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All bodies emit a mixture of electromagnetic waves as a result of thermal motion of their
molecules. About 800°C a body emits enough visible radiation to be self-luminous and
appears red hot. At 3000°C, the radiant energy contains the visible wavelengths, between
4000Å to 7000Å, and the body appears white hot. The light which consists of mixture of
wavelengths is called polychromatic light. Light of single wavelength (roughly a single
colour), is called monochromatic light. Laser light is more nearly monochromatic, than
any other light source. The object which gives out light energy by itself, is called luminous
object. The object which does not give energy by itself, but reflect light falling on it is
called non-luminous object.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 3
The speed of light
The speed of light in vacuum is one of the fundamental constants of nature. The first
successful determination of the speed of light was made by the French scientist Fizeau
in 1849. Fizeau¢s measurements were not of high precision. He calculated the speed of
light as 3.15×108 m/s. By the precise measurements, the speed of light is found nearly
3×108 m/s as obtained by Michelson.
Some definitions
1. Optical medium : Anything, through which light energy can pass is called optical Fig. 1.1
medium.
2. Homogeneous medium: If an optical medium has a uniform composition
throughout, it is called homogeneous medium. Ex. vacuum, glass, distilled water
etc.
3. Hetrogeneous medium: If an optical medium has different composition at different
points, then it is called hetrogeneous medium. Ex. air, dirty water etc.
Fig. 1.2
4 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
4. Transparent medium: A medium which allows most of the light energy to pass
through it, is called transparent medium. In such a medium we can see through
clearly. Ex. air, glass, plastics etc.
5. Translucent medium: A medium which allows only small part of light energy
through it, is called translucent medium. In such a medium we can not see through
clearly. Ex. frosted glass, greased paper, dirty water etc.
6. Opaque object: The object which does not allow the light energy to pass through
it is called opaque object. This type of object either absorb or reflect the light
energy. Ex. bricks, wood, stones etc.
When a beam of light is incident on the interface between two media, three situations
can happen. These are :
(i) Some part of incident light is sent back into the first medium. It is called reflection.
(ii) A part of light gets transmitted through the interface. It is called refraction.
(iii) Rest part of the light, gets absorbed by the medium. It is called absorption.
Fig. 1.3 Two types of reflection
(i) Regular reflection:
In case of highly polished surface, all the incident parallel rays are reflected to the
same new direction. This is called regular reflection.
(ii) Diffused reflection:
Most of the surfaces, even if they seem flat, are really quite rough. This page may
look very rough under a microscope. Each small piece of the surface is angled
differently. Parallel light rays falling onto the surface still obey the laws of reflection,
and so are reflected to all sorts of new directions. The reflected light is scattered.
This is called diffused reflection.
Mirror
A smooth and polished reflecting surface is called a mirror. There are two types of
mirrors.
Fig. 1.4 (i) Plane mirror: A highly polished plane surface is called a plane mirror.
(ii) Curved mirror: The reflecting surface may be spherical or parabolic.
Laws of reflection
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incident lie in the
same plane.
2. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. If i and r are the
angle of incident and angle of reflection respectively, then
Ði = Ðr .
Fig. 1.6
In figure Ðq is called glance angle of incident
Fig. 1.5
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 5
For ray 1, Ði = Ðr = 0
For ray 2, Ði = Ðr = q
Note:
1. It should be noted that a person can
see his full height, by turning his head
or eyes even in a small mirror.
2. An observer can see the image of a
tall building in a very small mirror by
keeping mirror at a large distance from
the building (see fig. 1.12).
Fig. 1.12
d = 180o - ( Ði + Ðr )
= 180o - ( i + i )
\ ÐABC = 2i
Let the mirror be rotated through an angle q about point B, such that M¢ is the
new position and BN¢ is the new normal. As the position of the incident ray
remain the same, so the angle of incident becomes (i + q). Let BD be the
reflected ray, which also makes (i + q) from BN¢.
\ ÐABD = (i + q) + (i + q)
Fig. 1.14
= 2i + 2q.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 7
360o 360o
(ii) If is odd integer, then number of images formed n = , if the object is
q q
360o
placed off the bisector of the mirror, and - 1 when object is placed on the
q Fig. 1.15
bisector of the mirrors.
360o
(iii) If is a fraction, the number of images formed will be equal to its integral
q
part.
0 ¥ ¥ ¥
30 12 11 11
45 8 7 7
60 6 5 5
72 5 5 4
75 4.8 4 4
90 4 3 3
Fig. 1.16
8 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 1 Why diffused reflection is more important than regular
reflection ? Sol.
Sol.
During diffused reflection, light on striking the rough surface, gets scattered
in all possible directions and hence visibility in surroundings increases
whereas glare decreases. However in regular reflection, light is reflected
in a particular direction, with the result the surrounding region remains
dark. Moreover, there is a lot of glare in the direction of reflected light.
Ex. 2 Can plane mirror form real image ?
Sol. Yes. If virtual object is obstructed by the plane mirror. In the Fig. 1.19
figure O is the virtual object and I is its real image. The component of velocity of image perpendicular to mirror is
-4iˆ m/s and parallel to mirror is 3 ˆj m/s, and so velocity of image will
be -4iˆ + 3 ˆj m/s.
( )
unchanged. The component of iˆ + ˆj – kˆ along normal is ˆi + ˆj , ( ) relative to object will be 2v.
Ex. 6 Two mirrors are placed at an angle q between them. Prove
and parallel to the mirror is -kˆ. Thus the reflected component that angle of deviation produced by mirrors together is independent
( )
normal to the mirror becomes - ˆi + ˆj . Therefore the vector along
of angle of incident.
Sol.
r
( )
reflected ray is R = - iˆ + ˆj + kˆ , and Rˆ = -
1 ˆ ˆ ˆ
3
(
i + j+k . ) Consider a ray incident on first mirror at an angle a. The deviation
produced by first mirror will be d1 = 180o - 2a. The ray after reflection
from first mirror, incidents on the second mirror at an angle b, and so
o
angle of deviation produced by second mirror will be d 2 = 180 - 2b.
Fig. 1.18
Ex. 4 An ant is moving towards a plane mirror with a velocity
(4iˆ + 3jˆ) m/s as shown in fig. 1.19. What will be its image velocity
with respect to the mirror? Fig. 1.20
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 9
The total deviation produced by mirrors together
d L
d = d1 + d 2 =
A' B ' 3L
= (180o - 2a ) + (180o - 2b) \ A¢B¢ = 3d. Ans.
=
o
360 - 2( a + b ) Ex. 9 A child is standing in front of a straight plane mirror.
From the geometry q = a + b, His father is standing behind him as shown in figure. The height
of father is double the height of child. What is the minimum length
\ d = 360° – 2q. Proved
of mirror required so that
Ex. 7 A man is standing exactly at the centre of the hall. He (a) the child can completely see his father image in the mirror ?
wants to see the image of his back wall in a mirror hanging on (b) if father wishes to see his child image completely in the
front wall. Find the minimum size of the mirror required. mirror ?
Sol.
Suppose the height of the wall be h and required height of the mirror be
y. The position of man, wall and its image are shown in figure. For getting
simple geometric relations, here we have drawn single ray diagram of the
image.
Fig. 1.23
Sol.
(i) To see the full image of his father the rays from head and feet of
the father after reflection from mirror must be reached at the child's
eyes. The situation is shown in the figure. The required size of the
mirror is y. So from similar triangles,
Fig. 1.21
In the similar triangles EAB and EC¢D¢, we have y 2h
=
L 3L
y h
= 2h
x 3x
y = .
3
h
\ y =
3
. Ans.
2h
\ y =
3
Fig. 1.27
Velocity of object relative to mirror
r
[vom ]^ = 16 iˆ - (-18 iˆ) = +34 iˆ m/s
Velocity of its image
r
[vim ]^ = -34 iˆ m/s
Now velocity of image w.r.t. ground observer
r r r
^ = [ vim ]^ + [ vm ]^
éë vig ùû
Fig. 1.29
= -34 iˆ - 18 iˆ = -52 iˆ m/s
From similar triangles, we have
The velocity component parallel to mirror remains same and so
r 1.4 0.8
vimage = vxiˆ + v y ˆj 2x + x0 = x + x0
\ y = 0.02 m
Thus the length of the image he can see in the mirror
= 1.5 – (0.02)
= 1.48 m. Ans.
Ex. 13 An object O is placed in between two parallel mirrors
as shown in fig. 1.30. Find the separation between nth order images.
Fig. 1.28
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 11
Fig. 1.30
2. If one looks at his own face in the plane mirror, the image observed
is technically described as perverted. The image is the same as Fig. 1.31
though the face were reproduced as a rubber mask and the mask
turned inside out and viewed from the new front. The right ear of
one becomes the left ear of the image, and vice-versa. To see one's
face as others see it, two front mirrors should be placed mutually
perpendicular in contact as shown in figure. The observer's left
ear will then be seen, because of two reflections as the left ear of
his image etc. This experiment can be performed in case when
many people's faces are, unknowingly, slightly unsymmetric seen
in perpendicular mirrors, all such irregularities are reversed; they
therefore appear double in magnitude and are very noticeable.
Fig. 1.32
Reflecting periscope One's own image seen in 90°
mirrors is normal, that seen in a
It is used to see the object, if the vision gets obstructed. It consists of a wooden or card plane mirror is perverted
board tube as shown in fig. 1.33. Two plane mirror are fixed at the turnings at an angle 45°
each, such that the mirrors face each other.
12 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 14 Two pins A and B arranged as shown in figure are mirror, he will see these images superimposed on each other. In the
struck in front of a mirror. What arrangement of the images of position C or D observer can not see the two images in a line.
these pins will be seen by an observer in different view positions? Ex. 15 An object O'O and a mirror AC are placed as shown in
In what position of the eye will the image of the pins be figure. Construct the image of this object in the mirror. Where
superimposed on each other ? should the eye be placed to observe the image of the entire object ?
Sol. See fig. 1.35. The rays coming from the point O' will be
propagated inside the band restricted by the straight lines AD and CB
after reflection from the mirror. The rays coming from all the points on
the object will only arrive at each point in space between the straight
lines AF and CB. The eye can see only the entire image of the object if it
is at one of the points enclosed between the rays, AF and CB.
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.34
Sol.
The ray diagram of the image is shown in figure. If the observer looks
along the line passing through the images A' and B' of the pins in the Fig. 1.35
1.7
SPHERICAL MIRRORS
Some definitions
(i) The centre of curvature C : It is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror's
surface is a part. Centre of curvature of plane mirror is at infinity.
(ii) Pole P : The mid point of a spherical mirror is called pole.
(iii) Principal axis : The imaginary line which passes through the pole and centre of
curvature is called principal axis. Principal axis divides the mirror into two equal
halfs.
(iv) Linear aperture : The diameter of the spherical mirror is called linear aperture.
(v) Principal focus F : It is a point on the principal axis at which a beam of light, after
reflection, either actually meet or appears to meet.
(vi) Focal length f : The linear distance between pole and principal focus, is called
focal length.
(vii) Radius of curvature R : The linear distance between pole and centre of curvature
is called radius of curvature.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 13
Concave mirror as converging and
convex mirror as diverging mirror
In concave mirror all the rays, coming parallel to principal
axis meet at the focus F. In this way the rays converge at a
single point. Thus concave mirror acts as converging mirror.
In case of convex mirror all the rays coming parallel to the
principal axis, after reflection appear to meet at focus F. In
other words, the reflected rays appear to diverge out from F.
Hence convex mirror is called diverging mirror.
Fig. 1.37
On the bases of laws of reflection, it can be concluded that
1. Any ray of light travelling parallel to principal axis, after reflection, it will pass or
appears to pass through focus and vice-versa (according to principle of
reversibility of path of light).
2. Any ray of light which travels along centre of curvature, after reflection it will
retrace the path.
Sign conventions
1. All the distances should be measured from pole of the mirror along and
perpendicular to the principal axis.
2. Distance measured in the direction of incident rays, can be taken as positive and
opposite of incident rays, is negative.
3. Distance measured above principal axis is taken as positive and negative below
the axis.
According to our sign conventions, the focal length of the concave mirror becomes
negative and that of convex mirror becomes positive. (see fig. 1.38).
Consider a concave spherical mirror of radius of curvature R. Let O is the object placed
at a distance u from the pole P of the mirror. Take two rays OB and OP, which on
reflection makes an image at I. Suppose ray OB makes small angle a with the principal
axis. CB and IB make angles b and g respectively. Then :
In D OBC, b = a+i
\ i = b–a ...(i)
In D CBI, g = b+r
\ r = g–b ...(ii)
Since Ði = Ðr
or b–a = g–b
or a+g = 2b ...(iii)
For small angles, we can have
Fi g. 1.40
h
a ; tana = ,
-u
h
b ; tanb = ,
-R
h
and g ; tang = .
-v
On substituting these values in equation (iii), we get
h h 2h
+ =
-u - v -R
1 1 2
or + = . ...(1)
u v R
R
As = f,
2
1 1 1
\ + = . ...(2)
u v f
Note:
1. It must be remembered that the equations (1) and (2), as well as many similar
relations to be derived later, are the result of a calculation containing
approximations and is valid for paraxial rays (the rays nearly parallel to the axis).
2. If R = ¥ , .......... the mirror becomes plane and u = v.
3. The above derived formula can be used for convex mirror also.
4. In using these formulas, the signs are given only to known values.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 15
1 1
Graph between vs :
u v
We have derived the mirror formula
1 1 1
+ =
u v f
1 1 1
or = - +
v u f
1
Comparing this equation with y = mx + c, we have m = –1 and c = . Thus the given
f
equation represents a straight line with negative slope (q = 135° with x-axis). The graph
1 1
between and is shown in the figure.
u v
The graph between u and v is a hyperbola. For
u = ¥ , v = f.
u = f ,v= ¥ .
The graph between u and v is shown in figure. Fig. 1.41
1.9 MAGNIFICATION
In spherical mirrors, the size of image can be greater or less than the object. The relative
size of the image can be understand by magnification. Thus magnification m can be
defined as :
size of image
m = .
size of object
Depending on the height, length and area of the object, there are three types of
magnification. These are :
(i) Lateral magnification When the object is placed perpendicular to the principal
axis, its image will also perpendicular to the principal axis. Thus lateral
magnification:
height of image ( I )
m =
height of object (O)
For getting lateral magnification consider an object AB of height O, placed
perpendicular to principal axis, at a distance u from the pole of the mirror. A'B' is
the image formed by the concave mirror at a distance v from the pole of the mirror.
In similar triangles ABP and A'B'P, we have
AB PA
=
A'B ' PA '
According to the sign conventions, we have
AB = O, A'B' = –I, Fig. 1.42
PA = –u and PA' = –v.
Thus we can write
O -u
=
-I -v
I v
or = - .
O u
I v
\ m = =- . ...(3)
O u
16 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Negative value of m indicates that the image is inverted relative to the object m
may be either positive or negative, a positive value always corresponds to an
erect image, a negative value to an inverted one.
The value of m
The value of m may be from zero to infinity.
When u = f, v = ¥ and so m = – ¥ . It means a very large inverted image will form at a very
large distance. When object is placed at pole of the mirror, its image is also at the same
position, and so in this case m = 1.
Note:
1. Normal eye can see any large distance between 25 cm to infinity, provided there
is no obstruction in between.
2. In practice, distance of few kilometer (say 10 km) can be taken as infinite in
comparison to focal length of the optical system.
3. Focal length of spherical mirrors does not depend on the medium in which it
placed.
1 1 1
+ = ,
u v f
After differentiation, we get
du dv
- 2
- = 0.
u v2
dv v2
Or we can write = - .
du u2
v2
Fig. 1.44 Thus mL = - . ...(4)
u2
v
As lateral magnification m = ,
u
\ mL = –m2.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 17
In particular, if m is a small fraction, then m2 is very small and the three-
dimensional image of a three-dimensional object is reduced longitudinally
much more than it is reduced transversely. Figure represents this effect. The
image formed by a spherical mirror is also perverted.
(b) For long object : The positions of two ends of the object is taken as u1 and
u2. Then by using mirror formula find v1 and v2. Thus lengths of the object
and image are (u1 ~ u2) and (v1 ~ v2) respectively. By the definition
é v ~ v2 ù
mL = -ê 1 ú. ...(5)
ë u1 ~ u2 û
(iii) Magnification of area : Suppose an object of width b and height h is placed
perpendicular to the principal axis. The area of the object Ao = bh.
v
and height of the image h¢ = h.
u
æv öæv ö
The area of the image Ai = b¢h¢ = ç b ÷ ç h ÷
èu øèu ø
v2 v2
= 2
( bh ) = Ao
u u2
Ai v2
Or we can write = .
AO u2
Thus the magnification of area
Ai v2
marea = =- 2 . ...(6)
AO u
Velocity of image
For the moving object, the velocity of the image in spherical mirrors depends on the
object velocity as well as on its distance from the mirror. The image velocity can be
obtained by differentiating mirror formula with respect to time. Thus we have
d é1 1ù d æ1ö
+ = ç ÷
dt êë u v úû dt è f ø
1 du 1 dv
or - - = 0 ...(i)
u 2 dt v 2 dt
du dv
Here , is the rate of change of position of the object, which is vo, and is the rate
dt dt
of change of position of the image, which is vi. On putting these values in equation (i),
we get
vo vi
- 2
- = 0
u v2
v2
or vi = - vo . ...(7)
u2
18 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Special cases
1. In concave mirror, the real image always moves opposite to the object and so if vo
is positive, then vi will be negative.
2. In convex mirror, the image always moves in the direction opposite of object and
so both vo and vi are opposite. Image velocity in convex mirror is always less than
the object velocity.
Fig. 1.45
Note:
It should be remembered that both vo and vi are to the measured with respect to
the mirror.
Fig. 1.46
1. Convex mirrors : On being very large field of view, these mirrors are used in
automobiles to see the traffic behind him without turning his head. Plane mirror is
not useful for this purpose because its field of view is small.
2. Concave mirror : We know that when a source of light is placed at the focal
point of the concave parabolic mirror, it produces parallel beam of light. Thus it is
used as a reflector in automobiles head lights and in search lights.
In practice spherical mirrors are capable of forming reasonably sharp images if their
apertures are small in comparision to the focal length. In case of large mirror, the rays Fig. 1.47(a)
reflected from the outer edges cross the axis at different distances as shown in figure.
This inability to focus all the incident rays at a single point is called spherical aberration.
A parabolic mirror, however, brings all rays to a focus at one point. A small source of light
located at the focal point of a parabolic reflector becomes a parallel beam after reflection,
which is used in automobiles headlights and in search lights.
Fig. 1.47(b)
Fig. 1.48
20 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 16 Find the distance of object from a concave mirror of Ex. 17 A point source S is placed midway between two
focal length 10 cm so that image is four times the size of the object. converging mirrors having equal focal length f as shown in figure.
Sol. Case I : When image is real. Suppose object distance is x from Find the values of d for which only one image is formed.
the mirror, then Sol.
Fig. 1.51
In the situation when S is placed at the common focus of mirrors, the
rays after reflection from one mirror incident parallel on to the second
Fig. 1.49 mirror, which finally intersect at focus of the mirror. Thus there will be
u = –x only one image. In this case the value of d will be 2f. In the other case
m = –4 when S is placed at the centre of curvature, the image will form at the
v same point, so in this case the value of d will be 2f + 2f = 4f (see figure).
We know that, m = -
u
f
v
Ex. 18 A thin rod of length is placed along the optic axis of
or –4 = - 3
( - x) a concave mirror of focal length f such that its image which is real
\ v = – 4x and elongated just touches the object. Calculate the magnification
Now using mirror formula produced by the mirror.
1 1
+ =
1 Sol.
u v f The elongated image will be formed when object is to be placed beyond
1 1 1 coc. The one end of the image will touch the rod when it is placed at coc.
or + = Thus AB is the right position of the rod. Thus for the end B, we have
- x -4 x -10
which gives x = 12.5 cm Ans.
Thus in this case, object is to be placed between focus and coc.
Fig. 1.52
æ fö
u = -ç2 f - ÷
è 3ø
-5 f
=
3
For concave mirror, f = –f.
Fig. 1.50
m = +4 1 1 1
By mirror formula, + = , we have
v u v f
\ 4 = -
-x 1
1 1
or v = 4x. + =
Now by mirror formula -5 f v -f
3
1 1 1
+ =
u v f -5 f
On solving, we get v = .
2
1 1 1
or + =
- x 4x -10 5f f
Thus the length of the image = A¢B¢ = -2f =
which gives x = 7.5 cm Ans. 2 2
Thus object is to be placed between focus and pole of the mirror.
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 21
f
3
= - 2 =- . Ans.
f 2
3
Here negative sign shows that the image is inverted with respect to the
object.
Fig. 1.53
See figure. For small aperture mirror; and in similar triangles
O x1
= ...(i)
I f
O f
Also = ...(ii)
I x2
x1 f
\ f
=
x2 Fig. 1.55
If we place the distances with the signs, then
1 1 1
- x1 -f By mirror formula + = ,
= u v f we have
-f - x2
or x1 x2 = f 2 Proved 1 1 1
+ =
10 -50 f
Ex. 20 A concave mirror forms the real image of a point source which on solving gives f = 12.5 cm.
lying on the optic axis at a distance of 50 cm from the mirror. The \ Radius of curvature R = 2f = 25 cm. Ans.
focal length of the mirror is 25 cm. The mirror is cut in two and its Ex. 22 A converging mirror M 1 , a point source S and a
halves are drawn at a distance of 1 cm apart in a direction diverging mirror M2 are arranged as shown in fig. 1.56. The source
perpendicular to the optical axis (see fig. 1.54). How will the images is placed at a distance of 30 cm from M1. The focal length of each of
formed by the halves of the mirror be arranged ? the mirrors is 20 cm. Consider only the images formed by a
Sol. maximum of two reflections. It is found that one image is formed
on the source itself.
For the upper half of the mirror the distance of the object O becomes 0.5
(a) Find the distance between the mirrors.
cm below its optic axis. As object is placed at coc, so its image will also
(b) Find the location of the image formed by the single reflection
form on coc and 0.5 cm above the optic axis. Similarly by the lower half.
from M2.
Thus the distance between the two images becomes 2 cm, see ray diagram.
22 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Sol. æ mv ö
= v - ç- ÷
è Mø
æ mö
= çè1 + ÷ø v
M
du æ mö
or = çè 1 + ÷ø v.
dt M
By the defination, the image velocity,
dv v 2 æ du ö
= - ç ÷.
dt u 2 è dt ø
At the instant of firing, bullet and its image are at the pole of the mirror,
Fig. 1.56 v
For mirror M1 : so = 1. Thus
u
u = – 30 cm,
f = –20 cm dv æ du ö
= -ç ÷.
1 1 1 dt è dt ø
By mirror formula, + = , we have
u v f or the velocity of image w.r.t. mirror = velocity of bullet w.r.t. mirror
The speed of separation between bullet and its image
1 1 1
+ = æ du ö
-30 v -30 = 2ç ÷
è dt ø
which on solving gives, v = –60 cm.
For mirror M2 : The image formed by mirror M 1 behaves like virtual
æ mö
object for mirror M2. Let it is at a distance x from the pole of mirror = 2 ç1 + ÷ v . Ans.
è Mø
M2. Thus
u2 = + x
v 2 = –(30 – x) Ex. 24 A point object is moving towards and parallel to
Again by mirror formula, we have principal axis of a concave mirror of focal length 30 cm at a distance
of 2 cm from principal axis of the mirror. Find velocity of its image
1 1 1
+ = when object is at a distance of 20 cm from the mirror.
x - ( 30 - x ) 20
Sol.
which on solving gives x = 10 cm or 60 cm,
The distance of image for u = – 20 cm,
x = 60 cm is not possible, \ x = 10 cm.
(a) Thus the separation between the mirrors = 60 – 10 = 50 cm. 1 1 1
+ =
(b) The image formed by mirror M2 is at a distance 10 cm. Ans. v -20 -30
\ v = + 60 cm
Ex. 23 A gun of mass M fires a bullet of mass m with a
horizontal speed v. The gun is fitted with a concave mirror of focal
length f facing towards the receding bullet. Find the speed of
separation of the bullet and image just after the gun was fired.
Sol.
If v¢ is the recoil velocity of the gun, then by conservation of linear
momentum,
O = mv + Mv¢
mv
\ v¢ = - .
M
Fig. 1.58
The velocity of image is shown in figure. It has two components;
For x -component of velocity , vix :
v2
Fig. 1.57 vix = – v0
u2
The velocity of the bullet with respect to the mirror
r r
[ vrbullet ]mirror = [ vbullet ] g - [ vmirror ] g = –
( +60) 2
´ 10 = -90 m/s .
= v – v¢ ( -20)2
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 23
For y-component of velocity, viy : or v = –R
The x-coordinate of the image of the block with respect to the
hi v mirror will be +R.
Lateral magnification, m = = -
ho u 3R
(b) At t= .
v v
or hi = - ho
u 2R
The block B will collide with the stand after time .
v
é dv du ù
êëu dt - v dt úû After collision block B becomes at rest and mirror starts moving
Now viy = - ho with the same velocity v. In the remaining time R/v, the distance
u2 moved by the mirror
[ -20( -90) - (+60) ´ 10] R
-2 x = v´ = R.
= 2 v
( -20)
= – 6 m/s. The position of blocks and mirror are shown in figure.
Thus velocity of image;
r r r
vi = vix + viy
Ex. 25 Two concave mirrors of equal radii of curvature R are Fig. 1.60
fixed on a stand facing opposite directions. The whole system has a At this time the blocks lie at the centre of curvature of the respective
mass m and is kept on a frictionless horizontal table (fig. 1.59). mirrors. Their images will form at the centres of curvature. So their
co-ordinates are :
For block A, x = –R
For block B, x = + R
5R
(c) At t= .
v
Fig. 1.59
Two block A and B, each of mass m, are placed on the two sides of
the stand. At t = 0, the separation between A and the mirror is 2R
and also the separation between B and the mirror is 2R. The block
B moves towards the mirror at a speed v. All collisions which take
place are elastic. Taking the original position of the mirrors
standard system to be x = 0 and x-axis along AB, find the position of Fig. 1.61
R 3R 5R 2R
the images of A and B at ; (a) t = (b) t = (c) t = . The block B will collide to the mirror after a time
v
. Thereafter
v v v
Sol. 4R
mirror starts moving towards block A with velocity v. At t = ,
v
R
(a) At t = . the mirror will collide with block A and stops after collision. The
v
positions of blocks and mirror are shown in fig. 1.61 .
For block A, u = –2R For block A; Its image will form on the same place. Therefore the
1 1 2 positions of the blocks are
\ + =
v -2 R -R xA = –3R.
For block B ; u = – 2R
-2 R
or v = . 1 1 2
3 + =
v –2 R –R
R
For block B : The distance travels by block B in time 2R
v v = –
3
R
x = v´ =R. æ 2R ö
v The coordinates of B are – ç 2 R - ÷
è 3 ø
Thus u = –R
1 1 2 -4 R
\ + = = . Ans.
v -R -R 3
24 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 26 A concave and a convex mirror are placed on two
parallel optic axis as shown. Find the co-ordinates of image of point
object P formed after two successive reflections; first reflection at
concave mirror and then at convex mirror.
Fig. 1.63
Ex. 27 A parallel beam of light ray parallel to the x-axis is
incident on a parabolic reflecting surface x = 2by2 as shown in the
fig. After reflecting it passes through focal point F. What is the
focal length of the reflecting surface?
Fig. 1.62
Sol.
For concave mirror M1 :
u = – 20 cm, f1 = – 15 cm
1 1 1
Now + =
v1 -20 -15
or v1 = – 60 cm
I1 v1 Fig. 1.64
Also = -
O u Sol.
I1 (- 60) We can write,
or = - x = 2 by 2
2 ( -20)
\ I1 = – 6 mm x
For convex mirror M2 : or y2 = 2b
1 1 1 On comparing with standard parabola y2 = 4 a x,
+
v2 10 = +20 1
\ v 2 = – 20 cm we get, 4a = 2b
For optic axis of convex mirror, O2 = (6 + 2) = 8 mm
I2 -( -20) 1
Now = or a = 8b
-8 +10
\ I2 = – 16 mm Thus focal length, f = a
Thus co-ordinates of image point from O, are (30 cm, –14 mm). (see
1
figure.) = .
8b
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 25
I v
Lateral magnification,m = = -
O u
Longitudinal magnification for short object
v2
mL = - = -m 2 .
(ii) By two mirrors at an angle q, the deviation u2
d = 360° – 2q.
Ai -v 2
6. Number of images Magnification of areamarea= = .
Suppose q is the angle between the mirrors, then A0 u2
360° 10. Velocity of image
(i) if is even integer, then number of images
q é v2 ù
vi = ê - 2 ú v0
360° ë u û
n= - 1 for all positions of the object.
q
26 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
1
12. A convex mirror of focal length f forms an image which is times
n
the object. The distance of the object from the mirror is
æ n - 1ö
(a) ( n - 1) f (b) çè
n ø
÷ f
æ n + 1ö
(c) çè ÷ f (d) ( n + 1) f
n ø
(b) 2v sin b
v
2v
(c) Object
sin 2b
(c) (d) Mirror (2)
(d) none
The figure given above shows two successive reflections from two
mirrors inclined to each other at an angle q. The net deviation after
two successive deviations depends on :
(a) a and q (b) b and q
(c) a and b (d) q only
26. The figure shows paths of three light rays emerging at the same
q time from the focus of a parabolic mirror and reaching the screen
which is perpendicular to the axis of parabola. Which ray has the
(a) 15° (b) 30° least optical path?
(c) 45° (d) none
24. An object is placed 40 cm from a concave mirror of focal length 20
cm. The image formed is
(a) real, inverted and same in size
(b) real, inverted and smaller
(c) virtual, erect and larger
(d) virtual, erect and smaller
(a) OAA' (b) OBB'
(c) OCC '
(d) All have the same optical path.
Level -2
Only one option correct 7. A cube of side 2 m is placed in front of a concave mirror of focal
1. In the figure you look into a system of two horizontal parallel length 1m with its face P at a distance of 3 m and face Q at a
mirrors A and B separated by a distance d. A point object is placed distance of 5 m from the mirror. The distance between the image of
at point O, a distance 0.2 d from mirror A (see figure). The distance face P and Q is
of first and , second images in mirror A are ;
(c) I
9 1m
I
(d) 4 I
3. A person is in a room whose ceiling and two adjacent walls are R
M’ M S’
mirrors. How many images are formed?
(a) 5 (b) 6 (a) 24.6 cm (b) 36.4 cm
(c) 7 (d) 8
(c) 46.4 cm (d) 34.6 cm
4. A ray of light is incident at 50° on the middle of one of the two
mirrors arranged at an angle of 60° between them. The ray then 9. When an object is placed at a distance of 25 cm from a mirror, the
touches the second mirror, get reflected back to the first mirror, magnification is m1. The object is moved 15cm further away with
making an angle of incidence of respect to the earlier position, and the magnification becomes m2.
(a) 50° (b) 60° If m1/m2 = 4, the focal length of the mirror is :
(c) 70° (d) 80° (a) 10 cm (b) 30 cm
5. The focal length of a concave mirror is f and the distance from the (c) 15 cm (d) 20 cm
object to the principle focus is x. The ratio of the size of the image 10. Two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at a certain angle. A
to the size of the object is ray of light first incident on one of them at an inclination of 10°
with the mirror retraces its path after five reflections. The angle
f +x f between the mirrors is :
(a) (b)
f x (a) 12° (b) 22°
(c) 30° (d) 20°
f f2
(c) (d) 11. Two mirrors, one concave and the other convex, are placed 60 cm
x x2 apart with their reflecting surfaces facing each other. An object is
6. A short linear object of length l lies along the axis of a concave placed 30 cm from the pole of either of them on their axis. If the
mirror of focal length f at a distance u from the pole of the mirror. focal lengths of both the mirrors are 15 cm, the position of the
The size of the image is approximately equal to image formed by reflection, first at the convex and then at the
1/ 2 2 concave mirror, is :
æu - f ö æu- f ö
(a) lç (b) l ç (a) 19.09 cm from the pole of the concave mirror
è f ÷ø è f ÷ø
(b) 19.09 cm from the pole of the convex mirror
1/ 2 2 (c) 11.09 cm from the pole of the concave mirror
æ f ö æ f ö
(c) lç (d) l ç (d) 11.09 cm from the pole of the convex mirror
è u - f ÷ø è u - f ÷ø
Screen
Source
x
H (Horizontal)
H H 2H
f2 uf
(c) (d) R R
u+ f u+ f (a) (b)
2 3
16. The reflecting surface is represented by the equation 2 x = y 2 as
shown in the figure. A ray travelling horizontal becomes vertical 2 R-R
(d) R æç1 -
1 ö
after reflection. The co-ordinates of the point of incidence are : (c) ÷
2 è 3ø
Read the two statements carefully to mark the correct option out of the options given below. Select the right choice.
(a) If both the statements are true and the Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of Statement - 1.
(b) If both the statements are true but Statement - 2 is not the correct explanation of the Statement - 1.
(c) If Statement - 1 true but Statement - 2 is false.
(d) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.
1. Statement - 1 : Plane mirror may form real image. 7. Statement - 1 : The image of an extended object placed perpendicular
Statement - 2 : Plane mirror forms virtual image, if object is real. to the principal axis of a mirror, will be erect if the object is real but
the image is virtual.
2. Statement - 1 : Virtual image can not be photographed.
Statement - 2 : The image of an extended object, placed
Statement - 2 : Real image can be photographed after taking on the
perpendicular to the principal axis of a mirror, will be erect if the
screen.
object is virtual but the image is real.
3. Statement - 1 : Figure shows two rays being reflected by a mirror;
8. Statement - 1 : The height of plane mirror needed to form full
the mirror is plane.
image of an object is half the height of the object.
Statement - 2 : The height of plane mirror needed to form full
image of an object may by less than half of the height of the object.
9. Statement - 1 : An object is placed at a distance of f from a convex
mirror of focal length f its image will form at infinity.
Statement - 2 : The distance of image in convex mirror can never be
infinity.
Statement - 2 : The mirror must be spherical 10. Statement - 1 : In motor vehicles, a convex mirror is attached near
the driver's seat to get larger image of the traffic behind.
4. Statement - 1 : The focal length of the convex mirror will increase,
if the mirror is placed in water. Statement - 2 : The field of view of convex mirror is largest in all
the mirrors.
Statement 2 : The focal length of a convex mirror of radius R is
equal to , f = R/2. 11. Statement - 1 : The focal length of concave mirror for red colour is
greater than the focal length for blue colour.
5. Statement - 1 : Chromatic aberration in spherical mirror can be
minimised by using stops. Statement - 2 : The focal length of concave mirror is same for both
the colours.
Statement - 2 : Spherical mirrors do not produce any chromatic
aberration. 12. Statement - 1 : In the head light of automobiles, the reflectors used
are parabolic.
6. Statement - 1 : The image formed by a concave mirror is certainly
real if the object is virtual. Statement - 2 : Parabolic reflector minimise spherical aberration
and provide a sharp image of the source.
Statement - 2 : The image formed by a concave mirror is certainly
virtual if the object is real.
Passage for (Q. 1 & 2) : 3. The position of the image of the cube is
(a) –10 cm (b) –15 cm
An object of height h sits cautiously before a spherical mirror whose
(c) –15 cm (d) – 20
focal length has absolute value | f | = 40 cm. The image of the object
4. The lateral magnification is
produced by the mirror has the same orientation as the object and has
height h' = 0.20 h. 1 1
(a) - (b) -
1. The magnification is 2 4
(a) 0.10 (b) 0.30 1
(c) 0.40 (d) 0.20 (c) - (d) –1
3
2. The position of the object is
5. The longitudinal magnification is
(a) –40 cm (b) –120 cm
(c) –160 cm (d) –100 cm 1 1
(a) - (b) -
9 3
Passage for (Q. 3 - 5)
2
A wire frame in the form of a small cube 3 cm on a side is placed with its (c) - (d) –1
3
centre on the axis of a concave mirror of radius of curvature 30 cm. The
sides of the cube are parallel or perpendicular to the axis. The face toward
the mirror is 60 cm to the left of the vertex (pole).
6. Match Column-I with Column-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists:
Column – I Column – II
(Position of the object) (Magnification)
A. An object is placed at focus before a (p) Magnification is –¥
convex mirror
B. An object is placed at centre of curvature before (q) Magnification is 0.5
a concave mirror
C. An object is placed at focus before a concave (r) Magnification is +1
mirror
D. An object is placed at centre of curvature (s) Magnification is –1
before a convex mirror
(t) Magnification is 0.33
7. For an object placed in front of a mirror, magnification (m) is given in Column I, Column II gives the possible nature of the mirror or
that of image. Match appropriately.
Column – I Column – II
1
A. m= (p) Concave mirror
4
B. m = –1 (q) Convex mirror
C. m=2 (r) Plane mirror
D. m=1 (s) Real
(t) Virtual
1. Rays of light strike a horizontal plane mirror at an angle of 45°. 4. A small concave mirror L is suspended from a thread in a mirror
At what angle should a second plane mirror be placed in order galvanometer to read the angles of turn. A scale A A1 is placed at
that the reflected ray finally be reflected horizontally from the a distance l = 1 m from the mirror and a lamp S is adjusted
second mirror ? underneath the scale. What should the focal length of the mirror
Ans. 22.5. be to obtained on the scale the real image of the aperture in the
lamp? To what distance d will the image be shifted on the scale
in the mirror is turned through a small angle q ?
2. A point object is moving with a speed of v before an arrangement
of two mirrors as shown in figure. Find the velocity of the image
in mirror M, with respect to the image in mirror M2.
R 2v0 é R2 ù
Ans. (a) - (b) v0 ê 1 + 2ú.
[2(d - v0t ) – R ]2 êë {2(v 0t - d ) - R} úû
36 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
1 1
between and .
v u
18. (a) For convex mirror for negative value of u, v will be positive
h and cannot be greater than f.
7. (b) 45° 19. (b) The velocity of image w.r.t. mirror
60 m y
v0
)
–q
Mirror (1)
( 90
q
b b
v sin
q
24. (a) For u = – 40 cm and f = – 20 cm,
v v = – 40 cm, so image will be real, inverted and equal in size
Mirror (2) of object.
O 25. (d) The angle of deviation produced by two mirrors in contact is
given by d = 360° – 2 q,
S¢ S Screen
6. (d) The axial magnification
d d d
v2
dv = - (du )
k k u2
I2 = +
d2 (3d ) 2 2
æ f ö
= ç ÷ l.
10 k èu- f ø
. =
9d 2 1
1 1
3. (c) Number of images formed by two mirror placed mutually 7. (d) For P : + =
v u f
perpendicular are three. These three images together with
object becomes four objects for ceiling mirror. So total no of 1 1
+ 1
images are = 3 + 4 = 7. or =
4. (c) See geometry of the figure. vP -3 -1
3
or vP = - m
2
1 1 1
80° For Q : + =
vQ -5 -1
80° 10°
or vQ = -5
50° 50° 120° 70° m
60° 40° 40° 4
So horizontal distance between image of P and Q is 0.25 m
38 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
8. (b) IR = xq 1
= 1 × 20° =
2
20° ´ p
= 1× ´ 100
180° or BC = H
= 36.4 cm Now, y = BD – BC = 3 H – H = 2 H.
v æ f ö
y
- = -ç 13. (d) vcos q
9. (d) m = ÷ vsinq
u èu - f ø vsin q
l x v
æ f ö I l
Now m1 = -ç ÷ … (i)
è 25 - f ø l vcos q
Velocity of image of boy is shown in figure. Thus
æ f ö r
and m2 = -ç ÷ … (ii) vi = [(v sin q)sin q - (v cos q cos q)] i
è 40 - f ø
+[v sin q cos q + v cos q sin q] ˆj
m1 40 - f
\ m2 = 25 - f = v [cos 2q iˆ + sin 2q ˆj ].
14. (b)
40 - f
or 4 = 15. (a) The image of end B will be at focus F.
25 - f For image of A,
or f = 20 cm. 1 1 1
10. (d) + =
v A -u -f
11. (a) For convex mirror :
æ uf ö
or vA = çè u - f ÷ø
Thus length of the image
I1 æ uf ö
I2 vA - f = ç - f
O = è u - f ÷ø
æ f2 ö
= ç ÷.
10 m 60 m èu - f ø
1 1 1 f
+ =
v -30 +15
or v = 10 m
For concave mirror : A
B
1 1 1 F
+ =
v -70 -15 u
or v = – 19.09 m
12. (a) In D ABD,
BD
= tan 45° 16. (a) y
3H
q
or BD = 3 H
i
r
D x
Source
C
H 45° i1 i2 i + r = 90°, and Ði = Ðr
iA 45° q B
A¢ \ i = 45°
H H H 2H Also i+q = 90°
\ q = 90° – i = 90° – 45° = 45°
Given y2 = 2x
And in D A'BC,
dy
BC or 2y = 2
= tan q dx
2H
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 39
19. (d) From similar triangles,
dy 1
\ =
dx y M
30°
1 30° R
or tan 45° = y
30°
\ y = 1 P Q C
2 2
y 1 1
Now x = = =
2 2 2
17. (c) Let x be the length of the shadow of the boy, when he is at a R
distance y from the lamp. From similar triangles, we have
QC R
h 3h =
= sin 30° sin120°
x x+ y
sin 30°
or x = y/2. or QC = R´
sin120°
dx dy / dt
Thus = R
dt 2 =
3
Street lamp
Thus PQ = PC – QC
R
= R-
3
3h
æ 1 ö
h = R ç1 - ÷
v è 3ø
x y 20. (a) Given, y2 = 8 x
Compare with standard equation of parabola, y 2 = 4 ax,
18. (c) The situation of the particle is shown in figure. we get
x = 2
v/ 2 v Thus co-ordinates of focus are : (2, 0)
45°
y
v/ 2 F
x R/2
(a, 0)
The distance of the particle at which it will hit the ground, x
O f
v 2 gR
x = = =R
g g
æR ö -3R
Thus, u - ç + R÷ =
= 21. (b) Velocity of object w.r.t. mirror
è2 ø 2 r r r
v0m = v0 - vm
Velocity of image along the optic axis,
= (iˆ + 2 ˆj - 5 kˆ) - ( -2iˆ + 3k + kˆ)
v2
vi = - ´ v0
u2 = (3iˆ - ˆj - 6 kˆ ) m/s.
