drilled in sequence (65R followed by 109R), then
the lithogeochemical vectors would suggest that exploration
was heading away from the most favourable zone. The
intermediate third hole, 113R, would then be superfluous,
merely reinforcing interpretation of vectors in the first two
holes. The anomalous values in the near-miss hole (65R)
would encourage further persistence. If, on the other hand,
the first hole in a greenfields exploration program was 109R,
the major element or alteration indices data would not justify
continuing exploration in that vicinity, even if the favourable
stratigraphic setting was recognised. In this case, success
would depend on the explorer recognising other vectors or
indicators of proximity, such as the distal trace elementTl and
Sb halos identified by Large et al., (2001b).
In favourable geologic settings, limited lithogeochemical
data, even from a single drill hole, may yield useful vectors.
For example, samples from a single hole, such as HL6 or

TABLE8.1 I Selectedmajorelementdata and alterationindiceslor samples01pumicebreccialrom the lootwall lo the RoseberyK-Iens

massivesulfide deposit,westernTasmania.The valuestabulatedare (A) averages01three sampleslrom the top 30 m 01the lootwall unit
and (B) the uppermostsample01the lootwall intersecledin each dril! hole.The alterationindices,S/Na20and Al, generallyshow greater
increaseswith proximityto ore than the changesin Na2O,S and Zn.AveragingIhe uppermostIhree samplessmoothesthe gradients
towards ore, but diminishesthe anomaliesin the medialintersection,113R.Datalrom Largeand Allen (1997).Locations01the drill holes
are shown in Figure 2.7 01this volumeand Figure2 01Largeet al. (2001b).
.. ._....-..._......-.. . ".,.o""""",
Drill hole S% Zn% !!() Al
..o, lateral distancefrom,()J) 2()!O

(A)Averagesofthreesarnples
frornthetop30rnofthefootwal!unit
109R 450 2.99 0.18 0.00 O 44
113R 250 1.66 0.37 0.13 2 61
65R 75 0.28 0.79 0.18 44 89
128R O 0.01 0.49 0.49 49 89

(B)Upperrnost
sarnpleoffootwal!unit
109R 450 1.53 0.29 0.01 O 51
113R 250 0.21 1.09 0.38 5 89
65R 75 0.08 1.02 0.02 13 95
128R O 0.01 0.37 0.19 37 89

