Charlie Parker's Solo To Ornithology Facets of Counterpoint, Analysis, and Pedagogy

Charlie Parker's Solo to "Ornithology": Facets of Counterpoint, Analysis, and Pedagogy
Author(s): Richard Hermann

Source: Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Summer, 2004), pp. 222-262
Published by: Perspectives of New Music
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25164564
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Charlie Parker's Solo to
"Ornithology":
Facets of Counterpoint,
Analysis, and Pedagogy
- %
Richa
Introduction
BebopThomas
or bop1 provides,
Owens, "the inofthe
lingua franca wordsas the
jazz, serving of principal
the noted jazz scholar
musical language of thousands of jazz musicians. It also affects the way
earlier jazz styles are played, and is the parent language of many action
('free jazz') and fusion players, who from time to time return to the
idiom, not to parody it but to honor it and to reaffirm their musical
roots" (Owens 1995, 4). Further, bop is considered by some to be the
first movement in jazz that provides a conscious aesthetic exploration of
its material that moves beyond the realm of entertainment.
Parker's Solo to "Ornithology" 223
I develop a new method for jazz analysis and pedagogy, the tonally
adjusted species model.2 I use this model for an in-depth study of Charlie
Parker's recorded improvised solo to "Ornithology" of March 28,
1946.3 Comparing "How High the Moon"4 with Charlie Parker and
Benny Harris's contrafact of it, "Ornithology," provides appropriate con
text for the analysis of Parker's solo.5 The essay closes with suggestions
for jazz pedagogy based on this new method.
Some Pedagogical Conventions of Jazz Harmony
Example 1 presents the conventions adopted here for chord symbols

found in "lead-sheets."6 Each chord contains a note that is the root. That
root is understood to appear in the bass at the initial moment that the
chord appears unless explicitly stated otherwise.7 This figure only pro
vides listings for chord-types employed in this essay and is not exhaustive
of the harmonic entities of the time. Further, other labeling conventions
exist for these chord-types. The two chord-types with asterisks are
"added sixth" chords.8
Labels Descriptions Examples
major triad C = CEG

Xm minor triad Dm = D F A
X7 dominant seventh-type chord G7 = G B D F
X7sus dominant seventh with a fourth, no third G7sus = G C D F
Xm7 minor triad with a minor seventh Dm7 = DFAC
XA7 major triad with a major seventh FA7 = F A C E
fully diminished seventh chord B? = BDFAI>

diminished triad with a minor seventh B0 = BDFA
X6 major triad with a major sixth C6 = CEGA*
Xm6 minor triad with a major sixth Dm6 = DFAB*
X9 X7 with a major ninth G9 = G B D F A
X7-9 X7 with a minor ninth G7 -9 = G B D F At
X7+9 X7 with an augmented ninth G7 +9 = G B D F AI
EXAMPLE 1: CONVENTIONS FOR CHORD SYMBOLS EMPLOYED
224 Perspectives of New Music
The sequences of chords are called "the changes" or "chord changes"

by jazz practitioners. Arrangers, chord-playing rhythm section members,
and improvising soloists frequently reharmonized the changes to popular
melodies and newly composed jazz melodies (sometimes called
"heads").9 Reasons for these reharmonizations include: thinning out a
dense harmonic passage in order to create an easier sequence of chords to
improvise upon; adding harmonies to passages that may seem to be har
monically static;10 changing harmonies in order to create more II-V-I
progressions; and, finally, using tritone substitutions. Owens (1995, 5)
describes one of the most important reharmonization techniques of that
latter category as follows.
One swing element that bebop adopted was the tritone substitution?
in essence, replacing the V7 chord with a dominant seventh on scale
degree 1>2, a tritone (three whole steps) away. Thus, in the key of C,
the fundamental progression G7-C becomes Dl?7-C. (Both chords in
these progressions commonly contain one or two enriching notes
such as the ninth, the augmented eleventh, or the thirteenth.)11
Specific reharmonization techniques are restricted by the melody as it

is presented. However during the improvisations, these techniques were
more freely employed by chord-playing members of the rhythm sections
and soloist as the limiting melody was no longer present. Frequently an
improvising soloist and rhythm section members reharmonize specific
chords in the progression in different ways, and this may result in unin
tentional dissonant clashes. I will return to these clashes in the analysis of
Parker's solo later in the essay.
Comparative Analyses of "How High the Moon" and "Ornithology"
Owens (1995, 4) has written the following about the most general tonal
and formal characteristics of show tunes and other popular music of the
1930s and early 1940s:
Swing harmonies centered around mildly dissonant chords such as

dominant sevenths, dominant ninths, and major and minor triads
with added sixths. These harmonies supported the largely diatonic
melodies of riff-dominated jazz tunes and of popular songs. These
themes most often were either 12-measure blues songs or 32
measure melodies in aaba or abac form.
The form of "How High the Moon" is ABAC, and many would ascribe the
same formal design to "Ornithology." Martin (1996,144, n. 94) makes the
point for this repertoire that the sections in ABAC form are somewhat less
clearly demarcated than in AABA form. In a Broadway musical number such
as "Moon," changes in orchestration and accompanimental patterning can
clearly mark B and C parts for listeners; bop?as exemplified in this perfor
mance of "Ornithology"?usually makes no such design distinctions for
those parts. As "Ornithology" repeats the opening material, the form from
the listener's "viewpoint" is probably closer to an A A".
The notation of Example 2 aligns the lead sheets of "Moon" and
"Ornithology" and reflects my A A' interpretation. The sheet music for
"Moon" lacks the repeat signs that Aebersold and Sloane provide for
"Ornithology."12 While traces of "Moon"'s pitch succession can be
found in "Ornithology"?e.g., the starting first four different pitches of
"Moon" are compressed into a string of eighth notes in "Ornithology"
?the tunes are essentially different.13 "Ornithology"'s changes do stay
close to those of its model but Parker's and Harris's head is clearly a
reharmonization. The changes involve adding or usually subtracting
pitches to "enrich" major and minor triads or reduce enriched chords to
triads. Also, a thinning out of the less essential harmonies in the chord
progression occurs. "Moon"'s tempo is marked "slowly" while "Orni
thology"'s tempo is quarter-note 236; thus, it seems that the thinning
out was to facilitate "blowing" (improvising) for the soloists.14 Another
important set of differences is that different harmonies are found in the
first and second endings starting at measure eleven.
The pick-ups in "Moon" enable us to hear the G-major chord in mea
sure one as tonic. However, the four measure drum solo and the opening
sequence in "Ornithology" keeps us from hearing G as tonic until measure
11. In several later recordings, tellingly, the initial drum solo is abandoned
in favor of a simple piano introduction that establishes the key of G major.
Differences in the tunes and harmonies of these songs are reflected in
their middlegrounds. Example 3 provides sketches for comparison. Bass
lines are generated from the chordal roots. Even though the two tunes
essentially have the same surface harmonic progression, the middle
grounds show that their pitch structures are very different indeed. As can
be seen, "Moon" descends from the third scale degree while "Ornithol
ogy" descends from scale degree five. An important consequence of this
concerns the harmonic sequence found near the start of the tunes. In
"Moon" the sequence is both harmonic and melodic. It combines with
the opening tonic to form a downwards arpeggiation terminating on the
subdominant. Thus, the second unit of the sequence is understood to be
passing and subordinate; the outer voice motion joins the bass and
soprano in a series of descending parallel tenths.
D7 O0 D7 GA7 Gm C9
"How High
the Moon"
"Ornithology"
EXAMPLE 2: LEAD SHEETS OF "HOW HIGH THE MOON" AND

