METROLOGY & MEASUREMENT

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS

[COMMON TO III SEM MECHANICAL / I&P]

MME 3104 METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS [3 0 0 3]

No. of Lecture hours: 36

Measurements and measurement systems: Methods of

METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS

Measurement, Generalized Measurement System & its elements,

Static Characteristics of Instruments & measurement systems:
Accuracy, Precision, Sensitivity, Reproducibility, Repeatability,
Linearity, Hysteresis. Threshold, Dead zone, Resolution. Errors in
Measurement. [03]

Measurement of pressure: Definition of Pressure. List of instruments

used to measure pressure. Methods of pressure measurement -
Elastic pressure elements (Bourdon Tube, Bellows, Diaphragm),
McLeod Gauge and Bridgman gauge, Related problems. [04]

Measurement of temperature: Methods of temperature

measurement Pressure thermometer, Electrical Resistance
thermometer, Thermocouples, Pyrometer (Disappearing filament type
optical pyrometer) & Problems, Bimetallic thermometer. [03]

Measurement of strain: Types of electrical resistance strain gauges,

Theory of operation of wire wound strain gauge, Gauge Factor, Strain
gauge bridge circuit, Calibration Circuit, Temperature compensation,
Strain measurement on static and rotary shaft, Orientation of strain
gauges. Simple problems related to measurement of strain using
strain gauge. [05]

Measurement of force, torque and shaft power: Measurement of

Force - Hydraulic & Pneumatic load cells, Proving ring, Strain gauge
load cell & related problems. Methods of Torque & Shaft power -
Cradled dynamometer, Torque Meter, Band Brake dynamometer,
Water Brake dynamometer. [03]

Limits, Fits and Tolerances: Terminology (as per Indian Standards

IS 919), Grades of Tolerances, Letter symbols for tolerances, Fits –
definition, Types of fits – Clearance, Interference and Transition.
Numerical on limits and fit. [03]

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METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS

Gauges: Taylor’s principle for design of gauges – Statements and
explanation, Gauge Maker’s tolerance – as per 3rd system (present
British standards), Numerical on design of gauges (complete shaft and
hole pair) ,Types of gauges – Plug gauge, Ring gauge, Taper plug
gauge, Taper Ring gauge and slip gauges. [03]

Measurement of form errors: Straightness measurement– using

straight edge, using Autocollimator. Squareness measurement –
Engineer’s Square tester, Optical Square. Simple numerical on
Straightness, Flatness and Squareness measurement. [04]

Surface texture measurement: Definitions - I, II, III, IV order

(including their causes), Roughness and Waviness, Lays, Indian
standards symbols for Roughness, Analysis of traces – Ra, Rz, Rt, Rq,
Sampling length, hrms and Centerline Average (CLA), Simple numerical
on surface roughness. [04]

Screw threads: Definitions of elements of external screw threads,

Pitch error in threads: Progressive and Periodic, Measurement of the
elements of the threads – Effective diameter using screw thread
micrometer, two wire and three wire methods, Best size wire, Simple
numerical on screw threads. [04]

MME 3104 METROLOGY & MEASUREMENTS [3 0 0 3]

References:
1. Beckwith Thomas G., Mechanical Measurements, Pearson Education, Delhi,
2003.
2. Jain R.K., Engineering Metrology, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1997.
3. Sawhney A.K., Mechanical Measurement & Instrumentation, Dhanpat Rai &
Co, New Delhi, 2002.
4. Nakra B.C. and Chaudry K.K., Instrumentation, Measurement & Analysis,
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2002.
5. Gupta I. C., Engineering Metrology, Dhanpat Rai Publications, New Delhi,
1997
6. ASTME, Handbook of Engineering Metrology, Prentice Hall of India, New
Delhi, 1972
7. Raghavendra N.V. and Krishnamurthy L., Engineering Metrology and
Measurements, Oxford University Press, 2013.