lo

1 FINDING ORE DEPOSITSIN ALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS
HL14 drilled through the footwall zones beneath the Hellyer
massive sulfide deposit, generally exhibit gradually increasing
alteration indices (Figs 9 and 20 of Gemmell and Large,
1992). Recognition of these variations, in combination with
the visible alteration facies, confirms that an altered zone exists
and indicates the direction of increasing alteration intensity,
guiding further exploration.
Orill hole NC4, which intersected the Tyndall Group-
Central Volcanic Complex contact south of Henty is another
interesting example. In mis hole, an abrupt down-hole increase
in me alteration indices is associated with a change oflithotype
(Fig. 4.4). The lithogeochemical data support me recognition
of an extensive stratabound altered zone of which me upper
boundary is most favourable for VHMS exploration.
Bivariate (x-y) plots of two alteration indices, such as the
Al-CCPI Alteration box plot (Large et al., 2001a), are useful
in identifYing compositional trends and different alteration
facies. This graphic approach simplifies the recognition of rock
compositions that lie outside the normal range of primary
volcanic compositions (Le. those that have been modified by
chemical or depositional processes; Fig. 2.9). Ir also assists
dassification of different alteration facies and identifYing the
zones of greatest prospectivity (Fig. 2.11).
In recent COOES research projects, box plots of custom-
designed alteration indices have been effective in several
other types of hydrothermal systems, induding low- and
high-sulfidation epithermal Au-Ag deposits (Williams, 2000)
and Broken Hill type Pb-Zn-Ag deposits (Large, 2004).
The Ishikawa et al. (1976) alteration index (Al) has been
successfully applied to many plagiodase-destructive and/
or K-feldspar-bearing alteration styles, but there is scope
for more experimentation with new indices. As outlined
in Section 4.1, the formulae for alteration indices typically
have chemical components that were increased by alteration
in their numerators, and components that were decreased
in the denominators. The gained or lost components can
often be inferred from the differences in alteration mineral
assemblages. However, immobile-element-based mass change
calculations provide a more rigorous method of selecting
components for formulating alteration indices. Section 4.1
summarises several techniques of estimating mass changes
by comparing compositions of alteration facies to their least-
altered precursor compositions and their potential application
to exploration vectors is discussed below.
Masschangevectors
Hydrothermal alteration commonly involves major changes
in chemical composition; in fact these changes are one of
the characteristic features of hydrothermally altered rocks.
Significant masses of mobile chemical components may have
been gained or removed from an altered zone. However,
dosure in composition data will obscure or distort the
amounts of these changes, except in the special cases where
the mass gains and loses balance exactly, so that there is no net
mass change. Ir is unsound to assume zero net mass change in
an alteration facies, and in these cases the unquantified effect
of dosure on raw major element data limits their usefulness,
or that of alteration indices based on them, as indicators of
alteration intensity.
"",,",° Zt'd""'"
w
I 245
The solution to the dosure problem is to estimate the
mass changes of all mobile major-element components, using
an immobile-element-based method of the type described in
Section 4.1. Spatially located mass change data can then be
used as direct indicators of alteration intensity or as multiple
component alteration indices, in the same way as major
element lithogeochemical data.
This approach has the potential to target favourable areas
during exploration. Ir provides dosure-free quantification of
compositional changes, which help delineate hydrothermal
Huid pathways, zones of greatest alteration intensity and
prospective areas. Furthermore, the quantification of absolute
mass changes is a means of estimating the 'quality' of an
altered zone.
For example, let us consider a hypothetical program of
lithogeochemical sampling over two altered zones of similar
dimensions in a VHMS district. Mass change estimates might
show that the first altered zone involved negligible mass
transfers and the second had significant mass gains, of the
order of 20-30 g/100g and equating to tens of millions of
tonnes of altered rock (cf. Thalanga footwall zone, Herrmann
and Hill, 2001). In this case, we would condude that the
second altered zone has greater mineral potential. Substantial
mass changes demonstrate that a hydrothermal system had
the intensity, and perhaps duration, to move large amounts
of Sial, cal' S and other components into the alteration
facies. Therefore, it probably also had the capacity, if Huid
compositions were suitable, to move large amounts of base
and precious metals and potentially, if a favourable site and
process for deposition is available, form an ore deposito The
first altered zone in our hypothetical example was produced by
near-isochemical alteration and resulted in negligible changes
to the whole-rock composition, suggesting that alteration
involved less reactive or smaller volumes of Huid, perhaps
over a short duration. The differences may be semi-evident in
alteration mineral assemblages and intensities, and possibly
in the composition data despite distortion by dosure, but the
only way to quantifY the difference for objective exploration
decisions is by mass transfer techniques.
The major difTIculty in this method is in determining
precursor compositions to compare with the altered compo-
sitions. Poor exposures, limited lithogeochemical data, lateral
variation in the primary composition of volcanic facies or
structural complexity make the pairing of alteration facies
and unaltered (or least-altered) precursors problematic, and
frequently impossible, in practical application. There are no
published examples where mass change calculations have
led to a mineral discovery, probably because of the least-
altered precursor problem and the only recent development
of easy mass change calculation techniques. Nevertheless,
the mass change approach will contribute to a higher
level of lithogeochemical interpretation and exploration
targeting where host volcanic successions are compositionally
uniform and sufTIciently understood to enable its confident
application.
Mineralchemistry
vectors
As noted in Section 4.2, the main limitations to the wide use of
mineral chemistry in exploration have been that the analytical
246 I CHAPTER
8
tools - electron microprobe and X-ray diffraction - are