"ORNITHOLOGY" ALIGNED
"How High the Moon"

m.5 m.9 m.13a m.16a
Sequence (mode mixture)
Head to "Ornithology"
Sequence (mode mixture)
= motivic parallelism
EXAMPLE 3: MIDDLEGROUND SKETCHES FOR "HOW HIGH THE

AND "ORNITHOLOGY"
In "Ornithology," the starting points of each sequential unit and the

opening tonic form a series of descending parallel fifths with the tune.
The tenths between the outer voices in measures 3 and 7 "break up"
(contrapuntally avoid) the parallel fifths that would otherwise obtain
between measures 1 and 5. The initial tonic supports the fifth scale
degree which descends to the third scale degree in measure 9. The ii07 of
measure 10 breaks up fifths between measures 9 and 10. Thus, the local
F-major and Et-major tonal regions suggested by the sequence are pass
ing between the tonic and dominant as would be expected of a descend
ing bass line from the first scale degree in parallel minor. Note that a
motivic parallelism occurs between this fourth progression in the bass
line, G to F to Et to D, and a fourth progression extending from the final
note of the fundamental line found at measure ll.15 This parallelism is
indicated by asterisks on the sketch.
However, the most important difference between the two is that
"Moon" is an interrupted form while "Ornithology" is an uninterrupted
form that is repeated (Schenker 1979, L19-20).16
Thus, these are two quite distinct compositions in terms of overall
tonal structure.
Pedagogy and Some Recent Research on Jazz Improvisation

Considered
Jazz pedagogy for improvisation emphasizes three constructs: motivic

manipulation, "scale running," and "running changes" (arpeggiation of
the chords). Larger scale structuring techniques involve the descending
line, guide tones, and paraphrase. Each is briefly discussed.
Example 4a gives one of Charlie Parker's typical motives. Lawrence
Koch shows how the notes of a motive can also be interpreted as running
changes using chordal sevenths, ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths (called
"tensions" or "chordal extensions"), in place of the chordal roots, thirds,
fifths and sevenths that were typically played ("run") by swing players.17
Aligned above them, these "motivic" pitches have their chordal factors
identified within parentheses.18
Example 4b is taken from the same essay. It shows a scale whose notes are
to be used in improvisation when the V7/V appears in the chord progres
sion. The scale to be run consists of the chordal members of the V7 along
with three superposed thirds, the ninth, the eleventh, and the thirteenth.19
Nonetheless, an important problem was not addressed by these three
more traditional pedagogical methods: how is a solo fashioned from
these three techniques and given a sense of direction or coherence?20
Because members of the same class of motives are associational in their

relationships with one another, naturally the order in which they appear
has no bearing on whether they are related. The motives only need be
adapted to the chord at hand; however, several adaptations are possible.
And why one order of motives and not some other?21 As for running
chord changes, why start on one chordal member and end on another?
Further, such chord running risks becoming predictable. And as far as the
scalar approach is concerned, if third stacking produces chords of as
many as seven distinct pitch-classes, then what does the harmonic pro
gression mean anymore if successions of these extended chords share
great numbers of common tones?22 Current jazz pedagogy has no answer
for these questions.23
Recently Thomas Owens provides an important start towards answer
ing these questions. He writes:
[E> major]
example 4: koch and owens on parker's improvising.

a) koch (1974, 70). bracketed material added by this author.
b) koch (1974, 70). this scale to be used
for improvising when a v7/v appears.
c) measures 3-6 from the opening chorus of charlie parker's
solo of 18 sept. 1949 (mercury 35013) to "the closer," a
blues. excerpt from an example found in owens (1995, 36)
But lying beneath the surface of most of his [Parker's] improvisa

tions is another factor that helps generate the sense of tightness in
his music. Typically entire phrases, and even entire choruses and
groupings of choruses, are goal-oriented; they arrive on a final note
that lies at the end of a lengthy stepwise descent. (Owens 1995, 35)
Example 4c is an excerpt from an Owens analysis of a segment from a

Parker solo that shows the scalar descent. His example is abridged here,
and his marking of two motives in this segment is omitted.
Although Owens's efforts lead in a fruitful direction by relating the
various dissociated parts of jazz improvisational pedagogy?motives,
change running, and scales?to a design that bridges local harmonic
junctures, they fail to deal with the deeper tonal problems of consonance
and dissonance as well as what the other tones of the solo?not part of
the descending scale?contribute in a larger fashion to the solo. Further,
what of Parker's solos or those of others that do not feature a prominent
descending fine?
A jazz pedagogical technique called "guide-tones" also results in a
descending line, and this, at least in part, provides an answer to the previ
ous question about principles of local consonance and dissonance treat
ment.24 A guide-tone Une is constructed from a one-note-per-chord
alternation of chordal thirds and sevenths. If a chord in the changes does
not have a chordal seventh, then one is supplied. As many jazz and popu
lar music tunes of the time include many circle-of-fifths harmonic pro
gressions, this naturally results in a descending fine. Two such lines, one
starting on the chordal third and the other on the seventh, can be con
structed. Example 5 provides both guide-tone lines for "Ornithology."
These are suggested as ear-training exercises for soloists and can provide
a harmonically coordinated thread of descending steps around which to
organize a solo.
Another technique of organizing a solo involves paraphrasing the mel
ody or head. Owens writes: "The specifics of a theme were rarely signifi
cant in shaping his [Parker's] solo" (Owens 1995, 30.) Henry Martin
takes the position that fragments of the melody or essential voice-leading
aspects of it become embedded within the deeper voice-leading strata of
a Parker solo. In this sense, he calls Parker's solos "thematic."25
Both Larson (1996) and Martin (1996) have published sophisticated
analyses of Parker's solos. Larson is the more conservative Schenkerian
analyst as Martin takes a modified approach. Martin poses perhaps the
most important question regarding the applicability of this kind of analy
sis and provides his response:
The problem remains, then, how to conceptualize the separated, dis

tinct strophes as a single piece or movement, when a single over
arching background presents an entirely alternate conception of the
piece as a unique statement of harmonic closure in the large with
small-scale hierarchical ramifications. . . . Nonetheless, regardless of
how the soloist connects the strophes melodically, the overall form
of the solo is of necessity a linear set of choruses that may resist the
forced hierarchization of inclusion within a single overarching back
ground. (Martin 1996, 30-1 )26
Larson (1987) provides quite plausible and insightful Schenkerian

analyses of solos by Bill Evans and Oscar Peterson on Thelonious Monk's
"'Round Midnight." He demonstrates that a background structure can
G Gm C7 F Fm Wl
B7 A0 D7 Gm D7+9 | Bm ' E7 Am D7
EXAMPLE 5: GUIDE-TONE LINES FOR "ORNITHOLOG
emerge when these performers avoid or otherwise undermine cadential

structures at the end of strophes.
While it may be possible for a background to emerge in performances
with a single soloist who uses the tactics Larson describes (most likely a
pianist), most jazz performances have several soloists. Further, these
soloists may well intuitively pick different primary melodic tones
(Kopft?ner). Thus, an overarching Schenkerian tonal structure organiz
ing an entire performance is unlikely.27 Larson does not address the ques
tion of how knowledge of Schenkerian theory helps to guide jazz
musicians in the practice of their art.
The Tonally Adjusted Species Model
I believe it is more revealing to understand Parker's solos as a polyphonic