æ 3R ö
2 y v0
çè - ÷ø v
= - 4 ´
2
2 vm
æ 3 R ö
çè - ÷ø
2 x
v
= -
(Opposite of particle velocity)
4 2
Velocity perpendicular to optic axis z
v Velocity of image w.r.t. mirror (only y component of velocity
vi = + ´ v0 of objects will reverse), and so
u r
v im = (3iˆ + ˆj - 6kˆ) m/s
- 3R 4 v v
= ´ = Now velocity of image w.r.t. ground
- 3R 2 2 2 2 r r r
vi = vim + vm
r v ˆ
i-
v ˆ
j.
Thus vi = = (3iˆ + ˆj - 6 kˆ ) + (-2iˆ + 3 ˆj + kˆ ) m/s
4 2 2 2
= (iˆ + 4 ˆj - 5kˆ) m/s
40 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Solutions Exercise1.2
1. (a, d) The magnification negative is for real and inverted image . 7. (b, c, d)
The image will be on the side of the object. The speed of the image,
2. (c, d)
æ v2 ö
3. (b, c) vi = -v0 ç 2 ÷
4. (a, c, d) çu ÷
è ø
5. (c, d)
For u = – 20 cm,
6. (b, d)The situation is shown for two positions of the mirror.
1 1 1
+ = , \ v = 60 cm
v -20 -30
2
æ 60 ö
Thus vi = -v ç ÷ = 2v
è -20 ø
8. (c, d)
Solutions Exercise1.3
1. (b) Plane mirror may form real image, if object is virtual. 5. (d) There is no chromatic abberration in mirror.
6. (c) The image of real object may be real in case of concave mirror.
7. (b)
8. (d) The size of plane mirror to form full image of the object may
be of any size.
(Real) I O (virtual)
9. (d) The distance of image in convex mirror is always v £ f .
10. (d) In motor vehicles, the convex mirror is employed because it
2. (d) Virtual image can be photographed. Anyone can take
has largest field of view.
photograph of his image standing in front of plane mirror.
11. (d) Focal length of spherical mirror does not depend on colour of
3. (d) The spacing between the reflected ray increases and so mirror
light used.
must be spherical.
12. (a)
4. (d) Focal length of the spherical mirror does not depend on the
medium in which it placed.
Solutions Exercise1.4
Passage for (Qs. 1 & 2) : \ f = – 15 cm
1. (d) The image has the same orientation as that of the object and Using mirror formula
0.20h 1 1 1
= 0.20 . + = , we have
m = u v f
h
These imformations give us an idea that the image is virtual 1 1 1
+ =
and smaller in size and so mirror must be convex. -60 v -15
v \ v = – 20 cm
2. (c) Magnification, 0.20 = - The image of this point is 20 cm to the left of the pole and is real.
u Ans.
\ v = – 0.20 u. 4. (c) Lateral magnification,
1 1 1 v
Using mirror formula, + = , we have m = -
v u f u
-20 1
1 1 1 = - =- Ans.
+ = -60 3
–0.20u u +40 5. (a) As the size of the object (3cm) is small in comparison to the
After solving, we get u= –160 cm. Ans. object distance (60 cm), so we can get longitudinal
Passage for (Qs. 3 - 5) : magnification by
3. (d) Let us calculate the position of the image of a point centre of 2
æ 1ö 1
the right face of the cube. mL = –m2 = - ç ÷ = - . Ans.
è 3ø 9
u = –60 cm, R = – 30 cm
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 41
6. A-q : For u = –f, D-t : In convex mirror u = – 2f
1 1 1 1 1 1 2f
+ = +
v -f f so v -2 f = f Þv= 3 .
f v 1
\ v = Now M = – = .
2 u 3
v f /2 1
and M = - =- = 0.5 . 7. A-(q, t) : M = is for erect or virtrual image and so it is possible
u (- f ) 4
B-s : u = –2f, so v = –2f for convex mirror.
B-(p, s): m = –1, negative magnification is possible in concave
v æ -2 f ö mirror.
M = - = –ç ÷ = -1
u è -2 f ø C-(p, t) : m = 2, is possible for concave mirror when object is put
C-p :In concave mirror, u = –2f, v = – ¥ between focal point and pole of the mirror.
D- (r, t) : m = 1 is possible for plane mirror.
v
\ M = - = – ¥.
u
Solutions Exercise1.5
1. The position of the man and image of the visible portion of the The number of reflections
wall in the mirror are shown in figure. length of mirror
=
x
2 3
= = 30. Ans.
0.2 / 3
3. If u1 and v1 are the initial distance of the object and the image
from the mirror, then
Suppose y height of the wall can be seen by the man. The dis- v1 1
tance of the image of the wall is 4 m from the mirror. E is the eye u1 = – … (i)
4
of the man. In similar triangles EPQ and EA'B', we have
1 1 1
1 y and + = … (ii)
= v1 u1 f
2 6
\ y = 3 m. Ans. When object moves towards the mirror a distance b then
2. Suppose x is the distance occupied by the ray in one reflection. v2 1
Then x= 0.2 tan 30° = 0.2 / (u1 - b) = – … (iii)
3 m. 2
1 1 1
and + = . … (iv)
v2 (u1 - b) f
On substituting the values and solving above equations, we get
f = 2.5 cm. Ans.
Solutions Exercise1.6
1. The situation is shown in figure.
2.
3450
= = 9.1´ 10-3 rad .
3.8 ´105
4. To get the image at the distance of object, l = R . The image of the moon is formed at the focal plane of the mirror
(see figure). If d is the diameter of the image of the moon, then
R l 1
\ f = = = m. d
2 2 2 q = f
When mirror turns through an angle q, the reflected ray and so
image will shift an angle 2 q. Thus d = 2l q \ d = qf
5. For concave mirror; u = – 25 cm, f = – 20 cm = 9.1 × 10–3× 7.6
= 6.9 × 10–2 m. Ans.
1 1 1 7. (a) In time t (t < d/v) block has moved a distance = v0t. Its
From mirror formula, + = , we have
u v f distance from the pole of the mirror becomes equal to
(d – v0t). Thus
1 1 1 u = –(d - v0t )
+ =
–25 v –20
1 1 1
\ v = –100 cm By mirror formula, u + v = f , we have
In the absence of convex mirror, concave mirror forms the real
image at a distance of 100 cm from it. This image now becomes 1 1 1
+ =
the virtual object for the convex mirror, thus -(d - v0t ) v -R / 2
u = + (100 – 50) = 50 cm
f = + 15 cm. R é ( d - v0t ) ù
\ v = - ê ú
2 ë ( d - v0t ) - R û
Again by mirror formula, we have
1 1 1
+ =
50 v 15
\ v = 21.42 cm
It shows that a virtual image is formed at a distance of 21.42 cm
from convex mirror (see figure).
vimage = v2
- vobject
u2
2
é R (d - v0t ) ù
ê- ú
2 (d - v0t ) - R û
= -ë
( d - v0t ) 2
R2v0
= - .
[2(d - v0t ) - R ]2
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 43
8. Suppose y is the compression of the spring. By conservation of
d
(b) For t > , the block after making elastic collision with the mechanical energy, we have
v0
mirror will stop and the mirror starts moving with constant
velocity v0. The situation is shown in figure.
The distance of the block from the mirror
u = –(v0t - d )
1 2
mg (h + y) = ky
2
1 2
or ky - mgy - mgh = 0
1 1 1 2
By mirror formula + = , we have
u v f
k
mg ± (mg )2 + 4( mgh )
1 1 2 2
+ = -
-(v0t - d ) v R \ y = k
2
2
é R(v0t - d ) ù
\ v = ê ú
ë -2(v0t - d ) + R û mg ( mg ) 2 + 2 mghk
or y = ±
k k
The velocity of the block with respect to mirror
v object = 0 – v0 = – v0 The amplitude of motion will be
The velocity of image of the block (w.r.t. mirror) is given by
(mg ) 2 + 2 mghk
A =
v2 k
é vimage ù = - vobject
ë û mirror u2 Given m = 0.050 kg, h = 0.1 m, k = 500 N/m
\ A = 1.42 × 10–2 m = 1.42 cm
2 On being small amplitude, we can write
é R (v0t - d ) ù
-ê ú du = 1.42 cm
ë -2(v0t - d ) + R û ´ (-v )
= 0 For concave mirror, u = – 30 cm, f = – 12 cm
[v0t - R ]2
1 1 1
By mirror formula, + = , we have
v u f
R2v0
= .
[2(v0t - d ) - R]2 1 1 1
+ =
The velocity of image of the block with respect to mirror is given v –30 –12
by \ v = –20 cm.
r r r If dv is the length of the image and object of length du , then
û ground - [vmirror ]ground
é vimage ù = é vimage ù
ë û mirror ë
v2
dv = - du
r r r u2
û mirror + [vmirror ]ground
\ é vimage ù = é vimage ù
ë û ground ë
(–20) 2
R 2v0 = - ´ (1.42)
= + v0 ( -30) 2
2
[2(v0t - d ) - R ]
= 0.63 cm.
Then th e length in which image of the mass oscillates
é R2 ù
= v0 ê1 + 2 ú . Ans. = 2(dv ) = 1.26 cm. Ans.
ëê [2(v0t - d ) - R] ûú
44 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
9. First image : The first image is formed by reflection from the Third image : The image I2 acts as an object for M1. Thus
concave mirror M2. Thus
æ 4 R ö -26 R
1 1 2 u3 = – ç 2R + ÷=
+ = - è 11 ø 11
v1 -2 R R
1 1 2
2 \ + = -
\ v1 = - R v3 - 26 R R
3 11
If I1 is the radius of first image, then
26 R
I1 v \ v3 = – .
= - 41
O u
If I3 is the radius of the third image, then
æ 2R / 3 ö a éæ 26 R ö æ 26 R ö ù æ a ö
or | I1 | = ç ÷a = . | I3 | = êç 41 ÷ ç 11 ÷ ú ç 11 ÷
è 2 R ø 3
ëè ø è øû è ø
Second image : The image I1 then becomes the object for mirror
M1. Thus a
=
41
æ Rö 4R
u2 = – ç 2R - 2 ÷ = -
è 3ø 3
1 1 2
+ = +
v2 –4 R / 3 R
4R
\ v2 =
11
It I2 is the radius of the second image, then
é 4 R /11 ù a a
| I2 | = ê 4 R / 3 ú ´ 3 = 11 .
ë û
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 45
46 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
2.1 INTRODUCTION : REFRACTION
Light will not change its path until it strikes with any obstruction or it travels into other
medium. Experiments show that when light incident obliquely on the interface of
different mediums, it bends from original path. The phenomenon due to which light
deviates from its initial path, while travelling from one optical medium to another optical
medium is called refraction.
The direction in which the light bends depends on :
(i) The medium through which light is initially travelling.
(ii) The optical density of two media which gives rise to the phenomenon of
refraction.
Fig. 2.1 The following are the cases of refraction of light :
(a) If a ray of light passes from optically rarer medium (say air) to optically denser
medium (say glass), then it always bends towards normal, drawn at the point of
incidence. Thus in this case angle of refraction r, will be smaller than angle of
incidence i.
(b) If a ray of light passes from optically denser medium (say glass) to optically
rarer medium (say air), then it bends away from the normal, drawn at the point
of incidence. Thus angle of refraction r will be greater than angle of incidence i.
(c) If a ray of light is incident normally at a surface separating two media i.e., with
zero angle of incident, then it does not deviate from its original path. The angle
of refraction is also zero.
Note:
1. Optical denser medium is one in which speed of light is lesser. The medium
Fig. 2.2 of greater density is usually an optically denser medium.
2. Optically denser medium is rarer medium for sound waves, because speed
of sound is smaller in medium of greater density.
Laws of refraction
The laws of refraction are :
1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence lie in
the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for
two media is a constant. This is called Snell¢s law. It was first stated by Willibrod
Snell in 1621. The constant is called refractive index and represented by a letter
m or n. Thus for light ray passing from medium 1 with angle of incidence i to the
second medium 2 with angle of refraction r, this can be written as :
Fig. 2.3
sin i
1m2 = ...(1)
sin r
sin r
and 2 m1 = .
sin i
Here 1 m 2 is called refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1. If m1
and m2 are the refractive indices for the mediums 1 and 2 respectively, then we
can write
m2
1m2= m . ...(2)
1
Thus equation (1) can be written as :
m1 sin i = m2 sin r.
c
or vac m med = air m med = ...(3)
vm
c
We can write vm = . ...(4)
a mm
A note on Refractive Index
The absolute refractive index of a medium is defiend as:
Speed of light in free space (c)
m=
Speed of light in medium (v)
If Î0 and Î are the permittivity of the free space and medium and µ0 and µ are the
corresponding permeability then
1
m0 Î0 æ m öæ Î ö
m= = ç ÷ç ÷ = mr Îr
1 è m0 øè Î0 ø
mÎ
Here Îr is the relative permittivity of the medium and mr is the relative permeability
i Air
of the medium.
Metamaterial: The refractive index of the metamaterial medium is negative. So Metamaterial
refraction in such medium is as follows : r
Sin i
–m =
Sin r
sin i
or, Sin r = (–m)
Medium Index
Note:
1. Here it should be remembered that during normal incidence, refraction does Vacuum 1
not take place. However speed of light decreases when it passes from air to Air (STP) 1.0003
any other medium.
Water (20°C) 1.33
2. If no superscript and subscript with m are given it is understood that light is
initially travelling through air. Glass 1.50
Some indexes of refraction (for yellow light) Crown glass 1.52
When light moves from medium 1 to medium 2, its wavelength changes but its frequency Flint glass 1.65
remains the same. Wavelength of light wave decreases when it travels from a rarer Diamond 2.42
medium (air) to a denser medium (glass). Thus
48 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
c f la
a mg = =
vg f l g
la
or lg = . ...(5)
a mg
Fig. 2.5
Principle of reversibility of path of light
If a ray of light is incident in first medium at an angle i, it will refract into second
medium at an angle r. According to the principle of reversibility of light, if the ray of
light in second medium is incident at an angle r, then it will refract into first medium at
an angle i.
Thus for two media 1 and 2, we have
sin i
1m2 =
sin r
...(i)
sin r
Also 2 m1 =
sin i
. ...(ii)
sin i sin r
Thus, 1m2 ´ 2m1 = ´ =1,
sin r sin i
Fig. 2.6 1
or 1m2 = . ...(6)
2 m1
sin i
1m2 = ,
sin r1
sin r1
2 m3 =
sin r2
sin r2
3 m1 =
sin i
Fig. 2.7
Ex. 1 The velocity of light in glass is found 2×108 m/s. Find its 4 3
refractive index. Ex. 2 Given a m w =
3
and a m g = , find w m g .
2
Sol. By the definition Sol. By the definition
8
c
=
3 ´ 10 a mg
a mg = v g 2 ´ 108 wmg =
a mw
= 1.5 . Ans.
3/ 2 9
= = . Ans.
4/3 8
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 49
2.2 OPTICAL PATH
c
We know that the speed of light in any medium is given by vm = . Thus the distance
m
c Dt
travelled by light in time Dt in the medium, xmed = vmt = . The distance travelled
m
by light in air in the same time, x air = cDt. Thus we can write
xair
xmed = . ...(1) Fig. 2.8
m
Now consider a ray of light going across the optical medium of thickness t and refractive
index m. Take its geometric path A to B. If light travels entirely into air for the same
time, then optical path of AB
= ( AB - t ) in air + t in medium
= [ ( AB - t ) + mt ] in air
= AB + (m – 1)t.
As geometric path is AB, so path length is increased by
D = (m–1)t. ...(2)
æ iö
Thus d = t (i – r) = t ç i - ÷
è mø
æ 1ö
or d = t ç1 - ÷ i.
è mø
Fig. 2.9
æ 1ö
S = RD ç1 - ÷ . ...(2)
è mø
(b) Size of object situated in water
(i) When extended object is situated perpendicular to the refracting surface :
Consider an object of height h is in water of refractive index a m w. Its
image is shown in figure. For the observer overhead the object
h
=
h'
Fig. 2.11 h
\ h¢ = .
m
a w
h bh
Ai = b'h' = b ´ =
Fig. 2.12 m
a w a mw
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 51
If bh = Ao, area of the object, then
Ao
Ai = .
a mw
sin i
rarer m denser =
sin r
For small angles (observer below the line of object)
sin i tan i AB / AO AI
; = =
sin r tan r AB / AI AO Fig. 2.13
AI
Thus we have rarer m denser =
AO
apparent height
or rarer m denser = ...(3)
real height
If the observer (fish) at a depth y below the free surface of water, then apparent
distance of the image from the observer,
x = AI + y
= mh + y. ...(4)
It should be remembered that y is the distance of observer¢s medium, so it appears
the same. In case when observer or object or both move perpendicular to the
refracting surface, then velocity of the image with respect to the observer can be
obtained by differentiating equation (4) with respect to the time.
dx dh dy
Thus we have = m + .
dt dt dt
dh dy
Here is taken positive when object moves up (away from the abserver).
dt dt
is taken positive when observer moves down.
(d) Shift produced by a slab
Consider an object O placed at a distance x from the left
face of a glass slab of thickness t and refractive index m.
The left face of the slab forms the image at I¢, which acts
as an object for the right face, the final image is formed
at I (see figure).
BI '
= m
BI Fig. 2.14
52 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
BA + AI '
or = m
BI
t + mx
or = m
BI
t + mx
\ BI =
m
AI = BI – AI
t + mx
= -t
m
t + m(x -t)
=
m
S = AO – AI
t + m( x - t )
= x-
m
æ 1ö
S = t ç1 - ÷ .
è mø
Ex. 4 A small air bubble is inside a glass cube of side 12 cm. Ex. 5 A fish rising vertically to the surface of water in a lake
When looking the top face, the bubble appears at a distance of 3 cm uniformly at the rate of 3 m/s observes a king-fisher diving vertically
and when seen from the opposite face, it appears at a distance of 5 towards the fish at a rate of 9 m/s vertically above it. If the refractive
cm. Find refractive index of the glass. index of water is 4/3, find the actual velocity of the dive of the bird.
Sol. Sol.
Suppose the bubble is at a distance x from the top face of the cube. We We know that apparent distance of the king fisher from the fish
know that x = mh + y
Fig. 2.15
real depth
m =
apparent depth
x
or m = ...(i) Fig. 2.16
3
On differentiating with respect to the time, we get
12–x
and m = ...(ii)
5 é vimage ù = mvking fisher + vfish
ë û fish
On solving equations (i) and (ii), we get
9 4
or –9 = vking fisher – 3
x = cm 3
2
and m = 1.5. Ans. On solving, we get
sec 2 a æ da ö
\ h¢ = h ç ÷ …(ii)
sec 2 q è dq ø
sin q
By Snell¢s law m =
sin a
sin q
or sina = …(iii)
m
Differentiating with respect to q, we get
da cosq
cos a =
dq m
da 1 æ cos q ö
or = ç ÷ …(iv)
dq m è cos a ø
2 sin 2 q
Also from equation (iii), cos a = 1 - sin a = 1 - .
m2
h cos 2 q æ 1 cos q ö
From equations (i) and (iv), we have h¢ = ç ÷
cos2 a è m cos a ø
h cos3 q
=
m cos3 a
h cos3 q
=
m
(1 - sin2 a )
3/ 2
h cos3 q
=
mæ 3/ 2
sin 2 q ö
çç1 - 2 ÷÷
è m ø
hm2 cos3 q
or h¢ = .
(m2 - sin 2 q)
3/ 2
54 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Object is situated inside two or more optical
mediums
Consider two immiscible liquids of refractive indixes m1 and m2
and of thicknesses t1 and t2 lie one over the other. An object O is
situated as shown in fig. 2.18. The first liquid forms the image at
I1, which becomes object for the second liquid. Finally second
liquid will form the image I2.
For the refraction between the interface of two mediums 1 and 2,
by Snell¢s law
m2 sin i
=
m1 sin r1
A1 B1 / A1O A1I1
= = .
A1 B1 / A1 I1 A1O
m2 m
or A1I1 = A1O = 2 t1. ...(i)
m1 m1
Now refraction from medium 2 to air :
m air sin r1
2 mair = =
m2 sin r2
1 tan r1
or ; (As m air = 1 )
m2 tan r2
A2 I 2
=
A2 I1
A2 I1
or A2I2 =
m2
A2 A1 + A1 I1
or A2I2 = ...(iii)
m2
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
æ m2 ö
ç t2 + t1 ÷
è m1 ø
A2I2 =
m2
t1 t2
= +
m1 m2
t1 t 2
Thus apparent depth = + ,
m1 m 2
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
and total shift S = t1 ç 1 - m ÷ + t2 ç 1 - m ÷ .
è 1ø è 2ø
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 55
Note:
t1 t2 tn
the real depth = t1 ∗ t2 ∗ ....., tn . Apparent depth = m ∗ m ∗ .... ∗ m .
1 2 n
real depth
m =
apparent depth
t1 ∗ t2 ∗ ....... ∗ tn
= .
æ t1 ÷÷ö
çç ∗ t2 ∗ .... ∗ tn
÷÷
èç m
1 m
2 mnø
Fig. 2.20
æ 1ö
S = t ç1 - ÷
è mø
Fig. 2.19 æ 1 ö
3 ç1 -
= è 1.5 ÷ø
real depth
x = = 1 cm.
m
The apparent position of the object from the mirror
3 = 21 – 1 = 20 cm.
= = 2 cm
3/ 2
1 1 1
The position of the object from M¢ = 9 + 2 = 11 cm. By mirror formula, + = , we have
By the definition, the position of the image u v f
= 11 cm from M¢
1 1 1
The position of the image from unsilvered face + =
= 11 + 2 = 13 cm Ans. -20 v -20
Ex. 7 An object is placed 21 cm in front of a concave mirror of or v = – 20 cm
radius of curvature 20 cm. A glass slab of thickness 3 cm and Thus mirror will form real image at a distance of 20 cm in the absence of
refractive index 1.5 is placed close to the mirror in the space between the slab. The slab now obtructed the reflected rays, which after refraction
object and the mirror. Find the position of the final image formed. displaces the image by 1 cm. So the final position of the image
The distance of the nearer surface of the slab from the mirror is = 20 + 1 = 21 cm from the mirror. i.e., image and object will coincide.
10 cm.
56 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 8 A concave mirror of radius R is kept on a horizontal Ex. 10 A cylindrical vessel, whose diameter and height both
table. Water is poured in upto a height h. Where should an object be are equal to 30 cm, is placed on a horizontal surface and a small
placed so that its image is formed on itself ? particle P is placed in it at a distance of 5.0 cm from the centre. An
Sol. eye is placed at a position such that the edge of the bottom is just
Suppose the object is placed at O, at a height y from the surface of the visible. The particle P is in the plane of the drawing. Upto what
water. For the observer at the position of the mirror inside water, the minimum height should water be poured in the vessel to make the
apparent distance of the object becomes particle P visible ?
= my + h.
Sol.
In emply vessel, the line of sight makes an angle
30
tan r = =1
30
\ r = 45°.
Let h is the required height of the water in the vessel. The rays after
refraction from the particle P must reach at the eye again.
Fig. 2.21
The image will form on the object itself when mirror forms virtual image
at C. i.e., at a distance R from P. Thus
my + h = R
R-h
or y = . Ans.
m
Ex. 9 A concave mirror is placed inside water with its shinny
surface upwards and principal axis vertical as shown. Rays are
incident parallel to the principal axis of the concave mirror. Find
position of the image.
Fig. 2.24
By Snell¢s law
30 cm sin 45 o
= a mw
µ = 4/3 sin i
4
=
3
R = 40 cm
3
Fig. 2.22 sin i = ...(i)
4 2
40
Sol. Focal length of the mirror, f = 2
= 20 cm. h - 10
From geometry sin i = ...(ii)
h + ( h - 10 )
2 2
Thus the image of the far object will form at the focal point of the mirror.
This image is at a distance of 10 cm from the free surface of the water,
From equations (i), (ii)
10 10
which finally appears at a distance = = 7.5 cm from the free (h - 10) 3
m 4/3 =
h 2
+ ( h - 10 )
2 4 2
surface of water.
After solving h = 26.7 cm Ans.
Fig. 2.25
The apparent position of eye from the mirror = mh + h. Fig. 2.26
Thus the image of the eye will be (mh + h) from the mirror. BE = BD + DE
The distance of the second image of the eye = CF + DE ...(i)
In triangle ACF, CF = AF tan 60°
h
= (mh + h ) + = 1´ 3 = 3 m
2
sin 60°
æ 3h ö By Snell¢s law = a mw
= çè mh + ÷ø below itself. sin r
2
(b) For T as the observer, the apparent distance of the fish from the 4
=
water surface 3
h/2 h 3
= \ sin r = sin i
= 4
m 2m
3
The apparent distance of fish from eye T = ´ sin 60°
4
æ h ö 3 3
= çè 2m + h ÷ø . 3 3
= ´ =
4 2 8
The other image of fish is formed by mirror, the distance of fish 2
æ3 3ö
h
from mirror (both have same medium) is . Its image is also at
cos r = 1 - sin r = 1 - ç
2
÷
è 8 ø
2
h 37
from the mirror. The distance of fish from the surface of =
2 8
water
sin r 3 3 /8 3 3
\ tan r = = =
h 3h cos r 37 /8 37
= h+ = .
2 2 Now in triangle CDE, DE = CD tan r
Its apparent distance from the surface of water 3 3 6 3
= 2´ =
3h 37 37
= .
2m Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
Thus the apparent distance of image of fish from the eye T 6 3
= 3+
37
æ 3h ö
= çè 2m + h ÷ø . Ans. = 3.44 m Ans.
58 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 13 A concave mirror of radius 40 cm lies on a horizontal The medium has a variable index of refraction m(y) given by
table and water is filled in it upto a height of 5.0 cm as shown in
(ky )
3/2 1/2
fig. 2.27. A small dust particle floats on the water surface at a point m(y) = +1
P vertically above the point of contact of the mirror with the table. where k = 1.0 m–3/2.
Locate the image of the dust particle as seen from a point directly The refractive index of air is 1.0.
above it. The refractive index of water is 1.33. (a) Obtain a relation between the slope of the trajectory of the
Sol. ray at point B(x, y) in the medium and the incident angle at
that point.
(b) Obtain an equation for the trajectory y(x) of the ray in the
medium.
(c) Determine the coordinates (x1, y1) of the point P, where the
ray intersects the upper surface of the slab-air boundary.
(d) Indicate the path of the ray subsequently.
Sol.
Suppose q is the angle of incident at any point (x, y) in the medium. The
slope of the trajectory,
dy
= tan (90° – q)
dx
Fig. 2.27 = cotq
First image P1, is formed by the mirror, which acts as an object for
water-air interface. Final image will form at P2. For concave mirror
f = – 20 cm, u = –5 cm (measured from O)
1 1 1
By mirror formula, + = , we have
u v f
1 1 1
+ =
-5 v -20
+20
\ v = = + 6.67 cm
3
As v is positive, so the image formed will be below the mirror. The
distance of point P1 from free surface of water
= 6.67 + 5.0 = 11.67 cm. Fig. 2.29
real depth (a) By Snell¢s law
Now using a mw =
apparent depth (PP2 ) m sinq = 1 sin90° ...(i)
11.67 1
or 1.33 = \ sinq =
apparent depth (PP2 ) m
m2 - 1
m
= 1
m
= m 2 - 1 .Ans.
(b) From equation (i),
m sinq = 1
or m2sin 2q = 1
1
or m2 = = cosec 2q
Fig. 2.28 sin 2 q
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 59
= 1 + cot2q 1/2
m sin 90° y)
2
m0 = +a q
\ ( ky 3/ 2 + 1 ) =
æ dy ö
1+ ç ÷
è dx ø
sin q (1 ay
1
2 or (1 + ay )1/ 2 = sin q 1
æ dy ö
or ky3/2 = çè ÷ø
dx 1
or sin q =
dy (1 + ay )1/ 2
or = 1/ 2 3 / 4
dx k y
1
\ tan q =
dy ( ay )1/ 2
or
y 3/ 4 = k 1/ 2dx
dx 1
On integrating, we get or =
dy ( ay )1/ 2
4 y1/ 4 = k1/ 2 x + c
x 2
At x = 0, y = 0 and so c = 0,
or ò dx = a -1/ 2 ò y -1/ 2 dy
\ k1/ 2 x = 4 y1/ 4 0 0
4 (1)
1/ 4 \ x = 2a -1/ 2 y1/ 2
(c) At y = 1, = 4.
x =
11/ 2 = 2 ´ (2 ´ 10 -6 )1/ 2 ´ 21/ 2 =2000 m
Thus coordinates of the upper surface, where ray intersect are
(4, 1) Ans.
(d) At upper interface Ex. 16 The xy-plane is the boundary between two transparent
msin e = 1 media. Medium –1 with z ³ 0 has a refractive index 2 and
1 1 medium 2 with z £ 0 has a refractive index 3. A ray of light in
or sin e = == 1
m 1 r
medium –1 given by the vector A = 6 3 ˆi + 8 3 ˆj - 10kˆ is incident
\ e = 90°
Thus the path of the emerging ray will be grazing one. on the plane of separation. Find the unit vector in the direction of
Ans. the refractive ray in medium –2.
Ex. 15 Due to a vertical temperature gradient in the Sol.
atmosphere, the refractive index varies; µ = µ0 (1 + ay)1/2, where µ0 is
The vector of incident ray is given by
the refractive index at the surface and a = 2.0 × 10–6/m. A person of
height 2.0 m stands on a level surface. Beyond what distance will he uuur
AB = 6 3 ˆi + 8 3 ˆj - 10kˆ
not see the runway?
y
h = 2m
O x
Fig. 2.30
Sol. If x is the required distance, then situation is shown in fig-
ure. If q is the angle of refraction for the horizontal rays, then
q
Fig. 2.32
h = 2m In triangle ABE,
uuur uuur uuur
q AB = EB + AE
O x uuur uuur
i 90° \ AE = 6 3 iˆ + 8 3 ˆj and EB = -10kˆ .
Fig. 2.31
60 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
The angle of incidence i between AB and EB can be obtained as: refractive index m2 (see figure). If c is the speed of light in vacuum, then
uuur uuur c c
ABgEB speed of light in first and second medium will be v1 = and v2 =
cos i = m1 m2
( AB )( EB)
respectively. Suppose ray incident at O, at a distance x from C. The
(6 3 ˆi + 8 3 ˆj - 10kˆ g -10kˆ )( )
point of incident must be between C and D and so CD is constant.
=
(6 3 ) + (8 3 )
2 2
+ (-10 ) (-10)2
2
100 1
=
=
( 36 ´ 3 + 64 ´ 3 + 100 (10) ) 2
2
æ1ö 3
and sin i = 1 - cos 2 i = 1- ç ÷ = .
è2ø 2
3
or 2´ = 3 sin r
2
1
\ sin r =
2 Fig. 2.33
The time taken by light ray from A to B
1
Also cos r = AO OB
2 t = +
v1 v2
The vector of refracted ray can be written as
uuur uuur uuur
BC = BD + DC
x 2 + AC 2 ( CD - x )2 + BD 2
+
= ( )
BC cos r - kˆ + BC sin r eˆ t =
c c
...(i)
m1 m2
uuur 6 3 ˆi + 8 3 ˆj
Unit vector along DC, ê = Differentiating equation (i) w.r.t. x, we have
(6 3 ) + (8 3 )
2 2
(
m1 2
)
dt -1/ 2 dx
= x + AC 2 ´ 2x
dx 2c dt
6ˆi + 8ˆj
=
10 -1/ 2
m2 é æ dx ö
( CD - x ) + BD 2 ùú ´ 2 ( CD - x ) ç - ÷
2
uuur + ê
BC 2c ë û è dt ø
Thus = - cos r kˆ + sin r eˆ
BC
dt
For t to be minimum, = 0
kˆ
1 6ˆi + 8ˆj dx
= - +
2 2 10
x (CD - x )
\ 0 = m1 - m2
=
1
10 2
(6ˆi + 8ˆj - 10kˆ ) Ans. 2
x + AC 2
( CD - x )2 + BD 2
Sol. sin i m2
or = .
According to Fermate principle, the path taken by a ray of light in passing sin r m1
from one point to the other is the path of minimum time. Consider a ray
of light going from medium of refractive index m1 to the medium of This proves the Snell¢s law.
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 61
2.4 PRACTICAL PHENOMENA BASED ON REFRACTION
1. Twinkling of stars : Earth¢s atmosphere consists of number of layers of varying
densities, such that the most dense layer is near the earth¢s surface. These layers
of air are not stationary, but contantly inter-mingle, and so rapidly changing in
density. In figure S is the true position of the star. Due to the refraction by the
atmosphere, its image is formed at S¢. Thus S¢ is the apparent position of the star.
When different layers in atmosphere change in density and so in refractive index,
will change the apparent position of the star. Thus when star is within the line of
sight, it is visible. However when it falls out of line of sight, it is no longer
visible. The collective effect of the above changes in apparent position of a star
is known as twinkling. Planets do not twinkle, because they are very close to us
as compared to stars. Their refraction and hence apparent shift in position of
planets are quite small, and so they appear at their original position.
Fig. 2.34
2. Why sun appears bigger during sun-set or sun-rise ?
Sun is our near star and so looks larger in size. Due to refraction its image appears
more closer to eye than its actual size. Since during sun-set and sun-rise, the rays
of light travel through maximum length of atmosphere, and therefore refraction
is also maximum. Hence apparent image of sun is very much closer to eye. Thus
it appears bigger in size.
2.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
We know that when light ray is incident in optical denser medium, it bends away from
the normal in rarer medium. With the increase in angle of incidence in denser medium,
angle of refraction also increases. For particular value of angle of incidence, the angle
of refraction in rarer medium becomes 90°. The angle of incidence for which the refracted
ray emerges tangent to the interface between the mediums, is called the critical angle
and is designated by C. If the angle of incidence in denser medium is greater than the
critical angle, the ray does not pass into the rarer medium but is totally internally
reflected at the boundary surface and return back into the same medium. This is known
as total internal reflection (TIR).
Fig. 2.35
Critical angle : The critical angle for two given material mediums may be obtained
by setting r = 90° in Snell¢s law. We then have
sin C
denser m rarer =
sin 90o
= sin C
1 1
or sin C = =.
m
rarer denser m
62 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
or r = sin -1 ( m sin i )
\ d = sin -1 ( m sin i ) - i
The maximum value of d will occur when i = C, and is given by
p
dmax = -C
2
Fig. 2.37
When angle of incidence in denser medium is greater than critical angle, the angle of
deviation is given by
d = p–2i
Fig. 2.38
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 63
Ex. 18 Find critical angle for the light ray when incident on Sol. Let a rectangular block ABCD is placed on the printed page. A
glass-water interface. thin air film is enclosed between page and the block. The rays from the
Sol. letter O incident almost normally on the lower face of the block, and so
angle of refraction inside block becomes critical angle C. These rays
1
We have sin C = now incident on vertical face of the block at an angle (90°-C). If they
m
rarer denser totally reflected inside the block, then the letter will not be seen from the
1 vertical face of the block. Thus at vertical face BC
=
wmg
mw
=
mg
4/3 8
= =
3/ 2 9
æ8 ö
Thus C = sin -1 ç ÷ . Ans.
è9 ø Fig. 2.40
Ex. 19 A point source of light S is placed at the bottom of a angle of incidence (90°–C) > critical angle C
vessel containing a liquid of refractive index 5/3. A person is viewing or 90°–C > C
the source from above the surface. There is an opaque disc of radius or 2C < 90°
1 cm floating on the surface. The centre of the disc lies vertically or C < 45°
above the source. The liquid from the vessel is gradually drained For minimum value of refractive index,
out through a tap. What is the maximum height of the liquid for
Cmax = 45°, and so
which the source can not at all be seen from above.
Sol. The source will not be seen from above, if rays after refraction mmin =
1
become parallel to surface of liquid or totally reflected into it. For sin Cmax
maximum height h, the angle of refraction r = 90°.
1
= = 2 Ans.
sin 45°
Ex. 21 A point source of light is placed at a distance h below
the surface of a large and deep lake. Show that the fraction f of light
energy that escapes directly from the water surface is independent
of h and is given by
1é æ 1 öù
f = ê1 - ç1 - ÷ú.
Fig. 2.39 2ê è μ2 ø ú
ë û
sin 90o
Thus by Snell¢s law = m Sol.
sin C
1 1 Only those rays can escape from surface of water for which angle of
or sin C = = incidence i £ C. So required fraction
m 5/ 3
3 é Surface area of sphere ù
=
5 f = ê outside water ú
ê ú
3 ë total area of sphere û
\ tan C =
4
.
r
From the geometry tan C =
h
r
\ h =
tan C
1 4
= = cm Ans.
3/ 4 3
Ex. 20 A rectangular block of glass is placed on a printed page
lying on a horizontal surface. Find the minimum value of the
refractive index of glass for which the letters on page are not visible
from any of the vertical faces of the block. Fig. 2.41
64 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
If R is the radius of sphere and y is the part of it which is above the water 1 get totally reflected, then ray 2 also be reflected. Therefore for ray 1:
surface, then
2pRy y
f = =
4pR 2 2 R
As h is the depth of the source from the free surface of water, so
y = R–h
R-h
\ f =
2R
1é hù
= 1-
2 êë R úû
From the geometry of the figure,
h
cos C =
R
1
\ f =
2
[1 - cos C ]
1é Fig. 2.42
or f = 1 - 1 - sin 2 C ù
2 êë úû
R+x
sin i1 =
1 R+d
But sin C =
m For minimum value of i1, x = 0. Thus
R
1é æ 1 öù sin i1 =
\ f = ê1 - ç1 - ÷ ú . Proved R+d
2ê è m2 ø ú
ë û
1 1 2
Ex. 22 A rod made of glass (m = 1.5) and of square cross-section For TIR, i1 > C, and sin C= = = .
m 3/ 2 3
is bent into the shape shown in fig. 2.42. A parallel beam of light
falls perpendicular on the plane flat surface A. Referring to diagram, R 2
\ R+d
>
3
d is the width of a side and R is the radius of inner semicircle. Find
d R
the maximum value of ratio so that all light entering the glass or d <
R 2
through surface A emerge from the glass through surface B. d 1
Sol. or
R
<
2
The path of two rays 1 and 2 are shown in figure. The angle of indence
d 1
of ray 1 is greater than that of angle of incidence of ray 2 (i2 > i1 ) . If ray Thus maximum value of = Ans.
R 2
Fig. 2.44
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 65
(iii) Mirage : In summer season, the ground surface becomes very hot and then the
layers of air above it. Thus the layers of air closest to ground surface are hottest
and optically least dense whereas the layers high up are colder and optically
more dense. In this situation, the rays coming from the tall object like tree, pass
from denser to rarer medium and so angle of refraction increases. This continues
till a stage comes when angle of incidence in optically denser layer becomes
greater than the critical angle. Thus total reflection takes place. When these
reflected rays reach to the observer's eyes, they appear to come from the image
of the tree. Thus an image of tree will appear without the presence of water. This
is called mirage.
Note:
The size of image of tree will appear smaller than the actual size of the tree.
(iv) Optical fibre : An optical fibre is a thin and flexible fibre. It has a thin core
made of transparent medium like glass or plastic. The core is surrounded by a
cladding, whose refractive index is lower than the core. Because of cladding
(like air), the light rays inside the core get totally reflected at different points
along the length of the fibre and emerge from the other end. Optical fibre can be
used to send telephone signals. Doctors use optical fibre tube, to examine stomach,
which is called endoscopy.
The maximum value of angle of q, so that a ray can be propagated through the
fibre.
By Snell¢s law
sin q
= m1
sin r
or sinq = m1 sin r ...(i)
From the geometry of the figure, angle of incidence
i = 90°– r.
For TIR, 90° – r > C
or sin (90° – r) > sin C
Fig. 2.46
m2
> m1
m2
or cos r > m1 ...(ii)
sinqmax = m1 1 - cos 2 r
2
æm ö
= m1 1 - ç 2 ÷
è m1 ø
or sinqmax = m12 - m 2 2 .