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MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
Pneumatic Load Cell:

In this type of load cell, shown in Figure, air is supplied under pressure to a chamber
having a diaphragm at one end and a nozzle at the other. The force to be measured
is applied to the top side of the diaphragm. Due to this force, the diaphragm deflects
and causes the flapper to shut-off the nozzle opening, thus changing pressure in the
chamber. As the flapper has closed the nozzle opening, a back pressure results
underneath the diaphragm. This back pressure acts on the diaphragm producing an
upward force. Air pressure is regulated until the diaphragm returns to the pre-loaded
position which is indicated by air starting to come out of the nozzle. At this stage the
corresponding pressure indicated by the pressure gauge becomes a measure of
applied force when calibrated. This type of load cell is used up to 20 k N.

Hydraulic Load Cell:

In this type of device, hydraulic pressure is used to indicate the force F, applied to
diaphragm or some other type of force transmitting element. When a force F is
applied, pressure is developed in the fluid which is normally an oil. This can be
measured by a pressure indicating device like a Bourdon gauge. Such a device can
be used up to vary large forces, of the order of millions of newton.

Proving Ring:
A proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular cross section which may be subjected
to either tensile or compressive forces across its diameter. The deflection is given
by, x = {[(π/2) – (4/ π)] x d3 x Force} / (16 E I). Where d = diameter of the ring, E =
modulus of elasticity of ring material, and I = moment of inertia.
An LVDT is attached with the integral internal bosses for sensing deflection of the
ring.
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In an LVDT type of transducer, shown in figure, a soft iron core provides the
magnetic coupling between a primary coil and two secondary coils, connected in
series opposition. When the core is central and both secondary coils are identical,
the voltage across them is equal in magnitude. However, the output is zero as both
the secondary coils are in series opposition. As the core moves up or down, the
induced voltage of one secondary coil increases while that of the other decreases.
The output voltage which is modulated is the difference of the two secondary coils.

Load Cell:

A tensile compressive load cell uses four strain gauges each mounted at 90 0 to each
other on a steel cylinder. If the load to be measured is applied on the steel cylinder,
the two strain gauges experience tensile stresses while the other two are subjected
to compressive stresses. Thus when strained, the resistance of the various gauges

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changes. This change in resistance of the strain gauges are measured by the output
voltage of the wheat stone bridge is given by,
e0 = [2(1 + μ) x Gauge factor x Є x E] / 4.
The change in output voltage due to applied load becomes a measure of applied
load when calibrated.

Example: A load cell is formed of a hollow steel cylinder loaded axially. The four
strain gauges with gauge resistance = 1000Ω and gauge factor = 2 are so bonded as
to enhance the signal and compensate for temperature variation. The load cell has a
cross-sectional area of 2 cm2. Young’s modulus of steel is 2.07 x 1011 N/m2 and
Poisson’s ratio 0.3. The current in strain gauge is limited to 20 mA. Calculate (i) the
bridge supply voltage and (ii) current in the detector arm if this consists of a micro
ammeter of resistance 500Ω, when the load cell is subjected to a force of 105 N.

R1and R3 measures axial strains while R2 and R4 measure the circumferential strains,
which are opposite in nature to the axial ones.
Signal enhancement factor = 2(1+ μ) = 2(1+0.3) = 2.6

For the initially balanced system, battery voltage Eb = [20mA (R1+ R4)]
= [20 x10-3(1000 + 1000)]
= 40 Volts
Axial strain in the cylinder
= (Force / Cross-sectional area of the cylinder) / Young’s modulus
= [(105 / 2 x 10-4) / 2.07 x 1011]
= 2.415 x 10-3

If only R1 were to change due to above strain, current through RG,

IG = (Eb x F) / [4(R1+ RG)]
= (40 x 2.1 x 2.415 x 10-3) / [4(1000 + 500)]
= 3.38 x 10-5 A
Since all the four resistance change, current
IG = 2.6 x 3.38 x 10-5
= 8.79 x 10-5 A