melody or compound line.28 The composition of such compound lines
from species-like lines has a long history29 The model introduced here
reverses that process by decomposing the compound line into its simpler
constituent lines. Example 6 provides an outline of the model. It is a
theory of how to read the surface of a composition or solo for its contra
puntal voice leading at various rhythmic levels: the first subdivision of the
beat, the beat, the measure, and the phrase.30 The analytical results are
musically notated and called a "normalized surface."
It has four main components: (1) rhythmic normalization, (2) har
monic concepts, (3) chromaticism and enharmonia, and (4) voice
leading considerations. Each component has various subdivisions. Let us
consider several key points of this model.
In rhythmic normalization, the implied polyphony of a compound line
is worked out through verticalization (loosely the inverse of arpeggia
tion) by demonstrating which pitches are strongly related by registral
proximity. However, assigning pitches to voices by proximity alone can
be overruled in two ways. First, significant temporal aproximity can pre
vent association of pitches in the same register. Second, the resulting
voice-leading should not contain errors as dictated by the rules of species
counterpoint as modified here.31 Unprepared dissonances are provided
with implied consonant notes that show the missing preparation; the sup
plied consonances are enclosed within parentheses (see Rothstein 1991).
Before we employ the temporal prescriptions for consonance and disso
nance of species counterpoint and assign specific durations and metric
positions for each voice, we consider rhythmic displacement. Some
pitches of the implied voices naturally are delayed as only one pitch is
played at a time. Further, the suspension figure of fourth and fifth species
also causes delay. If displacement occurs at the first level of beat
Rhythmic Normalization
1. Species Counterpoint Rules for Durational Patterning of Consonance and Dissonance in Meter
2. BLhythmic Displacement Techniques
Implied Polyphony
Arpeggiation: chord whose pitches do not begin simultaneously
Verticalization: undoes arpeggiation creating simultaneous voices
Implied Pitches: supplied to create preparation and resolution of dissonances
as specified by species counterpoint and also non-species
like chordal sevenths
Equalization: "rhythmic shifts performed in order to achieve a more even surface rhythm"
[Rothstein 1981, 28]
Anticipation: of individual pitches and chords; removed in "normalized surface"
Delay: of individual pitches and chords: suspensions, retardations, accented
passing tones, appoggiaturas, accented neighboring tones; these pitches
are removed in "normalized surface"
Harmonic Concepts
1. Principal Bass Note of Harmonic Scale-Step as Cantus Firmus: "Harmonic Bass/Cantus Firmus"
2. Variable Harmonic Bass/Cantus Firmus Lengths Due to
Episodic Local Metric Augmentation : extension, prolongation, hypermeter
Episodic Local Metric Diminution: harmonic acceleration, loss of hypermeter
Episodic Local Harmonic/Metric Skew: displacement via delay or anticipation
3. Chordal Sevenths, Ninths, etc.: resolve as Kirnberger's "essential dissonance"
Chromaticism and Enharmonia

1. Essential Chromaticism and Enharmonia
Chordal: chromatic or enharmonic pitches as chordal members
Non-chordal: foreground dissonance altered to fit in local tonal region
2. Non-Essential Chromaticism and Enharmonia: purely surface PT or N functions are omitted
Voice-Leading Considerations
1. Variable Number of Voices within any Given Segment
Merging of Two Voices into One
Diverging of One Voice into Two
Abandonment of a Voice: line segment ends with literal or implied consonance
New or Renewed Entrance of a Voice: line segment starts with literal or implied consonance
2. Register Adjustments Made to Provide for Good Continuation of Voices above
Harmonic Bass/Cantus Firmus
Overlapping
Underlapping
Register Transfer
3. Some Other Rhythmic Considerations
Variable Species Type: 5th species-like in that species type can change with each new
Harmonic Bass/Cantus Firmus note
Speed Pruning: arpeggiation pitches and PTs and Ns that embellish are pruned if they
are more than four times quicker than the beat with the exception of
the consonant pitch that aligns with the Harmonic Bass/Cantus Firmus
and possibly other pitches as fall in typical species patterns after
rhythmic normalization
Multiple Simultaneous Dissonances: rhythmically aligned so as to create consonant
relation between them above the Harmonic Bass/
Cantus Firmus where possible
EXAMPLE 6: OUTLINE OF THE TONALLY ADJUSTED SPECIES MODEL
subdivision, then normalization removes the displacements of anticipa

tions and delays such as accented passing tones, accented neighboring
tones, and suspensions. When suspensions occur at a slower level than
the beat, temporal levels may be normalized at the discretion of the ana
lyst unless the idea of suspension is a characteristic of the piece or is
reserved for special syntactic moments. Pitches are eUminated if their
durations move at or faster than the second level of beat subdivision and
do not fall on the strong locations of the first level or are displaced from
these locations. However, these pitches are retained if they achieved that
rapid subdivisional location due to a compression caused by the necessity
to include crucial voice-leading in many voices, real or implied, within
the few available time slots.
As a polyphonic melody may suggest up to four implied lines, assign
ing durations to the implied voices is aided by combined species. Com
bined species deals with the ways that independent voices, each moving
at their own rate of speed, interact rhythmically.32 For this model, an
important relaxation of contrapuntal theory is employed: with the excep
tion of the cantus firrnus voice, each of the other voices may change its
species-type in a new measure.
In adjusting species and combined species counterpoint for use with
tonal repertoires, several important changes arise due to the influence of
harmony.33 One is that the principal bass notes of the harmonies act as
the cantus firmus: this line will be called the harmonic bass/cantus firrnus
voice, hereafter, simply cantus firmus voice. The rhythms ofthat voice are
limited to meter-confirming rhythms except when localized metric shifts
such as hemiola occur. Fortunately, the situations for the cantus firmus
voice in most swing, show, and early bop tunes are unproblematic.
So-called chordal sevenths, ninths, elevenths, and so forth must be pre
pared (with actual or implied notes) in the time slot occupied by the pre
ceding cantus firmus note and resolved above the following note of the
cantus firmus.
Of course, species counterpoint studies make no allowance for
chromatic or enharmonic events, and so they must be accommodated.
Chromatic and enharmonic pitches are permitted in three cases: first, if
they are chordal members?that is, either the root, third, fifth, or sev
enth; second, if the chromaticism or enharmonia of passing tones, sus
pensions, or neighboring tones are the result of being adjusted for the
local tonal region and, moreover, if they occur at the level of the beat or
its first subdivision; and third, chromatic notes are included if they result
from mode mixture.
Chromatic or enharmonic as well as diatonic dissonant pitches quicker
than the level of the first division of the beat are not considered to be a
part of the voice-leading model. Another adjustment to species counter
point concerns the variable number of voices?real or implied?as pre

sented by composition or improvisation. The techniques listed in the
example are fairly self-explanatory. Nonetheless, one more observation is
important: pitches registrally filling in between the main two pitches
involved in a register transfer may be omitted from the normalized sur
face. Those registrally filling pitches are also there to fill out lower-level
durational patterning.
Naturally, not every analyst's normalized surface of the same piece will
agree in all details.
Model Analysis and Interpretation of Parker's Solo on

"Ornithology"
This section of the essay analyses two small and challenging segments of
Parker's solo, then an extended passage, and finally the entire solo. This
section concludes with a discussion of dissonant clashes that result from
the rhythm section reharmonizations that are generated "on-the-fly"
during a substantial portion of Parker's solo. Articulation, dynamics, and
important subtleties of pitch and rhythmic nuance are omitted in these
examples, as they lie beyond the scope of this essay.
Example 7a gives the first brief passage from Bird's solo. Numbered
asterisks point out some contrapuntal problems within the passage. At
point 1, the El? is a dissonance that is not prepared and does not resolve
properly as the following Dt conflicts with the D\\ of the chord. At point
2, the dissonance is not prepared, and at point 3 the Dl> is not resolved.
Given that the required pitch for resolution, C5, is itself dissonant against
the prevailing chord, a double passing-tone situation from a chordal root
to a chordal fifth is, perhaps, the best interpretation.
Example 7b removes the rhythmic displacement by shifting the antici
pated El? forward to the following downbeat. One problem is now aggra
vated and another now appears. At point 4, the Dt's duration does not
confirm the meter; it is tied, "short to long" in traditional contrapuntal
terminology. At point 5, as a result ofthat rhythmic normalization, mea
sure 25 now has one too many beats.
Example 7c places the double passing-tone figure in the metric positions
dictated by contrapuntal theory, and the first Bl? of measure 25 is vertical
ized into an alto voice. The passing-tone At would usually be placed on the
second quarter-note position. However, it is coordinated with the passing
note C of the soprano in order to create a local consonance.
Example 8 contains the other brief passage from Bird's solo with num
bered asterisks indicating points of interest and a normalized surface of
that segment.
4 3
\?w=&^
Removes Rhythmic i>\
Displacement in Solo '
?? r lu |J *
m
Rhythmically Normalized
byVerticalization w
EXAMPLE 7: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART ONE
Point 1 concerns the Gm chord. It is not due to mixture but rather is a