Note:
1. When two non parallel faces of the slab is used for refraction, the angle of
refraction will be 90°.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.48
2. In the figure, the angle between two refracting surfaces is A.
Refraction through a prism
Consider a monochromatic ray of light incident at an angle i on the face AB of the
prism. It gets refraced at an angle r1 into the prism, after this the ray incident on the
other face AC of the prism at an angle r2, and then finally emerges from this face with
an angle e (see figure). By Snell¢s law
sin i sin e
m = = . ...(1)
sin r1 sin r2
Fig. 2.49. Principal section of prism
2.8 DEVIATION PRODUCED BY PRISM
Because of the inclination between the refracting surfaces, the incident ray and emerging
ray are not parallel. The angle between the incident ray and emerging ray is called angle
of deviation and designated by d. In figure
ÐA + ÐR = 180°
\ ÐR = 180° – A
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 67
or (180o - A) + r1 + r2 = 180°
\ r1 + r2 = A ...(2)
Angle of deviation, d = ÐSPQ + ÐSQP
= ( i - r1 ) + ( e - r2 )
= ( i + e ) - ( r1 + r2 )
= (1 + e ) - A
\ i+e = A+d ...(3)
Deviation produced by small angled prism
From equation (1), for small angle, we have
i e
m = =
r1 r2
\ i = m r1 and e = m r2
Now from equation (3), we have
m r1 + m r2 = A+d
or m(r1 + r2) = A+d
or mA = A+d
\ d = (m – 1)A ...(4)
There are two values for angle of incidence for same angle of
deviation :
When a ray is incident at an angle i, it emerges at an angle e, with a deviation angle d. Fig. 2.50
If the ray is incident at an angle e, then it will emerge at an angle i having same angle of
deviation (see fig. 2.50). Thus there are two angles of incidence for same angle of
deviation. These are i1 = i and i2 = e.
Minimum deviation
We know that
i+e = A+d
\ d = (i + e) – A
From the above equation, we can say that angle of deviation depends on angle of (a)
incidence. Experiments show that with the increase in angle of incidence, the angle of
deviation first decreases, passes through minimum and then increases. Thus for a certain
value of the angle of incidence (i1 = i2), the light passing through prism suffers minimum
deviation. The angle of deviation at this position is called the minimum angle of deviation
(dm). Figure shows the minimum deviation and graph shows the variation of angle of
deviation with angle of incidence.
In minimum deviation position, d = dm
i = e
and so r1 = r2 = r (say)
From equations (2) and (3), we get
A A + dm
r = and i = . (b)
2 2
Fig. 2.51
68 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
If m is the refractive index of material of the prism, then by Snell¢s law
sin i
m =
sin r
æ A + dm ö
sin ç ÷
è 2 ø
or m = . ...(5)
A
sin
2
sin 90o
m =
sin r1
1
\ sin r1 =
m
æ 1ö
or r1 = sin -1 ç ÷ = C
è mø
Fig. 2.52 We have r1 + r2 = A
\ r2 = A – r1 = A – C
sin e
Now for face AC, m =
sin ( A - C )
or sin e = m sin(A – C)
Condition of no emergence
A ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if it gets totally reflected from the
other face of the prism, even for angle of incidence on first face is 90°. Thus angle of
incidence on second face should be greater than critical angle. i.e.,
r2 > C.
For i ® 90o , r1 ® C. Thus for no emergence from any face of the prism, angles
r1 + r2 = A,
\ A > 2C ...(7)
Fig. 2.53 So, a ray of light will not emerge out from the prism, if A > 2C.
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 69
Totally reflecting prism
The critical angle for glass-air interface is 42°. Thus if we make a prism in such a way,
that light ray incident into it at an angle greater than critical, then it becomes totally
reflecting prism. Such a prism may be right angled isosceles (45° – 90° – 45°). They
can be used to deviate rays through 90° or 180°.
Erecting prism
This is also the right-angled isosceles prism. In this case rays of light should be parallel
to the hypotenuse. By doing so the rays invert themselves and an inverted object appears
as erect.
Fig. 2.55
Fig. 2.54
Ex. 23 Two identical thin isosceles prisms angle A and Ex. 24 An isosceles prism of angle 120° has a refractive index
refractive index m are placed with their bases touching each other.
This system can act as a crude converging lens. Draw a neat diagram 2 . Two parallel monochromatic rays enter the prism parallel to
showing the path of parallel incident rays. Obtain the focal length each other in air as shown in fig. 2.57. Find the angle between the
of the system. The height of incident is h. emerging rays.
Fig. 2.59
Given, i = 60°, d = 30°, A = 30°
Fig. 2.58
The critical angle from glass to water is We have, i+e = A+d
or 60° + e = 30° + 30°
1 a mw \ e = 0
sin C = =
w mg a mg Thus the ray emerges normal to the other face of the prism.
By Snell¢s law
4/3 8
= = sin i
3/ 2 9 m =
sin r1
The angle of incidence at the face AC is q. For the ray to be totally
reflected, the angle q must be greater than critical angle. Thus Here r1 = 30° and i = 60°
q > C
or sinq > sin C sin 60°
\ m =
sin 30°
8
> Ans.
9 3
Ex. 26 A glass prism of angle 72° and index of refraction 1.66 =
2
= 3. Ans.
is immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.33. Find the angle of 1
minimum deviation for a parallel beam in light passing through the 2
prism.
Ex. 28 A ray of light undergoes deviation of 30° when incident
Sol. Given amg =1.66 and a m w = 1.33
on an equilateral prism of refractive index 2 . What is the angle
a mg 1.66 subtended by the ray inside the prism with base of prism ?
\ w mg = =
a mw
1.33
Sol.
If dm is the required angle, then
Suppose the prism had been in the position of minimum deviation. Then
æ A + dm ö
sin ç
è 2 ÷ø 1.66 æ A + dm ö
sin ç
= è 2 ÷ø
A 1.33 m = .
sin A
2 sin
2
æ 72o + dm ö
sin ç ÷ æ 60° + 30° ö
è 2 ø 1.66 sin ç ÷ø
or = è 2
sin 36° 1.33 = Fig. 2.60
æ 60° ö
sin ç
After simplifying, dm = 22°22¢ Ans. è 2 ÷ø
Ex. 30 A prism of refracting angle 30° is coated with a thin By Snell¢s law
sin i
= 1.54
film of transparent material of refractive index 2.2 on face AC of sin 30°
the prism as shown in fig. 2.62. A light of wavelength 6600Å is incident or sin i = 0.77
on face such that angle of incidence is 60°. Find \ i = 50°
a) the angle of emergence, (given refractive index of the material
of the prism is 3 ) and
(b) the minimum value of thickness of the coated film on the
face, AC for which the light emerging from the face has
maximum intensity.
Sol. Fig. 2.63
The angle of deviation produced by the prism.
(a) By Snell¢s law on face AB
d = (i + e) - A
= ( 50° + 50°) - 60° = 40° .
The light ray after emerging from the prism, incident on the mirror at an
70°. The reflected ray then makes 20° with the horizontal axis, and so it
is parallel to the incident ray. Thus deviation produced by the system is
zero.
Ex. 32 A right angle prism (45° – 90° – 45°) of refractive index
Fig. 2.62 m has a plate of refractive index m1(m1 < m) cemented to its diagonal
sin 60° face. The assembly is in air. A ray is incident on AB.
m= 3 = sin r
1
sin 60°
\ sin r1 =
3
3/2 1
= =
3 2
or r1 = 30°
In figure ÐADE = 90° – r1 = 90° – 30°
= 60°
The ÐAED = 90°.
72 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(i) Calculate the angle of incidence at AB for which the ray (ii) For the ray passes undeviated through the face AC, r = 45°.
strikes the diagonal face at the critical angle.
(ii) Assuming m = 1.352, calculate the angle of incidence at AB
for which the refracted ray passes through the diagonal face
undeviated.
Sol.
(i) If C is the critical angle at the face AC, then
m1
sin C = ...(i)
m
Let the required angle of incidence be i and angle of refraction
on face AB is r1. Then
r1 + C = 45°
Fig. 2.65
\ r1 = 45° – C
sin i
sin i sin i Thus = 1.352
For the face AB m = = sin 45°
sin r1 sin ( 45° - C )
or sin i = 1.352 × sin 45°
or sin i = m sin (45° – C)
or i ; 73°. Ans.
-1 é æ -1 m1 ö ù
\ i = sin êm sin çè 45° - sin m ÷ø ú . Ans.
ë û
Note:
Theoretically each wavelength is associated with its own colour, therefore there are
infinite colours in the natural light. Our eyes can differentiate only six colours, indigo
and violet can not be differentiable. So in further study we consider only six colours in
the spectrum of white light in wavelength range (4000Å to 7000Å).
Causes of dispersion
The refractive index of a any medium depends on wavelength of light. It approximately
is given by Cauchy¢s equation as :
B
m = A+ . ...(1)
l2
Here A and B are constants. As the wavelength of red light is longer than violet light and
so mV > m R . The deviation angle in specific case is given by d = ( m - 1) A. Hence
deviation of violet colour in maximum and so violet colour is at the lower end and red
colourd is at the upper end of the spectrum.
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 73
Angular dispersion
Figure shows the deviation for two extreme colours. i.e., red violet. If dR and
dV are the angles of deviations for red and violet colours, then
angular dispersion =dV – dR.
and dV = ( mV - 1) A.
Thus angular dispersion
dV – dR = ( mV - m R ) A. ...(2)
dV - d R
or w = ...(1)
dY
dY = ( mY - 1) A.
( mV - 1) A - ( m R - 1) A
\ w =
( mY - 1) A
mV - m R
or w = . ...(2)
mY - 1
In terms of differentiation
dm
w = . ...(3)
m -1
According to Cauchy¢s formula
B
m = A+ 2
l
Differentiating above equation,
dm 2B
= - 3.
dl l
dm
Here is known as dispersive power of the medium. Therefore dispersive power of
dl
violet colour (l = 4000Å) is nearly eight times the dispersive power of red colour
(l = 7000Å). It means the spectral lines are more dispened near the violet end of the
spectrum than at the red end.
74 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Note:
1. Dispersive power is the material property and always positive. The formula of w
is derived for thin prism. But the same can be used for lens etc.
2. When white light is incident on glass slab, it disperses into the slab. But emerging
light appears white because all the colours of light emerge with same angle.
3. A beam of white light passing through a hollow prism gives no spectrum. The
faces of the prism behaves like plates.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.68
2.11 COMBINATION OF PRISMS
A prism produces both deviation and dispersion. It can not give deviation without
dispersion and vice-versa when white light is incident on it. However a suitable
combination of two prisms can do so.
(i) Dispersion without deviation :
Consider two prisms of refracting angles A and A¢ and refractive indexes m and
m¢ respectively. The deviation produced by first prism for mean colour (yellow
colour) d Y = ( m Y - 1) A and by second prism dY ' = ( mY '- 1) A '. The total
deviation produced by two prisms to be zero
dY + dY ' = 0
Fig. 2.69 or ( mY - 1) A + ( mY '- 1) A ' = 0
( mY - 1)
or A¢ = - m '- 1 A ...(1)
( Y )
The negative sign shows that two prisms must be placed with their angles
oppositely. The situation is shown in figure. This combination will produce some
dispersion. The dispersion produced by first prism is ( dV - d R ) and by second
D = ( dV - d R ) + ( d 'V - d 'R )
æ m 'V - m 'R ö
= ( mV - m R ) A - ç ÷ ( mY - 1) A
è mY - 1 ø
or D = ( mY - 1) A ( w - w ') ...(3)
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 75
(ii) Deviation without dispersion :
Total dispersion produced by two prisms is zero, if D = 0.
or ( mV - m R ) A + ( m 'V - m 'R ) A ' = 0
- ( mV - m R ) A
\ A¢ = ...(4)
( m 'V - m 'R )
The negative sign shows that two prisms must be placed with their angles
oppositely. The situation is shown in figure. The deviation produced by the
combination for mean colour is
d = dY + d¢Y Fig. 2.70. Deviation without dispersion
ìï æ m - m R ö üï
d = ( mY - 1) A + ( m 'Y - 1) í - ç V ÷ Aý
ïî è m 'V - m ' R ø ïþ
é æ m 'Y - 1 ö ù
= ê( mY - 1) - ç m ' - m ' R ÷ ( mV - m R ) ú A
ëê è V ø úû
é æ m 'Y - 1 ö æ mV - m R öù
= ( mY - 1) A ê1 - ç ÷ç ÷ú
ëê è m 'V - m 'R ø è mY - 1 øúû
wù
or d = ( mY - 1) A éê1 - ...(6)
ë w ' úû
Note:
Two identical prisms of same material placed in contact will give light without
deviation and dispersion.
Ex. 33 A thin prism P1 with angle 4° and made from glass of light. Determine the angle of the flint glass prism. Calculate the net
dispersion of the combined system.
refractive index 1.54 is combined with another prism P2 made from
glass of refractive index 1.72 to produce dispersion without deviation. Sol.
What is the angle of prism P2? The refractive index for crown glass for mean colour (yellow) is given
Sol. Given A1 = 4°, m1 = 1.54, m2 = 1.72 by
sin i
1.50 =
æ 60° ö
sin ç
è 2 ÷ø
1 3
or sin i = 1.50 ´ = a
2 4
\ i = 48.6°. Ans.
Fig. 2.72
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 77
2.12 LINE, BAND AND CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM
The line spectrum are known to arise from the single free atoms in a heated gas. Molecules
of two or more atoms give rise to spectrum lines grouped together into what are called
bands. Continuous spectra are usually produced by the matter in liquid or solid state.
The sun¢s spectrum
The solar spectrum, consisting of a bright coloured continuous spectrum interspersed
by thousands of dark lines discovered by Fraunhofer in 1817.
2.13 RAINBOW
Rainbow is produced due to the dispersion of light by small raindrops floating in the air
after rain. The rainbow is seen when the sun is behind the observer.
(i) Primary rainbow : The primary rainbow is formed when sun light suffers one
reflection and two refractions before emerging from water droplets. In this case
the violet colour is on the lower side and red colour is on upper side of the
78 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
rainbow. It has been observed that violet colour makes an angle 40° and red
makes an angle 42° at eye with the axis of rainbow (see figure).
(ii) Secondary rainbow : Sometimes secondary rainbow which is fainter than
primary rainbow is also observed. This is formed by the sunrays which suffer
two internal reflections and two refractions from the water droples and giving
rise violet colour on upperside and red on lower side of the rainbow (see figure).
2.14 SCATTERING AND BLUE SKY
When light is incident on small particles, it is absorbed by them. This absorbed light is
then sends into all directions. This phenomenon is called scattering. The blue of the
sky and the red of the sunset are due to scattering.
Experiments show that the scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the wavelength. Thus
1
scattering µ
l4
This is known as Rayleigh scattering formula.
According to this law the light of short waves (violet) is scattered about ten times
as the longer waves of red light. Thus when sun light enters the earth¢s atmosphere,
violet and blue light are scattered the most, followed by green, yellow, orange and
Fig. 2.76 red.
At noon on a clear day when the sun is directly overhead, as illustrated by an observer
in fig. 2.76, the whole sky appears light blue. This is the composite colour of the mixture
of colours scattered most effectively by the air molecules.
It can be demonstrated that light blue can be obtained by mixing of violet, blue, green
and yellow.
The red sunset
At sunrise or sunset, the sun's rays have to pass through a larger distance in the atmosphere
(fig.). Most of the blue and other shorter wavelengths are removed by scattering. The
least scattered light reaching our eye, therefore the sun looks reddish. This explains the
reddish appearance of the sun near the horizion.
Fig. 2.77
Any colour can be made from red, green and blue light
Any colour may be made by adding together red, green and blue light in the correct
amount. If a mixture of red and green light hits eye, your red-sensitive and green-
sensitive cones send impulses to your brain. Your brain interprets this as yellow light.
A colour television works in this way. The picture on the screen is made up of dots of
light. The colours are made up of red, green and blue dots, in different combinations
and of different intensities. If you look closely at a television screen, you can see these
dots.
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 79
Red, green and blue are called the primary colours of light. You can make any colour
from red, green and blue light. But you cannot make red, green or blue light from any
other coloured light.
Colours which can be made by adding any two of the primary colours of light are called
secondary colours of light. Figure shows how the three secondary colours-yellow,
magenta and cyan- are made.
Objects look different in different colours of light
If you shine white light onto a red book, the book looks red because it reflects only the
red light into your eyes. If you look at the book in red light, it still looks red, because it
reflects the red light. But if you look at the book in green light it looks black. There is no
red light for it to reflect, so it does not reflect any light at all, and it looks black.
Fig. 2.79
What happens if you shine yellow light onto the red book? Yellow light is a mixture of
red and green light. The book will absorb the green part of the yellow light, and reflect
the red part. So it still reflects red light into your eye, and still looks red.
Complementary colours
A pair of colour on mixing give white colour are called complementary colours. Ex.
Green + magenta = White.
So, green and magenta colours are complementary to each other.
Blue + Yellow = White
So, blue and yellow colours are complementary to each other.
Red + Cyan (greenish-blue) = White
So, red and cyan colours are complementary to each other.
Ex. 37 The beams of light, one of red colour and other green fall on the same
spot on a white screen. The colour on the screen will appear to be
(a) magenta (b) blue (c) cyan (d) yellow.
Sol. Red and green colour combine to give yellow colour.
So, the correct answer is (d).
Fig. 2.81
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 81
1 (m y - 1)
sin C = . A' = - A
m (m ' y - 1)
Critical angle for water to air is 49° and for glass to air The total dispersion
is 42°.
(iii) A fish inside water at a depth h can see outside world in D = (mv - m R ) A + (mv' - m 'R ) A '
horizontal circle of radius r, where
(ii) Deviation with dispersion :
h For two small angled prisms, we have
r = .
m2 - 1 (m v - m R )
A' = - A
5 Deviation produced by prism (m 'v - m 'R )
The total deviation
d = (m y - 1) A + (m 'y - 1) A ' .
Rainbow
Rainbow is produced due to the dispersion of light by small raindrops
floating in air after rain. In primary rainbow there are one reflection
and two refractions before emerging from water droplets. In secondary
rainbow, there are two reflections and two refractions from the water
For the prism, angle of refraction A, we have droplets.
Blue of the sky
r1 + r2 = A
It is due to the scattering of light by the small particles present in the
and i+e = A+ d atmosphere. The scattering of the blue colour will be the greatest.
82 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
æ mm ö æ 1 1ö
(a) dç 1 2 ÷ (b) d ç m + m ÷
è m1 + m 2 ø è 1 2ø
æ 1 1ö æ 1 ö
(c) 2d ç + ÷ (d) 2d ç m m ÷
è m1 m 2 ø è 1 2ø
(a) I, II, III (b) II, I, III
7. A beam of light is converging towards a point I on a screen. A
(c) III, II, I (d) none of these
plane glass plate whose thickness in the direction of the beam = t,
2. A glass plate of thickness 1 cm and of refractive index 1.50 is held refractive index = m, is introduced in the path of the beam, The
horizontal and its lower face is 4 cm above a printed page. The convergence point is shifted by
distance of the page from top face of the plate as seen from above
is æ 1ö æ 1ö
(a) t ç1 - ÷ away (b) t ç1 + ÷ away
(a) 5 cm (d) 3.33 cm è mø è mø
(c) 4.67 cm (d) 2.50 cm
3. Each part of figure shows light that refracts through an interface æ 1ö æ 1ö
(c) t ç1 - ÷ nearer (d) t ç1 + ÷ nearer
between two materials. The incident ray consists of red and blue è mø è mø
light. The approximate index of refraction for visible light is
indicated for each material. Which of the three parts show 8. Light takes 8 min 20 sec to reach from sun on the earth. If the
physically possible refraction? whole atmosphere is filled with water, the light will take the time
( a m w = 4 / 3)
(a) 8 min 20 sec (b) 8 min
(c) 6 min 11 sec (d) 11 min 6 sec
(b) frequency and wavelength 10. The wavelength of light diminishes m times (m = 1.33 for water) in
(c) frequency and velocity a medium. A diver from inside water looks at an object whose
(d) wavelength and velocity natural colour is green. He sees the object as
5. How much water should be filled in a container 21 cm in height, so (a) green (b) blue
that it appears half filled when viewed from the top of the container (c) yellow (d) red
(given that a mw = 4 / 3 )
(a) 1 (b) 2
(c) 3 (d) none of these
(a) zero (b) a 28. Three glass prisms A, B and C of same refractive index are placed
in contact with each other as shown in figure, with no air gap
(c) sin -1
(1/ m ) (d) 2sin -1
(1/ m )
between the prisms. Monochromatic ray of light OP passes
sin i through the prism assembly and emerges as QR. The conditions
24. In the figure shown, the value of is :
sin r of minimum deviation is satisfied in the prisms
µ3
µ1 µ2
r
m1 m2
(a) m2 (b) m
3
m3 m1m 3
(c) (d) (a) A and C (b) B and C
m1 m 22
(c) A and B (d) in all prisms A, B and C
25. Which of the following graphs shows appropriate variation of
refractive index m with wavelength l 29. Which of the following diagrams, shows correctly the dispersion
of white light by a prism
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
(a) greater deviation (b) same deviation 1.65 - 1.61 1.65 - 1.63
(c) (d)
(c) no deviation (d) total internal reflection 1.63 - 1 1.61 - 1
32. A horizontal ray of light passes through a prism P of index 1.50 39. Minimum deviation is observed with a prism having angle of
whose apex angle is 4° and then strikes a vertical mirror M as prism A, angle of deviation d, angle of incidence i and angle of
shown. For the ray after reflection to become horizontal, the emergence e. We then have generally
mirror must be rotated through an angle of : (a) i>e (b) i < e
(c) i=e (d) i = e = d
P 40 40. A prism of refractive index m and angle A is placed in the minimum
deviation position. If the angle of minimum deviation is A, then
the value of A in terms of m is
M æ mö m -1
(a) sin -1 ç ÷ (b) sin
-1
è 2ø 2
(a) 6° (b) 4° æ mö -1 æ m ö
(c) 2cos -1 ç ÷ (d) cos ç ÷
(c) 1° (d) 18° è 2ø è 2ø
33. The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.5 for light whose 41. Which source is associated with a line emission spectrum
wavelength in vacuum is 6000Å. The wavelength of this light (a) electric fire (b) neon street sign
when it passes through glass is
(c) red traffic light (d) sun
(a) 4000 Å (b) 6000 Å 42. Band spectrum is obtained when the source emitting light is in the
(c) 9000 Å (d) 15000 Å form of
34. The optical path of a monochromatic light is same if it goes through (a) atoms (b) molecules
4.0 cm of glass or 4.5 cm of water. If the refractive index of glass (c) plasma (d) none of the above
is 1.53, the refractive index of the water is
43. Fraunhofer spectrum is a
(a) 1.30 (b) 1.36
(a) line absorption spectrum (b) band absorption spectrum
(c) 1.42 (d) 1.46 (c) line emission spectrum (d) bane emission spectrum
Level -2
1. A ray of light travelling in water in incident on its surface open to 5. The apparent depth of water in cylindrical water tank of diameter
air. The angle of incidence is q, which is less than the critical angle. 2R cm is reducing at the rate of x cm/minute when water is being
Then there will be drained out at a constant rate. The amount of water drained in c.c.
(a) only a reflected ray and no refracted ray per minute is (m1 = refractive index of air, m2 = refractive index of
(b) only a refracted ray and no reflected ray water
(c) a reflected ray and a refracted ray and the angle between (a) x pR2 µ1/µ2 (b) x pR2 µ2/µ1
them would be less than 180° – 2q (c) 2 pR µ1/µ2 (d) pR2 x
(d) a reflected ray and a refracted ray and the angle between
6. A black spot is present just inside one of the face of an equilateral
them would be greater than 180° – 2q.
prism. A man places his eye directly at the opposite corner. He
2. Material A has critical angle iA, and material B has critical angle iB
sees two images of the spot at an angular separation of 60°. Then
(iB > iA), then which of the following is true
(i) light can be totally internally reflected when it passes from the minimum value of refractive index of the prism is :
B to A 3
(ii) light can be totally internally reflected when it passes from (a) m=
A to B 2
(iii) critical angle for total internal reflection is iB – iA (b) m=2
æ sin iA ö 3
(iv) critical angle between A and B is sin–1 ç ÷ (c) m=
è sin iB ø 2
(a) (i) and (iii) (b) (i) and (iv) 2
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (ii) and (iv) (d) m=
3 Black spot
3. If light travels a distance x in t1 sec in air and 10x distance in t2 sec
in a medium, the critical angle of the medium will be 7. On a hypotenuse of a right prism (30° – 60° – 90°) of refractive
index 1.50, a drop of liquid is placed as shown in figure. Light is
æt ö -1 æ t1 ö allowed to fall normally on the short face of the prism. In order
(a) tan -1 ç 1 ÷ (b) sin ç t ÷
è t2 ø è 2ø that the ray of light may get totally reflected, the maximum value
of refractive index is :
æ 10t ö -1 æ 10t1 ö
(c) sin -1 ç 1 ÷ (d) tan ç t ÷
è t2 ø è 2 ø
4. A prism ABC of angle 30° has its face AC silvered. A ray of light
incident at an angle of 45° at the face AB retraces its path after
refraction at face AB and reflection at face AC. The refractive index
of the material of the prism is
(a) 1.5
A
3 (a) 1.30 (b) 1.47
(b)
2 (c) 1.20 (d) 1.25
Silvered
45° 8. Light takes 4.5 × 10–10s to travel 10 cm in a transparent medium.
(c) 2 The optical path length covered by it :
4 (a) 11.5 cm (b) 13.5 cm
(d) B C (c) 15.5 cm (d) 17.5 cm
3
(a) 5/2
(b) ( 5 / 2)
(c) ( 3/ 2)
(a) sin -1 ( sin r ) (b) sin -1 ( tan r ')
(d) 3/2
(c) sin -1 ( tan i ) (d) tan -1 ( sini )
15. A ray of light is incident at the glass-water interface at an angle i,
11. In the figure shown, for an angle of incidence 45°, at the top it emerges finally parallel to the surface of water, then the value of
surface, what is the minimum refractive index needed for total mg would be
internal reflection at vertical face?
2 +1 3
(a) (b)
2 2
1
(c) (d) 2 +1
2
12. A fish looking up through the water sees the outside world
contained in a circular horizon. If the refractive index of water is (a) (4/3) sin i (b) 1/sin i
4 (c) 4/3 (d) 1
and the fish is 12 cm below the surface, the radius of this circle 16. A container is filled with water (m = 1.33) upto a height of 33.25
3
in cm is cm. A concave mirror is placed 15 cm above the water level and
the image of an object placed at the bottom is formed 25 cm below
(a) 36 5 (b) 4 5
the water level. The focal length of the mirror is
(c) 36 7 (d) 36/ 7
13. A rectangular glass slab ABCD, of refractive index m1, is immersed
in water of refractive index m 2 ( m1 > m 2 ) . A ray of light is incident
at the surface AB of the slab as shown. The maximum value of the
angle of incidence a max, such that the ray comes out only from
the other surface CD is given by
(a) 10 cm (b) 15 cm
(c) 18.30 cm (d) 25 cm
( m - 1) dh / dt m dh
(a) (b)
c c dt
c dh / dt c dh
(c) (d)
( m - 1) m dt
21. The xy - plane separates two media A and B of refractive indices
2h
(a) 2mh (b) m1 = 1.5 and m2 = 2. A ray of light travels from A to B. Its
m
directions in the two media are given by unit vectors û1 = ai + bj
2h æ 1ö and û2 = ci + dj. Then :
(c) (d) h ç 1 + ÷
m -1 è mø
(a) (a / c) = (4 / 3) (b) (a / c) = (3 / 4)
18. An optical fibre consists of core of m1 surrounded by a cladding of (c) (b / d) = (4 / 3) (d) (b / d) = (3 / 4)
m2 < m1. A beam of light enters from air at an angle a with axis of 22. A light beam is travelling from Region I to Region IV (refer figure).
fibre. The highest a for which ray can be travelled through fibre is The refractive index in Region I, II, III and IV are
m0 m0 m
m0 , , and 0 , respectively. The angle of incidence q for
2 6 8
which the beam just misses entering Region IV is
19. A rod of glass (m = 1.5) and of square cross section is bent into the æ 3ö -1 æ 1 ö
shape shown in the figure. A parallel beam of light falls on the (a) sin -1 ç ÷ (b) sin çè ÷ø
è 4ø 8
plane flat surface A as shown in the figure. If d is the width of a
side and R is the radius of circular arc then for what maximum
æ 1ö -1 æ 1 ö
(c) sin -1 ç ÷ (d) sin çè ÷ø .
d è 4ø 3
value of light entering the glass slab through surface A emerges
R 23. A plane mirror is held at a height h above the bottom of an empty
from the glass through B beaker. The beaker is now filled with water up to depth d. The
general expression for the distance from a scratch at the bottom of
the beaker to its image in terms of h and the depth d of water in the
beaker is :
h
d
æ m ö d æ m - 1ö
2h – d ç
è m - 1÷ø 2 çè m ÷ø
(a) (b) 2h –
36° q1 q1
32°
Air Air
67° 53° (c) (d)
Meta- material Meta- material
(a) 12° (b) 16° q2
(c) 8° (d) less than 8° q2
e Air
µ1
(a) the stalker sees the fish in the region a.
µ2
(b) the stalker sees the fish in the region b.
(c) the fish sees the eyes of the stalker at c. B C
(d) the fish sees the eyes of the stalker at d.
2. When light is incident on a medium at angle i and refracted into a (a) m12 + sin 2 e = m 22 (b) m 22 + sin 2 e = m12
second medium at an angle r, the graph of sin i vs sin r is as shown
in the graph. From this, one can conclude that (c) m12 + cos 2 e = m22
(d) If the ray just fails to emerge out of the face AC of the prism,
-1 2
for m 2 = 3, angle of refraction of face AB is sin
3
7. Rays of different colours are passing through a slab as shown.
Which of the following is/are incorrect ?
(a) velocity of light in the second medium is 1.73 times the
velocity of light in the I medium
Yellow ray 130° 2
Red ray
(b) velocity of light in the I medium is 1.73 times the velocity in 45°
the II medium air
1 glass 3 4
(c) the critical angle for the two media is given by sin ic =
3 air
5 6
1
(d) sin ic =
2 (a) Ray 1 and ray 2 are parallel
3. If the light moving in a straight line bends by a small but fixed (b) Ray 5 and ray 6 are parallel
angle, it may be a case of (c) Ray 1 and ray 5 are parallel
(a) reflection (b) refraction
(d) Ray 3 and ray 1 must be parallel
(c) diffraction (d) dispersion
8. A ray of light travelling in a transparent medium falls on a surface
4. A narrow beam of white light goes through a slab having parallel
separating the medium from air at an angle of incidence of 45°. The
faces :
ray undergoes total internal reflection. If µ is the refractive index
(a) the light never splits in different colours.
of the medium with respect to air, select the possible value (s) of
(b) the emergent beam is white.
µ from the following
(c) the light inside the slab is split into different colours
(d) the light inside the slab is white. (a) 1.3 (b) 1.4
5. By properly combining two prisms made of different materials, it (c) 1.5 (d) 1.6
is possible to
(a) have dispersion without average deviation
(b) have deviation without dispersion
(c) have both dispersion and average deviation
(d) have neither disperson nor average deviation
Read the two statements carefully to mark the correct option out of the options given below. Select the right choice.
(a) If both the statements are true and the Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of Statement - 1.
(b) If both the statements are true but Statement - 2 is not the correct explanation of the Statement - 1.
(c) If Statement - 1 true but Statement - 2 is false.
(d) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.
1. Statement -1 : A man with a metre scale goes inside water Statement - 2 : The refractive index of a prism depends upon the
(aµw = 4/3). The length of the scale as observed by the man will be refractive angle of the prism and the angle of minimum deviation..
3/4 metre.
8. Statement - 1 : The refractive index of diamond is 6 and that of
Statement - 2 : To the man inside water, the length of the metre
scale will be one metre. liquid is 3 . If the light travels from diamond to the liquid, it will
2. Statement -1 : Different colours of light travel with different speed totally reflected when the angle of incidence is 30°.
in vacuum.
1
Statement - 2 : Wavelength of any colour of refractive index µ is Statement - 2 : The critical angle C is given by sin C = , where
µ
l air µ is the refractive index of diamond with respect to the liquid.
given by l = .
µ
9. Statement - 1 : The equation for dispersive power
3. Statement -1 : The setting sun appears red. mv - mr
w=
Statement - 2 : Scattering of light is directly proportional to the m y - 1 is derived for small angled prism. The value of
wavelength. dispersive power w can be used for lens of same material.
4. Statement - 1 : The stars twinkle while the planets do not. Statement - 2 : The dispersive power for lens will be less than w.
Statement - 2 : The stars are much bigger in size than the planet. 10. Statement - 1 : In optical fibre, the diameter of the core is kept
5. Statement - 1 : The frequencies of incident, reflected and refracted small.
beam of monochromatic light incident from one medium to another
Statement - 2 : The smaller diameter of the core ensures that the
are same. fibre should have incident angle more than the critical angle required
Statement - 2 : The reflected and refracted rays are mutually for total internal reflection.
perpendicular.
11. Statement - 1 : There is no dispersion of light refracted through a
6. Statement - 1 : Diamond glitters brilliantly. rectangular glass slab.
Statement - 2 : Diamond does not absorb sunlight. Statement - 2 : The parallel faces of the slab cancel the mutual
dispersion effect.
7. Statement - 1 : Refractive index of a prism depends only of the
kind of the glass of which it is made of and colour of light used.
3. Speed of light is
Passage for (Qs. 1 - 3) : (a) the same in medium-1 and medium-2
The figure shows a surface XY separating two transparent media, (b) larger in medium-1 than in medium-2
medium-1 and medium-2. The lines ab and cd represent wavefronts of a (c) larger in medium-2 than in medium-1
light wave travelling in medium-1 and incident of XY. The lines ef and gh (d) different at b and d.
represent wavelengths of the light wave in medium-2 after refraction.
Passage for (Qs. 4 & 5) :
A right prism is made by selecting a proper material and the angle A and
B (B << A) as shown in figure. It is desired that a ray of light incident on
the face AB emerges parallel to the incident direction after two internal
reflections.
1. Light travels as a
(a) parallel beam in each medium
(b) convergent beam in each medium 4. What should be the minimum refractive index m for this to be
(c) divergent beam in each medium possible ?
(d) divergent beam in one medium and convergent beam in the
(a) 3 (b) 1.5
other medium.
2. The phases of the light wave at c, d, e and f are fc , fd , fe and (c) 2 (d) 1.8
6. Angle of deviation is given in Column -I and ray diagram for angle of deviation in Column -II
Column – I Column – II
60°
µair = 1
µair = 1
60°
B. 0° (q)
r = 60°
µ2
µ1 > µ2
90°
i = 60°
(t)
96 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
1 æ 10t1 ö
As r > q, \ 180° – (q + r) < (180° – 2q) Now critical angle, sin C = m = ç t ÷
1 2 è 2 ø
-1 æ 1 ö 4. (c)
2. (d) We know that C = sin ç ÷ . Given iB > i A , \ m B < m A .
èmø 30°
So B is rarer and A is denser. Light will be totally reflected,
when it passes from A to B. Now critical angle for A to B
æ 1 ö 45° 30°
CAB = sin -1 ç -1
÷ = sin ( A m B )
m
èB Aø
98 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
sin 45°
µ =
sin 30° 45°
1/ 2
= = 2.
1/ 2 q
RD m2
5. (b) = m1
AD
æm ö
or r1 = 90° – sin -1 ç 2 ÷
è m1 ø
i
(R+ d)
ém ì m üù
\ amax = sin -1 ê 1 sin í90° – sin -1 2 ý ú 19. (b)
m
ëê 2 î m1 þ ûú
R
ém ïì æ m ö ïü ù
= sin -1 ê 1 cos ísin -1 ç 2 ÷ ý ú For TIR, i > C
ëê m 2 îï è m1 ø þï ûú or sin i > sin C
14. (b) R 1
or >
R+d 1.5
or d < 0.5 R
45° h d
or < 0.5
R
h
q æd ö
\ ç ÷ = 0.5
h è R ø max
dy - dh
20. (a) Given, =
h 1 dt dt
sin q = =
h 2 + (2 h) 2 5 S
sin 45° h
\ µ = sin q
1/ 2 5
= = . y
1/ 5 2
15. (b) For glass-water interface,
The apparent distance of source from fish,
sin i
g mw = x = mh + y
sin r
For water-air interface dx dh dy
or = m +
dt dt dt
sin i
w ma =
sin 90° dh dh
or v = m -
dt dt
sin i sin r
Now g m w ´ wm a = ´ = sin i dh
sin r sin 90° = (m - 1) … (i)
dt
mw ma
´ We know that
Þ m g mw = sin i, \ m g = 1 .
sin i df v
16. (c) The distance of object from mirror =
f c
33.25
= 15 + ´ 3 = 39.93 cm df
4 or v = c
… (ii)
Distance of image from mirror f
Now from equations (i) and (ii), we have
25 ´ 3
= 15 + = 33.75 cm df
4 (m - 1) dh
f = .
Using mirror formula, c dt
1 1 1 21. (a)
+ = a
v u f
b
1 1 1 q
or + = µ1
-33.93 -33.75 f
µ2
\ f = – 18.3 cm
h
d q¢
17. (b) The apparent height of object from mirror is = .
m
c
2h
So distance between object and its image = . As û1 and û2 and the unit vectors and so
m
18. (b) See example. a 2 + b2 = c2 + d 2
100 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Now using Snell's law, we have 1
m2 sin q or sin r =
2
m1 = \
sin q ' r = 30°
1 1
2 a / a 2 + b2 Critical angle, sin C =
=
or = m 2
1.5 c / c2 + d 2 \ C = 45°
4 a So ray comes out antiparallel to the incident ray.
or = . 28. (d) The angle of prism, A = 180° – (67° + 53°)
3 c
= 60°
1 m The deviation ,
22. (b) sin q = = r
r md md A+ d = i+e
m0 /8 1 or 60° + d = 36° + 32°
= = \ = 8°
m0 8 d
For minimum deviation i = e, and so angle of deviation should
æ1ö be less than 8°.
or q = sin -1 ç ÷
è8ø 29. (b) Using Snell's law (at origin),
23. (c) The distance of bottom of the beaker from mirror sin 90° 1
m= or sin q =
æ 1ö sin q m
= h - d ç1 - ÷
è mø -
x
1 1
\ tan q = = = e 2d
æ 1ö m2 - 1 1+ ex / d -1
So it will be at a distance = h - d ç 1 - ÷ from mirror. Now
è mø
distance between bottom of beaker and image dy
or = e - x / 2d
dx
æ 1ö æ m -1ö
= h + h - d ç 1 - ÷ = 2h - d ç ÷ . d x
è mø è m ø - x / 2d
or ò dy = òe dx
t1 t2 0 0
24. (d) The apparent distance of O = m + m \ x = d ln 4.
3 1 3 2
1
t1 t
= + 2
m1 / m3 m 2 / m3 30. (b) Optical path = ò mdx
0
æt t ö 1
m3 ç 1 + 2 ÷ .
m
è 1
= m 2ø = ò 1.5(2 - x)dx
0
25. (a) The deviation produced by prism
d = (m - 1) A 1
1.5 x 2
= (1.5 – 1) ´ 4 = 2° = 3x - = 2.25
2
0
Thus the angle through which mirror should be rotated is 1°.
26. (c) The shift produced by the slab towards mirror 31. (b) Lateral shift is given by
d = t (sin q - cos q tan r )
æ 1ö
= t ç1 - ÷
è mø 1
or = 1 (sin 45° – cos 45° tan r )
3
æ 1 ö
= 6 ç1 - ÷ = 2cm \ r = tan -1(1 - 2 / 3)
è 1.5 ø
If the object is placed at 40 + 2 = 42 cm, its apparent distance sin 2 A
from mirror will be 40 cm and so its image will coincide with 32. (b) µ = A
sin A
the object.
27. (c) 2sin A cos A
=
60° 60° sin A 2A A
r
r
= 2cos A
white 1 1
Also sin e = =
m2 3
A slab can be assumed to made of two identical prisms
placed oppositely. So they cancel dispersion to each other Now r1 = 90° - r2 = 90° - e
and produces white light.
5. (a, b, c) or sin r1 = sin (90° - e)
6. (a, d) = cos e
90° = 1 - sin 2 e
µ1 r1 e
r2 2
µ2 =
3
7. (b, d) Ray 1 and Ray 2 may have any angle between them.
Similarly ray 5 and ray 6 may have any angle between them.
By Snell's law,
This depends on angle of incidence on first face.
m2 sin 90° 8. (c, d) C max = 45°
m1 = sin r1 1
\ mmin =
sin Cmax
æ m1 ö
or sin r1 = çm ÷ 1
è 2ø =
sin 45°
Similarly,
= 2 = 1.414
sin e
sin r2 = m2
sin i
By Snell's law, = µ
sin r
sin i
or sin(90° – i ) = µ
sin i
or = µ 3. Let q is the angle of incidence and C1 is the critical angle, then
cos i
sin q > sin C ,
or tani = µ
m1
\ i =tan -1(m ) = tan -1(1.5) > m2
; 57° Ans.
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 103
æ 60° + dm ö
or sin ç ÷ = 1.5sin 30°
è 2 ø
After solving, dm = 37°.
A + dm
Angle of incidence i =
2
60° + 37°
2 = = 48°
> 2
2 (iii) For maximum deviation, i = 90°
\ q > 45°.
For total internal reflection at the face CD æ 1 ö
\ r1 = C = sin -1 ç ÷ = 42°.
è 1.5 ø
sin q > sinC2
m3
> m2
3
>
2
\ q > 60°
For total internal reflection at both the surfaces
qmin = 60° . Ans.
We know that, r1 + r2 = A = 60°
4. (i) & (ii) Given, A = 60° and µ = 1.5.
We know that \ r2 = 60° – r1 = 60° - 42°
= 18°.
æ A + dm ö
sin ç ÷ Now by Snell's law
µ = è 2 ø
sin e
sin(A/2) = 1.5
sin18°
æ 60° + d m ö \ e = 28°
sin ç ÷
or 1.5 = è 2 ø
sin(60°/2)
AB
In D ABC, AC = The image of S' thus will be at a distance of (d + µh) below
cos r the bottom of the vessel.