complex laboratory-based instruments requiring considerable
expertise in operation and data interpretation. 1hat has made
mineral analysis slow and expensive relative to geochemical
analyses of rocks, soils and sediments, and consequently
explorers have largely ignored the mineral chemistry vector
possibilities. Researchers at CODES are currently developing
laser ablation ICP-MS techniques for micro-analysis of trace
elements in sulfides. 1hese are likely to provide exploration
vectors but, for similar reasons, they may not ultimately be
widely applied by mineral explorers.
However, the advent during the last decade of portable
short wavelength infrared (SWIR) spectrometers, which
can indirectly measure compositional variations in micas,
days and carbonates, could establish mineral composition
mapping as a viable exploration technique (Sections 3.1
and 4.2, and references therein). SWIR specrrometers such
as PIMA are relatively inexpensive at about US$21,000 to
purchase or US$70 per day for hire. 1hey can analyse up
to a few hundred samples per day of all types of geological
materials, which require no preparation apart from drying.
SWIR spectrometers are simple to operate and the PC-based
spectral recognition software now available has simplified
spectral interpretation and data manipulation, so that an
operator can quickly become an expert interpreter.
White micas, chlorites and days in altered zones around
mineral deposits frequently show spatial compositional varia-
tions that could be exploration vectors (Section 4.2). 1he ease
of SWIR spectral analysis now enables explorers to rapidly
test for the existence of mineral composition vectors in a large
enough set of orientation samples. If the results are promising,
the technique can be inexpensively applied on a routine basis
to assist exploration targeting. If, on the other hand, SWIR
specrral features are invariant or spatially erratic, then little
time and money will have been expended.
1here are not yet many published mineral exploration
case studies involving portable SWIR specrral analysis because
it is a relatively new technique (e.g. Denniss et al., 1999;
Huston et al., 1999; Merry and Pontual, 1999; Herrmann
et al., 2001; Jones et al., in prep.). Nevertheless, recent and
current research at CODES shows great potential for SWIR-
determined white mica composition vectors, on scales of tens
to hundreds of metres, in a variety of volcanic-hosted gold
and base-metal deposits. Further work is required on spatial
SWIR specrral variations in chlorites and day minerals. It is
likely that mineral explorers will rapidly adopt this technique
over the next few years.
Part of the stimulus comes from very recent developments
in airborne high-resolution visible-to-SWIR specrral scanning
systems, such as HyMap., which offer great promise for district-
scale mineral mapping in exploration of well-exposed bedrock
areas (Taranik, 2001). For example, mineral maps from a trial
HyMap. airborne spectral survey of the Panorama VHMS
district, Western Australia, apparently 'show the complete
hydrothermal convective system' (Cudahy et al., 2000). At
Panorama, these authors consider that spectrally interpreted
distributions of white mica, pyrophyllite and topaz define
altered zones that formed at the boundary between magmatic
fluid and seawater convection, in addition to seawater recharge
zones, and hydrothermal discharge zones. 1he discharge zones
are prospective for massive sulfides. A similar HyMap. survey
of the Mount Lyell area in western Tasmania has produced
mineral distribution and pyrophyllite abundance maps (e.g.
Fig. 8.1). 1hese illustrate the high spatial resolution now
available from airborne spectral surveys, and their enormous
potential for alteration mapping and using vectors during
exploration in well-exposed, thinly vegetated areas.
Remote sensing spectral systems are also finding
applications in regolith mapping (Craig, 2001) and exploration
of partly covered areas. Bierwirth et al. (2002) used HyMap.
data to map distributions of a range of minerals - induding
pyrophyllite, white mica, Mg- and Fe-chlorite, calcite,
dolomite, kaolinite, tourmaline, hematite and goethite - in
altered zones associated with epithermal and lode Au deposits
in the poorly exposed, largely alluvium- and calcrete-covered
Indee District of the Central Pilbara.
1hese demonstrations of district-scale mineral and
mineral compositional mapping by remote sensing tools
should certainly encourage explorers to use spectral data in
prospect-scale investigations. In addition, high-output, multi-
purpose visible-SWIR and thermal infrared spectral, and
laser instruments such as CSIRO's HyLogging and HyChips
systems (Syddell, 2004) and the OARS prototype (CSIRO,
2002), are being developed for routine logging of drill core,
cuttings, soil and other geological sample materials.
Isotopicvectors
Section 4.3 introduces the potential for isotope geochemisrry
to yield interpretations of hydrothermal fluid sources,
temperatures, water-rock ratios, and broad halos for
exploration targeting.
Oxygen isotopes are particularly useful in exploration
because oxygen is a major component ofhydrothermal fluids,
and it readily exchanges isotopes with silicate minerals at
fractionation factors that are mineral specific and temperature
dependent. Furthermore, the b180-depletion halos observed
around several deposit types typically extend further from
ore than most other geochemical anomalies and may provide
direct vectors to ore zones. For example, the b180-depletion
zone around the Fukuzawa deposits in the Hokuroku district,
Japan, extends up to 1 km beyond the Na20-depletion
anomaly (Creen et al., 1983). Waring et al. (1998) found
b180-depletion anomalies in dolomitic shale at Mount Isa
(Queensland), which extend up to 2 km beyond Cu ore zones,
with low and uniform isotopic gradients (<2%0 per 100 m)
that allow estimates of the distance to ore. Most importantly,
the O-isotopic anomalies produced in hydrothermally
altered zones appear to survive subsequent deformation
and metamorphism. For instance, Cartwright (1999)
argued convincingly that a hydrothermally related regional-
scale b180 depletion zone in Proterozoic metapelites in the
Broken Hill district, NS"W;had survived high-grade regional
metamorphism up to granulite facies. 1he final section of this
chapter summarises several VHMS-related alteration studies
and exploration programs, which have applied whole-rock 0-
isotope geochemistry.
Sulfur-isotope geochemisrry has been widely applied
to interpretations of sulfur (and hence fluid) sources, and
hydrothermal temperatures, which have been used in the
development of VHMS genetic models. For example,
 FINDINGOREDEPOSITS
INALTERED ROCKS I 247
VOLCANIC