supertonic chord of the emerging local F major tonal area. It receives an
added chordal seventh by the soloist that resolves normally to E across
the barline.
After verticalization of the last beat of measure 19 and the first beat of
measure 20, point 2 involves an accented passing tone that is rhythmically
normalized backwards to its contrapuntally sanctioned weak part of the beat.
Point 3 features a retardation of the pitch E that delays the arrival of
the consonant F. Normalization returns the F to its position at the start
of the measure. This also has the effect of distributing the other two
pitches of the triplet over the duration of the second quarter note.
Point 4 is literally an unprepared seventh, but we may understand this
as a register transfer. Note that the chromatic pitches, Et at point 5 and
Dk shortly thereafter, do not satisfy any criteria for model inclusion (not a
chordal member, not altered to fit a local tonal region, nor the result of
mode mixture); thus their durations revert to the notes immediately pre
ceding them.
Now a slightly deeper understanding emerges. The first two beats of
measure 21 comprise an ascending octave leap?not notated in this
example?from F4 to F5; that implied F5 prepares the E and moves
through the consonant passing tone D to the consonant C on the down
beat of the next measure. The pitches A and C subdividing the register
transfer may be eliminated because their role is to maintain the durational
patterning of a string of eighth notes; additionally, they should not be ver
ticalized because there is no immediate and literal continuation for them.
At point 6, the sixteenth note C is eliminated as a neighbor note func
tion in local voice-leading, and its duration is folded into the surrounding
Bk The bar is verticalized and the pitches C4 and G4 are supplied in
order to complete typical species patterns.
Once the first two beats of measure 23 are verticalized, the G at point
7 is understood to be an accented passing-tone on beat one. This is
rhythmically normalized in the analysis to the fourth quarter-note posi
tion of the preceding measure.
The more extended Example 9, measures 12-22, shows that Parker's
solo exhibits temporal displacement at several levels. This passage also
displays extensive motivic play on multiple rhythmic levels. Here the term
"supermetric" will be used for motivic forms that involve non-adjacent
pitches, that extend beyond a measure's length, and that are the results of
one or more analytical stages of the tonally adjusted combined-species
EXAMPLE 8: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART TWO
chromatic motive
EXAMPLE 9: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART THREE
o_ Or-+O ? o
motive
ascend semitone
EXAMPLE 9 (CON
neighboring motive
neighboring motive
counterpoint model. Example 9a provides the solo, while Examples 9b

and c respectively give the normalized surface and the cantus firmus with
chord symbols. The remaining staves show various supermetric motives.
Example 9g has hypermetric markings and arabic numerals beneath it.
Here a two-measure hypermeter is marked with the lower case letter "s"
connected to the lower case letter V by a ligature; s and w stand for
strong and weak "beats" (measures) as expected. Two of these nest
within a four-measure hypermeter. The initial beat of that deeper hyper
metric level is indicated with an underlined and capitalized letter "S."
The numerals indicate contrapuntal relations with the cantus firmus
found in Example 9c.
The rhythmic displacements start with the surface syncopations in
measures 14 and 16-20. Those of measures 16-20 are displacements
both within the measure and between measures. They are based upon
and metrically displace a descending arpeggio motive of four eighth notes
found at measure 15; this motive conforms to the meter. The top and ini
tial notes of these motives also associate via registral proximity. The first
three of these pitches, <G4, Fj(4, E4>, form a descending passing-tone
motive and the following pitches form neighboring motives. This
passing-tone motive is indicated with asterisks, and Example 9d displays
this supermetric motive. Most importantly, these surface syncopations
bridge the design boundary between the A and A" parts as well as those
of the hypermeter. (The double bars between measures 16 and 17 sepa
rate parts A and A' of the form.)
The neighboring motive is first encountered in a rather disjunct form
on the surface at measures 12 and 13. Brackets point out this motive in
Example 9b's normalized surface. It also reappears in measures 17-8 and
19-20 where it affirms the meter and hypermeter. The first appearance in
measures 12-3, however, provides a two-measure unit that straddles the
hypermetric boundaries. An even deeper rhythmic level neighboring
motive is shown in Example 9f. There the 7 of a 10-7 linear intervallic
pattern?see Example 9g?is extended by its own neighbor. This
instance of the neighbor motive is displaced with regard to the
hypermeter, and also links parts A and A". Note that this motive occurs
on the surface, normalized surface, and supermetric rhythmic levels.34
This 10-7 linear intervallic pattern is also shifted from its normal strong
to-weak position to a "syncopated" weak-to-strong position.
A component of the neighboring motive is the ascending semitone
motive. It appears first in measure 12. It reappears across the barline
between measures 18 and 19 where it starts the two-measure hypermeter
confirming variation of the material from measures 17 and 18. The last
appearance in measure 21 will be discussed in a moment.
Projecting the tonally adjusted species model to the simple level of the
meter reveals a suspension-like motive. This is exhibited in Example 9e.
Even though the contour and the sequence of preparation, dissonance,
and resolution pattern of a suspension are present, this motive is called
suspension-like because the dissonance is a chordal seventh and thus can
not be rhythmically normalized.35
A descending chromatic motive appears between the meter-confirming
descending-arpeggio motive of measure 15 and its displaced versions in
following measures. Via registral proximity, it may be extended down to
F#4 at the end of measure 16. Transposed down a major second, this
motive is enlarged and strides across the whole passage as shown in
Example 9g. Note that the asterisked descending passing-tone motive,
<G4, F|4, E4> , is contained within it and the last pitch, E4, provides the
ending boundary for both motives.
This enlarged chromatic motive spans all or part of three four-measure
hypermetric units. Just after it concludes, a new four-measure
hypermetric unit begins at measure 21. At the start of this unit all of the
motivic forms, with the exception of the suspension-like motive, appear
in rapid succession. Both the descending passing-tone motive and the
descending-arpeggio motive are now in meter-confirming positions. This
meter- and hypermeter-confirming array of surface motives provides a fit
ting end to the multiple-leveled rhythmic displacements.
As has been shown, these displacements involve the design level of part
A, the four-measure hypermeter, the two-measure hypermeter, a linear
intervallic pattern's strong and weak positioning, the measure, the half
measure, and the beat. On several occasions displacements at various
rhythmic levels occur simultaneously. Note that the last appearance of the
ascending semitone motive of measure 21 also has its enlarged supermet
ric form at measures 20 and 21 (see Example 9e). There it provides the
only link across the hypermetric units that end the displacement passage
and start the new meter- and hypermeterically conforming passage.
Example 10 presents a model analysis of the entire solo. Given the
detailed discussion of three of the thorniest passages from Parker's solo, I
will focus on a few other observations.
The first is Parker's remarkable command of dissonance in an impro
vised solo taken at a break-neck speed.36 As can be readily seen from the
transcription, his solo contains many dissonances with missing prepara
tions (several of which we have already discussed). These are all of types
found in music hundreds of years old, that were well understood then as
now and can easily be heard. In spite of the plethora of unprepared disso
nance on the solo's surface, the model analysis only requires twenty sup
plied consonances for the thirty-three measures of implied polyphony.37
Parker's Solo
(at concert pitch) mmm UP ______!_
Normalized
Surface
~~m-h^:-*-&
pm
__E3
07 G
-Kt w
_?? ^
Chord Symbols
and the
Cantus Firmus
| ? ^ Jl %^^: J^ti
fJEfaM=# rpp
T7 JJj i
Gm C7 F
S =^=
ff^PpJpa ^WrS^
jpg^^FgFr~p
Fm Bt7 Eb7
^=
EXAMPLE 10: AN ANALYSIS OF PARKER'S SOLO IN "O