In D ACD, CD = AC sin(i - r ) (b) The distance of the image S1 of S' from the surface of the
water,
AB
= sin(i - r ) … (ii) OS 1 = d +( d + µh)
cos r = (2d + µh).
On substituting AB = Now by using the formula
2 cm, i = 45°
and solving CD = 0.62 cm. Ans. real depth
apparent depth = µ
104 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
On differentiating, we have
We have
dx 1 æ dh ö
OS1 = - ç ÷
dt 4 è dt ø
OS 2 = µ
dh æ dx ö
OS1 or = -4 ç ÷ . … (i)
OS 2 = dt è dt ø
m From the equation of continuity
(2d + mh ) æ - dh ö
= Aç ÷ = a 2 gh … (ii)
m è dt ø
2d 2d Here A is the area of the tank and a is the area of hole (cork).
= +h= +h From equations (i) and (ii), we have
m 4/3
dx
3d (4 A) = a 2 g ´ 4(1 - x )
= +h Ans. dt
2
= a 8 g (1 - x)1/ 2
3
3. The angle of incidence i is equal to, sin i = . x t
5 a 8 g ò dt
or 4 Aò (1 - x ) -1/ 2 dx =
sin 45° 0 0
By Snell's law = m
sin i x a
sin 45° or – 2(1 - x )1/ x = 8g t
0 4A
or = m
3/ 5
a 8g
5 or -(1 - x)1/ 2 + 1 = t
\ m = . 8A
3 2
a 8g
or (1 - x )1/ 2 = t1- … (iii)
8A
From equations (ii) and (iii), we have
dx é a ù
4A = a 8 g ê1 - 8g t ú
dt ë 8A û
dx
As = v , so the speed of the insect
dt
a 8g é a ù
\ v = 1- 8 gt ú Ans.
4 A êë 8 A û
When the cork is opened, the level of liquid in the tank decreases. 4. The situation is shown in figure. If C is the critical angle, then
Let h be the height and P is the position of the insect after time t.
As the insect is still visible, so ray after refraction at the surface of 1
sin C =
liquid will reach the observer at an angle 45° . Therefore m
h 1
tani = x1 \ tan C = .
m2 - 1
3
Also tani =
4
h 3
\ x1 =
4
3h
or x1 = .
4
The distance of the insect from the centre, From the geometry,
x = (QR - 3) + x1 r 1
3h = tan C =
h m2 - 1
= ( H - h) - 3 +
4
h
3h \ r = .
= 4 - h -3+
4 m2 - 1
h 2
1- é h ù
= ph 2
4 The area A = pr = p ê
2 ú = . Ans.
or h = 4 (1 – x). ê m2 - 1 ú m2 - 1
ë û
REFRACTION AND DISPERSION 105
5. The path of the ray to be retraced, the angle of refraction at the Hence the ray incident on AB at an angle q will reflected
first face must be 30°. Thus by Snell's law back into II medium.
sin 45° (ii) Now consider the case when m3 > m1 :
µ = = 2.
sin 30° m1
m3
sinC1 = and sin C2 =
m2 m2
Here C2 < C1 , \ for q > C2 , the angle q may be less than
C and so refraction will takesplace on face AB. The angle of
refraction q ' is given by
sin q ' m2
= m3
sin q
6. If r is the angle of refraction on a plane face of the rod, then m2
\ sin q ' = sin q
sin a m3
µ =
sin r m2
or sin q ' > m3 sin C2
m 2 m1
> ´
m3 m2
sin a . m1
\ sin r = Thus sin q ' > .
m m3
The angle of incidence on curved surface of the rod = 90° – r. For This shows that total internal reflection will take place at
ray to be totally reflected, 90° – r ³ C, where C is the critical face DE. The situation is shown in figure.
angle or we can write
sin(90° - r ) ³ sin C
or cos r ³ sin C
or 1 - sin 2 r ³ sin C
2
æ sin a ö
or 1-ç ÷ ³ sin 2 C
è m ø
1 8. Suppose the angle of refraction of prism is a. The angle of incidence
As sin C = of ray on second face becomes a, which on reflection incident on
m
first face at an angle 2a (see figure). Thus
sin 2 a 1 b = 2a . Also a + 2b = 180°
\ 1- ³
m2 m2
1 + sin 2 a
or £ 1
m2
or 1 + sin 2 a £ m2
The maximum value of sin 2 a = +1
\ m2 ³ 2
or µ ³ 2
or mmin 2.
= Ans. or a + 2(2a ) = 180°
7. (i) Let us consider the case when m3 < m1 \ a = 36° and b = 72° Ans
Since m1 < m2 , \ m3 << m 2 mv + m R 1.51 + 1.49
9. For crown glass, my = =
If C1 is the critical angle for medium II to III, then 2 2
m3 = 1.50
sinC1 =
m2 1.77 + 1.73
For flint glass, m 'y = = 1.75
Similarly critical angle from II to I, 2
m1 If d y and d ' y are the deviations produced by crown and flint
sinC2 = m2 glass respectively, then for no deviation
Clearly C1 < C 2. d y + d 'y = 0
Thus if sin q > sinC2 , then sin q will be greater than sinC1 .
106 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
or (m y - 1) A + (m ' y - 1) A ' = 0 \ (mv - m R ) = w(m y - 1)
= 0.07 (1.50 –1)
(m y - 1) A
\ A' = - = 0.035 Ans.
(m ' y - 1) For second prism
(1.50 - 1) ´ 6° = – 4° = w '(m ' y - 1)
( m 'v - m ' R )
= -
(1.75 - 1) = 0.08 (1.60 – 1)
= 0.048
The total dispersion is given by The net angular dispersion is given by
Dq = (mv - m R ) A + (m 'v - m 'R ) A ' = (mv - m R ) A + (m 'v - m 'R ) A '
Dq
= (1.51 - 1.49) ´ 6° + (1.77 - 1.73) ´ (-4°) = 0.035 × 6.0°+ 0.048 (–5°)
= – 0.04 = 0.03° (numerically)
= 0.04 (numerically) (c) When prisms are similarly directed, the total deviation
10. For concave mirror, u = –5 cm, f = – 20 m d = d + d'
1 1 1 = (m y - 1) A + (m ' y - 1) A '
By mirror formula, v + u = f , we have
= (1.50 – 1) ´ 6° + (1.60 – 1) ´ 5°
1 1 1 = 6° Ans.
+ =
v –5 -20 12. (a) For the minimum deviation by the prism ABC
r1 = r2 = A/2
60°
= = 30°
2
By Snell's law, we have
sin i
= 3
sin 30°
or sin i = 3 ´ sin 30°
On solving i = 60°
(b) Net minimum deviation will occur when prism CDE is rotated
anticlockwise by 60°.
In this situation, deviation produced by prism ABC will
cancel out by deviation produced by CDE. Thus
d net = 0 (see figure).
20
\ v = + cm
3
20
Thus OI ' = cm
3
= 11.67 cm
20
The distance PI ' =+5
3 13. The focal length of the mirror f = –50 cm.
= 11.67 cm. For the sun, practically at infinite distance, its real image will form
Now for the refraction through water surface, we have at the focus of the mirror. Since water level is 80 cm from the
mirror, so the image will form inside water. Therefore image distance
RD
m = will be 50 cm from the mirror.
AD
RD 11.67
\ AD = =
m 4/3
or PI2 = 8.75 cm. Ans.
11. (a) For no deviation, the angle of second prism is given by
(m y - 1)
= - A
A' (m ' y - 1)
(1.50 - 1)
= - ´ 6.0°
(1.60 - 1) In case when water in the tank is 40 cm, the rays after reflection
from mirror, get refracted from free surface of water and form final
= –5° image at I'. For free surface of water virtual object distance is 10
dv - d R (m v - m R ) cm, its image I' will be 40 + 7.5 = 47.5 cm from the mirror.
(b) We know that , w = =
dy (m y - 1)
108 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.1 REFRACTION AT A SPHERICAL SURFACE
Consider a spherical surface of radius R. The refractive indexes at left and
right of the surface are m1 and m2 respectively. Let an object O be placed at a
distance u from pole P of the surface in a medium of refractive index m1. Ray
OP, incident normally, passes into the second medium without deviation. Ray
OB, making an angle a with the principal axis, is incident at an angle i with the
normal and is refracted at an angle r. These rays intersect at I at a distance v to
the right of pole P. Thus I is the real image of the object O.
From the triangles OBC and IBC, we have
i = a+b
Fig. 3.1 and b = r + g or r = b – g
From Snell¢s law
m2 sin i
m1 =
sin r
or m1 sin i = m2 sin r
For small angle of incidence i, we can write
sin i ; i and sin r ; r
Thus m1 i = m2 r
or m1 (a + b) = m2 (b – r) ...(i)
As i is small, and so a, b and g are also small. Thus
(a + b) = tana + tanb
h h
= +
-u + R
h h
and (b – g) = -
R v
On substituting these values in equation (i), we have
é h h ù é h hù
m1 ê + ú = m2 ê - ú
ë -u + R û ëR vû
After simplifying, we get
m2 m1 m2 - m1
- = ...(1)
v u R
m2 m2
-1
Also m1 1 = m1
-
v u R
1m2 1 m -1
or - = 1 2 . ...(2)
v u R
The above formula is derived for convex surface and for real image. But the same can
be used for concave surface and virtual image. The following are the five more cases of
spherical surfaces:
Note:
1. When angle of incidence is not small, the correct relation will be
m2 m1 m2 cos r - m1 cos i
- =
v u R
2. For plane refracting surface, R = ¥ ,
v m2
\ = m1 .
Fig. 3.2 u
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 109
3.2 PRINCIPAL FOCI
Each refracting surface has two focal points. These are called principal focal points and
their distances from pole are called focal lengths. These are :
(i) First principal focus : This is the point on principal axis on object side;
the rays starting from this point become parallel to the principal axis after
refraction. Thus if f1 is the first focal length, then from
m2 m1 m2 - m1
- = , we have
v u R
u = f1 , v = ¥
m2 m1 m - m1
\ - = 2
¥ f1 R
or f1 = -m1 R . ...(3)
m2 - m1
(ii) Second principal focus : This is the point on the principal axis on
image side at which parallel incident rays converge or appear to converge. Thus
if f2 is the second principal focal length, then we have
u = ¥ , v = f2
m2 m1 m2 - m1
\ - =
f2 ¥ R
m2 R
or f2 = . ...(4) Fig. 3.3(a) First principal focal point of
( m2 - m1 ) convex surface.
From equations (3) and (4), we have (b) First principal focal point of
concave surface.
f1 m
f2
= - 1 . ...(5)
m2
3.3 MAGNIFICATION
It is the ratio of size of image to that of size of the object. This ratio depends on the
position of the object. Here we will discuss two types of magnifications. These are :
(i) Lateral magnification : When object is placed perpendicular to the principal
axis, its image will also be perpendicular to the principal axis. Thus lateral
magnification,
height of image ( I )
m =
height of object (O)
To find lateral magnification, let us see the image I of the object O formed by
convex spherical surface as shown in figure.
sin i tan i O / ( -u )
; =
sin r tan r – I / ( +v )
m2 Oævö
Thus m1 = ç ÷
I èuø
I m1 v
or = .
O m2 u
By the definition of lateral magnification, we have
I m1 v
m = = … (6)
O m2 u
(ii) Longitudinal magnification : When object is placed along the principal
axis, its image will form along the principal axis. Thus longitudinal magnification
length of the image
mL = .
length of the object
For small object, we can write length of the object and length of the image as du
and dv respectively, then
dv
mL =
du
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
We know that; - =
v u R
Differentiating above equation, we have
m 2 dv m1
- + = 0
v 2 du u 2
dv m1 v 2
or = .
du m2 u 2
Thus by the definition of longitudinal magnification, we have
dv 2
mL = = m1 v . ...(7)
du m2 u 2
2
m2 é m1v ù
Also mL = ê ú
m1 ë m2 u û
m2 2
or mL = m . ...(8)
m1
Summary of spherical reflecting and refracting surfaces :
Spherical mirror Spherical refracting surfaces
1 1 1 2 m2 m1 m2 - m1
Object, image distance relation + = = - =
u v f R v u R
v m v
Lateral magnification m= m= 1
u m2 u
v2 m v2
Longitudinal magnification mL = mL = 1
u2 m2 u 2
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 111
Ex. 1 The slab of material of refractive index 2 shown in
fig. 3.6 has a curved surface APB of radius of curvature 10 cm and
a plane surface CD. On the left of APB is air and on the right of CD
is water of refractive index 4/3. An object O is placed at a distance
of 15 cm from the pole P. Find the distance of the final image of O
from P as viewed from left.
Fig. 3.8
Sol. If v1 is the distance of the image formed by the surface A, then by
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
- =
v1 u R1
m 1 m -1
or - =
v1 -2 R R
2mR
\ v1 = ( 2m - 3)
Fig. 3.6
Now for surface B; m1 = m, m2 = 1,
Sol. We know that;
æ 2mR ö
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1 u 2 = - çè 3R - 2m - 3÷ø
- =
v u R
Here m1 = 2, for object medium and so 1- m
1 m
\ - =
1 2 1- 2 v2 æ 2mR ö R/2
- - ç 3R -
2m - 3 ÷ø
=
v -15 -10 è
or v = – 30 cm
The virtual image I will form inside the water, and so no more refraction 1 2 - 2m m ( 2m - 3)
or = -
will take place. Thus image distance from P remains 30 cm. v2 R ( 6 mR - 9 R - 2mR )
Ex. 2 A glass dumbbell of length 30 cm and refractive index
1.5 has ends of 3 cm radius of curvature. Find the position of the 2 - 2m m ( 2m - 3)
= -
image formed due to refraction at one end only, when the object is R R ( 4m - 9 )
situated in air at a distance of 12 cm from the end of the dumbbell
along the axis.
( 9 - 4m ) R
=
10m2 - 29m + 18
( 9 - 4m ) R
\ v2 =
(10m - 9 ) ( m - 2 ) Ans.
Fig. 3.9
In the second case : m1 = m, m2 = 1, R2 = – R
-25
m = –4 cm, v = cm
8
m1 m 1- m
\ - = Fig. 3.11
-25 / 8 -4 -R
On substituting value of m = 4/3, we get Sol. By Snell¢s law
R = 25 cm.
The focal length of the lens can be obtained by lens maker¢s formula; m2 sin i
m1 =
sin r
1 æ1 1 ö
(m - 1) ç -
è R1 R2 ÷ø
=
f 2 sin 45o
or =
1 1 sin r
æ4 ö æ 1 1 ö
\ = çè - 1÷ø çè - ÷
f 3 ¥ -25 ø 1 1
or sin r = =
or f = 75 cm Ans. 2 2 2
Ex. 5 In fig. 3.10 light is incident on a thin lens as shown in \ r = 30°.
figure. The radius of curvature of both surfaces is R. Determine the It shows that the refractive ray thus becomes parallel to AD inside the
focal length of this system. block. So parallel ray is incident on spherical surface CD.
\ u = ¥ , R = 0.4 m, m1 = 2, m2 = 1.514
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
From - = , we have
v u R
1.514 2 1.514 - 2
- =
v ¥ 0.4
After simplification, we get v = 6.06 m Ans.
Thus required distance OE = 6.06 m.
Fig. 3.10 Ex. 7 A small filament is at the centre of a hollow glass sphere
Sol. For the refraction at first surface : of inner and outer radii 8 cm and 9 cm respectively. The refractive
u1 = ¥ index of glass is 1.50. Calculate the position of the image of the
filament when viewed from outside the sphere.
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
\ - = ...(i)
v1 ¥ +R
For the second surface : u2 = v1 and v2 = f
m3 m 2 m3 - m 2
Thus - = ...(ii)
f v1 +R
On adding equations (i) and (ii), we get
m3 m3 - m1
=
f R
m3 R
\ f = m3 - m1 Ans. Fig. 3.12
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 113
Sol. For the refraction at first surface; (b) For spherical surface :
u1 = – 8 cm, R1 = – 8 cm
m1 = 1, m2 = 1.5. (distances are measured from A)
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
From - = , we have
v u R
1.5 1 1.5 - 1
- =
v1 -8 -8
or v1 = – 8 cm
It shows that the image is formed at the position of object. For the second Fig. 3.14
surface; u = ¥
u2 = –9 cm, R2 = –9 cm m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
m1 = 1.5, m2 = 1 We have - =
v u R
(distances are measured from B)
2 1 2 -1
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1 or - =
- v ¥ R
\ v2 u2 = R2
\ v = 2 R.
Thus the image will form on diametrically opposite point.
1 1.5 1 - 1.5
or - = (c) Some of the rays get totally reflected and so they will form the
v2 -9 -9
image at I2.
On solving, we get v2 = – 9 cm Ans. Ex. 9 A quarter cylinder of radius R and refractive index 1.5 is
Thus the final image is formed at the centre of the sphere. placed on a table. A point object P is kept at a distance of mR from it.
Ex. 8 Fig. 3.13 shows a transparent hemisphere of radius 3.0 Find the value of m for which a ray from P will emerge parallel to
the table as shown in the fig. 3.15.
cm made of a material of refractive index 2.0 :
Sol. Refraction at plane surface :
Fig. 3.17
The following are the terms used with the lenses:
(i) Aperture : The effective width of a lens from which refraction takes place is
called aperture. In figure LL is the aperture of the lens.
(ii) Optical centre : The centre of a lens is called its optical centre. It is denoted by
letter P. A ray of light passing through optical centre does not suffer any deviation.
(iii) Principal or optic axis : The line joining the centres of curvatures of the lens is
known as principal axis (PA).
(iv) Principal focus and focal length : A point on the principal axis at which parallel
rays of light after refraction from the lens converge or appear to diverge from it is
known as focus. It is denoted by a letter F. The distance of focal point from
optical centre is known as focal length of the lens. It is denoted by f.
Guidelines for image formation
On the basis of laws of refractions, the following rays coming from the object are usually
used for constructing ray diagram for image:
(i) A ray of light coming parallel to the principal axis; after refraction from the lens
will pass or appears to pass through focus and vice-versa.
Refraction in thin lenses. (ii) A ray of light passing through the optical centre of the lens goes straight without
Fig. 3.18 deviation. This is however, is true for a thin lens because the two sides of a lens
at its centre are almost parallel only when the lens is thin.
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 115
Image formation by convex lens
m1 m1 æ 1 1 ö
- = ( m 2 - m1 ) ç - ÷
v u è R1 R2 ø
1 1 æ m2 ö æ 1 1 ö
or - = ç m - 1÷ ç R - R ÷
v u è 1 øè 1 2ø
If the lens is placed in air, then m1 = 1, and putting m2 = m, we have
1 1 æ 1 1 ö
- = ( m - 1) ç - ÷ ...(1)
v u è R1 R2 ø
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 117
Note:
1. The equation derived will hold only for paraxial rays and for a thin lens.
2. While solving numerical problems, proper signs are to be placed for all the given
values, and no sign for unknowns.
Equation (1) is known as the thin lens formula and is usually written in the form
1 1 1.
- = ...(2)
v u f
where f is known as focal length of the lens, and is given by
1 æ 1 1 ö
f
= ( m - 1) ç - ÷ ....(3)
R
è 1 R2ø
f f
u = –¥ -2 f -f - 0 + +f +f +2 f +¥
2 2
-2 f f f
v= -f - - 0 +f +¥ +¥ -2 f -f
3 2 3
m2 - m1 Fig. 3.21
m2 m1
for first surface; - = ...(iii)
v' u R1
m3 m 2 m3 - m2
and for second surface; - = . ..(iv)
v v' R2
m3 m1 m2 - m1 m3 - m2
- = + ....(4)
v u R1 R2 Fig. 3.22
118 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.6 PRINCIPAL FOCI
There are two principal foci of any lens. These are :
(i) First principal focus : For the first focus F1, v = ¥ , u = f1. Thus by equation (4)
1 1 æ m 2 - m1 m3 - m2 ö
= - ç + ÷
f1 m1 è R1 R2 ø ...(5)
1 1 é m2 - m1 m3 - m 2 ù
= ê + ú
f2 m3 ë R1 R2 û ...(6)
f1 m1
= - ...(7)
f2 m3
Fig. 3.23 In case when m1 = m3, f1 = –f2. In this case we will simply use f as the focal length.
Fig. 3.24
Note:
1. In case, if t is the thickness of the lens at the centre, then we can solve the
problem in two steps :
m2 m1 m2 - m1
- = ...(i)
v ' -u + R1
Fig. 3.25
m1 m2 m1 - m 2
and - = ...(ii)
v ( v '- t ) - R2
R
or f = 2 ( m - 1) .
For concave lens,
R1 = – R, R2 = + R. Fig. 3.27
1
( m - 1) æç
1 1 ö
\ = - ÷
f è -R +R ø
R
or f = - .
2 ( m - 1)
Thus the focal length of convex lens is positive and that of concave is negative.
In case when parallel ray are not parallel to principal axis, they intersect at a point
which is not on the axis. Plane through this point is called focal plane.
Fig. 3.29
1 1 é m 2 - m1 m 3 - m 2 ù
= ê + ú
f2 m3 ë R1 R2 û
1 é 3/ 2 - 1 4 / 3 - 3/ 2 ù
= +
4 / 3 êë 10 -10 úû
Þ f2 = 20 cm. Ans.
Fig. 3.30
120 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.7 MAGNIFICATION
It is the ratio of size of image to the size of the object. Its value depends on the position
of the object.
(i) Lateral magnification
When an object is placed perpendicular to the principal axis, its image will be
perpendicular to the principal axis. Thus
height of image ( I )
lateral magnification, m =
height of object (O)
Consider an object AB of height O is situated in front of a convex lens at a
distance u from it. Its image A¢B¢ is formed at a distance v from the lens. The
height of image is I. From the similar triangles
PAB and PA¢B¢ ,
-I v
=
O -u
I v
or =
O u
I
Thus m = = v. ...(8)
O u
For the lens of focal length f, we have
Fig. 3.31 1 1 1
- =
v -u f
u u
or +1 =
v f
v f
or = u- f
u
I f
Thus = . ...(9)
O u- f
According to sign conventions, m is put positive for erect image and negative
for inverted image.
(ii) Longitudinal magnification
When an object is placed parallel the principal axis, its longitudinal magnification
is defined as :
length of the image
mL =
length of the object
For short linear object, we can write du for length of the object and dv, for length
of the image. So
dv
Fig. 3.32 mL = .
du
1 1 1
We have, - = .
v u f
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 121
On differentiating, we get
dv du
- 2
+ = 0
v u2
dv v2
or =
du u2
2
dv v
Thus mL = = 2 = m2 ...(10)
du u
Here positive value of mL indicates that object and its image are along the same
direction.
Velocity of image
Consider an object moving along the principal axis of a lens with a constant velocity vo.
Its image velocity vi can be obtained as :
1 1 1
We have, - =
v u f
Differentiating above equation with respect to time, we get
1 dv 1 du
- + = 0
v 2 dt u 2 dt
dv v 2 æ du ö
or = ç ÷.
dt u 2 è dt ø
du dv
Here = vo and = vi.
dt dt
v2
Thus vi = v0 . … (11)
u2
v2
Here is a positive term and so vi and vo have same direction.
u2
Consider a convex lens of focal length f. Let the distance between object and its real
image be D. Suppose x is the distance of the object from the lens, then image distance
will be (D – x). Thus
u = – x, v = + (D – x).
1 1 1
By lens formula, - =
v u f
1 1 1
- = Fig. 3.33
( D - x) -x f
or x2 – Dx + f D = 0
D ± D 2 - 4 fD
\ x =
2
122 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
For real image, x to be real and so
³ 0
D2 – 4f D
or D ³ 4f.
Thus minimum and maximum distance between object and its real image will be 4 f and
¥ respectively..
Focal length of convex lens by displacement method
Consider a convex lens, whose focal length is to be determined. Let D is the separation
between object and its real image (screen). Suppose u and v are the object and image
distances from the lens, then D = u + v. If we make the object distance v by displacing the
lens, then image distance will be u (according to reversibility of path of light). Let the
displacement of the lens be x. If I1 and I2 are the heights of images for the two positions
of the lens, then
I1 v I2 u
= and =
O u O v
I1 I 2
\ ´ = 1 or O= I1I2 ....(12)
O O
Fig. 3.34
We have u+v = D ...(i)
and v–u = x ...(ii)
On adding equations (i) and (ii), we get
D-x
u =
2
D+x
and v =
2
1 1 1
Now by lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
æD+xö æD-xö + f
+ç ÷ -ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
After solving, we get
D2 - x 2
f = ...(13)
4D
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 123
Ex. 11 The distance between object and its real image in v v
or = -1
convex lens is D and magnification in m. Find focal length of the u f
lens.
v
Sol. \ m =
f
-1 ...(i)
If x is the object distance, then image distance v = D – x. Thus
Differentiating equation (i) with respect to v, we get
v D-x dm 1
m = = =
u x dv f
or D–x = mx
1
or f = .
D æ dm ö
\ x = çè ÷
(1 + m) dv ø
mD dm b
and D–x = From the graph, =
1+ m dv c
1 1 1 c
1 \ f = = Ans.
Now using lens formula, - = , we have b/c b
v u f
Also, u = ¥,v=f
1 1 1 v f
- = and m = = = 0.
æ mD ö æ D ö f u ¥
+ç ÷ -ç ÷
è1+ m ø è1+ m ø Therefore at P, f = a. Ans.
Thus there are two possible values of f ; c/b and a. These two must be
After solving, we get
equal.
f =
mD
. Ans. Ex. 13 A point object O is placed on the principal axis of a
(1 + m)2 convex lens of focal length f = 20 cm at a distance of 40 cm to the
left of it. The diameter of the lens is 10 cm. An eye is placed 60 cm
Ex. 12 The graph shows the variation of magnification |m| to the right of the lens and a distance h below the principal axis.
produced by a convex lens with the real image distance |v|. Find the What is the maximum value of h ?
focal length of the lens.
Sol.
For the maximum value of h, the rays should be coming from edges of the
Sol. lens after refraction.
For convex lens, u = – 40, f = + 20 cm
1 1 1
\ - =
v -40 +20
or v = 40 cm
The situation is shown in fig. 3.36.
Fig. 3.35
v
We know that m =
u
1 1 1
Also = - .
f v u
For convex lens, u = – u and Fig. 3.36
v = + v. In similar triangles PLF and IEF, we have
1 1 1 1 1 5 40
\ = - = + =
f v -u v u h 20
1 1 1
- =
v u f
1 1 1
or - =
v -12 + 15
\ v = – 60 cm
Fig. 3.38
(2R – t) t = y2
or 2Rt – t2 = y2
As t < < R, \ 2Rt ; y2
Fig. 3.37
The negative sign shows that the image is formed on the side of the y2 (3) 2
and R = = = 15 cm
object. For the final beam becomes parallel to the principal axis, the 2t 2 ´ 0.3
mirror should form the image at the focus of the lens. Thus for the
mirror, I1 becomes object and I2 the image. If m is the refractive index of material of the lens, then
\ u = – (60 + 15 + x) = –(75 + x)
3 ´ 108
v = – x and f = –20 cm. m = = 1.5.
2 ´ 108
1 1 1
Now by mirror formula, + = , we have Now by lens maker¢s formula, we have
v u f
1 æ1 1 ö
(m - 1) ç -
è R1 R2 ÷ø
1 1 1 =
+ f
- x - ( 75 + x ) = -20
(1.5 - 1) æçè
On solving, we get, x = 25 cm, – 60 cm. 1 1ö
= - ÷
Only x = 25 cm can be accepted. Thus the separation between lens and 15 ¥ ø
the mirror
\ f = 30 cm. Ans.
= 15 + 25 = 40 cm. Ans.
h
and b ; tan b =
v
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 125
h h
\ d = +
-u v
é1 1 ù
or d = hê - ú
ëv u û
h
or d = .
f
The above formula holds for the rays, for which h is small.
3.10 POWER OF A LENS
When light ray is incident on a lens, it bends either towards the principal axis (in convex
lens) or away from the principal axis (in concave lens). The ability of a lens to bend the
ray towards the principal axis is called power of the lens. As convex lens bends the rays
towards the principal axis, so its power is taken a positive while concave lens bends the
rays away from the principal axis, so its power is negative. Mathematically, power of a
lens is defined as :
1
power = focal length of the lens
1
or P = .
f
The unit of power is diopter, if unit of f is metre.
3.11 COMBINED FOCAL LENGTH
1 1 1 1 Fig. 3.40
- = + ... (iii)
v u f1 f 2
If fe is the focal length of the equivalent lens, then
1 1 1
- = ...(iv)
v u fe
On comparing equations (iii) and (iv), we get
1 1 1
= + ...(14)
fe f1 f 2
Also equivalent power;
P = P1 + P2 ...(15)
The above formulas are applicable to any type and any number of thin lenses in
contact.
126 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(ii) Total magnification
Suppose m1 and m2 are the magnifications produced by lenses separately. For
the first lens
I1
= m1
O
\ I1 = m1O.
The image formed by first lens becomes the object for second lens, and so
O2 = I1 = m1O, and
I2
= m2
O2
I2
or = m2
m1O
I2
or = m1m2. ...(i)
O
If M is the total magnification produced by the system, then
I2
= M ...(ii)
O
On comparing equations (i) and (ii), we get
M = m1m2.
For n-thin lenses, we can write
M = m1 × m2 × ....... × mn. … (16)
(iii) Two lenses separated by a finite distance
Let two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are placed on the same optic
axis at a separation d.
Suppose a ray AB is incident on first lens at a height h1. The refracted
ray BC is then incident on the second lens at a height h2, F1 and F are
the focal points of first and equivalent lens. If d1 and d2 are the
deviations produced by the lenses separately, then total deviation
produced
d = d1 + d2
h1 h1 h2
fe
= f1
+ f2
...(i)
h1 h2
=
f1 ( f1 - d )
h1 ( f1 - d )
\ h2 = .
f1
Fig. 3.41
Substituting the value of h2 in equation (i), we have
h1 h1 h
= + 1 ( f1 - d )
fe f1 f1 f 2
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 127
1 1 1 d
or
fe
= + - ...(17)
f1 f 2 f1 f 2
h1 h1 - h2
or fe =
x
fe
\ x = h1
( h1 - h2 )
é æ f -döù
= fe êh1 - h1 ç 1 ú
ë è f1 ÷ø û
Fig. 3.42
fe d
or x =
f1
Special case : If parallel incident ray on first lens emerges parallel from the
second lens, then fe = ¥ .
1 1 1 d
\ = + -
¥ f1 f 2 f1 f 2
or d = f1 + f2 Fig. 3.43
(i) If both the lenses are convex, then d = f1 + f2.
(ii) If second lens is concave, then d = f1 + (–f2) = f1 – f2.
Fig. 3.45
Fig. 3.44
2. If a lens is made of two or more materials (placed one over other), then it will have
two or more focal lengths and hence separate images.
3. If a lens is made of two or more material and are placed side by side, then there
will be one focal length and hence one image.
Fig. 3.46
4. Intensity of image is proportional to the area of the lens exposed to incident rays.
A quarter of a lens can form full image but its intensity will be one forth that of full
lens.
128 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 16 A lens of focal length f (in air) is made of material of Ex. 17 Two thin convex lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are
separated by a horizontal distance d (d < f1 and d < f2) and their
refractive index a μg = 1.5, is immersed in a liquid. Find its focal centres are displaced by a vertical separation D as shown in
length, if the refractive index of liquid is fig. 3.48. Taking the origin of coordinates O as the centre of first
lens, what would be the x and y co-ordinates of the focal point of
(a) a μl = 1.2 (b) a μl = 1.8 (c) a μl = 1.5 . this lens system for a parallel beam of rays coming from left ?
Sol. Sol.
The focal length of the lens is given by
1
f air = ( a m g - 1) æçè R1 - R1 ö÷ø ...(i)
1 2
1
fliq
= ( l m g - 1) æçè R1 - R1 ö÷ø ...(ii)
1 2
é a m g - 1ù Fig. 3.48
fliq = f air ê ú
êë l m g - 1 úû In the absence of second lens, the parallel incident rays will focus at S, at
a distance f1 from the first lens. These rays now intercepted by second
lens, and finally focus at point F. Thus for second lens;
é a mg - 1 ù u2 = +(f1 – d)
= f air ê ú
m f = + f2
ê a g - 1ú
êë a m l úû 1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
(a) For amg =1.5, a ml = 1.2
1 1 1
-
v ( f1 - d ) = f2
é 1.5 - 1 ù
fliq f air ê
= 1.5 ú = 2 f air = 2f Ans.
ê - 1ú f 2 ( f1 - d )
ë 1.2 û
After simplifying, we get v =
( f1 + f 2 - d )
(b) For amg =1.5, a ml = 1.8 The x coordinate of the focus
x = d+v
é 1.5 - 1 ù
fliq = f air ê
1.5 ú
= - 3 f air = – 3f Ans. f 2 ( f1 - d )
- 1ú = d+
ê
ë 1.8 û ( f1 + f 2 - d )
f1 f 2 + d ( f1 - d )
=
( f1 + f 2 - d ) . Ans.
D ( f1 - d )
Fig. 3.47 =
y ( f1 - x)
(c) amg = 1.5, a ml = 1.5
D ( f1 - x )
or y =
fliq =
é 1.5 - 1 ù
f air ê = ¥
( f1 - d )
1.5 ú
ê - 1ú
ë 1.5 û é ïì f f + d ( f1 - d ) ïüù
D ê f1 - í 1 2 ýú
The lens behaves like a plate and becomes invisible. ëê îï ( f1 + f 2 - d ) þïûú
=
From the above calculations, it can be concluded that focal length of the ( f1 - d )
lens in each case will increase when lens is immersed in a liquid.
D ( f1 - d )
= . Ans.
( f1 + f 2 - d )
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 129
3.12 SILVERING OF LENSES
When one face of the lens is silvered, what it behaves like ? To understand this let us
suppose an object is placed in front of a silvered plano-convex lens. The ray from the
object first gets refracted from the curved surface, thereafter reflected by the silvered
face. Again refracted from the curved surface and finally emerges out from the lens. The
I becomes the image of the object O. Its action is like a concave mirror. The focal length
of the system is equivalent to two lenses and a mirror in contact (two refraction and a
reflection). Thus is flens and fmirror be the focal lengths of lens and mirror respectively,
then equivalent focal length fe of the system can be obtained as :
1 1 1 1
= + + Focal length of mirror
fe f lens f lens f mirror
1 2 1
or = +
fe flens f mirror
+ve –ve
Thus in solving the problems of silvered lens, first
find the focal length by using the above formula
1 1 1
and then use mirror formula; + = . In this
u v f
formula put the value of f e with negative sign
(assuming concave mirror).
Fig. 3.49
Ex. 18 Find the focal length of the lens in the following cases (b) In this case curved face is silvered and so fmirror = R/2 (put no
: The radius of curvature of curved surface is R and refractive sign). Thus
index of material of lens is m.
1 2 (m - 1) 1
= +
fe R R/2
R
or fe = . Ans.
2m
1
(m - 1) æçè
1 1ö
= - ÷
flens R ¥ø
(m - 1)
= .
R
The equivalent focal length of the silvered lens
1 2 1
= +
fe flens f mirror
2 (m - 1) 1
= +
R ¥
R
or fe = . Ans. Fig. 3.51
2 (m - 1)
130 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
and R2 = – 20 cm. When air is replaced by water, then
1 æ1 1 ö
(m - 1) ç - 1
( a mw - 1) ç
æ1 1 ö
è R1 R2 ÷ø
Thus = -
è R1 R2 ÷ø
flens =
f water
(1.5 - 1) æçè
1 1 ö
= - ÷ æ4 ö æ 1 1 ö
-60 -20 ø = çè - 1÷ø çè - ÷
3 0.4 -0.4 ø
On solving, we get
flens = 60 cm or fwater = 0.6 m.
The focal length of the equivalent lens;
The focal length of the equivalent lens now
1 2 1
= + 1 2 1
fe f lens f mirror = +
fe ' f water f mirror
2 1
= + 2 1
60 10 = +
0.6 0.4 / 2
or fe = 7.5 cm.
The system behaves like a concave mirror. Thus or f 'e = 0.12 m
f = – 7.5 cm Thus new position of image for distinct object will be 0.12 m.
Sol.
On being different refractive indexes of two parts, it will bend the parallel
incident rays and so behaves like a lens. If f1 and f2 are the focal lengths
of two parts, then effective focal length of the system
Fig. 3.52
1 2 1
Thus = +
fe fair fm
1 2 1
or = +
- 0.2 ¥ R/2
Fig. 3.53
or R = – 0.4 m. |R| = 0.4 m.
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 131
The image formed by unsilvered face becomes object for silvered face.
1 1 1
= + . For which
f f1 f 2
u = ¥,
1 -r
(m1 - 1) æçè
1 1 ö 1 1 1
where = - ÷ \ + = Þv= .
f1 ¥ -R ø v ¥ -r / 2 2
This image again becomes object for unsilvered face, and so
(m1 - 1)
= 3r
R u = + , m1 = 1.5, m 2 = 1
2
1
(m2 - 1) æçè
1 1ö
and = - ÷ 1 1.5 1 - 1.5
f2 -R ¥ ø \ - =
v æ 3r ö r
çè ÷ø
- (m 2 - 1) 2
=
R After solving, we get
v = + 2r
1 é m1 - 1 ù é - (m 2 - 1) ù Thus the final image is formed on the silvered face.
Thus = ê R ú+ê ú
f ë û ë R û
Ex. 24 A diverging lens of focal length 20 cm and a converging
m1 - m 2 mirror of focal length 10 cm are placed coaxially at a separation of
= 5 cm. Where should an object be placed so that a real image is
R
formed at the object itself ?
or f = R . Ans. Sol.
m1 - m 2
Fig. 3.55
The image will form on the object itself when rays after reflection from
mirror retrace the path. It is possible when rays after refraction from
lens incident normally on the mirror. In the absence of lens the mirror
will form the image at I1. But lens displaces it to I. Therefore for lens
u = + 15 cm
v = + x cm
f = – 20 cm
By lens formula
1 1 1
- =
+ x +15 -20
or x = 60 cm Ans.
The object is to be placed at 60 cm from the lens further away from
mirror.
Fig. 3.54
Ex. 25 A converging lens and a diverging mirror are placed at
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1 a separation of 15 cm. The focal length of the lens is 25 cm and that
We have - =
v u R of mirror is 40 cm. Where should a point source be placed between
1.5 1 1.5 - 1 the lens and the mirror so that the light, after getting reflected by
or - = the mirror and then getting transmitted by the lens, comes out
v - 2r r
parallel to principal axis ?
which gives v = ¥
132 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Sol.
(b)
Fig. 3.58
Object can also be placed on the right of convex lens. Let it be
placed at a distance x from lens. The final image will form at
infinity; if rays after refraction from converging lens, incident
along focus of diverging lens.
u = –x
Fig. 3.56 v = + 35
The light is reflected by the mirror in such a way that it appears to come
1 1 1
from its focus. By lens formula - = , we have
v u f
For mirror u = – (15 – x)
v = + 10 cm 1 1 1
– =
+ 35 - x + 30
1 1 1
By mirror formula + = , we have
v u f 1 1 1
or = -
x 30 35
1 1 1 or x = 210 cm. Ans.
+ =
+10 - (15 - x ) + 25
Ex. 27 A small angled prism (refractive index m and angle a)
After solving x = 1.67 cm. Ans.
and a convex lens are arranged as shown in fig. 3.59. A point object
Ex. 26 A diverging lens of focal length 20 cm and a converging O is placed as shown.
(a) Calculate the angle of deviation of the rays hitting the prism
lens of focal length 30 cm are placed 15 cm apart with their principal
at nearly normal incidence
axes coinciding. Where should an object the placed on the principal
(b) If the distance between object, prism and the lens are shown
axis so that the image is formed at infinity ? in the figure, locate the position of the image both along and
transverse to the axis.
Sol.
Sol.
Fig. 3.59
(a) The deviation produced by the prism
Fig. 3.57 d = (m–1)a
(a) The final image will form at infinity when rays after refraction (b) The prism forms image of the object at O¢ .
from concave lens appears to come from focal point of the convex \ OO¢ = df = (m – 1) a f
lens. Let object be placed at a distance of x from the concave The image O¢ becomes object for lens.
lens.
1 1 1
For concave lens, Now using lens formula - =
v u f
u = –x
v = – 15 x 3f
where u = -
We have 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
- = \ - =
-15 - x -20 v 3f f
2
1 1 1
or = + 1 1
x -20 15 or =
v 3f
\ x = 60 cm. Ans. or v = 3f
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 133
II ' v 1 1
Also = - 1
OO ' u \ v - 0.3
=
0.2
3f
= =2
æ3f ö 1 1
çè ÷ø or =
2
v 0.6
which gives II¢ = 2(OO¢)
= 2(m – 1)a f or v = 0.6 m.
Thus image position is 3f on the right side of the lens along the Each half lens forms the image at a distance 0.6 m from the lens. If I1 and
axis, and 2(m–1)a f transverse to axis. I2 are the images form by two halfs, then from similar triangles OP1P2
Ex. 28 A thin plano convex lens of focal length f is split into and OI1I2, we have
two halves, one of the halves is shifted along the optical axis
(fig. 3.60). The separation between object and image planes is 1.8
m. The magnification of the image formed by one of the half lenses
is 2. Find the focal length of the lens and separation between two
halves. Draw the ray diagram for image formation.
Sol.
Given : u + v = 1.8
v
and = 2
u
After solving we get u = 0.6 and v = 1.2 m
Since position of object and screen are fixed and therefore
distances u and v for one half of lens; become v and u for second
half.