.. ..
pyrophyllite
topaz
low AIOH wavelength sericite
high AIOH wavelengthsericite
.. chlorite
hematite
D
LJ
kaolinite
jarosite
Mapprojection:
UTMzone55,AGD66

FIGURE 8.1 I Mineralmaps01the Mount Lyellminearea, westernTasmania,interpretedIrom HyMap@ airborne hyperspectraldata. MapA showsthe zonal
distributions01eight importantalterationminerals.Map B shows relativeabundance01pyrophyllite(warm colours= highabundance),and discriminatesthe
pyrophyllite-richlacies at NorthLyell,WesternTharsisand Glen Lyelllrom weaker responsesin the Owen Groupexposedon Mount Lyell.The spatial resolution(pixel
size) is about 5 m. Mineralspectralresponsesare partly restrictedby vegetatedareas,which appearas dark grey tones on the HyMap band (greyscale)background
airphotoimages.These mapswerecreatedby K. Yang,M.A. Quigleyand J.F. Huntingtonas part 01the 2003 HyMap@mineralmappingprojectlor CopperMines01
Tasmaniaand MineralResourcesTasmania,carriedout throughthe C-VistastrategicalliancebetweenCSIROand HyVistaCorporation.
 248 I CHAPTER
8
S-isotope compositions constrained some of the genetie
interpretations for formation of the Hellyer deposit (e.g.
Gemmell and Large, 1992; Solomon and Khin Zaw, 1997).
It also has exploration potential for discriminating different
rypes of deposits and hydrothermally altered zones, which
may have different economie potential. 1he regional srudy
of sulfide deposits in the Mount Read province by Solomon
et al. (1988) found considerable variation in S-isotope
compositions consistent with different geologie settings and
metal associations, and which contributed to interpretations
of hydrothermal geochemistry. Green and Taheri (1992)
took both a genetie and discriminatory approach to the
interpretation of low 034S values of pyrite (-1.2 to +4.7%0)
at the Boco prospect, western Tasmania. 1hey suggested that
altered zones at Boco formed in a seawater-hydrothermal
system, whieh leached sulfur from volcanie host rocks at
temperatures that were too low to inorganieally reduce
seawater sulfate, and transported base metals to form an ore
deposito Subsequent recognition of advanced argillie alteration
mineral assemblages at Boco and several other Tasmanian and
Vietorian prospects indieate possible involvement of magmatie
fluids, and hence a magmatie source of sulfur (Herrmann et
al., 2004). Regardless of the genetic uncertainties, sulfide
034Svalues of less than 5%0 could distinguish barren pyritic
altered zones from more prospective base and precious metal-
rieh VHMS systems in the Mount Read province.
1here are few published accounts ofS-isotope compositions
as direct vectors in mineral exploration. However, existing data
for Rosebery (Davidson et al., 2000) and Hellyer (Gemmell
and Large, 1992) suggest broad halos of 034Senrichment in
disseminated pyrite in foorwall zones lateral to the main up-
flow zones, whieh could be used to increase exploration target
sizes and zero-in on Zn-rieh VHMS deposits, partieularly in
permeable volcaniclastie successions (Large et al., 2001c).
At regional scales, rwo recent srudies of deeply covered
areas have promoted S-isotope compositions of sulfates in
groundwater as potential indicators of buried oxidising Pb-
Zn-Ag sulfide deposits, in the Broken Hill region of New
South Wales (Waring et al., 1998) and Gawler Craton in
South Australia (Kirste et al., 2003). In the latter case, sulfates
from oxidising sulfide deposits with low 034Ssignatures (-2.5
to +5.6%0) appear to have contributed to anomalous low 034S
values in groundwater sulfates, detectable several hundred
metres downstream from the Menninnie Dam prospecto
Background 034Svalues of sulfates in ground waters are 16 to
18%0in the Gawler region and 13.5%0in the Broken Hill
~ radially from the inner 180-depleted zone through the high
region. 1he concept is probably less applicable to exploration
for sulfide deposits with higher 034Ssignarures (e.g. Tasmanian
VHMS deposits, 8 to 17%0, Solomon et al., 1988), whieh
would provide less contrast against background groundwater
compositions. Furthermore there are many, rypieally difhcult
to determine, hydrological and geochemical factors that
complieate interpretations of local groundwater isotopie
anomalies. 1his new applieation of S-isotope geochemistry is
one that will probably appeal only to the most persistent of
under-cover mineral explorers.
Carbon isotopes, like sulfur, are used for interpreting
fluid sources and hydrothermal conditions but have not
been widely applied as exploration vectors. Huston's (1999)
review of stable isotopes in VHMS systems found carbonate
o13C values in most deposits occupy a narrow range of -5 to
..
0%0, consistent with seawater dissolved biearbonate sources.
Low fractionation factors, and the limited occurrences
of carbonates in massive sulfide deposits (Ohmoto and
Goldhaber, 1997) restriet the applications of C isotopes,
except in conjunction with O isotopes. For example, Khin
Zaw and Large (1992) interpreted a coupled positive trend
of o13C and 0180 data in Mn-rieh carbonates at South
Hercules, Tasmania, as temperature-related, and then, with
additional fluid inclusion temperature data, estimated the
isotopie compositions of the hydrothermal fluido Although
meir paper did not describe spatial zonation of isotopie data,
me genetie discussion speculated that mineralised and altered
facies were zoned according to variations in temperature and
hydrothermal fluid-seawater mixing ratios, controlled by
permeabilities in the volcaniclastie succession. In these rypes
of deposits associated with lateral carbonate facies, isotopie
data could provide prospect-scale exploration vectors if the
hydrothermal temperarure gradients were consistent.
Callaghan's (2001) study of the Henry-Mount Julia gold
deposit, Tasmania, used carbonate o13C and 0180 data in
a boomerang shaped trend for intensive modelling of fluid
compositions and genetic concepts. 1he data, crudely divided
into proximal and distal carbonates, lie on rwo trends joined
at an abrupt inflection. Both of the fluid mixing or fluid-
limestone interaction models proposed by Callaghan (2001)
to account for the trends offer potential for prospect to distriet-
scale isotopie vectors, or at least methods of discriminating
hydrothermal and sedimentary carbonates.
Whole-rock O-isotope vectors in VHMS exploration
In most cases, the proximal altered zones ofVHMS systems
show significant 0180 depletion, partly attributable to high-
fluid temperarures and low-fractionation factors of some
minerals (e.g. chlorite) in seafloor hydrothermal discharge
zones, and partly due to the contrast with 0180 enrichment
caused by low-temperarure seawater-rock reactions in normal
submarine volcanie successions.
A classie semi-regional srudy by Cathles (1993) in the
Noranda district, Canada, discovered a low 0180 anomaly
«6%0) in volcanie rocks around the Flavrian felsie pluton. 1he
pluton is surrounded by a discontinuous halo of high whole-
rock 0180 anomalies (>9%0) 10-15 km from the intrusion.
Several narrow finger-like zones of low 0180 values extend
0180 halo, in the directions of most of the known VHMS
deposits in the districr (Fig. 8.2). 1hese low 0180 zones record
areas of high hydrorhermal-fluid flow and concenrrared
discharge, whieh are favourable for mineral deposirs. 1he
concentrie zones of 180 depletion and enrichment around
the pluton closely march rhe isoropie zonation patterns of
Carhles' (1983) numerieal model. He concluded rhar whole-
rock 0180 sampling, ar 0.5 km intervals along traverses
adjacent ro rhe margins of plutons, could identify plutons
wirh sufhcient energy to drive long-lived hydrorhermal
sysrems, and favourable settings for derailed massive sulfide
explorarion.
Anorher distrier-scale srudy, in rhe Panorama area of
Wesrern Ausrralia, showed a similar pattern oflow whole-rock
0180 around rhe perimerer of a large subvolcanie intrusion
 FINDING ORE DEPOSITS IN ALTEREDVOLCANIC ROCKS I 249

--- ~
---- U
D
2:9%0
6-9%0
l1li ,;;6%0
'7 massivesulfidedeposit
'7 ..'7
'i1iII
o '7

r
o '7D
'7

10km

~ _V - U

_""'''i'''!':;;
-- ",-- - FIGURE 8.2

/)180
I

anomalies,
Map showing spatial
relationshipsbetweenfelsic plutons,whole-rock
andmassivesulfidedepositsin
the Norandaarea,Abitibi belt, Canada (modified
after Cathles, 1993).