(MARCH 28, 1946)
11
?! j , |lJ ? t | ||rn rjl i?=f^= e&e
T
^=#
?
???
Gm
j li a J w
Bm
J3J * '?Nu.
J fjj I ?ml
Gm
EXAMPLE 10 (CONT.)
20 a _
ll?
XT
C7
t*r #
#
a^ W
23
r iu j i h y ?jTlrTr
u
?HE ?
^
(J) J ^ (?
Bt7 07
gflE
^
26
;? 4j pm n iii 1.111 i\- i vitiy _u ?EEtfc
_ r
iWM
-Aie_,_._rttJTl h*_i
m =?=?
r r r r1
' r *r
D7 r G Cm F7 E7
^ #
EXAMPLE 10 (CONT.)
EXAMPLE 10 (CONT.)
There are only four voice-leading "flaws"?from the viewpoint of this

model?in the entire solo, and all involve missing notes of resolution. In
three cases both preparations and resolutions are lacking: see the first two
pitches?Ft and G?of measure 24, the pitch G of measure 30, and the
pitches G and B of measure 32. The last case involves the omitted resolu
tion of the last note, the chordal seventh C4, in measure 12.
To put these "flaws" in even better perspective, Parker's solo varies in
its polyphony between one real voice and four implied voices. His overall
effort averages 2.76 implied voices per measure?the sum of the number
of voices, real or implied, in each measure divided by the number of mea
sures. This is all done while the quarter note occupies a duration of
approximately one-quarter of a second. This demonstrates Parker's
remarkable contrapuntal fluency.
Finally, Example 11 provides one half of Parker's solo, the chord sym
bols, and the bassist and pianist's contributions. The two bass notes
within parentheses are guesses at these points; the simultaneous combi
nation of forceful bass drum impacts and the attack of the pianist's
chords made these pitches undecipherable with the equipment available
to me. This example shows several dissonant clashes that occur between
the three instruments. While the clashes are evident, the reasons for them
could well be manifold. I will speculate how common reharmonization
and rhythmic displacement ideas might give some accounting for the
musical surface. As a reminder, the duration of an entire measure is only
slightly longer than one second and the typical rate of harmonic change is
one per bar. This makes reacting in real time to one another's reharmoni
zations quite difficult at best.
Parker's Solo
(at concert pitch)
Dodo j
Marmarosa,
piano j
Vic McMillan,
Bass and
Chord Symbols
EXAMPLE 11: "ORNITHOLOGY" PERFORMANCE,

MEASURES 7-22 OF PARKER'S SOLO (DRUMS OMITTED)
For space considerations, only a few of the clashes will be investigated.

In measure 7, the bassist substitutes a D? chord while Parker arpeggiates
the Fm triad and adds the chordal seventh, Ek The pianist anticipates the
next chord at the very end of the measure. The pianist asserts the
expected harmony of measure 10 but substitutes an A? (enharmonically)
for the expected A0 harmony. The bassist affirms the Et7 harmony in mea
sure 9 but then elides the A0 and anticipates by half a measure the
expected D7. Of particular interest are the bassist's FJ and C in the second
half of measure 9. Are they a full one measure anticipation ofthat D7, or
is the Fj( merely a "clam" or error in jazz parlance? (I suspect the latter
case.) Parker's solo essentially affirms the expected changes. In measure
12, McMillan ignores the expected D7 +9 and reproduces the bass line
from the previous measure. In measure 13, McMillan substitutes a G har
mony for the expected Bm chord. Whereas Marmarosa makes the same
substitution, Parker adds a chordal seventh to the expected Bm. In both
measures 14 and 16, McMillan plays the root of the tritone substitution
chords, Bt7 and A?7 respectively for E7 and D7, on the downbeats; how
ever, Marmarosa plays an Am7 in both locations, perhaps as "tensions" or
chordal "extensions." While Parker's part in measure 14 could have sev
eral interpretations including that of substituting an E6 (Dl? = Cf) for the
E7, the result of these differing simultaneous substitutions is hardly
euphonious. Here the pcs {E, Ffl, G, G#, A, Bl>, (B), C, Cf} are all
through various substitution techniques?to be potentially construed as
chordal members by one or more members of the ensemble!
Of related interest is Marmarosa's polyrhythmic "beats" (a pulse
stream) of three eighth-notes' duration. These coincide with two two
measure hypermetric units starting at measures 17 and 21. While the
bassist maintains the quarter-note beat, Marmarosa plays two streams of
these three-eighth-note-long beats in each hand with the left hand fol
lowing at a one eighth-note delay. At measure 17 Parker is in the midst of
his extensive passage of rhythmic displacements analyzed above. Perhaps
Marmarosa reacts to Parker's displacements at measure 17 and then
reproduces another version of his polyrhythms starting at the next avail
able four-measure hypermetric unit, measure 21. However, at measure
21 Parker ends his rhythmic displacement passage and then reaffirms the
meter and hypermeters as mentioned before. Note while Parker's rhyth
mic displacements involve quite complex voice-leading and motivic work,
Marmarosa's polyrhythms involve simple repetitions of chords. We now
turn from analysis of the Parker solo to broader issues.
A Few Implications of this Model for Jazz Pedagogy, Theory,

and History
Instead of having only simple surface rhythms available for analysis and
appreciation, several layers of tonal rhythm are now made explicit. Both
obvious and heretofore unrecognized subtle rhythmic displacements can
now be discussed in a more insightful way.
The implied polyphony aspect of the model provides a more powerful
explanation of how surface motives, scales, and running changes are coor
dinated into a masterful solo than is afforded by current jazz pedagogy.
This model not only avoids the simple associative problem of the motive
but also shows how selected motives combine to form larger polyphonic
voice-leading structures that link across harmonic changes, hypermetric
units, and even design boundaries. It also engages other non-motivic
pitches in that polyphonic structure. These last points provide one specific
method for jazz scholars to evaluate technically how well people who "cop
licks"?that is, borrow motives?fare with them in their own solos.
Another topic for research by jazz scholars that was only touched upon
here is that of the group improvisation that results when different substi
tutions are simultaneously applied to a tune's changes in small ensemble
performances. As the analysis of Parker's solo and his sidemen's contribu
tions in this performance of "Ornithology" shows, each performer's con
tribution is perhaps best related to the changes (a structure that may
not?at least in part?be literally present) rather than to the cumulative
results of the ensemble at any given moment in time.
Jazz pedagogy might well suggest that soloists build several two
voiced contrapuntal frames or "skeletons" for each tune studied. These
structures would guide the soloist in synthesizing surface motives, scales,
and chord running into more coherent solos. This is, of course, a variant
of Owens's observation on Parker's descending scale technique and also
on the guide-tone line technique. However, this pedagogical suggestion
offers even greater potential for synthesis as well as greater variety of
overall shapes for improvised solos.
Two examples of these two-voiced structures are provided here.
Example 12 gives a tonally adjusted two-voiced species counterpoint
skeleton for Parker's solo. It is derived from the normalized surface of his
solo by taking its outer voices and adding connecting voice leading for
the measures in which Parker does not play.38 In conjunction with his
solo and my analysis, this skeleton can be perused to see how scale and
change running, along with motives, are organized in this solo.39
Example 13 provides an alternate tonally adjusted two-voiced species
counterpoint skeleton for "Ornithology" that?with a few changes?can
also be used for "How High the Moon." The two-voiced skeleton is
designed here for the range?when suitably transposed?of the alto saxo
phone. Note that plenty of space is given between the voices so that there
will be ample room for running changes and also for the ease of creating
a solo with three- and four-voiced implied polyphony. It is also a rhyth
mically simple structure so that a soloist may have more freedom.
Fleshing out these skeletons for solos could take the following form.
To orient their ears, soloists play each of the two lines successively with a
recording of a rhythm section. Next they could create an implied two
voiced polyphonic line and also play these with the recording. Last, scale
and chord running along with motives are inserted as desired. A soloist
might build several choruses on each skeleton and develop several skele
tons for each tune. As these skeletons provide registral boundaries, care
ful thought in their construction and linking can create interesting
registral flows for an entire solo.
EXAMPLE 12: TONALLY ADJUSTED TWO-PART SPECIES-COUNTERPOINT