Fig. 3.61
1 1 1
By lens formula - = , we have
v u f I1 I 2 ( 0.6 + 0.3)
=
P1 P2 0.3
1 1 1
-
1.2 - 0.6 = f or I1I2 = 0.3 P1P2
or f = 0.4 m = 3 × 0.001
= 0.003 m. Ans.
Sol. Both halves of lens behave separately and form two images.
1 1 1
From lens formula, - =
v u f
where u = – 0.3 m
Fig. 3.62
f = + 0.2 m
134 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Sol. Given u = – 20 cm, f = + 15 cm Ex. 31 A thin biconvex lens of refractive index 3/2 is placed
on a horizontal plane mirror as shown in the fig. 3.67. The space
1 1 1
From lens formula - = , we have between the lens and the mirror is then filled with water of refractive
v u f index 4/3. It is found that when a point object is placed 15 cm above
the lens on its principal axis, the object coincides with its own
1 1 1
\ - = image. On repeating with another liquid, the object and the image
v -20 +15 again coincide at a distance 25 cm from the lens. Calculate the
or v = 60 cm refractive index of the liquid.
I v Sol.
and =
O u
v 60
or I = O = ´ 1.2
u -20
= – 3.6 cm
15 1 Fig. 3.65
= - =-
30 2 1 æ1 1 ö
( a mw - 1) ç -
è R1 R2 ÷ø
or C¢B¢ = – 1.5 cm fw =
C ' A' -v
Also = æ4 ö æ 1 1ö
0.6 u = çè - 1÷ø çè - ÷
3 -R ¥ ø
15 or fw = – 3R
=
30 The effective system is equivalent of two glass lenses plus two water
which gives C¢A¢ = – 0.3 cm lenses. Therefore
1 2 2 1 æ1 1 ö
\ = + Sol. We (m - 1) ç -
è R1 R2 ÷ø
know that =
æ 15 ö R - 3R f
çè ÷ø
2
1 æ3 ö æ 1 1 ö
çè - 1÷ø ç -
è + R - R ÷ø
1 1 1 or =
0.3 2
or = -
15 R 3R
or R = 0.3 m.
Which gives R = 10 \ f = 10 cm Consider refraction through left glass surface
When space between mirror and lens is filled with liquid, then m 2 - m1
m 2 m1
- =
2 f e2 = 25 cm v u R1
25 3/ 2 1 3/ 2 - 1
or 2 f e2 = cm or - =
2 v -0.9 + 0.3
or v = 2.7 m
1 2 2
Also = + The image formed becomes object for second curvature of the lens
fe 2 f fl
m 2 m1 m 2 - m1
Now using - =
v u R2
1 2 2
or = +
æ 25 ö 10 f l 4 / 3 - 3/ 2
çè ÷ø 4 / 3 3/ 2
2 or - =
v 2.7 - 0.3
50 or v = 1.2 m.
or fl = - cm The image formed by the lens is 1.2 m away from the lens or (1.2 – 0.8)
3
= 0.4 m behind the mirror. Mirror will form the final image 0.4 m in front
For liquid lens of it. This image on being real; the rays now incident on lens again, and so
it becomes object for lens.
1 æ1 1 ö
( a ml - 1) ç -
è R1 R2 ÷ø æ3ö
fl = 4 3 4
çè ÷ø -
2
\ - 3 = 2 3
v -0.4 + 0.3
( a ml - 1) æçè - ö÷ø
1 1 1
or =
æ 50 ö -10 ¥ 2.7
çè - ÷ø which gives v = - m.
3 5
Now refraction by glass air interface
After solving aml = 1.6. Ans.
3 3
Ex. 32 A thin equiconvex lens made of glass of refractive index 1 1-
- 2 = 2
3 v æ -2.7 ö -0.3
μ= and of focal length 0.3 m in air is sealed into an opening at çè ÷ø
2 5
one end of a tank filled with water (m = 4/3). On the opposite side of which gives v = – 0.9 m.
the lens a mirror is placed inside the tank on the tank wall Thus the final image is formed on the object itself
perpendicular to the lens axis as shown in fig. 3.66. The separation
between the lens and mirror is 0.8 m. A small object is placed outside
the tank in front of the lens at a distance 0.9 m from the lens along its
axis. Find the position (relative to lens) of the image of the object
formed by the system.
Fig. 3.67
Ex. 33 A strong source of light when used with a convex lens
produces a number of images of the source owing to feeble internal
reflections and refraction called flare spots as shown in fig. 3.68.
These extra images are F 1, F2, ------. If F n is the position of nth
flare spot, then show that
Fig. 3.66 1 (n + 1) μ - 1
f n = f ( μ - 1) .
136 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Sol.
Fig. 3.68
Sol. Light converges at F1 after two refractions and one reflection
from the lens. Therefore
1 2 1
= + , Fig. 3.69
F1 fe fm
1 1 1
By using lens formula - = ,
1 v u f
æ1 1 ö
where = (m - 1) ç - where u = + 15 cm, f = + 30 cm
fe è R1 R2 ÷ø
1 1 1
we have - =
1 v + 15 + 30
(m - 1) æçè
1 1 ö
or = - ÷
f +R - R ø which givesv =+ 10 cm
The plot of rays is shown in fig 3.69.
= (m - 1)
2
Þ R = 2 (m – 1)f Ex. 35 A thin converging lens of focal length f = 1.5 m is
R placed along y-axis such that its optical centre coincides with the
origin. A small light source S is placed at (–2.0 m, 0.1 m). Where
1 2 2 should a plane mirror inclined at an angle q, tan q = 0.3 be placed
\ = +
F1 f 2 (m - 1) f such that y-coordinates of final image is 0.3 m. Also find x
co-ordinate of final image.
2m - 1
= .
(m - ) f
For F2, there are three refractions and two reflections
1 3 2
\ = +
F2 fl fm
3 2 3 4
= + = +
f R/2 f R
Fig. 3.70
3 4
= +
f 2 (m - 1) f
Sol. For lens u = – 2.0 m
f = + 1.5 m
3 2 1 1 1
= + By using lens formula, - = , we have
f (m - 1) f v u f
3 (m - 1) + 2 3m - 1 1 1 1
- =
=
(m - 1) f = (m - 1) f v - 2.0 + 1.5
or v = 6.0 m
Let (x1, y1) be the coordinates of image formed by lens, then
1 (n + 1) m - 1 .
\ Fn = x1 = + 6.0 m, and
(m - 1) f
y1 v
Ex. 34 A converging beam of rays passes through a round y
=
u
aperture in a screen as shown in fig. 3.69. The apex of the beam A
is at a distance of 15 cm from the screen. How will the distance 6.0
or y1 = ´ 0.1
from the focus of the rays to the screen change if a convergent lens -2.0
is inserted in the aperture with a focal length of 30 cm ? Plot the = – 0.3 m = MI1
path of the rays after the lens is fitted. This image I1, becomes object for mirror, then mirror forms the image at
I2 at y = + 0.3 m.
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 137
From figure PI1 = PI2 and I1PI2 will be perpendicular to mirror. Now in angle a. The separation between the optical centres of the lenses
D I2 PN, we have is 2f. A point object lies on the principal axis of the convex lens at
I2 N a large distance to the left of convex lens.
= tanq (a) Find the co-ordinates of the final image formed by the
NP
system of lenses taking O as the origin of co-ordinate
I2 N 0.3 axes, and
Þ NP = = =1m (b) draw the ray diagram.
tan q 0.3
Also PM = 1 m
\ d = 5m Ans Sol.
The co-ordinates of image are (ON, NI2) = (4m, 0.3 m).
Ex. 36 An object of height 4 cm is kept to the left of and on
the axis of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm as shown in
fig. 3.71. A plane mirror is placed inclined at 45° to the lens axis 10
cm to the right of the lens. Find the position and size of the image
formed by the lens and mirror combination. Trace the path of rays
forming the image.
Sol. Fig. 3.72
For convex lens, u = ¥, f = + f
1 1 1
Using lens formula, - =
v u f
1 1 1
- =
v ¥ f
Þ v = f
Now for concave lens, the distance of object which is equal to the image
formed by convex lens from optical centre of concave lens
u = – f cos a
f = –f
Now by lens formula
1 1 1
- =
v - f cos a f
æ f cos a ö
\ v = -ç
è 1 + cos a ÷ø
v
Magnification m =
u
1
=
(1 + cos a)
Fig. 3.71 æ 1 ö
Length of I2N = çè ÷ ´ I1M
For lens; u = – 15 cm, f = + 10 cm 1 + cos a ø
1 1 1 where I1M = f sin a
Using lens formula, - =
v u f æ f sin a ö
\ I2N = çè ÷
1 + cos a ø
1 1 1
or - = + 10 x-coordinate = 2f –(PN/cos a)
v -15
which gives v = + 30 cm æ f cos a ö
= 2f - ç cos a
I v è 1 + cos a ÷ø
The magnification =
O u f
= 2f -
v 1 + cos a
or I = O
u f (2 + 2cos a - 1)
30 =
´ 4 = – 8 cm = I 1 + cos a
=
-15 1
æ 2cos a + 1 ö
fç
This image becomes object for mirror. Mirror forms its image as I2 as = è 1 + cos a ÷ø
shown in figure. The image is at a distance of 20 cm from its pole.
Therefore co-ordinates of final image are
Ex. 37 In the given fig. 3.72 there are two thin lenses of same
é æ 2cos a + 1 ö ù
focal length f arranged with their principal axes inclined at an = ê f èç 1 + cos a ø÷ , 0ú Ans.
ë û
138 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.13 DEFECTS OF IMAGES : ABERRATION
The equations and relations derived in previous chapter hold for paraxial light rays or
for the rays making small angles with the optic axis. In practice, however lenses are used
to form images of points which are off the axis. Also, if light coming from an object is not
monochromatic, a number of overlapped coloured images are formed by the lens. Thus
in actual practice the image of a point and white object is not sharp and white. This
defect of lens is called aberration. The coloured image formed by lens of a white object
is called chromatic aberration. The other aberration in which lens is unable to form
actual size of the image even using monochrotic light, is called monochromatic aberration.
Chromatic aberration
The refractive index of the material of a lens is different for different
colours (wavelengths) of light. Hence the focal length of a lens is different
for different colours. It is longest for red and shortest for violet colour.
Thus light coming from the object will split when emerges from the lens.
The distance between focal point of red colour and violet colour is called
axial or longitudinal chromatic aberration. Thus if fR and fV are the focal
lengths for extreme colours, then axial chromatic aberration is given by
Fig. 3.73 df = fr –fv.
For thin lens, the expression for chromatic aberration can easily be derived. The focal
length of a thin lens is given by
1 æ 1 1 ö
= ( m - 1) ç
- ÷. ...(i)
f R
è 1 R2ø
If a small change in m say dm results in a small change in f say d f then by differentiating
equation (i), we have
-df æ 1 1 ö
2 = dm ç - ÷. ...(ii)
f R
è 1 R2ø
Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get
æ -dm ö
df = ç ÷f , ...(1)
è m -1 ø
which represents the axial chromatic aberration of a lens. If mv and mr represent the
refractive indexes for the violet and red colours respectively, then we can write
æ mv - mr ö
f r - fv f
= ç m -1 ÷ y .
è y ø
æ m - mr ö
As ç v ÷ is the dispersive power w of the lens material, and so
è my -1 ø
f r - fv = wfy . ...(2)
Achromatism : The achromatic doublet
The minimisation or removal of chromatic aberration is called achromatism. This can
be possible by using two lenses of opposite nature. The system of two lenses which is
free from chromatic aberration is called achromatic doublet.
Consider two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 and dispersive powers w1 and w2 are put
in contact. If f is the focal length of the combination, then
1 1 1
+ = ...(i)
f1 f 2 f
Differentiating equation (i) partially, we have
-df1 df 2 -df
- =
f12 f2 2
f2
For achromatism, df = 0,
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 139
-df1 df 2
- = 0
\ f12 f22
df1 df 2
Also from (2),
f1
= w1 and f2
= w2,
w1 w2
\ + = 0 ...(3)
f1 f2
This is the required condition of achromatism.
The equation (3) can be written as :
f1
w1
f2
= –
. ...(4)
w2
Here negative sign shows that either of f1 or f2 must be negative, because dispersive
power is always a positive quantity. Thus if one of the lenses is converging, then other
must be diverging. For converging doublet, the converging lens is made of crown glass
and diverging lens is made of flint glass.
Achromatism by separated doublet
Consider two convex lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2, separated by a suitable distance d.
The focal length of the combination is given by
1 1 d 1
+ - = . ...(i)
f1 f 2 f1 f 2 f
Differentiating above equation, we get
æ df1 ö 1 æ df 2 ö 1 é 1 æ df 2 ö 1 æ df1 ö ù
\ ç f ÷ f + ç f ÷ f - d êê f f ç f ÷ + f f ç f ÷ úú = 0
è 1ø 1 è 2 ø 2 ë 1 2è 2 ø 1 2 è 1 øû
df1 df
Putting = w1 and 2 = w2, and simplifying, we get
f1 f2
w1 f 2 + w2 f1
d = . ...(5)
w1 + w2
In case, when lenses are of same material
w1 = w2 = w
f1 + f 2
and so d = . ...(6)
2
Thus two lenses of same nature can be free from chromatic aberration if they are placed
f1 + f 2
at a separation . Such a combination is shown in figure.
2
Monochromatic aberration
The size of the image as formed by a lens is not according to theoretical calculation,
even using monochromatic light. The image formed will spread both along and
perpendicular to principal axis of the lens. Also the shape of the image is not according
to the shape of the object. Monochromatic aberration can be divided into following
heads.
140 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(i) Spherical aberration
Fig. 3.76 shows the image formed by different parts of a lens of a point object.
The paraxial rays of light form the image at a longer distance from the lens than
the marginal rays. The image is not sharp at any point on the axis. The image will
spread perpendicular to the principal axis. This effect is called spherical
aberration. If the screen is placed perpendicular to the principal axis at AB, the
image appears to be a circular patch of diameter AB. This patch AB is called
circle of least confusion. Spherical aberration can be minimised by using stops
or by using crossed lens.
Fig. 3.76
(ii) Coma
When object is situated off the axis, its image will spread obliquely perpendicular
to the principal axis. It looks like a comet and so called coma.
Fig. 3.77
(iii) Astigmatism
The spread of image along the principal axis of the lens is known as astigmatism.
The object situated off the axis, its image will spread along and perpendicular to
the principal axis (see figure).
Fig. 3.78
(iv) Curvature
The image of an extended plane object formed by lens is not a flat but curved.
This defect is called the curvature. This defect is due to the fact that the paraxial
focal length is greater than marginal focal length. This defect is present even if
the aperture of the lens is reduced by a suitable stop.
Fig. 3.79
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 141
(v) Distortion
The variation in the magnification produced by a lens for different axial distances
results in the aberration called distortion.
Fig. 3.80
Ex. 38 A convex lens made of material ¢A¢ is combined with a
1 1 1
concave lens made of material ¢B¢ so as to form an achromatic - =
-10 -30 f
doublet. If an object of height 6 cm is placed 30 cm in front of the
doublet, it forms an erect image of size 2 cm. Find the focal lengths or f = – 15 cm
of the component lenses, given that the ratio of dispersive powers Here f is the focal length of the achromatic doublet. If fA and fB are the
of materials A and B is 2 : 1. focal lengths of the lenses, then
Sol. The erect and small size of the image shows that doublet should 1
+
1 1
f A fB = ...(i)
be of diverging nature. For erect image -15
v I 2 fA wA
= = -
u O 6 Also fB = wB
or v = u/3
= –2 …(ii)
Given u = – 30 cm
Solving equation (i) and (ii), we get
-30 fA = 15 cm
\ v =
3
= – 10 cm
and fB = – 7.5 cm. Ans.
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
Note:
1. The retina is nearly 2.5 cm behind the eye lens, and so maximum focal length of
the eye lens that can be 2.5 cm for relaxed eye.
2. The minimum focal length corresponds to, when object is at near point. Thus :
u = – 25 cm, v = + 2.5 cm
1 1 1 1 1
\ = - = - ; or f ; 2.2 cm
f v u 2.5 -25
Why an optical instrument needed ?
The size of the object as viewed by the eye depends upon the angle subtended
by the object at the eye. This angle is known as visual angle.
As the object is brought closer to eye, the image on retina becomes larger
and larger on account of increase in visual angle. However, the object cannot
be brought nearer to the eye beyond the certain minimum distance.
Fig. 3.82 This minimum distance upto which eye can see the image of an object clearly
is called least distance of distinct vision. It is 25 cm and represented by D.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the visual angle can not be increased
beyond a certain limit. It can be increased with the help of an optical instrument
by making image of an object closer to eye.
3.15 DEFECTS OF VISION
1. Myopia or nearsightedness
A person suffering from this defect can see near object clearly but can not see far
object clearly. The rays from the far object are focussed in front of retina. Thus
the far point of myopic eye becomes less than infinity. For myopic eye :
(i) Near point distance is 25 cm.
(ii) Far point distance is less than infinity; may be few metres.
(iii) A diverging lens is required to make up this defect.
If x is the far point distance of myopic eye and f be the focal length of the lens
required, then by lens formula,
1 1 1
- = ,
v u f we have
1 1 1
- =
Fig. 3.83 - x -¥ f
or f = –x
2. Hypermetropia or farsightedness
A person suffering from this defect can see far object clearly but can not
see near object clearly. The image of near object will be formed behind
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 143
the retina. Thus the eye suffering from this defect :
(i) The near point distance is greater than 25 cm.
(ii) The far point distance remains as such, i.e., infinite.
(iii) The lens required to make up this is of converging nature.
If y is the near point of defective eye and f be the focal length of the lens
required, then by lens formula.
1 1 1
- = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
- y -25 f
25 y
or f = .
y - 25
3. Presbyopia
In old age the muscles become weak and so unable to change the focal length of the eye
lens. The person therefore unable to see neither near object nor far object clearly. The Fig. 3.84
remedy of this is either using two separate spectacles, one for myopia and other for
hypermetropia or using single spectacle having bifocal lens. The upper part of bifocal
lens should be concave while the lower part, a convex lens.
4. Astigmatism
This kind of defect arises in the eye when the eye lens has different curvatures along
different planes. Person suffering from this defect can not see all the directions equally
well. This defect can be removed by using cylindrical lens.
3.16 SIMPLE MICROSCOPE OR MAGNIFIER
It consists of a converging lens of short focal length (2–5 cm). It can give a maximum
magnification of 20 times. The object to be seen through a simple microscope is kept
just inside the focal point of the lens. When viewed from the other side of the lens, a
virtual, erect and enlarged image of the object is seen. Angular magnification M of a
simple microscope is defined as :
Consider an object AB placed at a distance ue from the eyelens of focal length fe Fig. 3.85
(ue < fe). A¢B¢ is the virtual image of the object. If image is formed at the near point of
the eye, then
b
M =
a
AB / ue
;
AB / D
D
= .
ue
There are two possible cases :
(i) When image is formed at infinity
For this, v = ¥, ue = fe. Thus
M = D.
fe
In this situation, the eye is said to be normal, relaxed or unstrained.
144 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(ii) When final image is formed at near point
For this, v = – D, u = – ue.
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
- D -ue fe
1 1 æ Dö
or = ç1 + ÷
ue D è fe ø
D
\ M = 1+ .
fe
Note:
1. In deriving these formulas, we have placed the lens very close to eye. If a is
the separation between eye and the lens, then ve = – (D – a), then
D-a
M = 1+ .
fe
Fig. 3.86 2. In the formula of M, put the value of D = 25 cm, without giving any sign.
Ex. 39 The angular magnification of a simple microscope is The additional power of the lens
10. Does the height of the image is ten times the height of the object ? 1
P = = 2D.
Sol. No. The angular size of the image is ten times the angular size 0.5
of the object. For the image at its near point, the height will be nearly The total power of the lens required
ten times the height of the object. = 2.5 + 2
Ex. 40 A person wears glasses of power – 2.5D. Is the person = 4.5 D Ans.
farsighted or nearsighted ? What is the far point of the person without Ex. 42 A man is looking at a small object placed at his near
the glass? point. Without altering the position of his eye or the object, he put a
Sol. Nearsighted. The focal length of the lens simple microscope of magnifying power 8 X before his eye. Find the
angular magnification achieved.
100
f = - cm = – 40 cm. Sol.
2.5
Thus far point of the person is at 40 cm. Ans.
Ex. 41 A professor reads a greeting card received on his 50th
birthday with + 2.5 D glasses keeping the card 25 cm away. Ten
years later, he reads his farewell letter with the same glasses but he
has to keep the letter 50 cm away. What power of lens should he now
use?
Sol.
The image of the letters 25 cm away, now form at 50 cm away. Thus Fig. 3.87
u = – 25 cm, v = – 50 cm
Without changing the position of the object,
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have b = a, (see fig 3.87)
v u f
and so M = 1. Ans.
1 1 1
- =
-50 -25 f Ex. 43 A simple microscope is rated 5 X for a normal relaxed
\ f = 50 cm = 0.5 m eye. What will be its magnifying power for a relaxed farsighted eye
whose near point is 40 cm ?
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 145
Sol. (b) Without the glass, D¢ = y = 40 cm
100
f = cm
1.5
Fig. 3.88
If y is the distance of near point, then
Suppose d is the diameter of the image of the moon. If a and b are the
1 1 1.5 angle made by moon and its image respectively, then
- =
y -25 100 d
a =
or y = – 40 cm f
D 25 f 50
M = 1+ = 1+ = - = - = –2. Ans.
fe 5 D 25
= 6X Ans.
D
The magnifying power of a simple microscope is given by M = 1 + . Its value can be
fe
increased by decreasing the value of focal length fe of the lens. But due to constructional
difficulties, the focal length of a lens can not be decreased beyond a certain limit.
Therefore to increase the magnifying power, two lenses are used and so called compound
microscope. The lens placed near to the object is called objective and the other which
is nearer the eye is known as eye piece. Both the lenses are of converging nature. The
objective is of small aperture (focal length) and eye piece is of larger aperture. These
lenses are fitted in two cylindrical tubes, one can slide over the other.
Consider an object AB is placed at a distance slightly greater than the focal length fo of
the objective. An inverted image A1B1 is formed on the other side of the objective. This
becomes the object for eye piece, which finally forms the enlarge image A2B2.
146 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
b - A1 B1 / ( -ue ) A1 B1 D
= =- ´ ...(i)
a ( AB ) / ( - D ) AB ue
In similar triangles P1AB and P1A1B1, we have
A1 B1 vo
= uo
AB
For eye lens; u = – ue
v = – ve
f = + fe
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
-ve -ue fe
1 1 æ ve ö
\ = ç1 + ÷ ...(iii)
ue ve è fe ø
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
vo D æ ve ö
M = - ç1 + ÷ ...(1)
uo ve è fe ø
There are two possible adjustments of the compound microscope. These are :
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 147
(i) When final image is formed at near point i.e., ve = D
æ
vo Dö
\ M = - ç1 + ÷
uo
è fe ø
The length of the microscope is the separation between the lenses.
\ L = v o + | ue |
Magnification of the compound microscope can also be written as:
M = Mo × Me
vo æ Dö
= – ç1 + ÷ .
uo è fe ø
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity
For this, ue = fe
vo D
\ M = - . ...(3)
uo f e
The length of the microscope
L = vo + fe
Magnification in terms of length of the microscope
vo
Usually focal length of the objective is very small, and so > > 1. Also first image is
fo
close to eye piece and so vo ; L.
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
vo -uo fo
vo vo
or 1+ =
uo fo
vo vo
or = -1
uo fo
vo
As, >> 1 and vo ; L
fo
vo L
\ uo ; fo
.
L D
For infinity, M = - . .
fo fe
Note:
In using formula of magnification, one should place the value of vo, uo, D, fo and fe
without any sign, because sign has been used while deriving the formula.
148 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
3.18 TELESCOPE
Telescope is an optical instrument which is used to see distant objects like, planets,
stars etc. There are basically two types of telescopes : refracting telescope and reflecting
telescope. In refracting telescope lenses are used and in reflecting telescope a combination
of lens and mirror is used. Here we are discussing about three basic refracting types of
telescopes. These are :
Astronomical telescope
It consists of two converging lenses; objective lens and eyepiece or eye lens. Objective
lens is of large aperture or focal length commonly 50 to 100 cm, while eye piece is of
small aperture or focal length commonly 2 to 5 cm. These lenses are fitted in two
cylindrical tubes; one can slide over the other according to the required adjustment.
Consider a distant object AB. Its real inverted image A1B1 is formed at focal point of the
objective. This image becomes object for eyepiece, which finally forms virtual image
A2B2.
b - A1B1 / ( -ue ) fo
From the figure, = = -
a - A1B1 / fo ue
fo
\ M = - ...(i)
ue
For eye piece; u = – ue, v = ve, f = + fe.
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
-ve -ue fe
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 149
1 1 1
or = +
ue f e ve
1 æ fe ö
= ç1 + ÷
f e è ve ø
From equation (i), we have
æ
fo fe ö
M = - ç1 + ÷ ...(1)
fe
è ve ø
There are two possible adjustments of the telescope. These are :
Terrestrial telescope
The astronomical telescope forms inverted image and so it is not useful for viewing
ground objects like cricket match. To get erect image terrestrial telescope is commonly
used. In terrestrial telescope an erecting lens is fitted between objective and eyepiece.
By doing so terrestrial telescope will produce erect image. The erecting lens is adjusted
in such a way that it produces magnification of +1. So magnification formulae derived
for astronomical telescope can be used for terrestrial telescope also.
Fig. 3.91
For two adjustments, the angular magnification is given by
150 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(i) When final image is formed at near point
foæ fe ö
ve = D, M =
feç1 + D ÷
è ø
and L = fo + 4f + ue
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity
fo
ve = ¥, M = fe
and L = fo + 4 f + f e.
Galileo's telescope
This telescope was first designed by Galileo in 1609, which provides an erect image. It
consists of two lenses : one converging of large focal length, called objective and other
diverging of short focal length, called eyepiece. The image of far object is formed at the
focus of the objective, which becomes the virtual object for eyepiece. The eyepiece
then forms the erect and enlarged image. Thus the angular magnification of the Galileo
telescope is positive.
Fig. 3.92
There are two adjustments of the telescope. These are :
(i) When final image is formed at near point
ve = D.
fo æ fe ö
M =
fe ç1 + D ÷
è ø
and L = fo - ue .
(ii) When final image is formed at infinity
ve = ¥
fo
M =
fe
and L = fo – fe.
Note:
In using formulas of magnification M and L one should put the value of fo, fe, D and ue
without any sign.
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 151
Ex. 46 The focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece of When a lens of focal length 0.1 is removed, the focal length f o ' of the
a microscope are 2 cm and 5 cm respectively and the distance remaining is :
between them is 20 cm. Find the distance of the object from the
objective when the final image seen by the eye is 25 cm from the 1 1 1
= +
eye-piece. Also find the magnifying power. 0.02 0.1 f o '
- vo æ Dö vo D
M = - .
Magnifying power, M = uo çè 1 + f ÷ø uo f e
e
= – 41.5. Ans.
-
( L - fe ) D
\ M = . ...(i)
Ex. 47 A compound microscope is used to enlarge an object fo fe
kept at a distance of 0.03 m from its objective which consists of several
convex lenses in contact and focal length 0.02 m. If the lens of focal
length 0.1 m is removed from the objective, find out the distance by
which the eye-piece of the microscope must be moved to refocus the
image.
Sol.
Initially, uo = – 0.03 m, fo = 0.02 m.
1 1 1
By lens formula, - = , we have
v u f
1 1 1
- =
vo -0.03 0.02
1 1 1
\ = - Fig. 3.93
vo 0.02 0.03
When lenses are interchanged, let the new separation between the lenses
or vo = 0.06 m be L¢, then
152 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
-
( L '- f e ) . D By lens formula,
1 1
- =
1
, we have
M¢ = ...(ii) v u f
fe fo
Given M = M¢ 1 1 1
- =
L - fe D L '- f o D vo - 200 50
\ fo fe = fe fo
200
or L – fe = L¢ – fo which gives vo = cm
3
\ L¢ = ( f o - fe ) + L For eye piece, ve = – 25 cm
= (0.4 – 0.3) + 0.2 fe = + 5 cm
= 0.3 m. Ans. Now by lens formula,
Sol. 25
which gives ue = - cm
6
Length of the telescope
L = vo + ue
200 25
= + = 70.80 cm Ans.
3 6
(b) Magnification M = – Mo × Me
vo ve
= - ´
uo ue
Note:
Intensity of the source is the power of the source per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light. Thus for a source of power P, its intensity
I = P/A. Its SI unit is W/m2.
3.21 ILLUMINANCE
The illuminance at any point of the surface is the luminous flux per unit surface area
surrounding that point. If Df is the luminous flux striking a surface area DA, then
illuminance E is given by
Df
E = .
DA
It is the illuminance which is directly related to the brightness of an illuminated area.
The SI unit of illuminance is lumen/m2, which is called lux. Illuminance is also called
illuminating power.
Luminance is related to the reflected power of the surface. If r is the coefficient of
reflection, then
luminance = r × illuminance
For perfectly reflecting surface, r = 1, and so luminance = illuminance. Fig. 3.97
Dw = DA cos q .
r2 Fig. 3.98
If L is the luminous intensity of the source, then luminous flux incident on area DA is
Df = LDw
L DA cos q
= .
r2
The illuminance at any point P of the surface DA is
Df
E =
DA
154 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
or E = L cos q .
r2
1
As E µ , \ illumination follows the inverse square law..
r2
Lambert's cosine law
L cos q
The relation E = is known as Lambert¢s cosine law i.e., the intensity of
r2
illumination is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence of light on
the given surface. In a case when light incident normal to the surface, q = 0, and cos 0° = 1,
L
\ E = .
Fig. 3.99 r2
3.22 PHOTOMETER
Photometer is an instrument which is used to compare the luminous intensities of the
different sources. The basic principle is that the illuminance produced by the sources on
the screen are equal. Thus if L1 and L2 are the luminous intensities of the two sources at
a distance r1 and r2 from the screen, then for equal illumination on the screen
L1 L2
=
r12 r22
L1 r12
or = .
L2 r22
Ex. 51 A source is hanging over the centre of circular table of that the grease spot vanishes. Calculate the approximate distance
radius R. Calculate the height of source so that illuminance at the x of the lamp from the screen.
edge of the table is maximum.
Sol. The illuminance at the edge of the table is equal to
I cos q
E =
r2
I (h / r) Ih
= =
r 2 r3 Fig. 3.102
Ih Sol.
=
(R ) For photometric balance
2 3/ 2
+ h2
E1 = E2
E to be maximum, dE/dh = 0 Fig. 3.101
I1 I2
d é Ih ù or =
r12 r2 2
dh ê R 2 + h 2 3/ 2 ú
or ê
ë ( ) ú = 0
û
40 15
or 0.8 ´ =
or (R 2
+ h2 )
-3/ 2 æ 3ö
´ 1 + h ´ ç - ÷ R2 + h (
-
)
2 5/ 2
´ 2h = 0 (150) 2
x2
è 2ø
or x = 103 cm. Ans.
After simplification, we get h =
R
. Ans. Ex. 53 A plane mirror is placed 8 cm behind A, the plane of
2 the mirror being normal to the line from A to the screen. It is found
that, for a photometric balance, a source B must be moved 10 cm
Ex. 52 Light from a 40 candle power lamp falls on a silvered nearer the screen. In the beginning the two lamps A and B produce
mirror M is reflected there to a grease spot photometer. The distance equal illuminance on the screen when A was 60 cm and B was 70 cm
to the lamp to the screen via the mirror is 150 cm. The mirror reflects away from the screen. Find the reflecting power of the mirror.
80% of the light falling on it. A 15 candle power lamp is placed so
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 155
Sol.
Note:
Incident
Planewave
(a)
Fig. 3.103
I1 I2
Initially, =
602 702 Incident
Planewave
I1 602
or = (i) F
I2 702
when mirror is placed behind source A, its image is formed at A¢.
If k is the coefficient of reflection of the mirror. then
I1 kI1 I2 Spherical wavefront
+ = of radius f
602 76 2 602 (b)
( I1 / I 2 ) + k ( I1 / I 2 ) 1 Concave mirror
or =
602 76 2 602 or radius R
Incident
or
( 602 / 702 )+ ( k 602 / 702 ) =
1 Planewave
602 762 602 F
or k = 0.58. Ans.
Spherical wavefront
(c) of radius R/2
Refraction of a plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c)
Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror
I mv m 3 m1 (m 2 - m1 ) (m 3 - m 2 )
m = = 1 . - = +
O m 2u v u R1 R2
(ii) Longitudinal magnification 5. Lateral magnification,
2 I v f
m1 v m = = =
mL = O u u- f
m2 u 2
6. Velocity of image
3. Lens formula
v2
1 1 1 . vi = vo
- = u2
v u f
156 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
7. Minimum distance between object and its real image 15. Simple microscope
Dmin = 4f D
Angular magnification, M = 1+
and Dmax = ¥ . fe
8. Focal length of convex lens by displacement method Here D = 25 cm.
2 2 16. Compound microscope
D -x
f = . (i) When final image is formed at near point
4D
9. Deviation produced by a lens v0 æ Dö
M = - u çè 1 + f ÷ø
h 0 e
d = .
f Length of the microscope
where h is the height of incident of ray on the lens of focal L = | v0 | + | ue |
length f. (ii) When final image is formed at infinity
10. Power of a lens P = 1 .
v0 D
f M = -u f
0 e
11. Combined focal length
(i) When lenses are placed in contact Length of the microscope
1 1 1 L = | v0 | + f e .
= f + f + ....., 17. Astronomical telescope
f 1 2
(i) When final image is formed at near point
and P = P1 + P2 + .....
(ii) If two lenses of focal lengths f1 and f 2 are placed at f0 æ fe ö
M = - f çè 1 + D ÷ø .
a separation of d, the equivalent focal length e
é w1 f 2 + w2 f1 ù L1 L2
d = ê w +w ú. or =
ë 1 2 û r12 r22 .
(iii) Two convex lens made of same material can be free from 23. Total luminous energy falling on a plane surface of area A,
chromatic aberration, if in time t
f1 + f 2 Q = EAt
d = .
2
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 157
Level -1
Only one option correct 6. A lens behaves as a converging lens in air and a diverging lens in
1. A diminished image of an object is to be obtained on a screen 1.0 water. The refractive index of the material is
m from it. This can be achieved by appropriately placing (a) equal to unity
(a) a convex mirror of suitable focal length (b) equal to 1.33
(c) between unity and 1.33
(b) a concave mirror of suitable focal length
(d) greater than 1.33
(c) a concave lens of suitable focal length
7. A lens is placed between a source of light and a wall. It forms
(d) a convex lens of suitable focal length less than 0.25 m images of area A1 and A2 on the wall for its two different positions.
2. A thin lens of focal length f1 and its aperture has diameter d. It The area of the source of light is
forms an image of intensity I. Now the central part of the aperture
-1
A1 + A2 é1 1 ù
d (a) (b) ê + ú
upto diameter is blocked by an opaque paper. The focal length 2 ë A1 A2 û
2
and image intensity will change to
2
é A1 + A2 ù
f
and
I I (c) A1 A2 (d) ê ú
(a) (b) f and êë 2 úû
2 2 4
8. A beam of parallel light rays from a laser is incident on a solid
3f I 3I transparent sphere of index of refraction µ. If a point image is
(c) and (d) f and
4 2 4 formed at the back of the sphere, then the value of µ is :
3. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is in contact with a concave
lens of focal length 25 cm. The power of combination is
(a) –1.5 D (b) –6.5 D
(c) + 6.5 D (d) + 6.67 D (a) 1.2 (b) 1.5
4. A converging lens is used to form an image on a screen. When (c) 1.8 (d) 2.0
upper half of the lens is covered by an opaque screen 9. Figure given below shows a beam of light converging at point P.
(a) half the image will disappear When a concave lens of focal length 16 cm is introduced in the
(b) complete image will be formed of same intensity path of the beam at a place O shown by dotted line such that OP
becomes the axis of the lens, the beam converges at a distance x
(c) half image will be formed of same intensity
from the lens. The value x will be equal to
(d) complete image will be formed of decreased intensity
5. The ray diagram could be correct
(a) 12 cm (b) 24 cm
(c) 36 cm (d) 48 cm
10. A point object is placed at the centre of a glass sphere of radius 6
cm and refractive index 1.5. The distance of the virtual image
(a) if m1 = m 2 = m g (b) if m1 = m 2 and m1 < m g from the surface of the sphere is
(a) 2 cm (b) 4 cm
(c) if m1 = m 2 and m1 > m g (d) under no circumstances (c) 6 cm (d) 12 cm
2.
(a) – 20 cm (b) 60 cm
(c) 20 cm (d) – 60 cm
3. 18. An observer looks at a tree of height 15 m with a telescope of
magnifying power 10. To him, the tree appears
(a) 10 times taller (b) 15 times taller
(c) 10 times nearer (d) 15 times nearer
4. 19. An astronomical telescope has an angular magnification of
magnitude 5 for distant objects. The separation between the
objective and the eye piece is 36 cm and the final image is formed
Identify the wrong description of the above figures
(a) 1 represents far-sightedness at infinity. The focal length f o of the objective and the focal
(b) 2 correction for short sightedness
length f e of the eye piece are
(c) 3 represents far sightedness
(d) 4 correction for far-sightedness (a) f o = 45 cm and f e = - 9 cm
12. The focal length of the objective lens of a compound microscope
is (b) f o = 7.2 cm and f e = 5 cm
(a) equal to the focal length of its eye piece
(c) f o = 50 cm and f e = 10 cm
(b) less than the focal length of eye piece
(c) greater than the focal length of eye piece (d) f o = 30 cm and f e = 6 cm
(d) any of the above three 20. The focal lengths of the objective and eye lenses of a telescope are
13. When the length of a microscope tube increases, its magnifying respectively 200 cm and 5 cm. The maximum magnifying power
power
of the telescope will be
(a) decreases (b) increases
(a) – 40 (b) – 48
(c) does not change (d) may decrease or increase
(c) – 60 (d) – 100
14. The magnifying power of a microscope with an objective of 5 mm
focal length is 40. The length of its tube is 20 cm. Then the focal 21. Which one of the following spherical lenses does not exhibit
length of the eye-piece is dispersion? The radii of curvature of the surfaces of the lenses are
(a) 200 cm (b) 160 cm as given in the diagrams
(c) 2.5 cm (d) 0.1 cm
15. In a compound microscope, the intermediate image is
(a) virtual, erect and magnified (a) (b)
(b) real, erect and magnified
(c) real, inverted and magnified
(d) virtual, erect and reduced
16. For a telescope to have large resolving power the
(a) focal length of its objective should be large
(c) (d)
(b) focal length of its eye piece should be large
(c) focal length of its eye piece should be small
(d) aperture of its objective should be large
(a) the focal point shifts away from the lens by a small distance
(a) At 40 cm from first lens (b) At ¥ from first lens
(b) the focus remains undisturbed (c) At 10 cm from first lens (d) At 20 cm from first lens
(c) the focus shifts to infinity
30. An electric bulb illuminates a plane surface. The intensity of
(d) the focal point shifts towards the lens by a small distance illumination on the surface at a point 2m away from the bulb is
25. In order to increase the magnifying power of a compound
5 ´ 10 -4 phot (lumen/cm2). The line joining the bulb to the point
microscope.
makes an angle of 60° with the normal to the surface. The intensity
(a) The focal lengths of the objective and the eye piece should of the bulb in candela is
be small
(b) Objective should have small focal length and the eye piece (a) 40 3 (b) 40
large (c) 20 (d) 40 × 10–4
(c) Both should have large focal lengths 31. Total flux produced by a source of 1 cd is
(d) The objective should have large focal length and eye piece
1
should have small (a) (b) 8 p
4p
26. Four lenses of focal length + 15 cm, + 20cm, + 150 cm and + 250
cm are available for making an astronomical telescope. To produce 1
the largest magnification, the focal length of the eye-piece should (c) 4p (d)
8p
be
(a) + 15 cm (b) + 20 cm 32. If the luminous intensity of 100 W unidirectional bulb is 100
candela, then total luminous flux emitted from the bulb is
(c) + 150 cm (d) + 250 cm
(a) 861 lumen (b) 986 lumen
27. Spherical aberration is minimized by
(c) 1256 lumen (d) 1561 lumen
1. use of stops.