(Brauhart et al., 2000). 1he granitoid pluton underlies a

1.5 km thick mixed mafic to felsic volcanic succession that N

hosts several small polymetallic massive sulfide deposits

and prospects along a single favourable horizon at the
stratigraphic top of the sequence (Fig. 6.6). Narrow radial r
zones of low 0180 point to most of the known deposits and
prospects (Fig. 8.3). 1hese low 0180 zones coincide with
intense feldspar-destructive sericite + quartz and chlorite +
quartz zones. Brauhart et al. (2000) calculated hydrothermal
temperatures from the 0180 data. 1hey used fractionation
factors calculated to suit the specific modal mineralogy of
each sample, an initial fluid 0180 value of +2%0 and assumed
high water-rock ratios. 1he resulting calculated temperature
distribution closely matched the O-isotopic pattern, the low
0180 zones coinciding with temperatures greater than about
300°C (Fig. 8.3). 1his indicates that temperature was the
main control on low whole-rock 0180. Ir is consistent with
increased temperature with depth in the volcanic succession,
and in the transgressive discharge or feeder zones beneath
the sulfide deposits. 1he authots concluded that whole-rock
O-isotope mapping could be used as a regional exploration
vector, and pointed to additional favourable targets in the
Panorama district.
Green and Taheri (1992) followed up the Hokuroku
work of Green et al. (1983) with several empirical isotopic
studies of alteration systems in the Mount Read province. 1he
altered foorwall zones beneath the Hellyer deposit exhibit a
subtle whole-rock 0180 anomaly with values ranging from
8.3:t 1.3%0 in the central stringer zone, through 9.8 :t 1.7%0 1 km

in the enclosing sericitic zone, to background values around

11.3 :t 0.9%0 in adjacent least-altered foorwall andesites.
1here is also a subtle depletion anomaly of 10.6 :t 1.2%0
in the basalts immediately above the deposit, compared to
background values of 11.8:t 2.2%0. However, the 0180-
..
Alterationtemperatures
>350°C

250-350°C
hol

~
depletion zone is narrow, reflecting the strong fault or fracture 11 <250°C cool
control on hydrothermal-fluid flow. 1his limits its utility
in exploration. 1he Hercules alteration system also shows --6 -- /)180wholerock(%0)
a range of whole-rock 0180 values from 6.8%0 in foorwall
zones to background values of 14.0 to 15.5%0. 1here are FIGURE8.3 I Distributionofwhole-rock /)180 values and estimated
some unexpectedly high values (around 15%0) in relatively hydrothermaltemperaturesin the Panoramadistrict of the Pilbra region,Western
proximal parts of the foorwall and low values (down to 6.8%0) Australia(modifiedafter Brauhartet al., 2000).
250 I CHAPTER
8
in the apparent hanging wall rocks to the east. These may
be partly due to fault displacements that dismembered the
alteration system. They highlight the difllculty of applying
broad-scale geochemical exploration techniques in deformed
and structurally complex terrains.
In contrast to Hellyer and Hercules, the apparently barren
Boco altered zone has whole-rock 0180 values that are not
significantly different to background values (9.9:t 1.0 and
10.5 :t 1.1%0, respectively). This is consistent with Green and
Taheri's (1992) interpretation that the Boco alteration facies
formed in a low-temperature «200°C) seawater hydrothermal
system, incapable of transporting base metals and reducing
seawater sulfate. Alternatively, the 0180 values could indicate
a higher temperature, isotopically heavier fluid (>280°C,
~5%0), representing either evolved seawater or mixed seawater
and magmatic water. The presence of advanced argillic
assemblages in parts of the Boco system implies highly acidic
fluid conditions, which supports a magmatic fluid input
(Herrmann et al., 2004).
The least-altered volcanic rocks in VHMS-hosting
successions typically have anomalously high background
whole-rock 0180 values (>9 or 10%0), which are attributable
to low-temperature diagenetic alteration. The curves in
Figure 4.17 indicate that re-equilibration with quite small
proportions of cold seawater can produce large positive shifts
in volcanic rock 0180 values. On the other hand, zones of
low 0180 reflect high-temperature hydrothermal alteration
at high water-rock ratios. The empírical data from Noranda
and Panorama show that low 0180 zones may be regionally
extensive at depths of greater than 1 km below favourable
horizons, and in narrow finger-like zones that point toward
favourable sites for hydrothermal discharge. They may form
relatively broad halo s around massive sulfide deposits.
Despite these promising research results, VHMS
explorers have been less than enthusiastic about O-iso tope
vectors and there are few examples of successful application
in Australia. This may be largely attributable to the expense
of isotopic analysis (currently around US$150 per sample)
and the recognition that interpretation of isotopic data is not
straightforward.
A notable exception is the case of the Thalanga West 45
deposit, documented by Miller et al. (2001). These authors took
a similar approach to Brauhart et al. (2000), using estimates
of modal mineralogy to determine tailor-made fractionation
factors for each sample, to calculate isotopic equilibration
temperatures from whole-rock 0180 data, at assumed high
water-rock ratios and fluid isotopic composition. They found
that zones of apparent high temperatures (>230°C) coincided
with the known Central, East and Orient massive sulfide lenses.
The existence of an additional isotopic-temperature anomaly,
about 1 km west of the known resources, stimulated further
exploration that turned up a favourable REE geochemical
anomaly in the same sector. Subsequent exploratory drilling
discovered a 0.23 Mt polymetallic massive sulfide lens. Ir
remains sub-economic, but may represent the first successful
VHMS exploration application of O-isotope geochemistry in
Australia.