Cantilever Beam for measurement of force:

One end of the cantilever is fixed and a force F is applied on the free end, as shown
in figure. Four strain gauges are bonded near the fixed end to measure the strain
induced by the application of force. Two strain gauges are fixed on the top for
measuring tensile strain +€ and two at the bottom side for measuring compressive
strain - €. The strain developed at the fixed end related to the force F is determined
using the following equation: € = 6FL / Ebt2. Here, L is the length of the beam, E is
the Young`s modulus of material, b is the width of the beam, and t is the thickness of
the cantilever.

Example: For strain measurement, a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used in which one
gauge each is connected in the limbs of the bridge. These gauges have been
mounted on the fixed end of a mild steel cantilever (600 mm long x 60 mm wide x 18
mm deep) and are connected electrically to form a full-bridge configuration. The
nominal resistance of each gauge is 120 Ω, the gauge factor is 2.0. The bridge
supply voltage is 6 V and the measuring instrument has an infinitely high internal

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resistance. If a unit kg of mass is applied at the free end of the cantilever, calculate
the sensitivity of the system in mV/kg. Take, modulus of elasticity for mild steel = 200
GN/m2.

For a full-bridge configuration, the change in out-voltage due to applied strain is

given by, dv0 = e0 = [4 x V x (dR/R)] / 4 = V x (dR/R)

Also, fractional change in resistance, dR/R = Gauge factor x €

Let us now calculate strain (€) in the cantilever when a mass of 1kg is applied to its
free end.
For pure bending: M/I = σ/y
Where, M = Bending moment = F x L = mg x L = 1 x 9.81 x 0.6 = 5.886 N-m
I = Moment of Inertia = (b x t3) / 12 = [0.06 x (0.018)3] / 12 = 2.916 x 10-8 m4
y = Half the beam depth = 0.018/2 = 0.009 m, and
σ = bending stress = (M/I) x y = (5.886 / 2.916 x 10-8) x 0.009
= 1.817 x 106 N /m2

€ = σ / E = 1.817 x 106 / 200 x 109 = 9.085 x 10-6

dR /R = Gauge factor x € = 2.0 x 9.085 x 10-6 = 18.17 x 10-6

e0 = V x (dR/R) = 6 x 18.17 x 10-6 = 0.109 mV

This change in voltage results when 1 kg mass is applied at the free end of
cantilever. Hence, the system has a sensitivity of 0.109 mV / kg.
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MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE & POWER

The power transmitted can be calculated from the torque, using the equation P = ωT,
where P is the power (W), T the torque (N-m) and ω the angular speed (rad /s).
Machine used for torque measurements under test bed conditions are called
dynamometers and may be classified into three types, depending on the nature of
machine arrangement, for which torque or power is to be measured. The three types
are:
1. Transmission type dynamometer, in which the power being transmitted through
the device is measured. The device is neither a power generator nor a power
absorber and is used on the shaft transmitting power, between the prime mover and
the load.
Example: Torque meter
2. Driving type dynamometer, in which drive is obtained from the dynamometer itself
or the dynamometer is the power generator like an electric motor.
Example: Cradled dynamometer
3. Absorption type dynamometer, in which the mechanical energy is absorbed after it
is measured. The power generator may be an engine or a motor.
Example: Mechanical absorption dynamometer like rope brake dynamometer,
Hydraulic absorption dynamometer.

Torque Meter:
The mounting of four resistance strain gauges on rotating shaft for measuring the
strain with Wheatstone bridge arrangement.

During torsion of cylinder, the principal strains (tensile or compressive) exist at 45º to
the axis. These can be measured by bonded resistance gauges, as shown in the
figure. The output is increased by using four strain gauges so that adjacent arms of
the Wheatstone bridge have strains of opposite nature. For taking signals in and out
of the rotating shaft, slip rings and brushes are used as shown in the figure.