33. A point source of light moves in a straight line parallel to a plane
2. use of plano-convex lens. table. Consider a small portion of the table directly below the line
3. using two suitable lenses in contact. of movement of the source. The illuminance at this portion varies
4. using two plano-convex lenses separated by a distance. with its distance r from the source as
Which of the above statements are correct? 1
1
(a) Eµ (b) E µ
(a) 3 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 4 r r2
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
1
28. A parallel beam of light is incident on the surface of a transparent (c) Eµ (d) E µ 1
hemisphere of radius R and refractive index 2.0 as shown in figure. r3 r4
The position of the image formed by refraction at the first surface
is :
Level -2
Only one option correct
(a) p r2 µ f
1. A point object O is placed in front of a glass rod having spherical
end of radius of curvature 30 cm. The image would be formed at
(b) p r2 µ f 2
(c) If lower half part is covered by black sheet, then area of the
p r2
image is equal to
2
(a) 30 cm left (b) infinity (d) If f is doubled, intensity will increase
(c) 1 cm to the right (d) 18 cm to the left 7. A ray of light falls on a transparent sphere with centre at C as
2. The size of the image of an object, which is at infinity, as formed shown in figure. The ray emerges from the sphere parallel to line
by a convex lens of focal length 30 cm is 2 cm. If a concave lens of AB. The refractive index of the sphere is :
focal length 20 cm is placed between the convex lens and the image
at a distance of 26 cm from the convex lens, calculate the new size
of the image
(a) 1.25 cm (b) 2.5 cm
(c) 1.05 cm (d) 2 cm
(a) 2 (b) 3
3. A spherical surface of radius of curvature R separates air (refractive
index 1.0) from glass (refractive index 1.5). The centre of curvature (c) 3 / 2 (d) 1 / 2
is in the glass. A point object P placed in air is found to have a real 8. A parallel beam of light falls on a quarter cylinder of radius R, as
image Q in the glass. The line PQ cuts the surface at a point O, and shown in figure (A). Refractive index of the material of the cylinder
PO = OQ. The distance PO is equal to is 3 . Maximum value of OP, as shown in figure (B), so that rays
(a) 5 R (b) 3 R
don't suffer T.I.R at the curved surface is (consider refractive
(c) 2 R (d) 1.5 R index of surrounding medium equal to 1)
4. A convex lens of focal length 40 cm is held co-axially 12 cm above
a mirror of focal length 18 cm. An object held x cm above the lens
60° P
gives rise to an image coincident with it. Then x is equal to : O O
(a) 12 cm
(b) 15 cm
(c) 18 cm
(A) (B)
(d) 30 cm
5. A point object is placed at a distance of 20 cm from a thin plano- R 2R
(a) (b)
convex lens of focal length 15 cm, if the plane surface is silvered. 3 3
The image will form at :
R 3R
(a) 60 cm left of AB (c) (d)
2 4
(b) 30 cm left of AB 9. A hemisphere (made of material of refractive index 3 ) of radius
(c) 12 cm left of AB r is placed on a horizontal surface with its base touching the
(d) 60 cm right of AB 3
surface. A vertical beam of cross sectional radius r is incident
6. A biconvex lens of focal length f forms a circular image of sun of 2
radius r in focal plane. Then : symmetrically on its curved surface. Radius of the spot of light
formed on the horizontal surface is
r r
(a) (b)
2 3
r r
(c) (d)
2 3
60°
1 2
30° x
30 cm 5 cm 10cm
(a) 15 cm (b) infinity
(c) 45 cm (d) 30 cm
(a) (20, 0) (b) (20, –20) 19. There is a concave lens of focal length f. A ray is incident on the
lens at y =b. The equation of the refracted ray will be
æ 20 ö
(c) (20, –10) (d) çè 20, - ÷
3ø y
13. A thin lens made of glass of refractive index 1.5 has a front surface
+ 11D power and back surface – 6D. If this lens is submerged in
a liquid of refractive index 1.6, the resulting power of the lens is x
(a) – 0.5 D (b) + 0.5D
(c) – 0.625 D (d) + 0.625 D
14. The distance between an object and the screen is 100 cm. A lens
bx bx
produces an image on the screen when placed at either of the (a) y= +b (b) y = - +b
positions 40 cm apart. The power of the lens is f f
(a) » 3 diopters (b) » 5 diopters bx fx
(c) » 7 diopters (d) » 9 diopters (c) y= -b (d) y = +b
f b
12
Multiple correct options 4. The object distance u, the image distance v and the magnification
1. Which of the following quantities related to a lens depend on the m in a lens follow certain linear relations. These are
wavelength or wavelengths of the incident light? 1 1
(a) Power (b) Focal length (a) versus (b) m versus u
u v
(c) Chromatic aberration (d) Radii of curvature. (c) u versus v (d) m versus v
2. Which of the following quantities increase when wavelength is 5. Consider the following statements :
increased? Consider only the magnitude :
A compound microscope is better than single lens microscope
(a) The power of a converging lens because
(b) The focal length of a converging lens (a) it can produce larger magnification
(c) The power of a diverging lens (b) it has better resolution
(d) The focal length of a diverging lens.
(c) it produces images free of all defects of these statements
3. The speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s :
(d) all the above
(a) with respect to the earth 6. A planet is observed by an astronomical refracting telescope
(b) with respect to the sun having an objective of focal length 16 m and an eye-piece of
(c) with respect to a train moving on the earth focal length 2 cm
(d) with respect to a spaceship going in outer space. (a) the distance between the objective and the eye-piece is 16.02
m
(b) the angular magnification of the planet is 800
(c) the image of the planet is inverted
(d) the objective is larger than the eye-piece
Read the two statements carefully to mark the correct option out of the options given below. Select the right choice.
(a) If both the statements are true and the Statement - 2 is the correct explanation of Statement - 1.
(b) If both the statements are true but Statement - 2 is not the correct explanation of the Statement - 1.
(c) If Statement - 1 true but Statement - 2 is false.
(d) If Statement - 1 is false but Statement - 2 is true.
1. Statement -1 :The diameter of convex lens required to form full Statement - 2 : The optical instruments are used increase the
image of an object is half the height of the object. visual angle.
Statement - 2 : The smaller diameter lens will give full image of 8. Statement - 1 : The resolving power of a telescope is more if the
lower intensity. diameter of the objective lens is more.
2. Statement -1 : For real image in convex lens; the minimum distance Statement - 2 : Objective lens of large diameter collects more light.
between object and its image must not be less than 2f.
9. Statement - 1 : The image of an object placed at the focus of the
Statement - 2 : For a convex lens of focal length f, the distance concave lens will form at infinity.
between object and its real image can be 14f / 3.
Statement - 2 : The image of an object placed at the focus of the
3. Statement - 1 : The image of a point object situated at the centre
concave lens will form midway between the lens and the focus.
of hemispherical lens is also at the centre.
10. Statement - 1 : A lens, whose radii of curvature are different, is
Statement - 2 : For hemisphere Snell's law is not valid.
forming the image of an object placed on its axis. If the lens is
4. Statement - 1 : A convex lens forms a real image of an object placed
reversed, the position of the image will not change.
on its optic axis. If the upper half of the lens is painted black; the
size of he image becomes half. Statement - 2 : The focal length of a lens is given by
Passage for (Qs. 1 - 3 ) : 5. If a real image is formed on the screen for the two positions of
Two lenses of focal length 10 cm; one convex and other concave are lenses, then the separation x between these positions is
placed on the same optic axis at a separation x. A plane mirror is also (a) D (D - 4 f ) (b) D/2
placed on the same optic axis at a distance of 10 cm from the concave
lens. An object O is placed at a distance 30 cm from the convex lens. (c) D( D - f ) (d) none of these
6. The ratio of the two image sizes for these two positions of the
lens
D
(a) 1 (b)
x
2 2
éD - xù éD + xù
(c) (d) ê
ëê D + x ûú ë D - x ûú
1. What should be the value of x show that image will coincide with Passage for (Qs. 7 & 8) :
the object? A concavo–convex lens made of glass (m = 1.5) has surfaces of radii 20
(a) 5 cm (b) 10 cm cm and 60 cm.
(c) 20 cm (d) none of these 7. The distance of image of an object placed 80 cm to the left of the
2. If the mirror is replaced by a convex lens of focal length 30 cm, lens along the principal axis is
then the position of the final image formed (from second convex (a) 230 cm (b) 240 cm
lens) by the system with the distance x between the lenses is : (c) 24 cm (d) 2.4 cm
(a) 30 cm (b) 40 cm 8. A similar lens is placed coaxially at a distance of 160 cm right to
(c) 50 cm (d) none of these it. The position of the image is
3. The magnification of the system of three lenses is
(a) 0 (b) –3/2
(c) ¥ (d) none of these
9. Two transparent media of refractive indices m1 and m3 have a solid lens shaped transparent material of refractive index m 2 between them as
shown in figures in Column II. A ray traversing these media is also shown in the figures. In Column I different relationships
between m1, m 2, and m3 are given. Match them to the ray diagrams shown in Column II.
Column I Column II
A. m1 < m 2 (p) m3 m2 m1
B. m1 > m 2 (q)
m3 m2 m1
C. m 2 = m3 (r)
m3 m2 m1
D. m 2 > m3 (s)
m3 m2 m1
(t)
m3 m2 m1
10. Match Column I with Column II and select the correct answer using the codes given below :
Column I Column II
A. Spherical aberration (p) Heterochromatic on and off axis.
B. Coma (q) Monochromatic on and off axis
C. Distortions (r) Monochromatic off axis only
D. Chromatic aberration
Answer Key 9 A-(p, r); B-q, s, t ; C-(p, r, t) ; D-(q, s) 10 A-(q) ; B- (r) ; C- (r) ; D- (p)
Sol. from page 177
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 167
11 An optical component and an object S placed along its optic axis are given in Column I. The distance between the object and the component
can be visaed. The properties of images are given in Column II. Match all the properties of images from Column II with the appropriate
components given in Column I.
Column I Column II
12. Match the Column-I with the Column-II from the combinations shown
Column – I Column – II
A. Presbyopia (p) Sphero-cylindrical lens
B. Hypermetropia (q) Convex lens of proper power may be used close
to the eye
C. Astigmatism (r) Concave lens of suitable focal length
D. Myopia (s) Bifocal lens of suitable focal length
13. Match the following Column II gives nature of image formed in various cases given in Column I
Column – I Column – II
f
B. O f (q) Inverted
O
C. (r) Virtual
f
D. (s) Upright
(t) Magnified
µ1
µ2
B. Number of images = 5 (q)
µ3
O
µ2
µ1
µ1 µ2
(t)
1. A glass sphere of radius 5 cm has a small bubble 2 cm from its 4. An optical system consists of a convergent lens with a focal
centre. The bubble is viewed along a diameter of the sphere length of 30 cm and a flat mirror placed at a distance 15 cm
from the side on which it lies. How far from the surface will it from the lens. Determine the position of the image formed by
appear. Refractive index of glass is 1.5. this system is an object is at a distance 15 cm in front of the
Ans. 25 cm lens. Plot the path of the rays in this case.
2. A converging beam of rays is incident on a diverging lens. Having Ans. 60 cm
passed through the lens the rays intersect at a point 15 cm from 5. Determine the position of the image produced by an optical
the lens. If the lens is removed the point where the rays meet system consisting of a concave mirror with a focal length of 10
will move 5 cm closer to the mounting that holds the lens. Find cm and a convergent lens with a focal length of 20 cm. The
focal length of the lens. distance from the mirror to the lens is 30 cm and from the lens
to the object 40 cm. Plot the image.
Ans. 100 cm.
6. Photograph of the ground are taken from an aircraft at an altitude
of 10 km by a camera fitted with a convex lens of focal length 1
m. The size of the film in the camera is 10 cm × 10 cm. What
area of the ground can be photographed by this camera at any
Ans. 30 cm. time?
3. A convergent lens forms on a screen an image of lamp magnified Ans. 1km2
to twice its normal size. After the lens has been moved 36 cm
closer to the screen it gives an image diminished by a factor of
two. Find the focal length of the lens.
Ans. 24 cm.
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 171
m 2 m1 m2 - m1
- =
v u R
A/4 1 1.5 1 - 1.5
or - =
v –R –R
A 3A \ v = –R
The exposed area of the lens becomes = A - = .
4 4 = – 6 cm
3I 11. (a)
So intensity of image will be . 12. (b)
4
13. (b) Magnifying power of compound microscope is proportional
Focal length remains as such to length of the microscope.
3. (a) Equivalent focal length,
Læ Dö
1 1 1 14. (c) M = – ç1 + ÷
= + f0 è fe ø
f 40 -25
200 20 æ 25 ö
f = cm or – 40 = -
ç1 + ÷
3 5 è fe ø
2 or fe = 2.5 cm
= m 15. (c)
3
16. (d) R. P. µ aperture of objective lens.
1 1
\ Power = = 1 æ 1 1ö
f 2/3 17. (d) = (m w - 1) ç - ÷
f è R1 R2 ø
3
= = 1.5 D
2 æ4 öæ 1 1ö
= çè - 1÷ø çè - ÷
4. (d) The size of image remains same but intensity of image 3 -20 ¥ ø
becomes half the previous. \ f = – 60 cm.
5. (c) 18. (c)
6. (c) When lens behaves like diverging in water, its material 19. (d) fo + fe = 36
refractive index should be less than water so it will be less
than 1.33. fo
and fe = 5
7. (c) As I = I1I 2 ,
\ fo = 6 cm and f e = 30 cm
So A = A1 A2 .
fo æ fe ö
m 1 m -1 20. (b) M = - ç1 + ÷
8. (d) Using - = fe è Dø
v u R
m 1 m -1 -200 æ 5 ö
or – = = ç1 + ÷
2R ¥ R 5 è 25 ø
\ µ = 2 = – 48
172 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
21. (c) This aberration can be minimized by
1 1 1 2 1 2 -1
24. (c) = + -
fe f -f or =
v ¥ R
Þ fe = ¥ \ v = 2R
25. (a) Magnifying power, 29. (b) The parallel rays will focus at focal point of concave lens,
and so after refraction from it, they become parallel.
Læ Dö
M = – ç1 + ÷ ,
fo è fe ø I cos q
30. (b) E =
r2
So magnifying power will increase with decrease in both f o
L cos q
ray 1 33. (c) E =
r2
ray 2
L´h/r Lh
principal axis = 2
=
r r3
P O Q
x
30 cm m 1 m -1
Using, - =
For concave lens, v u R
u = + 4 cm
f = – 20 cm 1.5 1 (1.5 - 1)
or - =
x -x R
1 1 1
\ - = \ x = 5R
v 4 -20
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 173
4.. (b)
60°
8. (b) O P
q
R c
O 24 cm S
x 36 cm
12 cm sin 60°
At P, = 3
sin q
1
or sin q =
u = 24 cm, v = x 2
1 \ q = 30°
1 1
Using - =
v u f 1 1
Also sin c = =
m 3
1 1 1
or - =
x 24 40 OP R
\ x = 15 cm In DOPS, =
sin c sin(90° + q)
5. (c) If f e be the focal length of the lens, then
sin c
or OP = ´R
1 2 1 sin120°
= +
fe 15 ¥
1
or fe = 7.5 cm = R
3
Now using mirror formula, we have 3´
2
1 1 1
+ = 2R
v -20 -7.5 =
\ v = – 12 cm 3
1
or sin q = or q = 30°
2
sin 60°
m =
sin 30° r x
Now, =
sin120° sin q
3/2
=
1/ 2 sin q r 2 r
\ x = r = ´ = .
= sin120° 2 3 3
3.
174 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
10. (d) From Snell's law,
D 2 - x2
14. (b) f =
4D
d 60°
100 2 - 402
120° = = 21 cm
r 4 ´ 100
r 120°
1 1
60° \ P = ; 5D
f = 21/100
1 æ 3 öæ 1 1 ö 1
15. (c) = ç - 1÷ç - ÷ = - ,
f1 è 2 øè ¥ 25 ø 50
sin 60° 1 æ 4 öæ 1 1 ö 3
= 3 = ç - 1÷ç + ÷ =
sin r f2 è 3 øè 25 20 ø 100
3 1 1
or sin r = = æ 3 öæ 1 1ö 1
2´ 3 2 and = ç - 1÷ç - ÷= -
f3 è 2 øè -20 ¥ ø 40
\ r = 30°
Thus, d = 60° 1 1 1 1
Now = + +
11. (c) From Snell's law, f f1 f 2 f3
60°
A
30° 30° 1 3 1
90° = - + -
30° 50 100 40
\ f = – 66.6 cm
f
16. (c) m = ± 3 , using m = f +u
sin 60° f
m = For virtual image, 3 = … (i)
sin 30° f –8
= 3 f
12. (d) From the geometry, we have and for real image, –3 = … (ii)
f – 16
After solving above equations, we get
f = 12 cm.
f1 2
30° x x 17. (d) = … (i)
30° f2 3
O
y
1 1 1
(x, y) and - = … (ii)
20 cm f1 f 2 30
y After solving above equations, we get
= tan 30° f1 = -15 cm and f 2 = 10 cm .
x
or y = x tan 30° 18. (d) For first lens :
20 1 1 1
= – =
3 v1 -30 10
æ 20 ö or v 1 = 15 cm at I1.
Thus co-ordinates of focus are : ç 20, - ÷. For second lens :
è 3ø
u2 = 15 – 5 =10 cm.
The focal length of second lens is also 10 cm, and so it forms
13. (c) Pa = P1 + P2 = 11 – 6 = 5D this image at infinity. Finally third lens forms the image at its
fl Pa ( a m g – 1) focal point. i.e., 30 cm from it.
fa = Pl = (l m g – 1) f = 10 cm f = 10 cm f = 30 cm
5 æ 1.5 - 1 ö
or Pl = ç 1.5 ÷
ç -1÷ I1
è 1.6 ø O I
\ Pl = – 0.625 D
5cm 30cm
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 175
19. From the geometry of the figure Focal length in liquid
y æ a mg - 1 ö
fl = fa ç ÷
ç a mg - 1 ÷
b ç m ÷
è a l ø
q x
f æ 1.5 - 1 ö
= –Rç ÷
1.5
ç -1÷
è 1.75 ø
b = 3.5 R
m = tan q =
f
Now the equation of the refracted ray 23. (a)
y = mx + c
Equivalent focal length
bx 1
or y = +b 2 1
f fe = +
fl f m
1 1 1 2 1
20. Using lens formula, - = , we have +
v u f =
-20 ¥
1 1 1 or f e = – 10 cm
- =
v -30 20 So f = – (–10) = 10 cm.
or v = + 60 cm This system behaves like a convex lens of focal length
v 60 10 cm.
Magnification, m = = =2.
u 30 24. (a)
As point P is 0.5 cm above the principal axis of the whole
lens and so its image will be 2 × 0.5 = 1cm, below this axis.
It is 1 + 0.5 = 1.5 cm below xy.
21. (c) 30 20
1 2 1
= +
fe fl f m
20 1 æ1 1ö
where = (m - 1) ç - ÷
The equivalent focal length of the combination is given as fl èR ¥ø
1 1 1 d
= + - æ 1 ö
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2 =(1.5 – 1) ç ÷
è 30 ø
Here, f1 = 30 cm , f 2 = -20 cm , d = 20 cm or fl = 60 cm
1 1 1 20 1 2 1
+ - Now, +
So,
F
=
30 -20 30( -20) f e = 60 15
1 1 20 \ f e = 10 cm
= - +
30 20 30 ´ 20 If object is put on 2fe = 20 cm, then its image will coincide
with the object.
1 1 1
= - + é1
30 20 30 1 1 ù
25. (b) = (m – 1) ê - ú
f1 R
ë 1 R2û
2 - 3+ 2
=
60 1 é 1 1ù
= (1.5 - 1) ê – ú
1 f1 ë14 ¥ û
=
60 1 0.5
Þ F = 60 cm =
f1 14
1 æ 1 1 ö
22. (a) = (m - 1) ç - ÷ 1 é1 1 ù
fa R
è 1 R2ø = (1.2 - 1) ê – ú
f1 ë ¥ -14 û
æ 1 1 ö 1
= (1.5 – 1) ç - ÷ 0.2
è - R + Rø f2 =
14
or fa = –R
176 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
1 1 1 29. (a) Focal length of plano-convex lens
0.5 0.2
= + +
f f1 f 2 = 14 14 R
fe =
m -1
1 0.7
f = When plane side is silvered
14
1 2 1
1 7 1 1 1 Now = +
= - = - f fe f m
v 140 40 20 40
1 2 -1 1 (m - 1) 1
= or = 2 + … (i)
v 40 30 R ¥
v = 40 cm when convex side is silvered
26. (a) f0 = 2cm , f e = 3 cm , L = 15 m 1 2 1
+ R
we have v0 + f e = 15 = fe f m
f
or v0 + 3 = 15
1 2(m - 1) 2
v0 or = + … (ii)
or = 12 cm 10 R R
For objective lens, On solving above equations we get
1 1 1 µ = 1.5
- = 30. (b) When lenses are in contact
v0 u0 f0
1 1 1 1 1
- 1 + = … (i)
or +12 u0 = f1 f 2 60
2
When lenses are at separation,
\ u0 = – 2.4 cm
1 1 10 1
27. (b) f 0 = 60 cm and f e = 5cm + - = … (ii)
f1 f 2 f1 f 2 30
f0 b
Magnification M = = On solving above equations, we get
fe a
f1 = 20cm , f 2 = –30cm.
60 b
or = 31. (d) If f e is the effective focal length of the system, then
5 2°
\ b = 24° 1 2 1
= +
f0 fe fe f m
28. (a)
fe 2 1
= +
50 m 12 ¥
\ f e = 6 cm
I Now using mirror formula,
50m I 1 1 1
= + =
2km 200 cm v -20 -6
\ I = 5 cm \ v = – 8.6 cm Ans.
O/I 1 1 1
- =
æD+ xö æD-xö f
ç ÷ -ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
30 cm x cm 10 cm
æ D 2 - x2 ö
For x = 5 cm, the rays will retrace the path after reflection or f = çç ÷÷
from mirror and the final image is formed on object itself. è 4D ø
2. (a) For second convex lens ;
u = ¥ , and so v = 30 cm or x = D (D - 4 f ) .
3. (d) v u
Passage for (Qs. 4 - 6) : 6. (c) I1 = o and I 2 = o
u v
1 1 1
4. (d) Also - = I2 u2
v u f
\ I1 =
v2
1 1 1
or - = 2
( D - x) - x f é ( D - x) / 2 ù
= ê ú
ë ( D + x) / 2 û
or x 2 - Dx + fD = 0
2
éD - xù
D ± D 2 - 4 fD = êD + xú .
\ x = ë û
2
178 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Passage for (Qs. 7 & 8) : Thus the real image will form on the right of the lens. If we reverse
the face of the lens, then the position of image will not change.
8. (a) When second lens is placed, the image of first lens becomes
object for it and so for the second lens;
u = + (240 – 160) = 80 cm
1 1 1
\ - =
v 80 60
1 7
or =
For the given lens,R1 = + 20 cm, R2 = 60 cm. v 240
Focal length of the lens is given by \ v = 34.3 cm.
The final image is thus formed to the right of second lens at a
1 æ1 1 ö
(m - 1) ç - distance of 34.3 cm.
è R1 R2 ÷ø
=
f 9. A-p, r; B-q,s,t; C-p,r,t, D-q,s
(a) When m1 < m2, the ray of light while entering the lens will
(1.5 - 1) æçè
1 1 1 ö bend towards the normal. Therefore p, r are the correct
or = - ÷
f 20 60 ø options
or f = 60 cm (B) When m1> m2, the ray of light while entering the lens will
bend away from the normal. Therefore q,s,t are the correct
7 (b) For u =– 20 cm,
options.
1 1 1 (C) When m2 = m3, the ray of light while coming out from the
- =
v -80 60 lens does not deviate from its path. Therefore p,r,t are the
correct option.
1 1 1 (D) m2> m3, the ray of light coming out of the lens deviates away
or = -
v 60 80 from the normal. Therefore q,s are the correct options.
\ v = 240 cm. 12. A-(s); B-(q) ; C-(p); D-(r)
13. A-(r, s, t); B-(p, q, t) ; C-(r, s); D-(r, s, t)
v
and = 2 … (ii)
u
On solving above equations, we get
m 2 m1 m2 - m1 1 1 1
- = , we have -
v u R Now from lens formula, = f , we have
v u
µ1 = 1.5, µ2 = 1, and R = – 5cm
1 1.5 1 - 1.5 1 1 1
- - =
\ = 72 -36 f
v –3 –5
Þ v = –2.5 cm Ans. \ f = 24 cm Ans.
2. For concave lens, u = + 10 cm (virtual object) 4. For convex lens, u = – 15 cm, f = +30 cm.
and v = + 15 cm
1 1 1
1 1 1 By lens formula - =
We have - = v u f , we have
+15 +10 f
\ f = –30 cm. Ans. 1 1 1
- =
v -15 +30
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 179
\ v = –30 cm.
1 1 1
Thus lens forms virtual image B of the object A. The image B we have – =
v –25 20
becomes object for plane mirror, which is at a distance 30 + 15 =
\ v = + 100 cm
45 cm . Plane mirror forms the image C and finally lens forms the
Thus a real image I3 will form at a distance of 100 cm from the
image D( see figure). The image C formed by mirror (becomes
lens (see figure).
object for lens, so
u = – 60 , f = +30 cm
1 1 1
\ - =
v -60 30
or v = 60 cm
Thus final image D is formed at a distance 60 cm from the lens.
6. The object (ground) is very large distance from the lens, so its
image will form at focus of the lens. If x is the length of ground
photographed then by similar triangles, we have
m 1 m -1
- =
v æ 1 ö +R
- ç y0 - gt 2 ÷
è 2 ø
é æ 1 2ö ù
The distance PI ' = 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.5 m ê (m - 1) ç y0 - 2 gt ÷ - R ú
è ø
For convex lens, u = –0.5 m, f = +3 m \ v = ê ú
ê æ 1 2ö ú
êë R ç y0 - gt ÷ úû
1 1 1 è 2 ø
By lens formula, - =
v u f , we have Differentiating equation (i) , we have
1 1 1 æ 1 ö dv æ -1 ö du
- = mç - 2 ÷ - ç 2 ÷ = 0
v –0.5 3 è v ø dt è u ø dt
\ v = –0.6 m Ans.
dv 1 v 2 æ du ö
Thus image will form at the position of object. \ = ç ÷
2. For convex lens, u = –15 cm, f = +10 cm. dt m u 2 è dt ø
1 1 1 1 v2
By lens formula, - = Or image velocity vi = v0 .
v u f , we have m u2
After substituting the values of u, v and v0, we get
1 1 1
- =
v –15 10 mR 2 gt
vi = 2
\ v = 30 cm é æ 1 2ö ù
If we place a diverging mirror on the same principal axis to get ê (m - 1) ç y0 - 2 gt ÷ - R ú
ë è ø û
the image on the object itself, then the image formed by the lens
Ans.
must lie on the coc of the mirror (see figure). Thus the distance 4. For convex lens, u = – 0.4 m, f = + 0.3 m.
between lens and mirror = 30 – 24 = 6 cm
1 1 1
By lens formula, - =
v u f , we have
1 1 1
- =
v –0.4 0.3
\ v = 1.2 m
The rate of change of position of the image can be calculated as;
v2
vi = v0
1 2 u2
3. If y is the distance falls by the ball in time t, then y =
gt . The
2 2
æ 1.2 ö
distance of the ball from the point P of th e sphere, = ç ÷ ´ (0.01)
è 0.4 ø
æ 1 2ö = 0.09 m/s Ans.
u = - ç y0 - 2 gt ÷ and velocity of ball, v0 = gt .
è ø The lateral magnification is given by
By refraction formula
v
m 1 m -1 m =
- = … (i) u
v u R
REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES AND PHOTOMETRY 181
7. The situation is shown in figure.
é dv du ù
dm ê u dt - v dt ú
\ = ê ú
dt ë u2 û
-0.4(0.09) - 1.2(0.01)
=
( -0.4) 2
= –0.3 per second. Ans.
5. The image of sun will form at the focus of the lens. Thus by
geometry for small angle Rays incident parallel to principal axis of the convex lens will
d converge at focus F. As F also be the focus of the concave lens,
q = f so the rays become parallel after emerging from the concave lens.
From similar triangles ABF and A'B'F, we have
or d = fq
AB A'B'
æ 32 p ö =
-3 20 10
\ d = 0.5 ´ ç ´ ÷ = 4 p ´ 10 m .
è 60 180 ø
AB 5.0
\ A' B ' = = = 2.50 mm Ans
2 2
8. The observer must be at one of the points in the area BAC.
9.
200 100
After solving, we get, f1 = cm and f 2 = cm .
3 3
For making a telescope, eyepiece should be of smaller focal
length. Thus right eye corrective lens can be used for the pur-
pose. For relaxed eye magnification is given by
fo f 200 / 3
|M| = = 1 =
fe f 2 100 / 3
1 2 1 = 2 Ans.
= +
fe fl f m 14. (i) For objective lens,
2 1
= +
10 ¥
\ fe = 5 cm
The system behaves like a concave mirror, so we can use mirror
formula,
1 1 1
+ =
v u f
1 1 1
or + =
v –15 –5
1 1 1
\ v = –7.5 cm. Ans. - =
vo -200 +50
12. For eyepiece, ve = –25 cm, fe = +5 cm.
1 1 1 200
\ cm
By lens formula, v – u = f , we have vo =
3
For eyepiece,
1 1 1
– = 1 1 1
–25 ue +5 - =
-25 ue +5
25
\ ue = - cm -25
6 \ ue = cm
6
For the objective lens,
The separation between the objective and eyepiece
vO = L- | ue |
200 25
L = vo + | ue |= + = 70.8 cm
25 95 3 6
= 20 – = cm
6 6 (ii) The required magnification is calculated as
M = Mo ´ Me ,
1 1 1
Now - = vo 200 / 3 1
95 uo + 0.95 = =
+ where | Mo | =
6 uo 200 3
95 ve 25
\ u0 = - cm and | Me | = ue = 25/ 6 = 6
94
1
vo æ Dö \ M = ´6= 2 . Ans.
Total magnification, M = - ç1 + ÷ 3
uo è fe ø
184 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
4.1 WAVE OPTICS : AN INTRODUCTION
In geometrical optics, we have represented light as rays which travel in straight lines in
a homogeneous medium. By doing this, we have studied a variety of phenomenon
involving mirrors and lenses. The phenomenon like interference and diffraction can not
be explained on the bases of particle nature of light. These phenomenon can only be
explained on the basis of wave nature of light. This part of optics is called physical
optics.
The wave theory of light was presented by Christiaan Huygens in 1678. During that
period Newton¢s corpuscular theory had satisfactorily explained the phenomenon of
reflection, refraction and rectilinear propagation of light. So scientist believed in the
corpuscular theory; no one really believed in Huygen¢s wave theory. The wave
characteristics of light was not really accepted until the interference experiments of
Young in 1801. It should be pointed out that Huygens did not know whether the light
waves were longitudinal or transverse and also how they propagate through vacuum. It
was then explained by Maxwell by introducing electromagnetic wave theory in nineteenth
century.
4.2 HUYGENS¢ PRINCIPLE
Huygens principle provides a geometrical method which allows us to determine the
shape of the wavefront at any time, if the shape of the wavefront at an earlier time is
known. A wave front is the locus of the points which are in the same phase. Huygens¢
principle can be stated as follows :
(i) Each point of a given wavefront is a source of new disturbance which is called
secondary disturbance. The wavelets originated from these points spread out in
all directions with the speed of light.
(ii) The envelope of these wavelets in the forward direction gives the shape and
position of the new wavefront at any subsequent time.
To understand this consider a spherical wave front AB as shown in figure. Every
point such as 1, 2, . etc. on AB becomes the source of secondary spherical
wavelets. After time t the radius of each wavelet will be ct, where c is the speed of
the light. Thus from the points 1, 2, 3,.... etc draw spheres of radii equal to ct.
These spheres represent the secondary wavelets. According to Huygens the
common envelope A1B1 in forward direction gives the position of new wavefront
(see fig. 4.1).
Proof of law of reflection
Let xy be a reflecting surface. AMB is a plane wavefront incident at an angle i. All the
particles on AB vibrate in same phase.
Fig. 4.2
In the time the disturbance at A reaches C, the secondary waves from B will travel a
Fig. 4.1 distance BD such that BD = AC. With the point B as centre and radius equal to AC draw
an arc. From the point C, draw the tangent CD.
In triangles BAC and BDC; BC is common and BD = AC
ÐBAC = ÐBDC = 90°
\ The two triangles are congruent, and so
ÐABC = ÐBCD
or i = r.
Thus angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. This proves the law of reflection.
WAVE OPTICS 185
Proof of law of refraction
Let xy is the interface between two media 1 and 2 of refractive
indexes m1 and m2 respectively. Suppose v1 and v2 are the
velocities of light in two media. The second medium is
optically denser than first and so v2 < v1. AMB is the plane
wavefront incident at an angle i. In the time disturbance at B
reaches C, the secondary waves from A will travel a distance
AD = v2t, where t is the time taken by the waves to travel the
distance BC. Thus
BC = v 1 t
and AD = v2t.
With A as the centre and radius AD draw an arc. Then draw Fig. 4.3
a tangent CD to the arc. CD represents the refracted wavefront. r be the angle of
refraction. We have
BC v1t v1
= =
v2 t v2
. ...(i)
AD
In triangles ABC and ACD, we have
sin i BC / AC
=
sin r AD / AC
BC
= . ...(ii)
AD
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
sin i v1
= v2
sin r
v1 m2
Since = ,
v2 m1
sin i m2
\ sin r
= m1
or m1 sin i = m 2 sin r .
This proves the law of refraction, which is called Snell¢s law.
4.3 INTERFERENCE
When two or more coherent waves superimpose, the resultant intensity in the region of
superposition is different from the intensity of individual waves. This modification in
the distribution of intensity in the region of superposition is called interference.
Young's double slit experiment (YDSE)
Thomas Young in 1801 devised an ingenious method of producing coherent sources. In
this method a single wavefront is divided into two; these two split wavefronts act as if
they originated from two sources having a constant phase relationship and therefore,
when they were allowed to interfere, a stationary interference pattern was obtained. In
the experiment light from a source S fell on a cardboard which contained two pinholes
(or slits) S1 and S2 which were very close to one another. The spherical waves originating
from S1 and S2 were coherent and so beautiful interference fringes or bands were obtained
on the screen.
186 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Coherent sources
Two sources of light are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of same frequency
and having constant phase difference (may be zero). It means the two sources must emit
waves of the same wavelength. In practice it is not possible to have two independent
sources which are coherent and so for practical purposes, two virtual sources formed
from a single source can act as coherent sources. Young¢s double slits arrangement,
Fresnel¢s biprism method, Llyod¢s mirror arrangement are the methods of producing two
coherent sources from a single source.
Note:
1. Two independent laser sources of equal wavelengths can be coherent.
Because they can maintained the constant phase difference for long time.
2. Two ordinary sources can not maintain the constant phase difference so
they can not be coherent and hence will not interfere.
or y = R sin ( wt + q) . ...(1)
This shows that the resultant wave at any point P is simple harmonic of amplitude R.
The amplitude R can be obtained as : Squaring equations (i) and (ii), we have
R2 = a12 + a2 2 + 2a1a2 cos f . ...(2)
As intensity I of wave is proportional to square of the amplitude, and so
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos f . ...(3)
Also dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get
a2 sin f
tan q = . ...(4)
a1 + a2 cos f
Fig. 4.5
In Young's interference experiment, incident monochromatic light is diffracted by slit
So, which then acts as a point source of light that emits semicircular wavefronts. As
that light reaches screen B, it is diffracted by slits S1 and S2, which then act as two
point sources of light. The light waves traveling from slits S1 and S2 overlap and
undergo interference, forming an interference pattern of maxima and minima on viewing
screen C.
Depending on the phase difference f between the two waves, the intensity of resulting
wave may be minimum or maximum. Accordingly there are two types of interference.
These are :
(i) Constructive interference (bright point)
The intensity I will be maximum, when
cosf = + 1,
or f = 2pn, n = 0, 1, 2,.....
l
As path difference Dx = f;
2p
\ Dx = nl
2
Now I max = Rmax = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2
188 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
or 2
I max = Rmax = ( a1 + a2 ) 2 . ...(5)
(ii) Destructive interference (dark point)
The intensity I will be minimum, when
cosf = –1
or f = ( 2n - 1) p, n = 1, 2, 3,...
l
Also Dx = ( 2n - 1)
2
2
Now I min = Rmin = a12 + a22 - 2a1a2
or 2
I min = Rmin = ( a1 - a2 ) 2 ...(6)
Thus
I max Rmax
= 2 =
( a1 + a2 ) 2 . ...(7)
I min Rmin ( a1 - a2 ) 2
Also I = a 2 + a 2 + 2 aa cos f
= 2a 2 (1 + cos f )
f
= 2a 2 ´ 2 cos 2
2
f
= 4a 2 cos 2
2
f
or I = I max cos 2 . ...(8)
2
Intensity distribution
It has been obtained that intensity at bright points is 4a2 and at dark points is zero.
According to law of conservation of energy, the energy of the intefering waves as a
whole remains constant. Thus the energy from points of minimum intensity transfers to
the points of maximum intensity. The intensity variation with phase difference is shown
in fig. 4.7.
Fig. 4.6
Fig. 4.7
Fringe width
Consider two sources S1 and S2 emitting monochromatic light of wavelength l. The
WAVE OPTICS 189
separation between them is d. The interference fringes are obtained on a screen placed
at a distance D from the sources. The fringes are of equal width and alternatively bright
and dark. The centre to centre distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes
iscalled fringe width b.
Consicer a point P on the screen at a distance yn from the centre of the screen O. The
angular position of the point P is q from the centre of the sources (see fig. 4.8).
The path difference between the waves on arriving at point P, is S2P – S1P, which is
equal to Dx. From the figure Dx = d sinq. For small q, we can write sin q ; tan q. Thus
Dx ; d tanq.
yn
From the triangle SOP, tan q = ,
D
d yn
\ Dx = … (i)
D
(i) Bright fringes
There will be bright fringe at P, when Dx = nl. Thus path difference
dyn
= nl
D
n Dl
or yn = ; n = 0, 1, 2, ...... ...(9)
d
Equation (9) represents the position of nth bright fringe. The (n – 1)th fringe will
be at a distance
Dl
yn -1 = ( n - 1)
d
\ Fringe width b = yn - yn-1
n Dl Dl
= - ( n - 1)
d d
Dl
or b = . ...(10)
d
190 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
(ii) Dark fringes
l
There will be dark fringe at P, when Dx = (2n–1) . Thus
2
d yn l
= ( 2n - 1)
D 2
( 2n - 1) Dl
or yn = ; n =1, 2, ... ...(11)
2 d
Equation (11) represents the position of nth dark fringe. The (n–1)th fringe will be
at a distance
é 2 ( n - 1) - 1ù Dl
yn-1 ê
= ú
ë 2 û d
\ Fringe width b = y n –y n–1
é 2n - 1ù Dl é 2 ( n - 1) - 1ù Dl
= ê 2 ú d -ê 2
ú
ë û ë û d
Dl
or b = .
d
It shows that the fringe width is equal for bright and dark fringe.
Note:
The maximum path difference Dxmax = d, when sinq = 1. If n are the number of
d
brights fringes on one side of the central bright, then d = nl or n = . Thus
l
total number of fringes that can be on the screen are = 2 n + 1, including central
central fringe.
Angular fringe width
Sometime it is required to represent fringe width in terms of angle subtended at the
centre of the sources. If a is the angular fringe width, then
b
a =
D
Dl / d
=
D
l
or a = radian.
d
Fig. 4.9
Special case : If YDSE is performed in water, and observer is in air, then fringe width
D l water
b water = .
d
l air
As lwater = ,
mw
1 é D l air ù bair
\ b water =
mw ê d ú = m .
ë û w
WAVE OPTICS 191
Important points :
1. In YDSE, the central fringe is bright, and all the bright fringes are of same intensity.
Colour of bright fringes are of the colour of incident light.
2. If slits are of equal size, the intensity of all the dark frings are zero.
3. If slits are of unequal size, then the intensity of dark fringe is not zero.
4. All the fringes are of equal width.
5. If sources have random phase difference, then there will be no interference. The
intensity at any point will be I = a2 + a2 = 2a2.
6. If white light is used in the experiment, then the central fringe will be white, and
other fringes are overlapped colour fringes.
Condition of obserable interference
1. The sources must be coherent.
2. The separation between the slits should be small (order of mm), so that size of
fringe is large enough to observe.
3. The amplitudes of interfering waves are equal or nearly equal, otherwise the
intensities of bright and dark fringes are not differentiable.
Fig. 4.11
The path difference
Dx = S2P – S1P
; d cosq
= l cosq
The maximum path difference can be
Fig. 4.10
Suppose the position of zero order maxima is at P at a distance yo from Dxmax = l; when cos q = 1 or q = 0o
O. The path difference between two waves at P is and minimum path difference
Dx = ( BS2 + S2 P ) - ( AS1 + S1P ) Dxm = 0 ; when cosq = 0 or q = 90°
Thus in between these two positions there is only one minima for which
= ( S2 P - S1P ) - ( AS1 - BS 2 )
l
Dx = . Thus
= d sin a - d sin q 2
192 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
l
2
= l cos q or 0 = - ( 2 d -d + ) d yo
D
or cosq =
1
\ yo = ( )
2 -1 D . Ans.
2
\ q = 60°. Ans. Ex. 6 In an interference arrangement similar to Young¢s
Ex. 4 Two slits in Young¢s interference experiment have double slit experiment, slits S1 and S2 are illuminated with coherent
microwave sources each of frequency 1 MHz. The sources are
width in the ratio 1 : 4. Find the ratio of intensity at the maxima
synchronized to have zero phase difference. The slits are separated
and minima in their interference.
by distance d = 150 m. The intensity Iq is measured as a function of
Sol. The intensity of the wave is proportional to the area of the q where q is defined as shown in figure. If Io is the maximum
intensity, calculate Iq for (a) q = 0° (b) q = 30° and (c) = 90°.
I1 b1l b1 1
slit. Thus I = b l = b = 4 . Sol.
2 2 2
I1 a12 1
= 2 = 4
I2 a2
a1 1
\ = .
a2 2
I max ( a1 + a2 )2
The ratio =
I min ( a1 - a2 ) 2 Fig. 4.13
The wavelength of microwave
(1 + 2 )2 9
= = . Ans. c 3 ´ 108
(1 - 2)2 1 l = f =
10 6
= 300 m
Ex. 5 In double slit arrangement, the source S is not The path difference
symmetrically placed from the slits. It is located as shown in the Dx = d sinq.
figure. Find the position of the zero order maxima from the centre The corresponding phase difference
of the screen. The separation between slits and screen is D (d < < D). 2p 2p
f = Dx = ( d sin q )
Sol. l 300
2p
= (150 sin q )
300
= p sinq.