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 I 271

INDEX

A page number in bold indicates that the reference is to a alteration timing 69-71, 71t, 172
figure. A bold t indicates that the reference is to a table. alteration zonation
boundaries 64
A contact altered zones 5,64,66-7,67, 139, 149-56,
AI-CCPI Alteration box plot seeAlteration box plot 242
albite alteration 39,42-44,61,65,69,133-5,165-7,191, diagenetic 64, 105-8
214,216 facies model 3
Alteration box plot 31-4,36, 169-70,245 greenschist facies zones 115, 116, 116t, 131, 142,
alteration distribution 22, 63-4 144-5, 152
alteration facies halos 66-9
describing and defining 15-36 Hellyer deposit 178, 182-3, 184-93
diagenetic 241-2 Henty deposit 178,212-3,214-20
distribution 63-4 Highway Reward deposit 14, 167, 178,232,233-40
hydrothermal 242-3 Hokuroku Basin 119-27
metamorphic 242 hydrothermal 5-6,66-8, 164-9,243
variables 22 mapping 243
alteration fluids 93, 170-3 metamorphic 64-5,66-7
Alteration lndex (Al) 30-2,34, 169,245 Mount Read Volcanics 128-38
alteration indices 26-30,34, 73, 169-70,244-5 patterns 64-9,98, 165-8
alteration imensity regional deep semi-conformable 66, 142-8
describing 27t regional metamorphic 115-17, 140
estimation, integrated approach 33-6 Rosebery deposit 178, 195, 196-201
explained 25-36 scales described 64t
illustrated 28-29, 36 Thalanga deposit 14,178,222,223-31
lithogeochemical indications of 243-4 veins and fractures 67,69
alteration mineral assemblages see mineral assemblages Western Tharsis deposit 202-3,204-11
alteration nomendature 16, 19-22, 2lt, 22t, 23t amphibolite facies 115-17, 140
alteration pipes 63, 164-74, 176, 182-3 Amulet deposit see Noranda district
alteration plumes 63, 167,168, 191-3 analytical techniques
alteration processes 4-6 electron microprobe 19,25,88
alteration rates 6 field observations 18
alteration textures ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
deformation textures 52, 54-6, 55-7 spectrometry) 76-7
described 37-63, 37t, 38t, 62t ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass
dissolution textures 41,50-1,52 spectrometry 76-7
dynamic recrystallisation textures 52 isotope geochemistry 92-5
illustrated 39-40,62,103-4,110,111-13 HyMap@ 246, 247
infill textures 41, 48-9 lithogeochemical sampling 73-87
overpriming and false/pseudo textures 37, 54-63, mineral chemistry analysis 87-91
58-61,62t NAA (neutron activated analysis) 76
recrystallisation textures 52, 53 petrography 24-5,33-4
replacement textures 37-8,41,42-7 PlMA 25,33,245
static recrystallisation textures 52, 53
272 I INDEX
SWIR specrroscopy 19,24,25,33,88,90,202-3, diagenesis
243,245 eXplained 5
X-ray diffraction (XRO) 19,24,25,33,88 Hokuroku Basin 118-27
X-ray Huorescence spectrometry (XRF) 76-7 isotope geochemistry analysis 93-4
anhydrous minerals 97 and metamorphism 16,98,102,114,115
Mount Read Volcanics 128-38
B in submarine volcanic successions 97, 102-14
Bathurst mining camp 164-5, 170 diagenetic minerals
Boco prospect 248, 250 carbonates 105
burial-related alteration 97-138 see also diagenesis and genesis of 108-14
submarine environments layered silicates 102, 105
other diagenetic minerals 105
e zeolites 105, 110, 118, 120-7
carbonates diagenetic zones
diagenetic 105 Hokuroku Basin 118-27
in exploration 90-1, 243-4 Mount Read Volcanics 128-38
hydrothermal 47,91,166,178,188,201,217, zonation 64-5, 105-8
229-30 discharge zone 141-2
catadastic texture 52 dissolution 41,50-1,52,97,102,108-10,114,132
CCPI (chlorite-carbonate-pyrite index) seealsoAlteration dynamic recrystallisation textures 52
box plot
eXplained 31, 34 E
eXploration, uses for 169,245 electro n microprobe seeanalytical techniques
cementation 97,102,105,108-10,132 element concentrations 32-3
Central Volcanic Complex see Mount Read Volcanics eutaxitic texture 54, 57
chlorite 19-22,89,138,156,165-8,187,239 exploration
dosure Alteration box plot 31-4, 169-70
and alteration indices 26 alteration identification as tool in 241-50
constant sum effect 243-4 Alteration lndex (Al) 30-2
eXplained 78-9,243-5 isotope geochemistry in 92-5,246-50
mass change anomalies 81 lithogeochemistry in 73-87
compaction 97, 109-10, 132 mineral chemistry in 87-91
compositional nomendature 20 sulfide mapping 243
contact alteration 5, 149-62 use of chlorite in 89
corrosion vugs 41,50-1,52 use of white mica in 90-1
crystallisation vectors and proximity indicators 32-3,94-5,243-50
primary 4
textures 52 F
ofzeoliteassemblages 105,110,114,121 false textures see pseudotextures
fiamme 54, 57
D Huid-rock interaction 169, 170-2, 171, 173
Oarwin Granite see Mount Read Volcanics foliation 52, 54, 70, 7It
data sheets footwall alteration 163-74, 179, 182-9
contents of 36 fused zones 151
Oarwin Granite 157-62
Hellyer deposit 184-93 G
Henty deposit 214-20 geochemistry see isotope geochemistry, lithogeochemistry
Highway-Reward deposit 233-40 geothermal gradient 98
Hokuroku Basin 122-7 geothermometers 92-3
Mount Read Volcanics 133-8 glass
Rosebery deposit 196-201 alteration in submarine volcanic successions 15, 97-8
Thalanga deposit 223-31 common alteration minerals 19t
Western Tharsis deposit 204-11 crystallisation 4
deep, semi-conformable altered zones 142-6 diagenesis 102-14
deformation textures 52, 54-6, 55-7 disequilibrium assemblages 24
detection limit eXplained 75 hydration 4-5,98-102
deuteric alteration 148 reactive quality, 6
devitrification Green TuffBelt see Hokuroku district
eXplained 4
texture 37, 39, 62
zones 151
 I
-\