In a solid shaft of diameter d, rotating with rpm N, subjected to torque T,

Power = (2 x π x N x T) / 60
Also, Torque, T= [(fs x π x d3) / 16] where fs = Shear stress induced in the shaft.
Shear strain = Shear stress induced in the shaft / Shear modulus
Longitudinal strain in the shaft at 45º to the axis of the shaft, Є45 = Shear strain / 2.
Є45 may be measured by resistance strain gauge.

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Slip ring arrangement in Torque Meter

Example:
A mild shaft is used to connect a motor drive to a constant load torque. To measure
this torque, a resistance strain gauge with resistance of 120 Ω and a gauge factor of
2, is mounted on a shaft with its active axis at 450 to the shaft axis. Shear modulus of
mild steel is 8 × 1010 N/m2. Shaft diameter is 3 cm and the change in gauge
resistance due to load is 0.2 Ω. Find the load torque.
In a solid shaft of diameter d, rotating with rpm N, subjected to torque T,
Power = (2 x π x N x T) / 60
Also, Torque, T= [(fs x π x d3) / 16] where fs = Shear stress induced in the shaft.
Shear strain = Shear stress induced in the shaft / Shear modulus
Longitudinal strain in the shaft at 45º to the axis of the shaft, Є45 = Shear strain / 2
Gauge Factor = 2 = (∆R/R) / Є45 = (0.2/120) / Є45
Є45 = (0.2/120) / 2 = 8.33 x 10-4 = 833 μ strain
Therefore shear strain = 2 x Є45 = 2 x 8.33 x 10-4 = 1666 μ strain

Shear strain = Shear stress induced in the shaft / Shear modulus

Shear stress induced in the shaft = Shear strain x Shear modulus
= 16.66 x 10-4 x 8 x 1010
= 133.28 x 106 N/m2
Torque, T= [(fs x π x d ) / 16] where fs = Shear stress induced in the shaft.
3

= [133.28 x 106 x π x (3/100)3] / 16 = 706.57 N-m

Cradled Dynamometer:

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According to the principle of reaction when a torque is developed in the rotor of an

electric motor, an equal torque is felt by the stator in the opposite direction. In normal
circumstances the stator housing is rigidly fixed to the ground so that the reaction
torque is absorbed by the foundation. But for the purpose of measuring the torque
transmitted by the motor the stator is supported by two trunion bearings as shown in
figure. Due to the reaction torque the housing tries to rotate but it is restrained by the
support at the end of a lever of length L fixed to the housing as shown. If F is the
force at the support, the torque T transmitted by the motor is given by T= F x L. Thus
by measuring the force F, the transmitted torque is measured. The power transmitted
can be calculated from the torque, using the equation P = ω x T, where P is the
power (W), T the torque (N-m) and ω the angular speed (rad /s).

Rope Brake Dynamometer:

The method of power measurement in the IC Engine performance test rig is by using
Absorption type of Dynamometers. Example: Rope brake dynamometers.
In such dynamometers, the friction of rope brake absorbs the energy. Heat is
dissipated by cooling the brake with water. Figure shows a rope brake, one end of
which is connected to a mass while the other end is connected to a spring balance.
Due to rotation, frictional force is generated, inducing tensions at the two ends of the
rope. If s is the force in the spring balance, torque T = (mg – S) x r, r being the pulley
radius, W = mg
The power is, P= 2πN/60 (W-S) r, where N is the speed in rpm

Hydraulic Absorption Dynamometer:

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It is shown in fig; power is absorbed by fluid friction due to breaking action of the
vortex produced by flow of water along a helix. This is brought about by the relative
motion of the rotor with respect to a stator or the casing of the dynamometer. The
rotor and stator have cup shaped pockets such that the path of the water is a helix.
The tendency of the stator to rotate is opposed by an arm on the stator with a
balancing mass. The stator is freely pivoted on the bearings. The load is controlled
by control of sluice gates in the spaces between stator and rotor pockets. This
control can be affected from outside and changes the breaking effect between the
rotor and stator.