The resultant intensity in interference is given by
IR = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos f
Fig. 4.12 = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos ( p sin q ) .
Suppose the position of zero order maxima is at P at a distance yo from
O. The path difference between two waves at P is For I1 = I2 = I. IR = 2I + 2I cos (p sinq).
(a) For q = 0°, IR = 2I + 2I cos 0° = 4I
Dx = ( SS2 + S2 P ) - ( SS1 + S1P )
I0
Given I0 = 4I; \ I = . Ans.
= - ( SS1 - SS 2 ) + ( S 2 P - S1P ) 4
(b) For q = 30°
= - ( )
2d - d + d sin q IR = 2I + 2I cos (p sin30°)
yo p
For small q, sinq ; tan q = . = 2I + 2I cos = 2I
D 2
I0 I0
\ Dx = - ( 2 d -d + ) d yo
D
= 2
4
=
2
Ans.
Dx = S 2 P - éë S1 P + ( m - 1) t ùû
= ( S2 P - S1P ) - ( m - 1) t
From the geometry of the figure
S2P–S1 P = d sinq
yn Fig. 4.14
For small angle q, sinq ; tanq = .
D
dyn
\ Dx = - ( m - 1) t.
D
For bright fringes the path difference Dx = nl. Thus
d yn
- ( m - 1) t = nl; n = 0, 1, 2, ....
D
n Dl D ( m - 1) t
or yn = + . ...(1)
d d
Dl
In the absence of the sheet, the position of nth bright, yn = n . Thus displacement of
d
fringes
D ( m - 1) t
D = (2)
d
th
The position of ( n - 1) order bright fringe
( n - 1) Dl D ( m - 1) t
y n–1 = +
d d
The fringe width b = y n –y n–1
Dl
or b = .
d
This shows that when a transparent sheet is introduced in the path of the slit, the entire
fringe pattern will shift towards that side but fringe width remains same.
The number of fringe shifted
D D ( m - 1) t / d
N = =
b æ Dl ö
ç ÷
è d ø
( m - 1) t
or N = . ...(3)
l
194 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 7 Two transparent sheets of thickness t1 and t2 and refractive The optical path of light waves from source S2
indexes m1 and m2 are placed infront of the slits as shown in fig. x2 = S 2 P + ( m 2 - 1) t2
4.16. If D is the distance of the screen from the slits, then find the The path difference
distance of zero order maxima from the centre of the screen. What Dx = x2–x1
is the condition that zero order maxima is formed at the centre O ?
= ( S2 P - S1P ) + ( m 2 - 1) t2 - ( m1 - 1) t1
From the geometry,
d y0
S2P – S1P = d sinq ; d tanq = .
D
dy0
\ Dx = + ( m 2 - 1) t2 - ( m1 - 1) t1
D
Dl
b = .
d
Fig. 4.17
In the arrangement D = (a + b). The value of d can be determined by two methods. These
are :
(i) By displacement method
In this method a convex lens is used to form real images of the sources. If d1 and
d2 are the separations between images in two positions of the lenses, then
d = d1d2 .
(ii) If A is the angle of prism, then angle of deviation produced by any prism
d = (m – 1) A.
From the geometry of the figure, for small angle
d /2
d =
a
WAVE OPTICS 195
d
or (m – 1) A =
2a
\ d = 2a (m – 1) A
4.6 LLOYD¢ S MIRROR ARRANGEMENT
In Lloyd¢s mirror arrangement, a plane mirror is used to produce
another source, which together with real source constitutes
two coherent sources. This set-up was developed by Lloyd in
1834. In this arrangement the interference pattern similar to
Young¢s double slit experiment is obtained on the screen. But
the central fringe is dark instead of being bright. It means there
is destructive interference at the centre O. If we assume that
mirror is perfectly reflecting, then the intensity of light waves
from S1 and S2 is equal, let it is I. Then for destructive
interference (zero resultant intensity)
Fig. 4.18
0 = I + I + 2 II cos f
\ f = p rad.
It shows that the wave after reflecting from mirror undergone a phase change of p rad.
This experiment proves, that a light wave after reflection from an optically denser medium
undergoes a phase change of p rad.
Ex. 8 A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths 6500 Å The minimum of value of n1 and
n2 are 4 and 5 respectively.
and 5200 Å is used to obtain interference fringes in a Young¢s
double slit experiment : 4 D l1
(i) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen Therefore y4 =
d
from the central maximum for the wavelength 6500 Å.
(ii) What is the least distance from the central maximum where
the bright fringes due to both the wavelengths coincide ? =
( ) (
4 ´ 120 ´ 10-2 ´ 6500 ´ 10 -10 )
-3
The distance between the slits is 2 mm and the distance 2 ´ 10
between the plane of the slits and the screen is 120 cm. -3
= 1.56 ´ 10 m. Ans.
Sol.
(i) For bright fringe, Ex. 9 A parallel beam of monochromatic light is used in a
Young¢s double slit experiment. The slits are separated by a
n Dl
yn = . distance d and the screen is placed parallel to the plane of the slits.
d
The light is incident an angle q with the normal to the plane of
For third bright, n = 3
slits. Find the value of q so that, there will be dark fringe at the
3 Dl centre P of the pattern.
\ y3 =
d Sol.
=
(
3 ´ 120 ´ 10 -2
) ´ 6500 ´ 10 -10
2 ´ 10-3
= 1.17 ´ 10-3 m Ans.
th
(ii) Let n1 bright of 6500 Å concides with the n2th bright of 5200 Å,
then Fig. 4.20
Dl1 Dl 2 The path difference between two wavefronts at P
n1 = n2 Dx = d sin q
d d
n1 l2 l
For dark fringe at P, Dx =
or n2 = l1 2
l
5200 Therefore d sinq =
= 2
6500
æ lö
4 or q = sin -1 ç ÷ . Ans.
= è 2d ø
5
Fig. 4.19
196 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Ex. 10 A narrow slit S transmitting light of wavelength l is
\ d = 2.46 ´ 10-3 m .
placed a distance d above a large plane mirror as shown in fig. 4.21.
The light coming directly from the slit and that coming after d
reflection interfere at a screen å placed at a distance D from the
For small angle tan q ; q =
0.24
slit. (a) What will be the intensity at a point just above the mirror,
i.e., just above O ? (b) At what distance from O does the first 2.46 ´ 10 -3
or q =
maximum will occur ? 0.24
Sol. = 10.25 × 10–3 rad. Ans.
Ex. 12 S is a monochromatic point source emitting light of
wavelength l = 500 nm. A thin lens of circular shape and focal
length 0.10 m is cut into two identical halves L1 and L2 by a plane
passing through a diameter. The two halves are placed
symmetrically about the central axis 50 with a gap of 0.5 mm. The
distance along the axis from S to L1 and L2 is 0.15 m while that
from L1 and L2 to O is 1.30 m. The screen at O is normal to SO.
Fig. 4.21 (i) If the third intensity maximum occurs at the point A on the
(a) There will be dark fringe at O, therefore intensity of light at O will screen, find the distance OA.
be zero. (ii) If the gap between L1 and L2 is reduced from its original
(b) It is clear from the figure, that the distance of first maximum from value of 0.5 mm, will the distance OA increase decrease, or
O remains the same ?
b æ Dl / 2 d ö Sol.
y = = çè ÷
2 2 ø
Dl
= . Ans.
4d
Ex. 11 Two plane mirrors M1 and M2 are inclined to each
other at an angle q and an illuminated slit S is placed infront of
them at a distance of 12 cm away from and parallel to the line of
intersection of the mirror. An eye piece is mounted at a distance of
60 cm from the line of intersection of the mirrors. If the band- Fig. 4.23
width obtained is 0.16 mm and wavelength of light used is 5460 Å.
Each half forms separate image of S. Let images formed are S1 and S2.
Find the value of q.
These two be the coherent sources. They interfere and produce maxima
Sol. and minima on the screen.
For any half
u = – 0.15 m
f = 0.10 m
1 1 1
We have, - =
v u f
1 1 1
or - =
v -0.15 0.10
\ v = 0.30 m.
Fig. 4.22 Now from similar triangles S S1 S2 and S P1 P2 we have
From the figure D = 60 + 12 = 72 cm
Let separation between the sources formed by mirrors is d.We have d ( 0.30 + 0.15)
=
Dl 0.5 ´ 10-3 0.15
b =
d or d = 1.5 × 10–3 m
or 0.16 ´ 10 -3 =
(72 ´ 10 ) ´ (5460 ´ 10 )
-2 -10
(i) For third maximum OA = y3 = 3
Dl
d
d
WAVE OPTICS 197
=
3 ´ 1.0 ´ 500 ´ 10 -9
-3
=
é
(
2 2
) 2 2ù é
êë D + d + ( x - d ) + D úû - ëê D + D + x ûú
2 2ù
1.5 ´ 10
For the next bright fringe after first dark fringe, Dx = l
= 1 × 10–3 m Ans.
é
(ii) As we have seen d is proportional to P1 P2, that is gap between \
2 2
êë D + d + ( x - d ) 2 + D 2 ùú - éêë D + D 2 + x2 ù = l
úû
L1 and L2, therefore with decrease in gap, d decreases and hence û
1 1/ 2
æ ( x - d )2 ö
1/ 2
é 1/ 2 ù
OA increases, because y µ . æ d2 ö æ x2 ö
d or D ç 1 + 2 ÷ + D ç1 + ÷ - ê D + D ç1 + 2 ÷ ú = l
è D ø çè D 2 ÷ø ê è D ø ú
Ex. 13 Consider the arrangement shown in fig. 4.24. The ë û
distance D is large compared to the separation d between the slits.
(a) Find the minimum value of d so that there is a dark fringe
æ d2 ö ( x - d )2 - æ D + D + x2 ö
çD+ ÷ +D+ ç ÷
at O.
or
è 2Dø 2D è 2D ø = l
(b) Suppose d has this value. Find the distance x at which the
d 2 + ( x - d ) - x2
2
next bright fringe is formed. (c) Find the fringe width.
or = l
Sol. 2D
or d 2 + x 2 + d 2 - 2 xd - x 2 = 2 l D
or 2d 2 - 2 xd = 2lD
Dl
For d = , we get
2
2
æ Dl ö Dl
Fig. 4.24 2ç ÷ - 2x 2 = 2lD
è 2 ø
2 2
(a) The path differenceat O, Dx = 2 D + d - 2 D
l 3l Dl Dl
, , or 2 - 2x = 2lD
For the dark fringe at O, Dx= 2 2
2 2
For minimum value of d,
Dl
l or 2x = –Dl
= 2
2 D2 + d 2 - 2D 2
2
æ Dl ö
or (D 2
+d )
2 1/ 2
-D =
l
4
or ç 2x 2 ÷
è ø
= ( - Dl )2
1/ 2
æ d2 ö l Dl
or D ç1 + 2 ÷ -D = which gives x = =d Ans.
è D ø 4 2
Dl
æ d2 ö l (c) Fringe width b = .
or D ç1 + 2÷
-D = d
è 2D ø 4
Ex. 14 Two coherent point sources S 1 and S2 vibrating in
d2 l phase emit light of wavelength l. The separation between the
or D+ -D = sources is 2l. Consider a line passing through S2 and perpendicular
2D 4
to the line S1S2. What is the smallest distance S2 where a minimum
Dl of intensity occurs?
or d = . Ans.
2 Sol. Path difference at P,Dx = d 2 + x2 - x
Dxmin = 0, when x ® ¥, and maxima will occur..
Dxmax = 2l, when x = 0, again maxima will occur.
(b)
Fig. 4.25
Here the path difference Dx = ( SS1 + S1P ) - ( SS2 + S2 P ) Fig. 4.26
198 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
l
=
2
3l Corresponding phase difference = p radian
For nearest minima Dx = \ a4 = 0
2
3l I max ( a3 + a4 )2 ( 2 a + 0) 2 = 1
or The ratio = =
d +x -x =
2 2
2 I min ( a3 - a4 )2 2a - 0
2 Ans.
æ 3l ö
or 2
d +x 2 = çè + x÷
2 ø æ lD ö
dç
dz è d ÷ø
(b) Dx = = =l
9l 2 D D
or 2
d +x 2 = + x 2 + 3lx
4 Corresponding phase difference = 2p radian
Now a4 = a + a = 2 a
é 2 9l 2 ù
êd - ú I max ( 2a + 2 a ) 2
ëê 4 úû and = = ¥ Ans.
or x = I min ( 2a - 2 a ) 2
3l
æ lD ö
dç
9l 2 dz è 4 d ÷ø l
( 2l ) -
2
(c) Dx =
D
= =
4
= 4 D
3l
l
Corresponding phase difference = radian
7l 2
or x = . Ans.
12 p
A42 = a 2 + a 2 + 2 aa cos = 2a2
Ex. 15 Consider the situation shown in fig. 4.27. The two 2
slits S1 and S2 placed symmetrically around the central line are
or A4 = 2a
illuminated by a monochromatic light of wavelength l. The
separation between the slits is d. The light transmitted by the slits
( 2a + )
2
falls on a screen E1 placed at a distance D from the slits. The slit
I max 2a ( 3.414) 2
S3 is at the central line and the slit S4 is at a distance z from S3. = =
Another screen E2 is placed a further distance D away from E1. I min
( 2a - 2a )
2
( 0.586)2
Find the ratio of the maximum to minimum intensity observed on
E2 if z is equal to = 34. Ans.
λD λD λD
(a) (b) (c) . Ex. 16 In a modified Young¢s double slit experiment, a
2d d 4d
monochromatic uniform and parallel beam of light of wavelength
10
6000Å and intensity W/m 2 is incident normally on two circular
p
apertune A and B of radii 0.001m and 0.002 m respectively. A perfect
transparent film of thickness 2000 Å and refractive index 1.5 for
the wavelength of 6000Å is placed infront of apertune A, see fig.
4.28.
Fig. 4.27
Sol.
Light from sources S1 and S2 get interfered and thereafter S3 and S4
become new sources. At S 3 the path difference between the lights
coming from S1 and S2 is zero. Therefore they interfere constructively
and so a3 = (a + a) = 2a
(a) At S4 the path difference
Fig. 4.28
Dx = d sin q ; d tan q
Calculate the power (in watts) received at the focal spot F of the
lD lens. The lens is symmetrically placed with respect to the aperture.
d´ Assume that 10% of the power received by each aperture goes in
z 2d
= d =
D D the original direction and is brought to the focus spot.
WAVE OPTICS 199
Sol. The path difference produced due to film
Dx = (m – 1) t = (1.5 – 1) × 2000×10–10 = 10–7 m
The intensities of light of sources S1 and S2 are
2p 2p p
æ 10 ö and f = ´ Dx = ´ 10 -7 = radian
I1 = çè ÷ø ´ p ( 0.01) = 10–5 W
2
l 6000 ´ 10 -10 3
p
Now power received at F
æ 10 ö
I2 = çè ÷ø ´ p ( 0.02) = 4 × 10–5 W.
2 I A + I B + 2 I A I B cos f
I =
p
p
The intensities of sources after emerging from the lenses are = 10 -6 + 4 ´ 10-6 + 2 10 -6 ´ 4 ´ 10 -6 cos
IA = 0.10 × 10–5 W = 10–6 W 3
IB = 0.10×4×10–5 W = 4×10–6 W. = 7×10–6 W Ans.
sin i
m =
sin r
AD / AC AD
= =
EC / AC EC
\ AD = m EC. ...(ii)
Substituting this value in equation (i), we get
Dx = (AB + BE) m
As AB = A¢B,
\ Dx = (A¢B + BE)m
= (A¢E)m.
From the triangle AA¢E, A¢E = 2t cos r, and so
Dx = 2mt cos r. …(iii)
200 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
The path difference in equation (iii) is the optical path difference. It has been
proved that when light is reflected from optical denser medium (upper surface of
the film), it undergoes an abrupt phase change of p rad; an equivalent path
difference l/2. Therefore the effective path difference becomes,
l
Dx e = 2mt cos r ± …(1)
2
(i) The maxima will occur when Dx = nl.
l
\ 2mt cos r ± = nl
2
l
or 2mt cos r = ( 2n - 1) ; n = 1, 2, ...
2
l
If we take 2mt cos r = ( 2n + 1) , then n will be 0, 1, 2, ...(2)
2
(ii) The minima will occur when Dx = (2n – 1) l/2.
l l
\ 2mt cos r ± = ( 2n - 1)
2 2
or 2mt cos r = nl; n = 1, 2, ..... ...(3)
Here n = 0 is discarded because path difference 2mt cos r can not be zero.
When this condition is fulfilled the film will appear dark in reflected light.
Note:
For normal incidence, angle of incidence i and hence r become zero and so
cos r = 1, then 2mt cos r ® 2mt.
(2) Interference in transmitted light
The optical path difference between the light waves originated from B and F can
be calculated as in the case of reflected light. Thus
Dx = 2 mt cos r.
In this case the light rays emerge from B and F has no phase change because
light emerges from F has gone two reflections, each with a phase change of p rad.
Thus
Dx e = 2mt cos r + 0 = 2 mt cos r.
(i) The maxima will occur when Dx = nl.
\ 2mt cos r = nl; n = 1, 2, ...(4)
Conclusion : The condition of maxima and minima for interference in reflected and
transmitted light are opposite to each other. It means, if any colour is strongly reflected,
then it will be absent in transmitted light.
WAVE OPTICS 201
Colours of thin film
When white light is incident on thin film, beautiful colours are observed. The
incident light will split up due to reflection at the top and bottom of the film.
The splitted rays interfere and gives bright colours. The interfering rays of
only certain wavelengths will have a path difference satisfying the conditions
of bright fringe. Hence only such wavelengths will be present there. Other
wavelengths will be present with diminished intensity.
Interference in wedge shaped film
Consider a thin film of refractive index m is enclosed between the two surfaces inclined Fig. 4.30
at an angle a. For small angle a, the effective path difference between two light waves
originated from upper surface can be taken equal to 2 mt cos r. Thus for minima
2 mt cos r = nl.
For normal incidence r ® 0, cos r = 1.
2 mt = nl ...(i)
where t is the thickness of the film at the position of nth minima
t
From the figure tan a =
xn
or t = xn tan a
From equation (i), 2 m(xn tan a ) = nl
nl
or xn = 2m tan a
...(ii) Fig. 4.31
( n - 1) l
and x n–1 = ...(iii)
2 m tan a
l
\ b = xn – xn–1 = .
2 m tan a
Newton¢s rings : Newton¢s rings are formed due to interference between the waves
reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air film enclosed between the lens and
the plate.
From the property of circle, we have
r × r = t × (2R – t)
or r2 = 2Rt –t2
; 2Rt [Since t << R]
r2
\ t =
2R
For bright ring : 2mt = ( 2n - 1) l / 2 n = 1, 2, 3,....
r2 l
or 2m = ( 2n - 1)
2R 2
( 2n - 1) lR
or r2 =
2m
D2 ( 2n - 1) lR
or =
4 2m
2 ( 2n - 1) lR
or Dn2 = ...(i)
m
Fig. 4.32
202 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Similarly for dark ring
2mt = n l, n = 1, 2, 3
r2
or 2m = nl
2R
nlR
or r2 =
m
Dn2 nlR
or =
4 m
4nlR .
or Dn2 =
m
Ex. 17 A narrow monochromatic beam of light of intensity I fringe shift on the introduction of mica-sheet. Calculate the
wavelength of the monochromatic light used in the experiment.
is incident on a glass plate as shown in fig. 4.33. Another identical
glass plate is kept close to the first one and parallel to it. Each glass Sol. The shift produced in the fringes is
plate reflects 25% of the incident on it and transmits the remaining. D
Find the ratio of the minimum and the maximum intensities in D = ( m - 1) t .
d
the interference pattern formed by the two beams obtained after
When distance between slits and screen is doubled, the fringe width
one reflection at each plate.
( 2D ) l
b = .
d
According to the given condition
D
( m - 1) t = ( 2D ) l
d d
( m - 1) t
\ l =
2
Imax = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 Sol.
and I min = I1 + I 2 - 2 I1I 2
I min I1 + I 2 - 2 I1I 2
\ =
I max I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2
After substituting the values of I1 and I2 and simplifying, we get
I min
= 1/49. Ans.
I max
Ex. 18 In Young¢s double slit experiment using Fig. 4.34
monochromatic light, the fringe pattern shifts by a certain distance Condition of constructive interference in the situation shown in figure is
on the screen when a mica sheet of refractive index 1.6 and thickness 2mt = (2n – 1) l/2, n = 1, 2, 3,
1.964 micron is introduced in the path of one of interfering waves.
l
The mica-sheet is then removed and the distance between the slits
\ t = ( 2n - 1)
and the screen is doubled. It is found that the distance between 4m
successive maxima (or minima) now is the same as the observed
WAVE OPTICS 203
For least value of t, n= 1 When water is filled in the vessel, it causes shift in position of
l l fringe
\ tmin = ( 2 ×1 - 1) =
4m 4m D = 2 cm
-9
648 ´ 10 D
= = 90 × 10–9 m. Ans. or ( m - 1) t = 0.02
4 ´ 1.8 d
Ex. 20 A vessel ABCD of 10 cm width has two small slits S1
0.10
and S2 sealed with identical glass plates of equal thickness. The ( m - 1) ´ 0.1 = 0.02
distance between the slits is 0.8 mm. POQ is the line perpendicular 0.8 ´ 10 -3
to the plane AB and passing through O, the middle point of S1 and which gives m = 1.002. Ans.
S2. A monochromatic light source is kept at S, 40 cm below P and
2m from the vessel, to illuminate the slits as shown in figure. Ex. 21 In a modified YDSE the region between screen and
Calculate the position of the central fringe on the other wall CD slits is immersed in a liquid whose refractive index varies with
with respect to the line OQ. Now, a liquid is poured into the vessel
and filled upto OQ. The central bright fringe is found to be at Q. æ 5ö T 5
Calculate the refractive index of the liquid. time as m l = ç ÷ - until it reaches a steady state value of .
è 2ø 4 4
Sol.
3
A glass plate of thickness 36 mm and refractive index is
2
introduced infront of one of the slits.
(a) Find the position of central maxima as a function of time
and the time when it is at point O, located symmetrically on
the x-axis.
(b) What is the speed of the central maxima when it is at O ?
Fig. 4.35
Sol.
(a)
Fig. 4.36
The path difference,
Dx = ( SS1 + S1P ) - ( SS 2 + S 2 P )
or d sinq1 = d sin q2
or sinq1 = sin q2 = ( S2 P - S1P )liquid + ( m g - ml ) t
or
0.4
= 2
y
2
= ( )
m l ( S 2 P - S1 P ) air + m g - m l t
2 2 0.1 + y
0.4 + 2
which gives y =
(
- D m g - ml t ) or l =
4 mt
d ml ( 2n - 1)
é3 æ 5 T öù 4 ´1.25 ´1´10-6
-D ê - ç - ÷ út =
ë2 è 2 4øû 2n - 1
=
é5 T ù 5 ´ 10 -6
dê - ú
ë2 4 û =
( 2n - 1)
é Tù
D ê1 - ú t
For n = 1, l = 5 ´ 10-6 m = 5000 nm
ë 4 û = D(4 - T ) t
=
æ 5 T ö d (10 - T ) 5 ´ 10 -6
dç - ÷ n = 2, l = m = 1666.67 nm
è 2 4ø 3
=
(
1 ´ 36 ´ 10 -6 ) = 3 ´ 10 -3
m / s .Ans.
edge and t2 at the other. The refractive index of the material is
(
6 ´ 2 ´ 10 -3
) 1.6. When viewed at normal incidence, using a light of wavelength
5000 Å, 20 fringes are observed. Find the difference (t2 – t1).
Ex. 22 A glass surface is coated by an oil film of uniform
thickness 1.00 × 10–4 cm. The index of refraction of the oil is
1.25 and that of the glass is 1.50. Find the wavelengths of light in Sol.
the visible region (400 nm - 750nm) which are completely
transmitted by the oil film under normal incidence.
Sol. Optical path difference for the light transmitted through
oil is = 2mt cos r for normal incidence
r = 0, cos r ® 1. Fig. 4.39
Let, at the thickness t1, nth number of fringe is formed, then at
thickness t2, (n +20)th number of fringe will form. For reflected
light
2mt1 = n l ...(i)
and 2mt2 = (n + 20) l ...(ii)
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
Fig. 4.38 2m ( t2 - t1 ) = 20 l
\ Dx = 2 mt
10l
But at the interface between oil and glass will produce an \ ( t2 - t1 ) = m
additional path difference of l/2. Therefore effective path
difference
Dx = 2mt + l/2 (
10 ´ 5000 ´ 10 -10 )
=
For constructive interference in transmitted light 1.6
= 3.125 × 10–6 m. Ans.
WAVE OPTICS 205
4.8 DIFFRACTION
The bending of waves around the edges of an obstacle or
aperture is called diffraction. This phenomenon was
discovered by Grimaldi. The theorical explanation was first
given by Fresnel. According to him diffraction results from
the superposition of secondary wavelets originating from
the different parts of the same wavefront. For diffraction
to occur, the size of the aperture should be small enough.
It should be comparable to the wavelength of wave. In
case when size of aperture is very large in comparison to
the wavelength, then there is no appreciable diffraction
will occur, and so infront of the aperture, there is uniform
illumination on the screen (see fig. 4.40).
If an obstacle with a small gap is placed in almost like a
point source. If the gap is large however, the diffraction is
much more limited. Small, in this context, means that the
size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of the waves. Fig. 4.40
Difference between interference and diffraction
1. Interference takes place between two or more wavefronts originating from
coherent sources. While in diffraction superposition takes place between the
secondary wavelets originating from the same wavefront.
2. In the interference pattern the regions of minimum intensity are usually almost
perfectly dark. While it is not so in diffraction pattern.
3. The fringe width in interference may or may not be equal, while in diffraction
pattern fringe widths are never equal.
4. In interference all the maxima are of same intensity but in diffraction they are of Fig. 4.41
varying intensity.
4.9 FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION AT SINGLE SLIT
In this type of diffraction a plane wavefront falls on a slit and its
response is seen on a plane screen placed at very large distance
from the slit.
Suppose a plane wavefront falls on a slit of width d. Every point
of the exposed part of the wavefront acts as a source of secondary
wavelets. These wavelets superpose (interfere) and produce
diffraction.
Intensity distribution
If the intensity of the principal maxima is I0, then the intensity of
I0
the first maxima and second order maxima are found to be
22
I0
and respectively. The diffraction fringes are of decreasing
61
width and decreasing intensity. In general for any angular position
q, the intensity I is given by
2
æ sin a ö pa
I(q) = I0 ç ÷ , where a = l sin q.
è a ø
206 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
Fig. 4.44
WAVE OPTICS 207
Positions of first and higher order minimas
To understand first order minima, we can divide the slit hypothetically into two identical
zones Z1 and Z2 each of width d/2 . Take a wavelet from top of the zone Z1 and other from
the top of the zone Z2. The path difference between them is d/2 sinq. All other similar
pairs will have the same path difference.
If these wavelets interfere destructively, then they will produce minima. This will happen
when d/2 sinq is equal to l/2. Thus for first order minima
d/2 sinq = l/2
or d sinq = l. ...(1)
The position of first order minima,
l
sinq =.
d
The principal maxima spread symmetrically about central line in angle 2q. Thus angular
width of principal maxima is
ælö
2q = 2sin -1 ç ÷ . ...(2)
èd ø
l
Linear width of principal maxima; b = (2qD) = 2D sin -1 æç ö÷ .
èd ø
For second order minima, we can divide the slit hypothetically into four zones. The
wavelets of nearest two zones interfere destructively and again produce minima. Thus
for second order minima, we have
d l
sin q = ,
4 2
or d sinq = 2l.
In general the positions of minimas can be obtained as :
d sinq = nl; n = 1, 2, ...(3)
Positions of first and higher order maximas
To understand first order maxima, we can divide the slit hypothetically into three identical
zones Z1, Z2, Z3 each of width d/3. The wavelets of two neighbouring zones Z1 and Z2
interfere destructively and cancel their mutual effect. The wavelets of remaining third
zone will cause first order maxima. Thus for first order maxima the path difference between
two wavelets, one from top of the zone Z1 and other from top of zone the Z2 is d/3 sinq.
For destructive interference between them
d l
sin q =
3 2
3l
or d sinq = . ...(4)
2
Similarly for second order maxima, we can get
5l
d sinq = .
2
In general, for higher order maxima, we can write;
l
d sinq = ( 2n + 1) ; n = 1, 2, ...(5)
2
Note:
The technique used to explain the positions of minima and maxima can not be
used to get the intensity of maxima.
208 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
4.10 DIFFRACTION GRATING
A diffraction grating consists of equally spaced, parallel slits. If a is the width of the slit
and b is the width of the opaque portion between two adjacent slits, then (a + b) is the
distance between the adjacent slits. This is known as grating element. If there are N
parallel slits (rulings) in each centrimetre, then grating element is given by
1
(a + b) = cm.
N
The grating equation can be written as :
(a + b) sinq = nl; n = 1, 2, ...
The above equation gives the position of nth maxima.
Diffraction by a circular aperture
When a plane wavefront falls on a
circular hole, it is diffracted by the hole.
The response, if received on a screen at
a large distance, the pattern is a bright
disc surrounded by alternate dark and
bright rings of decreasing intensity as
shown in fig. 4.46. The position of first
dark ring from the hole at an angle q
with the axis
1.22l
Fig. 4.46 sinq = ,
d
where l ® wavelength of the light used.
1.22 lD
The radius of first dark ring R = Dq= (for small q).
d
Most of the light coming from the hole is concentrated within the first dark ring, this
radius is also called radius of the diffraction disc.
Ex. 24 Plane microwaves are incident on a long slit having a Ex. 26 Angular width of central maximum in the Fraunhoffer
width of 5.0 cm. Calculate the wavelength of the microwaves if the diffraction pattern of a slit is measured. The slit is illuminated by
first diffraction minimum is formed at q = 30°. light of wavelength 6000 Å. When the slit is illuminated by light of
Sol. For first diffraction minima, another wavelength, the angular width is decreases by 30%.
Calculate the wavelength of this light. The same decrease in the
l angular width of central maximum is obtained when the original
sinq =
d apparatus is immersed in a liquid. Find refractive index of the
Given, q = 30° liquid.
l 2l
\ sin 30° = Sol. Angular width of central maxima =
d
.
5
2l '
1 For the other light it is =
or l = 5´ d
2
According to given condition, we have
= 2.5 cm. Ans.
2l ' 2l
Ex. 25 Light of wavelength 560 nm goes through a pinhole of = ( 0.70)
d d
diameter 0.20 mm and falls on a wall at a distance of 2.00 m. What Þ l¢ = 0.7 l = 0.7 × 6000 Å
will be the radius of the central bright spot formed on the wall? = 4200 Å.
Sol. The radius of central dark can be obtained as When the apparatus is immersed in liquid, the same decrease is
observed in the angular width.
lD
R = 1.22
d 2
ll ( 2 l air ) / ml
Angular width in liquid = =
d d
=
(
1.22 ´ 560 ´ 10 -9 ´ 2 ) = 0.68 cm. Ans. or ml =
1
= 1.43 . Ans.
0.20 ´ 10 -3 0.7
WAVE OPTICS 209
Ex. 27 A convex lens of diameter 8.0 cm is used to focus a Sol. Let the thickness of the wedge at the point where the maximums
parallel beam of light of wavelength 620 nm. If the light be focused of both coincides be t. For constructive interference in reflected light, we
at a distance of 20 cm from the lens, what would be the radius of the have
central bright spot formed ? l
2mt cos r = ( 2n + 1)
Sol. The angular spread of central bright is given by 2
Fig. 4.48
Fig. 4.49
(i) The resolution limit of normal human eye is one minute (1¢).
(ii) The resolution limit of a telescope is given by angle q, where
1.22 l
q = rad.
d
Here l is the wavelength of light used and d is the diameter of objective lens of
the telescope.
(iii) The resolution limit of a microscope is given by
é 1.22 l ù
x = ê 2m sin q ú metre,
ë û
where m is the refractive index of medium between objects and lens; q is the angle
subtended by the objects at objective lens of the microscope. m sinq is called
numerical aperture of the lens.
4.11 TRANSVERSE NATURE OF LIGHT
Interference and diffraction phenomenon prove the wave character of the light. These
phenomenon do not give any idea; whether light waves are transverse or longitudinal.
Polarisation proves the transverse character of light waves. Transverse character of
light waves was known in the early nineteenth century; however the association of
electric and magnetic vectors with light wave was known only after Maxwell. The electric
field in a light wave propagating in free space is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Natural light consists of many pulses emitted
by different atoms; in general have electric field in different
directions. Hence the resultant electric field at a point
changes continuously and randomly. Such a light is called
unpolarised light. If Eo is the amplitude of the resultant of
all the waves, then it can be resolved into two components;
Ex and Ey, where Ex = Eo cosq and Ey = Eo sinq.
The intensity of light due to x-component is given by
I x = Ex2 = Eo2 cos2 q, and due to y-component.
E02 E02
or I0 = + = E02 .
2 2
Thus unpolarised light can be assumed of two components;
I0
each of intensity .
2
4.12 POLARISATION
When electric field vector (or magnetic) vibrates only along
one direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation, the
light is said to be linearly polarised light and the phenomenon
associated is called polarisation. Thus when unpolarised
light is incident on a polariser, the emerging light becomes
I0
linearly polarised of intensity .
2
Plane of polarisation
The plane which passes through direction of propagation
and perpendicular to the plane of vibration is known as
plane of polarisation. Fig. 4.52
4.13 POLARISATION BY REFLECTION : BREWSTER¢ S LAW
In 1808 Malus found that when natural light is incident of a glass slab,
the reflected light becomes partially polarised. Brewter forwarded his
study and found that when light is incident on glass slab at certain
angle, called polarising angle, the reflected light becomes linearly
polarised. This happens when reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other.
Consider a beam of natural light is incident on a glass slab at an angle
ip as shown in fig. 4.55. A part of it is reflected and a part is refracted.
If r is the angle of refraction, then
r + iP = 90°
\ r = 90° – iP.
sin i
By Snell¢s law; m =
sin r Fig. 4.53
sin iP
=
sin ( 90° - iP )
sin iP
=
cos iP
\ m = tan iP. Brewster¢s law
Fig. 4.54
4.14 MALUS¢ LAW
Consider a polariser and a analyser placed at an angle q. If E is the amplitude of the
incident wave, then the amplitude of the wave emerging from analyser will be Ecosq and
thus the intensity of the emerging beam will be given by;
Iq = (E cosq)2
= E2 cos2 q
Iq = Icos2q. Malus¢ law
Thus when plane polarised light is incident on an analyser, which is placed at an angle
q with the polariser, the intensity of emerging light from analyser becomes Icos2q.
Fig. 4.55
In complete rotation of analyser, we will see two maximum and two zero intensities.
For q = 0°, Iq = I cos20° = I
q = 90°, Iq = I cos290° = 0
q = 180°, Iq = I cos2180° = I
q = 270°, Iq = I cos2270° = 0.
Ex. 29 Two polaroids are placed at 90° to each other and the Figure shows the orientation of the polaroids.
transmitted intensity zero. What happens when one more polaroid If I is the intensity of the light emerging from the first polaroid, then
is placed between these two bisecting the angle between them ? intensity of emerging light from second and third are I cos245° and (I
cos245°) sin245°. These are : I/2 and I/4 respectively.
Sol.
Ex. 30 Three nicols prisms are placed such that, first and
third are mutually perpendicular. Unpolarised light is incident on
first nicol¢s prism, the intensity of light emerges from third nicol¢s
prism is 1/16 the intensity of incident light. Find the angle between
first and second nicol¢s prisms.
Sol. Suppose angle between first and second nicol¢s prisms is q.
Then the angle between second and third nicol¢s prisms becomes 90°–q.
If I0 is the intensity of the incident light on the first prism, then intensity
Fig. 4.56
I0
of emerging light from this will be I = . The intensity of light emerging
2
WAVE OPTICS 213
Thus according to the given condition
from second and third nicol¢s prisms be çæ 0 ÷ö cos 2 q
I
and
è 2ø I0 I0
cos2 q sin 2 q =
2 16
éæ I 0 ö 2 ù 2
ê çè 2 ÷ø cos q ú sin q respectively.. 1
ë û ( sin q cos q) 2 =
8
1
or ( 2 sin q cos q)2 =
2
1
or sin 2 (2q) =
2
1
or sin2q =
Fig. 4.57 2
\ 2q = 45°
or q = 22.5°. Ans.
or I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos j
a2 sin j
and tan q = a1 + a2 cos j
( a + b) l l
b = 2mt cos r = (2n - 1) , n = 1, 2, ..... for constructive
d 2
interference
and 2mt cos r = nl , n = 0, 1, 2, ................. for destructive
interference
(b) In transmitted light :
2mt cos r = nl , n = 0, 1, 2, .................. for constructive
interference
l
and 2mt cos r = (2n - 1) , n = 1, 2, ...............for
2
* Central fringe bright destructive interference
* In Lioyd's mirror central fringe is dark. 6. Interference in wedge shaped film :
4. Displacement of fringes :
l
b = .
2m tan a
7. Fraunhoffer diffraction at single slit : Diffraction occurs due
to super position between the wavelets originated from same
wave front. For diffraction, size of aperture is order of wave
length of wave.
a sin q = l , for first order minima
WAVE OPTICS 215
23. A beam with wavelength l falls on a stack of partially reflecting that the third bright fringe of known light coincides with the 4th
planes with separation d. The angle q that the beam should make bright fringe of the unknown light. From this data, the wavelength
with the planes so that the beams reflected from successive planes of the unknown light is
may interfere constructively is (where n, = 1, 2, ............) (a) 393.4 nm (b) 885.0 nm
(c) 442.5 nm (d) 776.8 nm
31. In a Young's double slit experiment, 12 fringes are observed to be
formed in a certain segment of the screen when light of wavelength
600 nm is used. If the wavelength of light is changed to 400 nm,
number of fringes observed in the same segment of the screen is
given by
(a) 12 (b) 18
(c) 24 (d) 30
32. When a thin transparent plate of thickness t and refractive index m
æ nl ö æ nl ö is placed in the path of one of the two interfering waves of light,
(a) sin -1 ç ÷ (b) tan -1 ç ÷
è d ø è d ø then the path difference changes by
(a) (m + 1) t (b) (m – 1) t
æ nl ö æ nl ö
(c) sin -1 ç ÷ (d) cos -1 ç ÷ (m + 1) (m - 1)
è 2d ø è 2d ø (c) (d)
t t
24. The maximum number of possible interference maxima for slit-
33. In a Young's double-slit experiment the fringe width is 0.2 mm. If
separation equal to twice the wavelength in Young¢s double-slit
experiment is the wavelength of light used is increased by 10% and the separation
(a) infinite (b) five between the slits is also increased by 10%, the fringe width will
(c) three (d) zero be
25. A Young¢s double slit experiment uses a monochromatic source. (a) 0.20 mm (b) 0.401 mm
The shape of the interference fringes formed on a screen is (c) 0.242 mm (d) 0.165 mm
(a) straight line (b) parabola 34. The velocity of light emitted by a source S observed by an observer
(c) hyperbola (d) circle O, who is at rest with respect to S is c. If the observer moves
26. If I0 is the intensity of the principal maximum in the single slit towards S with velocity v, the velocity of light as observed will be
diffraction pattern, then what will be its intensity when the slit
(a) c+v (b) c–v
width is doubled
I0 v2
(a) I0 (b) (c) c (d) 1-
2 c2
(c) 2I0 (d) 4 I0
27. White light falls normally on a film of soapy water whose thickness 35. If a star is moving towards the earth, then the lines are shifted
is 5 x 10-5 cm and refractive index is 1.40. The wavelengths in the towards
visible region that are reflected the most strongly are : (a) red (b) infrared
(a) 5600 Å and 4000 Å (b) 5400 Å and 4000 Å (c) blue (d) green
(c) 6000 Å and 5000 Å (d) 4500 Å only 36. Conditions of diffraction is
28. The radiation pressure (in N/m2) of the visible light is of the order
of a a
(a) =1 (b) >> 1
(a) 10–2 (b) 10–4 l l
(c) 10 –6 (d) 10–8
29. Laser beams are used to measure long distance because a
(c) << 1 (d) None of these
(a) they are monochromatic l
(b) they are highly polarised
37. Diffraction and interference of light suggest
(c) they are coherent
(a) nature of light is electro-magnetic
(d) they have high degree of parallelism
30. A mixture of light, consisting of wavelength 590 nm and an (b) wave nature
unknown wavelength, illuminates Young's double slit and gives (c) nature is quantum
rise to two overlapping interference patterns on the screen. The (d) nature of light is transverse
central maximum of both lights coincide. Further, it is observed
Answer Key 23 (c) 24 (b) 25 (a) 26 (d) 27 (a) 28 (c) 29 (d) 30 (c)
Sol. from page 231 31 (b) 32 (a) 33 (c) 34 (c) 35 (a) 36 (b) 37 (b)
218 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
38. Consider the following statements, in case of Young's double-slit 43. The observed wavelength of light coming from a distant galaxy is
experiment: found to be increased by 0.5% as compared with that coming from
a terrestrial source. The galaxy is
1. Initial slit is necessary if we use an ordinary extended source
(a) stationary with respect to the earth
of light. (b) approaching the earth with velocity of light
2. Initial slit is not needed if we use an ordinary but well (c) receding from the earth with the velocity of light
collimated beam of light. (d) receding from the earth with a velocity equal to
1.5 × 106 m/s.