INDEXI 273

H hydrotherm~ fluid 67, 172-3

h~os 5-6,38,41,66-9,149-56,157-62,163-74,178- HyMap@ 246, 247
81
hangingw~1 ~teration 163,164,167-8,190-3
1
Hellyer deposit see also Mount Read province lberianpyrite belt 90,91,142,164,165,166,166,174
alterationfaciesand zonation 178, 182-3, 184-93 ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
Alterationlndex (Al) 31, 183 spectrometry) 76-7
explained 11,181-93 ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
exploration 245
76-7
indices
geologic~ setting 181-2
~teration 26-30,34, 73, 244-5
ore genesis 170, 183
white mica 90 Alteration box plot see Alteration box plot

Henty deposit see also Mount Read province Alteration lndex (Al) 30-2,34, 169,245
~teration facies and zonation 178,212-13,214-20 CCPI (chlorite-carbonate-pyrite index) 31,34, 169,
eXplained 12 245
geologic~ setting 212 molar proportion ~teration 30
hanging w~1 alteration 167 multi-component and normalised 26, 30
isotopic data 248 simple ratio 26
ore genesis 213 induration 150, 151
Hercules deposit seealso Mount Read province infill textures 41, 48-9
~teration halo 178 intrusions
h~os 66-7
explained 12, 128
geologic~ setting 194 cryptodomes 2,6,66,128,139,143,153,212,232
Highway-Reward deposit seealso Mount Windsor dykes 2,6,66,141,139,149,152,153
Subprovince plutons 139,143,153
alteration facies and zonation 14, 167, 178,232, sills 66,70, 100, 128, 148-9, 152-3, 150, 152, 174,
233-40 182,194,202,212,221,232
explained 14 in submarine volcanic successions 2, 3, 139
geologic~ setting 12-14,232 synvolcanic 139-62
hanging wall alteration 167, 178 isotope geochemistry
ore genesis 232 applications 92-5
submarine facies associations 13 carbon 76, 77, 248
Hokoroku Basin seeHokuroku district exploration 94-5, 246-50
Hokuroku district hydrogen 76, 77, 93
~teration 64-5,67, 118-27, 122-7 oxygen 94-5,246,248-50
geologic~ setting 118-20 stable isotopes 92-5
Green TuffBelt 52,64,107,118,150,151 sulfur 76, 77-8, 92, 141, 180,246,248
water-rockratios 93
Kuroko deposits see Kuroko deposits
oxygen isotopes 94-5, 246
size ofVHMS deposits 164
K
hydration of volcanic glass 4-5,98-102 kaolinite in VHMS ~tered zones 88,150,174-75,178-80
hydrotherm~ ~teration keratophyre 98
boundaries between zones 64 K-Iens see Rosebery deposit
chemic~ reactions 168 Kuroko deposits see also Hokuroku district
and diagenetic ~teration 128 ~teration 164, 179
discharge zone 141-2,156 Alteration lndex (Al) 31
alteration model 166, 178-9
discriminating 16-19
explained 4
h~os 66-7, 164-74 L
intensity measures 32-3 least ~tered see also ~teration intensity
intrusion-related 140-61 seealso intrusions explained 26
alteration indices 32
metamorphic assemblages 174, 175t
plagioclase destruction 31, 167 lithification 97,108-10
recharge zone 141 lithogeochemistry
subseafloor systems 140-1 an~ytic~ methods 73-8
carbonates 76-7
syntectonic 6
tectonic deformation 6 chemostratigraphy 79-81
VHMS deposits 5-6, 163-240 C-H-N element~ an~yser 76
zones 5-6,66-8,164-78,243 closure 78-9,81
hydrotherm~ convection 1, 94, 140-1, 140 compatible elements 79-80
 274 I INDEX