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Review Questions

Q1) Explain the method of measuring force using a hydraulic load cell.

Q2) Explain the method of measuring force using a pneumatic load cell.

Q3) Explain the method of measuring force using a strain gauge load cell.

Q4) Explain the working of a proving ring with LVDT is used to measure force.

Q6) For strain measurement, a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used in which one gauge
each is connected in the limbs of the bridge. These gauges have been mounted
on the fixed end of a mild steel cantilever (500 mm long x 50 mm wide x 15 mm
deep) and are connected electrically to form a full-bridge configuration. The
nominal resistance of each gauge is 100 Ω, the gauge factor is 2.0. The bridge
supply voltage is 6 V and the measuring instrument has an infinitely high internal
resistance. If a unit kg of mass is applied at the free end of the cantilever,
calculate the sensitivity of the system in mV/kg. Take, modulus of elasticity for
mild steel = 200 GN/m2.

Q7) A strain gauge load cell consists of a solid steel cylinder which has four identical
strain gauges mounted upon it in the Poisson’s configuration. For each gauge
the nominal resistance is 100 Ω, gauge factor 2 and the gauges are connected
electrically to the four arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit. The applied
compressive load produces a stress of 200 MN/m 2. Find the output voltage if the
bridge supply voltage is 4 V. For steel cylinder, Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and
modulus of elasticity for mild steel = 200 GN/m2.

Q8) In a cantilever beam the four active strain gauges are mounted with maximum
signal enhancement and are connected across the arms of wheat stone bridge
circuit. Strain gauge resistances are R1=R2=R3=R4=R=120Ω. The input
voltage is 9V. If the output voltage of the bridge is 20mV, find the value of the
force applied to the beam.
Given: i) Thickness of the beam=1mm
ii) Width of the beam=10mm
iii) Young’s modulus of beam material =8x1010N/m2.
iv) Length of the beam =50mm.
6 PL
v) Strain at the root of the cantilever=
Ebt 2
vi) Gauge factor=2.4

Q5) What are dynamometers? Differentiate between three types of dynamometers.

Q9) Explain with neat sketch how the torque & power can be measured using
cradled dynamometer.

Q10) Explain with neat sketch the working of hydraulic dynamometer.

Q11) Explain with neat sketch how the torque & power can be measured using strain
gauge Torque meter.

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Q12) A mild steel shaft is used to connect a motor drive to a constant load torque. To
measure this torque, a resistance strain gauge with resistance of 120 Ω and
gauge factor of 2, is mounted on a shaft with its active axis at 45º to the shaft
axis. Shear modulus of mild steel is 8 x 1010 N/m2. Shaft diameter is 3 cm and
change in gauge resistance due to load is 0.2Ω. Find the load torque.

Q13) Using a rope brake dynamometer explain how to measure the shaft power.

Q14) The following data were recorded with rope brake dynamometer, in a
laboratory experiment:
Diameter of the brake wheel = 1.44 m
Diameter of the rope = 15 mm
Speed of the engine = 240 rpm
Dead load on the brake = 720 N
Spring balance reading = 180 N
Calculate the brake power of the engine.

Q15) A shaft running at a speed of 1500 rpm transmits maximum power of 60 kW.
Measurement of torque are made by a pair of strain gauges which are bonded
on a specially machined portion of the shaft. Each gauge has a nominal
resistance of 100 Ω, gauge factor of 2 and are connected electrically to the two
arms of a half-activated Wheatstone bridge circuit which is energized with an
excitation voltage of 6 V. The gauges have a maximum strain of 0.0012. The
shear modulus of elasticity of shaft material is 200 GN/m 2.
Calculate the following: (i) The diameter of the shaft (ii) The output voltage and
sensitivity of the measuring system.

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