FRAME DERIVED FROM PARKER'S SOLO TO "ORNITHOLOGY"
EXAMPLE 13: ANOTHER TONALLY ADJUSTED, TWO-PART SPECIES

COUNTERPOINT FRAME FOR POTENTIAL SOLOS TO "ORNITHOLOGY"
Conclusions
As this essay's scrutiny of voice-leading structures in Parker's classic

improvisation on "Ornithology" has shown, the strict voice-leading of
Renaissance counterpoint, as tonally adjusted, reveals solo-wide organi
zation of techniques described by conventional jazz pedagogy. The
improviser now has a concrete approach for relating isolated techniques,

such as change running and motives, into solo-wide structures.
While Schenkerian analyses of improvised solos can yield substantial
insight, many fine solos and even entire performances may not be amen
able to these techniques at the deeper middleground and background
levels.40 Nonetheless, the tonally adjusted species model can apply to
those fine but less tractable tonal cases. Further, adopting this method
preserves the ability to make meaningful observations about subtle
motivic phenomena not limited to the surface and insightful comment
on temporal relations that are common to Schenkerian discourse.
Before these results can be fully accepted, we will need to await the refine
ments, confirmations, and critical commentary of other scholars applying
these techniques to a considerable number of works from this repertoire.
Finally, as we have carefully observed, Parker's ear was remarkably sen
sitive to consonance and dissonance, and he might well be considered the
last musician whose entire career was spent playing in a tonal manner
while still being at the forefront of developments in jazz. He was truly
"Mr. Inside."41 This is a bit ironic in that some have described him as the
first "revolutionary" to leave conventional tonality behind because of his
use of chordal extensions and tensions.
Notes
This essay is dedicated to my colleague Steven Block, jazz clarinetist

Chuck Hedges, and my former students at the Berklee College of Music.
Thanks go to Brian Alegant, Robert Wason, and the anonymous reader
of this journal; special thanks go to Steve Larson for his very careful cri
tique of this work. Thanks also go to my colleagues Bruce Dalby and Bill
Wood who made materials available to me.
Earlier versions of this essay were first presented at Florida State Uni
versity, June 1995, at Tallahassee, Florida and at the Music Theory Soci
ety for New York State meeting of April 1996 held at the Eastman Schoo
of Music, Rochester, New York.
Pitches are designated by the system of the American Acoustical Soci
ety where middle C is C4, an octave higher is C5, and an octave lower is
C3. Angled brackets, "< >" are used to denote ordered elements.
1. Charlie Parker and the great trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie are

considered the principal founders of this jazz style. See Owens
(1995) for an excellent introduction to this style, its players, and its
history. Interestingly, Parker did not like the term bebop: "Let's not
call it bebop. Let's call it music" (Owens 1995, 3).
2. In this, I am indebted to the work of Heinrich Schenker. The most
relevant of publications for this essay are his Free Composition (1979)
and Counterpoint (1987).
For those questioning the use of analytical methods derived from
Europe for use with mid-twentieth-century jazz music from
America, I can not reply here due to limitation of space.
3. The recording was a 78-rpm record released by Dial records as

number 1002. As of this writing, the recording is in print and is con
tained within Charlie Parker: The Complete Dial Sessions produced by
Stash Records of New York.
The transcription of Parker's solo presented here is slightly
different from that presented by Jamie Aebersold and Ken Sloane in
the Charlie Parker Omnibook (1978, 6-7). An additional pitch and a
few enharmonic respellings that reflect my analytical interpretation
mark the differences.
For a cogent discussion of the difficulties involved in transcription
of improvised solos in jazz, see Henry Martin (1996, 5-8).
On the tune's importance, Owens writes: "Ornithology, written by
Benny Harris and Parker, was an important addition to the repertory
in 1946. In some ways it is a perfect symbol of early bebop: a com

plex melodic contrafact (the hidden theme is How High the Moon)
with an erudite title that refers to a founding father of bebop
(Parker's nickname was 'Bird')" (Owens 1995, 19).
4. See Patrick (1975, 3). "How High the Moon" is from the broadway
musical Two for the Show of 1940 with the book by Nancy Hamilton
and music of Morgan Lewis.
The use of contrafacts in bop was ubiquitous. For instance,
George Gershwin's "I Got Rhythm" was a particular favorite, and
both Parker's "Anthropology" and Dizzy Gillespie's "Salt Peanuts"
are among the better known examples of bop tunes built upon it. See
Owens (1995, 37-8). Of the over 900 recorded Parker performances
that survive, 147 of them were on "Rhythm" or contrafacts based
upon it. See Owens (1974, 1: 9).
5. Regarding Parker as a composer, Henry Martin writes: "For among
Parker's 49 original compositions, all are written in standard song
forms and only six have original [chord] changes. Even of these six,
three are quite closely related to preexisting harmonic models"
(Martin 1996, 113).
6. A "lead-sheet" presents the melody on one staff with a series of
chord symbols above it. Lead-sheets were derived from commercial
sheet music and served as the foundation for further arranging and
improvisation. Commercial sheet music of the time presented a
simple piano accompaniment of the melody and also employed
chord symbols. Guitar and ukulele tablatures for those chords were
also frequently presented alongside the chord symbols.
7. "At first the bebop pianists continued to use swing-style chord voicings,
often playing root-fifth-tenth or root-seventh-tenth voicings. By the
1950s, however, many beboppers were playing rootless voicings in the
tenor register, leaving the root of the chord to the bassist and usually
avoiding the bass register" (Owens 1995,139).
For a more detailed description of the pianist's role in bop playing,
see Mehegan (1964).
8. The "added sixth" chords frequently receive other descriptions in
traditional tonal harmonic studies as "first inversion" minor-minor
seventh chords and half-diminished seventh chords. In popular
music of the time and jazz, this sonority can be understood as stable
in many situations with the perfect fifth above the bass not requiring
resolution. The major sixth can be optionally added to simple major
or minor triads by the arranger, rhythm section member, or soloist.