europium 87 Mount Read province

eXplained 73-8,74t alteration 7-12, 163-164
and exploration 243-5 Chester deposit 90
hydrous minerals 76-7 history 9, 11-12
ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma atomic emission Hellyer deposit see Hellyer deposit
spectrometry) 76-7 Henty deposit see Henty deposit
ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass Hercules deposit see Hercules deposit
spectrometry 76-7 Mount Lyell field seeMount Lyell field
immobile elements 79-81,85,87 Mount Read Volcanics see Mount Read Volcanics
inaccuracies in 77 oxygen isotopic exploration 249-50
incompatible elements 79 Que River deposit see Que River deposit
limit of detection 75 Rosebery deposit see Rosebery deposit
LOI (loss on ignition) 76 size ofVHMS deposits 164
mass change 73,81-7,85-6,87,97,165,180-1, Western Tharsis deposit seeWestern Tharsis deposit
245-6 Mount Read Volcanics see alsoMount Read province
NAA (neutro n activated analysis) 76 Al and CCPI ranges 32, 34
precision and accuracy required 75 alteration 128-32, 133-8
recalculating to volatile free 77-8 Central Volcanic Complex 9-10,69, 128, 130-32,
REE (rare earth elements) 73,79,81,87 157-62
reporting data 77 chemosrratigraphic discrimination and correlation 80
sampling methods 73-8 compaction effects at 110
summing elements 77 Darwin Granite 154-6, 157-62
use of reference materials 75 geology of 7-12, 128, 129
XRF (X-ray fluorescence spectrometry) 76-7 Kershaw Pumice Formation 128,13H
Mount Black Formation 128, 133, 137-8
M pyritic alteration systems 89
mass change see lithogeochemistry metamorphic assemblages 11
massive sulfide 163-5, 167 Sterling Valley Volcanics 128
Mattabi deposit 91, 180 Mount Windsor Subprovince
metamorphism alteration 14, 164,222,232
burial metamorphism and diagenesis 16,97,98, 102, geology 12-14, 221-40
114,115-17 Highway-Reward deposit see Highway-Reward deposit
contact metarnorphism 5,11,12,64,66-7,149-54, Thalanga deposit seeThalanga deposit
242
explained 4, 5,20, 24 N
regional metarnorphism 5,64-6,115,139,140-8 NAA (neutron activated analysis) 76 seealso analytical
ofVHMS-related altered zones 174-5 techniques
metasomatic alteration 4,5, 144-6 narning altered rock see alteration nomenclature
microanalysis 24 Noranda district 66, 142-7, 167, 179-81
microprobe see analytical techniques numerical fluid-flow modelling 172
mineral assemblages
alteration assemblages 23-5,34, 165 o
burial effects on 97, 109 overprinting
common assemblages 2It, 22t, 109, 165 textures 37,70-1, 70t, 71t
disequilibrium 23-4, 63 and false/pseudo textures 37, 54-63, 58-61, 62t
equilibrium 23-4 relationships 69-71, 71 t
in exploration 243
igneous 16, 19 p
isotopic studies of 92-5 palagonite 99,99-100
nomenclature 19-20 Panorama district 180,246,248-50
mineral chemistry 87-91,245-6 paragenetic sequence 69
minerals defined 87-8 perlite 37,40,54, 100-1, 101
Mount Lyell field seealso Mount Read province PlMA (portable infrared mineral analyser) 25, 33, 245 see
deposits 12, 202, 243 also analytical techniques
geological setting 202 plagioclase destruction 31, 167-9
halos 202 pseudotextures 16,37,54-63,58-61, 62t, 63
hanging wall alteration 167 pyrophyllite in VHMS systems 174, 202, 207-8
HyMap system 246, 247
mineral zonation 243, 247 Q
ore genesis 203 Que River deposit 11-12, 70, 90, 167 seealso Mount Read
Western Tharsis deposit seeWestern Tharsis deposit provlllce

L
 "

I
INDEX 275
R vein-halo alteration 38,41,43,69
regional metamorphism see metamorphism VHMS deposits
relict textures 14,16,19,24,25,37-38,141 alteration patterns 164-78
replacement textures 37-38,41,42-7 classification 163-6
Rio Tinto deposit see lberian pyrite belt common features 163-4
Rosebery deposit seealso Mount Read province comparisons 178-81
alteration 70,128, 13lt, 168, 173, 178, 195, 196- exploration 241-50
201 foorwall alteration 163-74
Chlorite-carbonate-pyrite index (CCPI) 195 halo s 5-6,67-9,68,163-8,175,178-81
geochemical alteration parameters 168 hanging wall alteration 163-4, 167-8
geological setting 194 Hellyer deposit see Hellyer deposit
explained 11-12, 194-201 Henry deposit see Henry deposit
hydrothermal carbonates 91 Highway-Reward deposit see Highway-Reward deposit
hydrothermal Huid How 174 kaolinite, presence of 174
K-lens 30,34,68,91, 174,244 major VHMS provinces 164
lithogeochemical data in exploration 82, 244 Mount Lyell seeMount Lyell field
sericite 70-1 pyrite in 243
pyrophyllite, presence of 174
S regional alteration zones 5-6, 139-62
Scuddles deposit 180 Rosebery deposit see Rosebery deposit
sericite alteration 20-2, 70-1, 165-78, 185-6, 198-9,206- Thalanga deposit seeThalanga deposit
11,218,225,231,238 see alsowhite mica Western Tharsis deposit seeWestern Tharsis deposit
Short-wavelength infrared spectroscopy (SWIR) see VMS deposits seeVHMS deposits
analyrical techniques volcanic facies
siliceous alteration 165-9, 182, 189, 199,219-20 alteration processes 2-6
smectites 102, 109, 117 alteration in submarine environments 97-138
Snow Lake Oistrict 142-6 associations 2
sodium content in volcanic rocks 34-6, 243-4 changes in 108
solution seams 51,52 clastic facies 1, 19
spilite 98 coherent facies 1,6, 16, 19
stable isotopes seeisotope geochemisrry common clay minerals in 102
stockwork seestringer zones crystalline facies 6
stringer zones 163,165,172-3,179 volcaniclastic facies 1,6, 12, 16-19
srylolites 51, 52 volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits seeVHMS
submarine environments 2,97-138 deposits
submarine facies associations vugs 41,50-1,52
Mount Read Volcanics 10-11,214-20
Seventy Mile Range Group 12-13 W
submarine volcanic successions 1-14,3,97-138,241-9 water-rock ratios 93-4
SWIR spectroscopy seeanalyrical techniques Western Tharsis deposit seealso Mount Read province see
synvolcanic intrusions seeintrusions also Mt Lyell field
alteration facies and zonation 202-3, 204-11
T case study 202-11
Thalanga deposit seealso Mount Windsor Subprovince geological setting 202
alteration facies and zonation 14, 178, 222, 223-31 ore genesis 203
eXplained 14 white mica 91
geological setting 12-14,221-2 white mica 20,89-91, 165,246
mass change estimations 85-6 Woodlawn deposit 178
ore genesis 222
oxygen isotopic exploration 250
X
thermodynamic alteration model 170-2 X-ray diffraction 19,24,25,33,88
X-ray Huorescence spectrometry (XRF) 76-7
v
vectors Z
exploration 243-50 zeolites 105-6, 106t, 110, 114-16, 118, 120-1
zones see alteration zonation
isotopic 246-50
lithogeochemical 243-4
mass change 245
7
mineral chemistry 79,89-91,245-6
sulfide 243-4