3. Initial slit is not needed if we use a spatially coherent source
44. In YDSE, how many maximas can be obtained on a screen including
of light. central maxima in both sides of the central fringe if l = 3000Å,
Which of the above statements are correct? d = 5000Å
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 3 (d) 1
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 45. In hydrogen spectrum the wavelength of Ha line is 656 nm whereas
39. A beam of electron is used in an YDSE experiment. The slit width in the spectrum of a distant galaxy, Ha line wavelength is 706 nm.
is d. When the velocity of electron is increased, then Estimated speed of the galaxy with respect to earth is
(a) 2 ×108 m/s (b) 2 ×107 m/s
(a) no interference is observed 6
(c) 2 ×10 m/s (d) 2 ×105 m/s
(b) fringe width increases 46. In the figure is shown Young's double slit experiment. Q is the
(c) fringe width decreases position of the first bright fringe on the right side of O, P is the
11th fringe on the other side, as measured from Q. If the wavelength
(d) fringe width remains same
of the light used is 6000 × 10–10m, then S1B will be equal to
40. Three light waves combine at a certain point where their electric
field components are
y1 = a sin wt , y2 = a sin(wt + 60°) , y3 = a sin(wt - 120°)
Their resultant at that point is :
(a) a (b) 2a
(c) 3a (d) none of these
41. Ocean waves moving at a speed of 4.0 m/s are approaching a beach
at an angle of 30° to the normal, as shown in figure. Suppose the (a) 6 × 10–6 m (b) 6.6 × 10–6m
(c) 3.138 × 10 m –7 (d) 3.144 × 10–7 m
water depth changes abruptly at a certain distance from the beach
and the wave speed there drops to 3.0 m/s. Close to the angle q is 47. In Young's double slit experiment, the two slits act as coherent
: sources of equal amplitude A and wavelength l. In another
experiment with the same set up the two slits are of equal amplitude
A and wavelength l but are incoherent. The ratio of the intensity
of light at the mid-point of the screen in the first case to that in the
second case is
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1
(c) 4 : 1 (d) 1 : 1
48. A monochromatic beam of light falls on YDSE apparatus at some
angle (say q) as shown in figure. A thin sheet of glass is inserted in
front of the lower slit S2. The central bright fringe (path difference
= 0) will be obtained
Answer Key 38 (c) 39 (c) 40 (a) 41 (c) 42 (b) 43 (d) 44 (c) 45 (b)
Sol. from page 231 46 (a) 47 (b) 48 (d)
WAVE OPTICS 219
49. In a Young¢s double slit experiment, the separation between the 51. Optical path for yellow light is same if it passes through 4 cm of
two slits is d and the wavelength of the light is l. The intensity of 4
light falling on slit 1 is four times the intensity of light falling on glass or 6 cm of water. If the refractive index of water is , what
3
slit 2. Choose the correct choice(s)
is the refractive index of glass ?
(a) if d = l, the screen will contain only one maximum
(a) 2 (b) 1.5
(b) if l < d < 2l, at least one more maximum (besides the central
maximum) will be observed on the screen 16 3
(c) (d)
(c) if the intensity of light falling on slit 1 is reduced so that it 9 4
becomes equal to that of slit 2, the intensities of the observed 52. Two beams A and B of plane polarised light with mutually
dark and bright fringes will increase perpendicular planes of polarisation are seen through a polaroid.
(d) if the intensity of light falling on slit 2 is reduced so that it From the position when the beam A has maximum intensity (and
becomes equal to that of slit 1, the intensities of the observed the beam B has zero intensity) the polaroid is rotated through 30°
dark and bright fringes will increase. to make A and B appear equally bright. If IA and IB are the initial
50. Light from a source emitting two wavelengths l1 and l2 is allowed intensities of A and B respectively, then what is the ratio of IA to
to fall on a Young’s double slit apparatus after one of the IB?
wavelengths is filtered. The position of interference maxima is
noted. When the filter is removed i.e. both the wavelengths are (a) 1 (b) 1/3
now incident on the slits, it is found that the maximum intensity (c) 3 (d) 3/2
is now produced where the fourth maxima occurred previously. If 53. A beam of unpolarized light of intensity I0 passes through a
the other wavelength is filtered, the third maxima is found at the combination of an ideal polarizer and an ideal analyzer with their
same location. The ratio of the two wavelengths is :
transmission axes at 60°. What is the intensity of the beam coming
(a) 3 (b) 4 out at the other end?
4 5
(a) I0 (b) I0/2
(c) 3 (d) 4
5 7 (c) I0/ 4 (d) I0/8
Level -2
1. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a distant source falls 3. A single slit of width a is illuminated by violet light of wavelength
on a single slit 1 mm wide and the resulting diffraction pattern is 400 nm and the width of the diffraction pattern is measured as y.
observed on a screen 2 m away. The distance between the first When half of the slit width is covered and illuminated by yellow
dark fringes one other side of the central bright fringe is light of wavelength 600 nm, the width of the diffraction pattern is
(a) 1.2 mm (b) 1.2 cm (a) the pattern vanishes and the width is zero
(c) 2.4 cm (d) 2.4 mm (b) y/3
2. Consider the three waves represented by (c) 3y
(a) 0 (b) 9
l
(c) 6 (d) 7 (c) (d) l
3
2l
(c) (d) 2l
3
17. In a Young’s double slit experiment, if the incident light consists (a) shifts in +ve y-axis direction
of two wavelengths l1 and l2, the slit separation is d, and the (b) shifts in –ve y-axis direction
distance between the slit and the screen is D, the maxima due to
the two wavelengths will coincide at a distance from the central (c) remains at same position
maxima, given by : (d) may shift in upward or downward depending upon
l1 l2 wavelength of light
(a)
2 Dd 21. For the two parallel rays AB and DE shown here, BD is the
wavefront. For what value of wavelength of rays destructive
(b) (l1 - l2) . 2d interference takes place between ray DE and reflected ray CD ?
D
(c) LCM of l1 .
D and l . D E
2
d d
A
l 1D l2D D
(d) HCF of and
d d x
B
18. When the diffraction pattern from a certain slit illuminated with 60°
laser light (l = 6330 A°) is projected on a screen 150 cm from the F C Mirror
slit, the second minima on each side are separated by 8 cm. This
tells us that : (a) 3x (b) 2x
(a) the slit is approximately 0.005 cm wide
(c) x (d) 2 x
(b) the slit is approximately 0.05 cm wide
(c) a / l is approximately 7.5 (a is the slit width) 22. In the adjacent diagram, CP represents a wavefront and AO & BP,
the corresponding two rays. Find the condition on q for
(d) a / l is approximately 750 constructive interference at P between the ray BP and reflected
19. There are two sources kept at distances 2 l. A large screen is ray OP
perpendicular to line joining the sources. Number of maximas on
the screen in this case is (l = wavelength of light)
¥
S1 S2
2l
¥
(a) 1 (b) 3
(a) cosq = 3l/2d (b) cosq = l/4d
(c) 5 (d) 7
(c) secq – cosq=l/d (d) secq – cosq = 4l/d
d æ m2 ö
(c) ç - 1÷ t (d) (m2 – m1 )t
S1 S2 m
è 1 ø
28. Two polaroids are placed in the path of unpolarized beam of
intensity I0 such that no light is emitted from the second polaroid.
nl 4l If a third polaroid whose polarization axis makes an angle q with
(a) sin -1 (b) cos
-1
d d the polarization axis of first polaroid, is placed between these
polaroids then the intensity of light emerging from the last polaroid
d -1 l will be
(c) tan -1 (d) cos
4l 4d
æ I0 ö 2 æ I0 ö 2
26. There are two plane mirrors. They are mutually inclined as shown (a) ç ÷ sin 2q (b) ç ÷ sin 2q
è 8 ø è 4 ø
in figure. S is a source of monochromatic light of wavelength l.
The reflected beam interfere and fringe pattern is obtained on the
æ I0 ö 4
screen. If q is small, the fringe width will be : (c) ç ÷ cos q (d) I 0 cos 4 q
è 2 ø
d
S1 S2 O
D
(a) I ( q) = I0 for q = 0°
(b) I ( q) = I0 / 2 for q = 30° (a) only five bright fringes appear on the screen
(b) only six bright fringes apper on the screen
(c) I ( q) = I0 / 4 for q = 90° (c) point y = 0 corresponds to bright fringe
(d) point y = 0 corresponds to dark fringe.
(d) I(q) is constant for all values of q
1. Statement -1 : Corpuscular theory fails in explaining the velocity Statement -2 : It happens due to the interference of light reflected
of light in air and water. from upper and lower face of the thin film.
Statement -2 : According to corpuscular theory, light should travel 6. Statement -1 : No interference pattern is detected when two
faster in denser medium than in rarer medium. coherent sources are infinitely close to each other.
2. Statement -1 : In everyday life the Doppler’s effect is observed Statement -2 : The fringe width is inversely proportional to the
readily for sound waves than light waves. distance between the two sources.
Statement -2 : The wavelengths of light waves are shorter than 7. Statement -1 : It is necessary to have two waves of equal intensity
sound waves. to study interference pattern.
3. Statement -1 : Coloured spectrum is seen when we look through Statement -2 : There will be an effect on clarity if the waves are of
a muslin cloth. unequal intensity.
Statement -2 : It is due the diffraction of white light on passing 8. Statement -1 : White light falls on a double slit with one slit is
through fine slits. covered by a green filter. The bright fringes observed are of green
4. Statement -1 : Interference pattern is made by using yellow light colour.
instead of red light, the fringes becomes narrower. Statement -2 : The fringes observed are coloured.
9. Statement -1 : Radio waves can be polarised.
Dl
Statement -2 : In YDSE, fringe width is given by b = . Statement -2 : Sound waves in air are longitudinal in nature.
d
10. Statement -1 : Microwave communication is preferred over optical
5. Statement -1 : Thin film such as soap bubble or a thin layer of oil communication
on water show beautiful colours when illuminated by white light.
Statement -2 : Microwave provide large number of channels and
band width compared to optical signals.
Passage for (Qs. 4 - 6) : 8. How many fringes will cross through the centre if an identical
Two parallel beams of light P and Q (separation d) containing radiation paper price is pasted on the other slit also ? The wavelength of
of wavelength 4000 Å and 5000 Å (which are mutually coherent in the light used is 6000 Å.
each wavelength separately) are incident normally on a prism as shown (a) 15 (b) 20 (c) 25 (d) 30
in . The refractive index of prism as a function of wavelength is given
by the relation
Incoming d y=0
Outgoing
Electrons i Electrons
d D
Which of the following graphs can be expected to represent the
Crystal plane number of electrons 'N' detected as a function of the detector
position 'y' (y = 0 corresponds to the middle of the slit)
9. If a strong diffraction peak is observed when electrons are incident y
at an angle i from the normal to the crystal planes with distance 'd' y
between them (see figure), de Broglie wavelength ldB of electrons
can be calculated by the relationship (n is an integer)
(a) N d (b) N d
(a) 2d cos i = nldB (b) 2d sin i = nldB
(c) d cos i = nldB (d) d sin i = nl dB y y
10. Electrons accelerated by potential V are diffracted from a crystal.
If d = 1 Å and i = 30°, V should be about
(c) N d (d) N d
( h = 6.6 ´ 10-34 Js, me = 9.1 ´ 10-31 kg , e = 1.6 ´ 10-19 C )
12. Column I shows four situation of standard Young's double slits arrangement with the screen placed far away from the slits S1 and S2. In each
of these cases S1P0 = S2P0, S1P1 – S2P1 = l/4 and S1P2 – S2P2 = l/3. Where l is the wavelength of the light used. In the case B, C and D, a
transparent sheet of refractive index µ and thickness t is pasted on slit S2. The thickness of the sheets are different in different cases. The
phase difference between the light waves reaching a point P on the screen fromt he two slits is denoted by d(P) and the intensity by I(P).
Match each situation given in Column I with the statement(s) in Column- II valid for that situation.
Column I Column II
P2
S1
P1
(A) P0 (p) d( P0 ) = 0
S2
S2 P2
P1
(B) (m –1)t = l / 4 P0 (q) d( P1 ) = 0
S1
S2 P2
P1
(C) (m - 1)t = l / 2 P0 (r) I ( P1 ) = 0
S1
S2 P2
P1
(D) (m - 1)t = 3l / 4 (s) I ( P0 ) > I ( P1 )
S1 P0
(t) I ( P2 ) > I ( P1 )
Column – I Column – II D
A. At t = 0, value of | y | in (cm) (p) 40
B. At t = 5 s value of | y | (in cm) (q) 7.5
C. Speed of central maxima when it is at geometrical (r) 1
centre of screen (in cm/s)
D. Fringe width at time t = 3.75 sec (µm) (s) 8
(t) 12
11. Match the following S1 and S2 in column I represent coherent point sources, S represents a point source. l = wavelength of light emitted by
the sources.
Column I Column II
S1
2l
(A) (p) Number of maximas = 2
S2
infinite screen
Screen
S1 S2
2l
(t) Only hyperbolic fringes
Answer Key 13 A-(q) ; B-(p) ; C-(s) ; D-(r) 14 A-(p, q) ; B-(r, s) ; C-(r, t) ; D-(p)
Sol. from page 237
228 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
1. Two radio frequency point sources separated by 2.0 m are air between the plates acts as a thin film. How many bright fringes
radiating in phase with l = 0.50 m. A detector moves in a circular will be seen by an observer looking down through the top plate?
path around the two sources in a plane containing them. How
many maxima it detects ? Do the problem by minimum calculations.
Ans. 16
2. A double-slit arrangement produces interference fringes for sodium
light (l = 589 nm) that have an angular separation of 3.50 × 10–3
rad. For what wavelength would the angular separation be 10%
greater ? Ans. 140
Ans. 648 nm. 4. Two nicols are so oriented that the maximum amount of light is
3. In figure, a broad beam of light of wavelength 683 nm is sent transmitted. To what fraction of its maximum value is the intensity
directly downward through the top plate of a pair of glass plates. of transmitted light reduced when the analyser is rotated through
The plates are 120 mm long. Tough at the left end, and are (a) 30° (b) 60° ?
separately by a wire of diameter 0.048 mm at the right end. The Ans. (a) 75% (b) 25%.
(3D1 + 2 D2 )l
Ans. b =
d
13. A young’s double-slit arrangement produces interference fringes
for sodium light (l = 5890Å) that are 0.20° apart. What is the
angular fringe separation if the entire arrangement is immersed in
water (refractive index of water is 4/3).
Ans. 0.15°.
(a) Find the location of the central maximum on the y-axis.
14. Two coherent narrow slits emitting light of wavelength l in the
(b) Find the light intensity at point O relative to the maximum
same phase are placed parallel to each other at a small separation
fringe intensity.
of 2l. The light is calculated on a screen S which is placed a
(c) Now, if 600 nm light is replaced by white light of range 400
distance (D >> l) from the slit S1 as shown in figure. Find the
to 700 nm, find the wavelength of the light that form maxima
distance x such that the intensity at P is equal to the intensity at t
exactly at O [ All wavelengths in this problem are for the
® 0.
given medium of refractive index 4/3. Ignore dispersion.
Ans. (a) 4.33 mm (b) I = 0.75 Im (c) 650, 4333 mm
19. If figure, S1 and S2 are identical radiators of waves that are in
phase and of the same wavelengths l. The radiations are separated
by distance d = 3l. Find the greatest distance from S1, along x axis,
for which fully destructive interference occurs.
Ans. 3D .
15. In YDSE, l = 500 nm, d = 1.0 mm and D = 1 m. Find the minimum
distance from the central maximum for which the intensity is half
the maximum intensity.
Ans. 1.25 × 10–4 m.
16. Two small angled transparent prisms (each of refracting angle A = 35l
1°) are so placed that their bases coincide, so that common base is Ans. x = .
4
230 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
20. Light of wavelength 624 nm is incident perpendicularly on a soap 24. A circular converging lens, with diameter d = 32mm and focal
film (with µ = 1.33) suspended in air. What are the least two length f = 24, forms images of distance point objects in the focal
thicknesses of the film for which the reflections from the film plane of the lens. Light of wavelength l = 550 nm is used .
undergo fully constructive interference? (a) Considering diffraction by the lens, what angular separation
Ans. 0.117µm, 0.352 µm. must two distant point objects have to satisfy Rayleigh’s
21. In figure, a glass lens is coated on one side with a thin film of criteria?
magnesium fluoride (MgF2) to reduce reflection from the lens (b) What is the separation Dx of the centres of the images in the
surface. The refractive index of MgF2 is 1.38; that of glass is 1.50. focal plane ? (That is, what is the separation of the central
What is the least coating thickness that eliminates. (via interference) peaks in the two curves?)
the reflections at the middle of the visible spectrum (l = 550 nm)? Ans. (a) 2.1 × 10–5 rad (b) 5.0 µm.
Assume that the light is approximately perpendicular to the lines
25. An astronomical refracting telescope has an objective of diameter
surface.
1 m for light of wavelength 6000Å. Calculate the limit of resolution
of the telescope. If the limit of resolution for the human eye be 2
minute of arc, find the useful magnifying power for the telescope.
Ans. 7.32 × 10–7 rad, 400.
26. Two polaroides are placed at 90° to each other. What happens,
when (N –1) more polaroids are inserted between them? Their
axes are equally spaced. How does the transmitted intensity behave
for large N.
Dl (2 D )l or n1l1 = n2l2
13. (d) b = and b¢ = ( d / 2) = 4b
d or 12 × 600 = n2 × 400
14. (c) If a is the amplitude of wave, then \ n2 = 18
32. (b)
I
I = 4 a2, then I 0 = a 2 = . Dl
4 33. (a) b =
d
15. (c) For unequal width of slides, let a1 = a, and a2 = 0.5 a
D ´ 1.1l Dl
So I1 = ( a1 + a2 ) 2 = ( a + 0.5a) 2 = 2.25a2 < 4a2 and b ' = = =b
1.1 d d
and I 2 = ( a1 – a2 ) 2 = ( a – 0.5a) 2 = 0.25a 2 > 0 . = 0.2 mm.
16. (c) b = b¢ 34. (c) Velocity of light does not depend on frame of reference.
232 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
35. (c) When star is moving towards earth, the wavelength coming Dl v
from the star appears to decrease. So spectrum of light coming We have, =
l c
from the source shift towards blue.
36. (a) Dl
or v = ´c
37. (b) l
38. (c) 50
= ´ 3 ´ 108
h h 656
39. (c) l= = , so with the increase in velocity of electron,
P mv = 2.28 × 107 m/s
wavelength decreases, and so fringe width decreases. 46. (a) Path difference , S1B = Dx = nl .
40. (a) The waves can be represented as : As P is the position of 11th fringe from Q, so from O it will
be 10.
a
\ Dx = nl = 10l
= 10 × 6000 × 10–10
60°
a = 6 × 10–6 m
120° 47. (b) For coherent sources, I1 = ( a + a )2 = 4a 2
So I A - I B = 5I–I=4I 4/3´6
= =2.
43. (d) We can write 4
Dl v 52. (b) I A cos 2 30° = I B cos 2 60°
=
l c
IA cos 2 60°
v \ I =
0.5 B cos 2 30°
or = 8
100 3 ´ 10 1/ 4 1
\ v = 1.5 × 106 m/s = =
3/ 4 3
44. (c) Dxmax = d = 5000 Å. Given l = 3000 Å
53. (d) I = ( I 0 / 2)cos 2 60°
As l < d < 2l , \ n = 3 .
I0 1 I0
45. (b) Dl = 706 – 656 = 50nm = ´ = .
2 4 8
nl 30
= 30 °
2l °
x °
30
n 60°
=
2 F C
For, n = 0 , sin q = 0 , q = 0°
l
Dx = ( BC + CD) +
1 2
n = 1 , sin q = , q = 30°
2 x 2x
Where CD = = ,
n = 2 , sin q = 1 , q = 90° cos30° 3
Thus there is central maximum ( q = 0° ) and two for each 2x 1 x
and BC = CD sin 30° = ´ =
q = 30° and 90° and so total maximas are 5. 3 2 3
D (m - 1)t æ x 2x ö l l
16. (d) D = Now Dx = ç + ÷ + = 3x + 2
d è 3 3ø 2
Dl For destructive interference
Shift = 3l
d Dx = (here)
2
D (m - 1)t Dl
\ = l 3l
d d \ 3x + =
2 2
l l or l = 3x
or t = = = 2l
m - 1 1.5 - 1 22. (b) PO = d sec q and CO = PO cos 2q = d sec q cos 2q
Path difference,
nDl1 ( n + 1) Dl 2
17. (c) yn = = Dx = CO + PO
d d
= (d sec q + d sec q cos 2q)
æ l2 ö Effective path difference
or n = ç ÷
è l 2 - l1 ø l
Dxeff = d (sec q + sec q.cos 2q) +
2
æ l1l 2 ö æ D ö For constructive interference,
and yn = ç ÷ç ÷ .
è l 2 - l1 ø è d ø Dxeff = l
2l l
18. (a) sin q2 = or d (sec q + sec q cos 2q) + = l
d 2
æ 2l ö l
or q2 = sin -1 ç ÷ or cosq = .
è d ø 4d
Given y = D(2 q2 ) = 8 × 10–2 l
23. (c) l = 20 m ; PQ = 5m = .
4
æ 2l ö
or 1.5 ´ 2 ´ sin -1 ç ÷ = 8 × 10–2
è d ø B
Þ d ; 0.005 cm
l
19. (b) Dxmax = 0 and Dxmax = 2 l +
4
Theortical maximas are = 2n + 1 = 2 × 2 + 1 = 5
C P Q A
But on the screen there will be three maximas.
20. (b) Dx1 = (m1 - 1)t = (1.5 - 1)t = 0.5t For A :
æ lö
æ4 ö 2
(m 2 - 1) ´ 2t = ç - 1 ÷ ´ 2t = t . Dx = ç PA + ÷ - QA
and Dx2 = è 4ø
è 3 ø 3
l
As Dx2 > Dx1 , so shift will be along –ve y-axis. = ( PA - QA) +
4
WAVE OPTICS 235
l l l = d cos q . q
= + = S1 d S2
4 4 2 \ d cos q = 4l
or f = p rad . æ 4l ö
or cosq = ç ÷.
è d ø
Thus I A = I + I + 2 I I cos p = 0 .
26. (b) Two images of the source are shown in figure.
For B :
æ lö S1 acosq
Dx = ç PB + ÷ - QB
è 4ø acosq
l q S
= ( PB - QB ) + d
4 q
l l acosq
= 0+ =
4 4 Screen
S2 acosq D
p
or f = The separation between the two images,
2
d = 2 (2acos q sin q)
Thus IB = I + I + 2 II cos p / 2 = 2a sin 2q
= 2I. D = (2a cos q) cos q + 4 a
For C :
= 2a cos 2 q + 4a
æ lö
Dx = QC - ç PC + ÷ For small q, sin q ; q and cos q = 1
è 4ø
\ d = 2a ´ 2q = 4a q ,
l and D = 6a.
= (QC - PC ) -
4 Now fringe width,
l l Dl 6a ´ l
= - =0. b= = 4a q
4 4 d
or f = 0 3l
=
Thus I C = I+I+2 II cos0° = 4I. 2q
\ I A : I B : IC = 0 : 1 : 2.
27. (d) Optical path difference
24. (b) a = 0.3 m, b = 0.7 m. Angle of prism, A = 1°.
\ D = a + b = 0.3 + 0.7 = 1 m. Dx = (m 2 – m1)t .
p éæ I 0 ö 2 ù 2
2a (m - 1) A = 2 ´ 0.3(1.5 - 1) ´
d =
180 28. (a) I = êç ÷ cos q ú cos (90° - q)
ëè 2 ø û
= 0.0052 m
I0
Dl 1 ´ 6000 ´ 10-10 = cos 2 q sin 2 q
Now b = = 2
d 0.0052
I0
= 1.15 × 10–4 m = sin 2 2q
= 0.115 mm. 8
C 3 ´ 108 = 4I o
l= = = 3 ´ 102
f 106
1
The angular position of P, tan q = ; or q = 30° .
2p 3
Phase difference, f = .Dx
l Now path difference = Dx - D x ¢
2p d 2p 150 p = d sin 30° - d sin 30° = 0
= ´ = ´ =
300 2 300 2 2 So zero order fringe will form at P.
p 6. (a, d)
Now I = a 2 + a 2 + 2aa cos = 2a 2 P
2
I0
=
2 Dx
O
Dl S1 q S
4. (a, c) Fringe width, b = , and so with the increase in D, fringe d 2
d
l
width will increase. As angular fringe width a = , and so Path difference
d
Dx = d cos q
it is independent of D.
Dxmin = 0
5. (a, c)
and Dxmax = d = 5.5 l
D x¢ l 3l 5l
a q So = 0, , l, , 2l , ,
O Dx
2 2 2
Dx q
1m 7l 9l 11l
3l , , 4l , , 5l,
2 2 2
P
3m
Practically only five fringes will be on the screen,
corresponding to Dx = l, 2l, 3l, 4l, and 5l
The path difference at 0,
Dx = d sin a = d sin 30°
10 -3
= m
2
D/8 D/8 D
m1 = 1.20 +
b Dx = DG in air – EF in glass
( 4000) 2 = DE sin r2 – m d tan q
d sin r2
b = - m d tan q
and for 5000 Å,m2 = 1.20 + . cos q
( 5000)2
d ( m sin q )
1 = - m d tan q
cos q
Critical anglesin C1 = m1 Corresponding phase difference f = 0
1 \ I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos 0°
and sin C2 = m
2
= 4I + I + 2 4 I ´ I = 9 I .Ans.
since m1 > m2
Passage for Q no. 7 to 8
\ C 1 < C2.
Therefore total internal reflection can takes place for 4I
7. (c) I1 = I and I2 = .
4000 Å. 9
\ sin C1 = sinq
I1 A12 9 A 3
1 = = ; or 1 =
or = 0.8 I2 A22 4 A2 2
m1
I max ( A1 + A2 ) 2 (3 + 2) 2
1 Thus = 25 .
I min = ( A1 - A2 ) 2 =
(3 - 2)2
é b ù
or ê1.20 + ú = 0.8 8. (a) Displacement of fringes,
êë ( 4000) 2 úû
D (m - 1)t
D = , and
b = 8 ´ 105 ( Å )
2 d
which gives Ans.
Dl
8 ´ 105 fringe width, b =
5 (c) Now m1 = 1.20 + = 1.25 d
( 4000) 2
D D(m - 1)t / d
\ n = = ( Dl / d )
8 ´ 10 5 b
and m2 = 1.20 + = 1.232.
( 5000)2 (m - 1)t
=
The transmission of light takes place only of 5000 Å. l
P
d i N l l
M dP0 = , dP1 = 0, dP2 =
4 12
Q
I ( P0 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos p / 2
We know that for constructive interference the path
difference is nl = I1 + I 2 = I 0 + I 0 = 2I0
\ nl = 2d cos i I ( P1 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 = 4I 0
Also by de-broglie concept
h h h I ( P2 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos p / 6
l= = =
p 2mK.E 2meV = I1 + I 2 + 3 I1 I 2
nh = I0 + I 0 + 3 I 0
\ = 2d cos i
2meV = (2 + 3)I 0
2 Therefore, q match with (B)
h
Here n =1 : V = (C)
8med 2 cos 2 i
S2 P2
(6.6 ´10-34 )2
= P1
8 ´ 9.1´ 10-31 ´ 1.6 ´10 -19 ´ (10 -10 ) 2 ´ cos2 30 P0
= 50 V
11. (c) S1
12. A-p, s; B-q; C-t; D-r, s, t
Here d ( P0 ) = -l / 2; d ( P1) = -l / 4, d ( P2 ) = -l / 6
S2 P2 I ( P0 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos(– p)
P1
P0 = I1 + I 2 - 2 I1 I 2 = I 0 + I 0 - 2I 0 = 0
S1 I ( P1 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos( -p / 2)
= I1 + I 2 = I 0 + I 0 = 2I0
For path difference l / 4 , phase difference is p / 2 . æ pö
I ( P2 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos ç - ÷
For path difference l / 3 , phase difference is 2 p / 3 . è 3ø
Here, S1P0 - S2 P0 = 0 = I1 + I 2 + I1 I 2 = I 0 + I 0 + I 0 = 3I 0
\ d( P0 ) = 0 I ( P2 ) > I ( P1)
\
Therefore, (p) matches with (A). (t) matches (C).
The path difference for P 1 and P 2 will not be zero. The
intensities at P0 is maximum. (D)
I ( P0 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos0° P2
S2
2
= ( I1 + I 2 ) = ( I 0 + I 0 ) = 4 I 0 2 P1
P0
p
I ( P1) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos
2 S1
= I1 + I 2 = I 0 + I 0 = 2I0
I ( P2 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos(2p / 3)
Here dP0 = 3l / 4; dP1 = -l / 2; dP2 = -5l /12
= I1 + I 2 - I1 I 2 = I 0 + I 0 - I 0 = I 0
WAVE OPTICS 239
æ -3p ö Dx 15 1 15 15 3 15
I ( P0 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos ç y= ´ = ´ 0.2 ´ = = m = cm = 7.5cm
è 2 ÷ø d 20 2 20 200 40 2
R.I of medium cannot be less than 1 which become
= I1 + I 2 = I 0 + I 0 = 2I0
19
I ( P1 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos( -p ) At time t = = 4.755. Here after this time R.I. of medium will
4
not change.
= I1 + I 2 - 2 I1 I 2 = I 0 + I 0 - 2 I 0 I 0 = 0 So position of central maxima at time t = 5 s will be same as at
time t = 4.75 s
I ( P2 ) = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos [ -5p / 6 ]
Dx é -4 ù 1
(
= I1 + I 2 - 3 I1 I 2 = 2 - 3 I 0 ) \ y= = ´ 0.2 ´ –4 = –0.4m
d êë 1 úû 2
(r), (s), (t) matches (D). | y | = 40 cm.
13. A-(q); B-(p) ; C-(s); D-(r) For speed of central maxima, differentiating equation (i), w.r.t.
time we get
For central maxima, path diff (Dx) = 0 for any point P on the dy Dx é -20 ù
screen. =
dt d êë (20 – 4t ) 2 úû
Dx = m m (S2 P) - [mm (S1P – x) + mx]
Central maxima will be at the centre of geometrical centre of
masses x = thickness of glass slab.
screen when R.I. of medium is 5.
= m m[ S2 P - S1P ] - (m m - m) x
15
Hence at time t =
æ yö 4
= m m çè d . ÷ø - (m m - m) x = 0
D dy ö Dx æ 20 ö 1 20 2
Here, ÷ = çè - ÷ø = ´ 0.2 ´ - = m/s = 8 cm/s
\ dt ø t = 15 d 25 2 25 25
4
D æ mm - m ö Dx é 20 - 4t - 5 ù
y= x=
d êë 20 - 4t úû
Fringe width
d çè m m ÷ø
Dl 1 100 ´ 10 -10
Dx é 15 - 4t ù b= = ´ = 10 -6 m = 1mm
d m 2 ´ 10 -3 5
= … (i)
d êë 20 - 4t úû
14. A - (p, q), B - (r, s), C - (r, t), D - (p)
At time, t = 0
120 ´ 10-3
= ; 140 Ans.
0.854
l 4. According to molus law, the intensity
2. The angular of fringes is given by, a = . Thus for 10%
d
I = I 0 cos 2 q
greater value of a , there need the wavelength 1.1 l.
Therefore required wavelength = 1.1 × 589 = 648 nm. 2 3I 0
Ans. (a) For q = 30° , I = I 0 cos 30° = = 0.75 I0
4
3. The fringe wedge is given by
2 I0
(b) For q = 60° , I = I 0 cos 60° = = 0.25 I 0 Ans.
4
240 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
= (22 + 4 2 + 2 ´ 2 ´ 4cos60°)1/ 2 d
Given yn = ,
2
= 28 . Ans.
d (2n - 1) Dl
2. Given a1 = 8, a2 = 10 and f = 30° \ =
2 2 d
\ R = ( a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos f)1/ 2
d2
or l = .
= (82 + 102 + 2 ´ 8 ´ 10cos30°)1/ 2 (2n - 1) D
= 14.5. Ans. 6. The distance of nth maxima from central maxima is given by
3. (a) The resulting intensity is given by
Dl
yn = n ,
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos f d
= nI 0 Ans.
4. The intensity is given by
I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos f
The average intensity
Dx = d sin q ,
2p the corresponding phase difference
ò Id f 2p
0
f = (d sin q)
I av = 2p l
ò df
0 The intensity, IR = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos f
æ 2p ö
1 = I + 4 I + 2 I ´ 4 I cos ç (d sin q) ÷
2p ò
= ( I1 +I 2 + 2 I1I 2 cos f) d f è l ø
é 2p ù
= I1 + I 2 . = 5 I + 4 I cos ê (d sin q) ú … (i)
ël û
5. For missing wavelength
The maximum intensity will occur, when
cos f = +1 , \ I 0 = 9I
On solving equations (i) and (ii), we get
I0 æ pd sin q ö
IR = [1 + 8cos 2 ç ÷] .Ans.
9 è l ø
WAVE OPTICS 241
8. If l is the wavelength of light used, then
10 ´ 10 -2 (m - 1) ´ 0.5 ´ 10-3
or 5 ´ 10 -3 = 2 ´ 10 -3
d = 100 l
\ µ = 1.2. Ans.
11. The path difference produced due to the introduction of the
plate
Dx = (m - 1)t
= (1.5 – 1)× 1.5 × 10–6
(a) The angular separation = 0.75 × 10–6 m
The corresponding phase difference
b l l 1
a= = = = radian Ans.
D d 100l 100 2p
f = Dx
l
Dl 0.50 ´ l
(b) b = = = 0.5 ´ 10 -2 cm Ans.
d 100l 2p
= ´ 0.75 ´ 10-6
9. The second wave gets reflected from the water surface suffers a 5000 ´ 10-10
l = 3p .
phase changes of p rad or path difference of . The situation is If I is the intensity of each wave, then
2
shown in figure. Icentre = I + I + 2 II cos3p = 0 Ans.
The lateral shift is given by
\ (3D1 + 2 D2 )l
b = . Ans.
d
13. If b be the fringe width in air, then in water
x l
or 2a + = nl
D 2
D æ 2n + 1 ö
\ x = ç ÷ l ; n = 0, 1, 2. Ans.
2a è 2 ø
cosq =
D . 1 ´ 6000 ´ 10-10
\ b = = 0.172 mm.
2
D +x 2
3.48 ´ 10-3
Ans.
D 1
\ = 17. The distance of third bright fringe from central bright is given by
D2 + x2 2
Dl
y = 3 .
or x = 3D . Ans. d
15. If I is the intensity of each wave, then maximum intensity Imax = Thus the separation between the fringes of two colour is
4I. Suppose f is the phase difference between the waves corre-
D
Dy = 3 ( Dl )
I max d
sponding to , then
2
1
I max = 3´ ´ (6000 - 4800) ´ 10-10
= I + I + 2 II cos f 5 ´10-3
2
= 0.0072 cm. Ans.
or 2I = 2 I + 2 I cos f 18. (a) The fringe displacement D is given by
p æ mg ö
\ f = rad Dç - 1÷ t
2 D(m - 1)t m
D = = è m ø
The corresponding path difference d d
l p l
Dx = f´ = ´
2p 2 2p æ 1.5 ö
1.5 ç - 1÷ ´ 10.4 ´ 10-6
= è 4/3 ø
l
= . 0.45 ´ 10 -3
4
= 4.33 × 10–3 m.
(b) The path difference produced due to the introduction of
glass sheet
æ mg ö
Dx = (µ – 1)t = ç m - 1÷ t
è m ø
æ 1.5 ö
= ç - 1÷ ´ 10.4 ´ 10 -6
è 4/3 ø
= 1.3 × 10–6 m.
If y is the required distance, then The corresponding phase difference
dy
Dx = 2p
D f = Dx
l
dy l
or = 2p
D 4 = ´ 1.3 ´ 10-6
600 ´ 10 -9
Dl
\ y = 13
4d p
=
3
1 ´ 500 ´ 10 -9 The intensity at O is given by
= = 1.25 ´ 10 -4 m .
4 ´ 1 ´ 10 -3
æ 13p ö
16. The separation between the sources is given by I = I 0 + I 0 + 2 I 0 I 0 cos ç ÷
è 3 ø
d = 2a (m - 1) A
= 3I 0
æ p ö
= 2 ´ 0.20(1.5 – 1) ´ ç 1 ´ ÷ 3I 0 3
è 180 ø I
Thus = =
I max 4I0 4 . Ans.
= 3.48 × 10–3 m Ans.
(c)The path difference at O is given by
Dl
The fringe width b = Dx = 1.3 × 10–6 m.
d
WAVE OPTICS 243
For maximum 22. (a)For first minima, we have
Dx = nl. d sin q = l
\ nl = 1.3 × 10–6
l
1.3 ´ 10-6 1300 ´ 10 -9 1300 \ d =
or l = = = nm sin q
n n n
For n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ; l = 1300 nm, 650 nm, 443.3, 260 nm,........... 650nm
= = 2511nm
Thus the required wavelength range is 650 nm and 433.3 nm. sin15°
19. The minimum and maximum path difference between waves ; 2.5 µm. Ans.
from S1 and S2 can be zero and 3l corresponding to x = ¥ and x (b)If l¢ is the required wavelength, then for first order maximum
= 0. Thus for the farthest minima, Dx = l/2.
If x is the required distance, then path difference 3
d sin q = l'
2
Dx = x2 + d 2 - x
d sin q
\ l' = 1.5
2511 ´ sin15°
=
1.5
= 430 nm. Ans.
23. The angular width of central maxima is,
or ( Dx + x) 2 = x2 + d 2 a µ l
or Dx 2 + x 2 + 2 xDx = For two wavelength l1 and l2, we have
x2 + d 2
2 a1 l1
or Dx 2 + 2 xDx = d =
a2 l2
l
Substituting, d = 3l and Dx = , we have
2 a 6000
= l2
2 0.70a
ælö ælö
ç ÷ + 2x ç ÷ = (3l )2
è2ø è2ø \ l2 = 4200Å. Ans.
35l For the same decrease in wavelength, if µ is the refractive index,
\ x = . Ans. then
4
20. If t is the thickness of soap film, then for constructive interfer- l1
ence µ = l2
l
2mt = (2n - 1) 6000
2 = = 1.43 . Ans.
4200
l
\ t = (2n - 1) 24. If q0 and qi are the angular separation between the objects and
4m
their images, then
l 624 ´ 10-9 1.22l
For n = 1, t =
4m
= = 0.117 ´ 10 -6 m q0 = qi =
4 ´ 1.33 d
3l 1.22 ´ (550 ´ 10 -9 )
For n = 2, t = = 0.352 ´ 10-6 m . Ans. =
4m 32 ´ 10 -3
21. In the situation given the air- MgF2 and MgF2 - glass both act as = 2.1 × 10–5 rad. Ans.
rigid boundary, and so for destructive interference in reflected
light, we have.
l
2m 2 L = (2n - 1)
2
l
or L = (2n - 1)
4m 2
For least value, n = 1, also µ2 = 1.38.
(550 ´ 10-9 )
\ l = (2 ´ 1–1) ´
4 ´ 1.38
= 99.6 nm. Ans.
244 OPTICS AND MODERN PHYSICS
From the geometry, the separation 2p
1
Dx = f qi I av = 2p ò Id q
0
= 0.24 × 2.1 × 10–5
= 5.0 µm Ans.
2p
25. The resolution limit of the telescope is 1
ò I 0 cos
2
= qd q
2p
1.22l 1.22 ´ 6000 ´ 10-10 0
q = =
d 1
I0
= .
= 7.32 × 10–7 rad 2
The resolution limit of human eye Intensity is given by
q = 2 minute
Power
I0 =
2 p area
= ´ = 2.91 ´ 10-4 rad
60 180
10 –3 10
The magnifying power of telescope is = = W/m 2 .
3 ´ 10 -4 3
RP of telescope
M = I0 5 2
RP of eye \ I av = = W/m .
2 3
The energy of light passing through the polariser per revolution
q ' 2.91 ´ 10-4
= = ; 400 .Ans.
q 7.32 ´ 10-7 2p
E = I av ´ A ´ T = I av ´ A ´
w
26. Total number of polaroids = 2 + ( N - 1) = N + 1 .
5 2p
If q is the angular between consecutive two polaroids, then = ´ (3 ´ 10-4 ) ´
3 31.4
p = 10–4 J. Ans.
Nq = 2 28. It should be remembered that the transmitted intensity of
unpolarised light will be I0/2 for all orientation of polariser sheet
p whereas the intensity of polarised light varies from zero to Ip.
or q = .
2N Thus intensity of emerging light from polarising sheet will be;
According to Malus, if I0 is the intensity of the light incident on Imin = I0/2,
second polaroid (after emerging from first), then intensity of I0
emerging light from it is given by and I max = + Ip .
2
Iq = I 0 cos 2 q . According to given condition; I max = 4I min
After emerging from N polaroid, it is
I0 I0
or + Ip = 4
I = 2 N
( I 0 cos q) = I 0 (cos q) 2N 2 2
3I 0
2N \ Ip =
é æ p öù 2
= ê I0 cos çè 2 N ` ÷ø ú . Ans.
ë û
Ip 3
or =
p I0 2
When N is very large ; ® 0,
2N
I0
\ I ® I0 . For q = 45° , I = + I p cos 2 45°
2
27. If I0 is the intensity of plane polarised light incident on the
polariser, then intensity of emerging light is given by I0 I p
= +
2 2
I = I 0 cos 2 q
The average value of I over one revolution can be calculated as : I 0 3I 0 / 2 5 I 0
= + = . Ans.
2 2 4