Perhaps Steven Strunk's (1985, 99) description of the added sixth as
being not a chord tone but also not dissonant with the chordal root
is most apt here.
Certainly, these sonorities and their voice-leading possibilities have
challenged theorists, musicologists, and pedagogues concerned with
music from the late renaissance to the end of major/minor tonality.
In that regard, see Gauldin (1985, 92-3); Christensen (1993, 58,
118-9, 183-4, and 194-7); Aldwell and Schachter (1989, 390-1);
Agmon (1997); Wagner (1985,122-4); and Forte (1995, 7-14).
9. On this topic Allen Forte writes: "'Reharmonization,' a practice that
has sometimes enhanced but sometimes defaced American popular bal
lads as well" (Forte 1995, 140). Ballads, and "up tunes" from broad
way shows and other popular music such as Tin Pan Alley products of
that time are called "standards."
For more specific information on reharmonization techniques, see
the noted jazz educator and composer David Baker's Arranging and
Composing for the Small Ensemble: Jazz/R&B/Jazz-Rock (1970,
153-7) and especially Strunk (1979).
Please note that some musicians and scholars object to terms such
as "head" and "jazz" among others describing aspects of this reper
toire as derogatory. My intention here is not to be offensive, but
rather to enable readers to relate terms in use with technical
phenomena that are the topic of this essay.
10. I call this addition of harmonies "harmonic subdivision." For instance,

if a chord P lasts for two measures and is followed by chord Q then
the second measure that normally contains P might have instead a har
monic succession of < II/i2> V/J2,>- The jazz master John Coltrane
was particularly fond of this technique. See Demsey (1991).
11. Some jazz pedagogues note the enharmonic equivalence of aug

mented sixth chords and V7 chords of traditional tonality. They
implicitly or explicitly link that enharmonic fact to justify the use of
the tritone substitution. It should, however, be noted that the uses of
that enharmonia in the two traditions are somewhat different: the
augmented sixth chord in the textbook practice of traditional tonality
has a predominant function leading to a V while the tritone substitu
tion chord functions as a V7 leading directly to a tonic. Certainly, late
ninteenth-century music uses augmented sixth chords progressing
directly to tonic; however, this chord is a local embellishing voice
leading rather than a functional harmonic progression in that reper
toire. On this last point see Aldwell and Schachter (1989, 519). In
jazz usage, this dominant substitution occurs in both local embellish
ing ways as well as in part-ending and even in song-ending cadences.
12. My source for "How High the Moon" is the sheet music published
in Songs of the 1940's (1986, 60-1).
13. Patrick claims the derivation for the opening measure or so of "Orni
thology" is from the opening of Parker's solo on "The Jumpin'
Blues." That performance of 2 July 1942 can be found on Decca mx
70995. See Patrick (1975, 7).
14. "Generally, the slower the tempo the faster the harmonic rhythm and
conversely the faster the tempo the slower the harmonic rhythm."
Baker (1970, 56).
15. Interestingly, several years later this same mixture-colored scale
degree succession turns up transposed in the soprano line of Cole
Porter's "Ev'ry Time We Say Goodbye," another major-key song
(Forte 1995, 136-40).
16. One interesting anomaly occurs in the sketch for "Ornithology."
Here mode mixture extends to the fundamental line. This, of course,
is not allowed in Schenker's theory (1979, 1: 40).
Martin has noticed other anomalies and has even proposed several
new "bop background forms" that reflect commonalities in these
anomalies. See Martin (1996, 28-9), and especially his example 2-13
found there.
17. Harold Baker (a lead trumpeter with the Duke Ellington Orchestra
called "Shorty") said: "There were a lot of people in the world who
wanted to try out these new things. Charlie proved he could do it.
He was liable to start with the eleventh or thirteenth note of the key
he was in. He always built the opposite of the average musician." See
Reisner(1975, 35).
18. See Owens (1974, 1: 17-35 and 2: 1-10) for a detailed description
of Parker's motives. The rest of the dissertation consists of discus
sions of many transcribed Parker solos employing motivic description
and some analysis techniques indebted to Felix Salzer. They are
organized by key and then by type of harmonic progression. A more
general source on bop motives is Baker (1985-6).
19. See Reeves (1995) for a volume centered on the scalar approach to
improvisation that is commonly used in university settings. It also
features transcribed solos of many jazz masters.
20. Jazz pedagogy gives little guidance on how to produce an entire solo
with a sense of direction or coherence. For one of the few such dis
cussions on that topic by a jazz pedagogue, see Baker (1983, 82-83)
for a somewhat vague description.
21. However, this study does not disclaim the aural and improvisational
utility of surface motives; the point is to show how thoughtfully used
motives can transcend simple association and link more powerfully
into the overall tonal rhythmic and harmonic design. Motivic studies
of use and provenance are also of considerable interest both histori
cally and pedagogically.
22. Joseph N. Straus lays out necessary conditions for prolongation in

tonal music in his 1987 article "The Problem of Prolongation in
Post-Tonal Music." The idea of "tensions" or "chordal extensions"
(chordal sevenths, ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths) in combination
with what was?until that point?a tonal system does not satisfy
those conditions. In a 1997 article, Steve Larson takes issue with
Straus. He points out, among other things, that what is consonant at
one level may be dissonant at the next deeper level. Thus, Straus's
apparently surface-oriented rules are difficult to apply with consis
tency in anything other than the simplest situations. Nonetheless,
Straus's concepts are still useful in this regard. Larson provides his
own extended discussion of these tensions and extensions in his
1998 article "Schenkerian Analysis of Modern Jazz: Questions
About Method."
23. Numerous methods that discuss all three elements?change running,

surface motives, and scales?have been published; two from prominent
jazz educators are mentioned here. See Coker (1991) and Baker (1983).
24. During my tenure as a faculty member at the Berklee College of

Music from 1977 through 1980, this technique was taught in impro
visation classes. I have been unable to locate the origin of the term or
an unequivocal description of this pedagogical technique in the liter
ature. The closest to describing this technique is Coker's "7-3 reso
lution" (Coker 1991, 19-25).
25. Martin (1996, 82) writes "Since Parker so often returns to fragments
of the original melody, it could be argued that both takes of
'Embraceable You' are enormously complicated paraphrases rather
than improvisations on the original melody. This does not seem quite
right, however, since the paraphrase concept is closely based on and
constrained by the original melody throughout?it is a more or less
consistent ornamentation of that melody. The 'Embraceable You'

solos, by contrast, feature relational ingenuity of the highest order
and many moments in which the original melody, while available in
the background, is not being ornamented in the foreground. These
are thematic improvisations, not paraphrases: the original material
ingeniously and subtly directs the overall shape of the solo, but does
not restrict or limit its melodic content." Also see pages 111 and 119
in this regard.
26. Larson (1996, 218) recognizes that some pieces are not amenable to
a Schenkerian approach.
27. Meyer (1973, 90-ln) noted this problem in certain types of tradi
tionally tonal music: "Events may follow one another without creat
ing hierarchic structure, as, for instance, in the successive statement
of an ostinato figure. An ostinato pattern will itself be hierarchic, but
the series of identical patterns can create no higher-level organiza
tion. The series of statements is additive, not processive."
28. Both Larson (1996, 161-2) and Martin (1996, 111) concur.
Starting in the middle of the twentieth century, psychologists have
confirmed the phenomena of compound line and named it "melodic
fission," "stream segregation," or "streaming." For a description of
this work, see Butler (1992, 104-6).
I hypothesize that it might be difficult to sustain more than four
implied lines within a compound melody because more extreme tem
poral displacements would be needed to "juggle" additional voices
related by registral proximity. Thus, under the more immediate pres
sures of temporal proximity, association by registral proximity col
lapses, and notes of extra voices fold into four or fewer voices.
Clearly, this topic warrants further development by both music theo
rists and cognitive psychologists.
This concept of compound line may have implications for tempo
selection. Too slow or too fast a tempo causes the wrong association of
pitches via registral proximity?that is, it engenders voice-leading errors.
29. The earliest description of this technique that I am aware of occurs in

Mattheson (1739, 353).
30. Many concepts for my model are heavily influenced by the work of
Heinrich Schenker (see note 2 above), Rothstein (1981 and 1990),
Yeston (1976), and Schachter (1976,1980, and 1987). A similar concep
tual approach to tonal music is provided by Peter Westergaard (1975).
31. For a good contemporary explanation of the principles of species

counterpoint, see Salzer and Schachter (1989, 3-112).
32. Theories of combined species are not as fully worked out as we

might desire. See Schenker (1987) and Schoenberg (1964).
Schenker considered the combined species a bridge from species
counterpoint to composition.
33. Here I am indebted to the work of those eighteenth-century

theorists who struggled to reconcile new harmonic with older
contrapuntal ideas such as Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, Johann
Friedrich Daube, and Johann Philipp Kirnberger. See Damschroder
and Williams (1990) for a listing and brief overview of these
eighteenth-century theorists' work.
34. Measures 17 and 19 have the neighboring pitches of the chordal sev
enths pruned away in the normalized surface presented in Example
10's analysis of the complete solo. These neighbors are similar to the
situations pointed out by Larson in his critique of Straus mentioned
in note 22 above.
Of especial interest is that the E4 neighbor in measure 18 prolongs
the two different versions of the chordal seventh, F|4 in measures 16
and 17 and F4 in measure 19. This appears to be a use of the added
sixth not mentioned before in the literature. Parker's other added
sixth ends his solo in measure 33, and it is also an E4 appended to
the tonic. Note that both of these instances cross important design
and tonal boundaries. Perhaps the second instance was a reminis
cence of the first.
35. Eytan Agmon (1997) focuses on this point (along with others). He
points out that Schenker derives the chordal seventh from a descend
ing passing-tone formation in which the preparation is omitted, giv
ing the appearance of a suspension-like preparation for the chordal
seventh. This is called a "contracted" chordal seventh. Thus, in mea
sure in 13 of Example 13b, a Schenkerian reading would supply a
half note B4 followed by the chordal seventh A4, also a half note in
length. Agmon argues in that article that the definitions of triad and
seventh chord are different between strict counterpoint and free
composition, and from this concludes that the bridges between them
do not exist. While I do not believe that such a conclusion naturally
follows; however, a further discussion of this topic can not be enter
tained here due to length considerations.
36. Perhaps it is more accurate to call the solo improvisatory efforts of

fine boppers "quasi-compositional." Owens (1995, 30) comments
on this: "Parker, like all important improvisers, developed a personal
repertory of melodic formulas that he used in the course of improvis
ing. He found many ways to reshape, combine, and phrase these for
mulas, so that no two choruses were just alike. But his 'spontaneous'
performances were actually precomposed in part. This preparation
was absolutely necessary, for no one can create fluent, coherent mel
odies in real time without having a well-rehearsed bag of melodic
tricks ready."
37. The number of measures is thirty-three and not thirty-two because

Parker's solo intrudes into the first measure of the following solo by
Miles Davis.
38. In deriving the skeleton from the normalized surface, voice-leading

problems emerged. Several sets of parallel fifths occur within and
between measures 10 through 12. These can be ameliorated only by
rewriting those measures. In measure 13, the chordal seventh is not
resolved. The top part in half notes can arpeggiate to D5 while the
bottom part, also in half notes, can receive the transferred chordal sev
enth. Similar kinds of adjustments can be made to other significant
problems arising in measures 29 and 30. These problems arise, of
course, because the solo was not designed for pedagogical purposes.
39. It should be clear that I am not claiming that Parker thought of his
solo in this manner. This pedagogical construct is derived from the
structure of what the solo is according to the theory employed here
and not about what the creator thought about or thought he heard
when improvising.
40. This essay has presented some reasons for this position, and others
have been given by Martin (1996). In addition to his comments on
the issue already cited here, see more on the matter on pages 13-4,
20,21,28-9, 31, and 99.
41. Later jazz musicians used atonal materials within solos on tonal
tunes; this was called "outside" playing. Those who played strictly
tonally were "inside" players. Thus, "fleshing out" my "skeletons" of
Examples 12 and 13 would normally result in tonal or "inside" solos.
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Charlie Parker's Solo To Ornithology Facets of Counterpoint, Analysis, and Pedagogy

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Charlie Parker's Solo to "Ornithology": Facets of Counterpoint, Analysis, and Pedagogy

Author(s): Richard Hermann

Some Pedagogical Conventions of Jazz Harmony

Example 1 presents the conventions adopted here for chord symbols

Labels Descriptions Examples

major triad C = CEG

fully diminished seventh chord B? = BDFAI>

X7+9 X7 with an augmented ninth G7 +9 = G B D F AI

EXAMPLE 1: CONVENTIONS FOR CHORD SYMBOLS EMPLOYED

The sequences of chords are called "the changes" or "chord changes"

Specific reharmonization techniques are restricted by the melody as it

Comparative Analyses of "How High the Moon" and "Ornithology"

Swing harmonies centered around mildly dissonant chords such as

EXAMPLE 2: LEAD SHEETS OF "HOW HIGH THE MOON" AND

"How High the Moon"

Sequence (mode mixture)

Sequence (mode mixture)

EXAMPLE 3: MIDDLEGROUND SKETCHES FOR "HOW HIGH THE

In "Ornithology," the starting points of each sequential unit and the

Pedagogy and Some Recent Research on Jazz Improvisation

Jazz pedagogy for improvisation emphasizes three constructs: motivic

Because members of the same class of motives are associational in their

example 4: koch and owens on parker's improvising.

But lying beneath the surface of most of his [Parker's] improvisa

Example 4c is an excerpt from an Owens analysis of a segment from a

The problem remains, then, how to conceptualize the separated, dis

Larson (1987) provides quite plausible and insightful Schenkerian

EXAMPLE 5: GUIDE-TONE LINES FOR "ORNITHOLOG

emerge when these performers avoid or otherwise undermine cadential

The Tonally Adjusted Species Model

I believe it is more revealing to understand Parker's solos as a polyphonic

Chromaticism and Enharmonia

EXAMPLE 6: OUTLINE OF THE TONALLY ADJUSTED SPECIES MODEL

subdivision, then normalization removes the displacements of anticipa

point concerns the variable number of voices?real or implied?as pre

Model Analysis and Interpretation of Parker's Solo on

EXAMPLE 7: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART ONE

Point 1 concerns the Gm chord. It is not due to mixture but rather is a

EXAMPLE 8: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART TWO

EXAMPLE 9: ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE, PART THREE

counterpoint model. Example 9a provides the solo, while Examples 9b

EXAMPLE 10: AN ANALYSIS OF PARKER'S SOLO IN "O

?! j , |lJ ? t | ||rn rjl i?=f^= e&e

There are only four voice-leading "flaws"?from the viewpoint of this

EXAMPLE 11: "ORNITHOLOGY" PERFORMANCE,

For space considerations, only a few of the clashes will be investigated.

A Few Implications of this Model for Jazz Pedagogy, Theory,

EXAMPLE 12: TONALLY ADJUSTED TWO-PART SPECIES-COUNTERPOINT

EXAMPLE 13: ANOTHER TONALLY ADJUSTED, TWO-PART SPECIES

As this essay's scrutiny of voice-leading structures in Parker's classic

improviser now has a concrete approach for relating isolated techniques,

This essay is dedicated to my colleague Steven Block, jazz clarinetist

1. Charlie Parker and the great trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie are

3. The recording was a 78-rpm record released by Dial records as

in 1946. In some ways it is a perfect symbol of early bebop: a com

or minor triads by the arranger, rhythm section member, or soloist.

10. I call this addition of harmonies "harmonic subdivision." For instance,

11. Some jazz pedagogues note the enharmonic equivalence of aug

22. Joseph N. Straus lays out necessary conditions for prolongation in

23. Numerous methods that discuss all three elements?change running,

24. During my tenure as a faculty member at the Berklee College of

consistent ornamentation of that melody. The 'Embraceable You'

29. The earliest description of this technique that I am aware of occurs in