Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant literature and studies local or foreign taken

from some books, journals, published thesis and dissertation, and from the internet.

Related Literatures

A. Local Literatures

Manaligod revealed that the Philippines is recognized worldwide as a

megadiversed region with a high degree of varied flora and fauna per unit area of

land. This also hold true for the immensely diverse life forms in our aquatic

environments. Aside from these, new species being discovered at a fast pace in our

country, however, it is apparent that there are still a number of plants, animals and

other life forms that are yet to be discovered and documented.1

Badiang or Alocasia macrorrhiza, is a coarse and erect plant wih a stout trunk

going up to 2 meters high. Leaves are very large, broadly ovate, the larger ones up to

1.5 meters long, with a slightly undulate margins, a pointed apex and a deeply

cordate base, not at all palate.2

1J.L. Noche,” Botanical and Phytochemical Investigation of three wild lumbuy-lumbuyan (Syzygium
spp.) Found in Barangay Salvacion, Puerto Princesa City” retrieved from Undergraduate Thesis, Holy
Trinity University, Puerto Princesa, Palawan in January 23, 2017.

2 Godofredo Stuart “Biga” retrieved from http://www.stuartxchange.org/Biga in January 24, 2017.

18
 Badiang was also known in the Philippines as Aba (Ibn.), Aba-aba (Ig.),

Badiang (Tag., Bis.), Bagiang (Bis.) Bira (Ilk.), Biga (Tag., Ilk., Bis., Pamp.), Bilbila

(Bon.), Gabi (Bik.), Galiang (Bis.), Gandus (Pamp.), Malabiga (Tag.), Ragiang (Bis.),

Sininaba (Ilk.), Talipan (Bik.) and Taliang (Bis.).3

Pungapong is a perennial, stemless herb. Corm is depressed-globose, up to

30 centimeters in diameter, flowering before leafing every year from the previous

year's corm. Stem-like structure, which bears the lamina, is merely the petiole, 1

meter or more high, radically developed from the corm.4

Pungapong was also known in the country as Apon (Tag.), Apong-apong

(Tag.), Bagang (Ibn.), Bagong (Bik., Sul.), Bagong (Bik., Sul.), Oroi (Bis.),

Pamangkilon (Bis.), Pungapung (Tag.), Tigi-nga-magmanto (Ilk.), Tokod-banua

(Pamp.).5

B. Foreign Literatures

The family Araceae comprises 105 genera and approximately 3000 species of

herbaceous monocotyledons; these are predominantly tropical in distribution, with 90

percent of genera and about 95 percent of species restricted to the tropics. The

family contains several well-known cultivated foliage and flowering plants, for

3Ibid.

4Godofredo Stuart “Pungapung” retrived from http://www.stuartxchange.org/Pungapung in January 24,

2017.
5Ibid.

19
example Philodendron, Monstera, Spathiphyllum and Anthurium. A number of

important food crops belong to The Araceae, notably Taro (Colocasia esculenta),

Tannia or cocoyam (Xanthosoma sagittzfolium), elephantyam (Amorphophallus

paeoniifolius), konjac(A. Konjac) and giant yam (Cyrtosperma merkusii).6

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, Elephant foot yam, is very much prevalent in

Philippines, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka and many other Southeast

Asian countries. The tubers of elephant foot yam are commonly used as a vegetable

after cooking and in preparation of indigenous ayurvedic medicines. The tubers are

cheapest source of carbohydrates mainly starch and fibres, vitamins and minerals

and plays an important role in food security and are the important staple or subsidiary

food for a large group of population.7

It is an herb with corms. Leaves tripartitely compound, to 50 m long, leaflets

elliptic, caudate-acuminate, base acute, glabrous, membranous; petiole to 50 cm

long, terete; peduncle 8-10 cm long and 0.7-0.9 cm diameter, smooth, pale yellowish

in colour, covered by about 4 cataphylls, each cataphyll 2.5-15 cm long and 1.5-5.0

cm broad. Spathe ovate-acute, 17-18 cm long and 4-5 cm broad, differentiated into a

basal tube and an upper limb separated by a slight constriction between the two;

basal tube slightly compressed, obovoid, ca. 2.5-3 cm long; limb expanded, erect,

pale yellowish outside and pale brownish towards the margins; tube slightly purplish,

6 Peter Boyce “Introduction to the Family Araceae” pp. 122 retrieved from https://www.research
gate.net/publication/229561197 in January 14, 2017.
7 B. S. Hathan et al., “Elephant Foot Yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius): Osmotic Dehydration”
retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110.1000499 in January 23, 2017.

20
verrucose, with unicellular hairs within. Spadix 23-25 cm long, sessile or stipitate to

ca. 3-5 mm; female zone ca. 1.5 cm long, male zone cylindrical, ca. 3 cm long,

appendix elongate, narrowly conical with rounded apex, 18-20 cm long, 1.3-1.5 cm

diameter at base and tapering towards the tip, pale-yellowish brown to dark purplish

brown in colour. Female flowers ca. 2.5 mm long, ovary sub-globose, ca. 1.5 mm

high, 2 mm diameter, pale greenish, unilocular with a basal anatropous ovule; style

very short; stigma ca. 1.5 mm diameter, narrower than the ovary, inconspicuously 3-

lobed. Male flowers pale yellowish, densely arranged, sessile; each ca. 1.25 mm high

and 1.25 mm broad, inconspicuously 2-lobed; dehiscence by apical slit-like pores.8

Alocasia macrorrhiza, Giant taro, is native to tropical Southeast Asia, India,

and Sri Lanka. The plant is commonly found in humid moist, low, and medium

elevation valleys where it is naturalized along stream banks in mainly secondary and

disturbed forests and old clearings.9

The plants are the vital source of innumerable number of antimicrobial

compounds. Several phytoconstituents like flavonoids, phenolics and polyphenols,

8
Amorphophallus retrieved from http://indiabiodiversity.org/species/show/244526 in
March 10, 2017.
9 Harley I. Manner “Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Giant taro” retrieved
from http://agroforestry.net/scps in January 14, 2017.

21
tannins, terpenoids, sesquiterpenes, etc., are effective antimicrobial substances

against a wide range of microorganisms.10

Tannins are generally defined as naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds

of high enough molecular weight to form complexes with proteins. These are

classified into two groups based on their structural types a) hydrolysable tannins and

b) condensed tannins.11

Plant saponins are widely distributed amongst plants and have a wide range of

biological properties. The more recent investigations and findings into their biological

activities were summarized. Isolation studies of saponins were examined to

determine which are the more commonly studied plant families and in which families

saponins have been identified.12

Flavonoids are phenolic substances isolated from a wide range of vascular

plants, with over 8000 individual compounds known. They act in plants as

antioxidants, antimicrobials, photoreceptors, visual attractors, feeding repellants, and

for light screening. 13

10SwatiBagde et al., “Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry: Antimicrobial Properties and

Characterization of Phytoconstituents of the Leaf Extracts of Some Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1, Issue 6,
pp. 133” http://www.phytojournal.com/vol1Issue6/Issue_march_2013/1.pdf in January 21, 2017.

11 R. Katoch “Analytical Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Quantification of

Tannins in Foliage, 2000, pp. 355-356” retrieved from https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=14419
97857 in January 24, 2017.

12 S.G. Sparg et. Al, Journal of Ethnopharmacology, Biological activities and distribution of plant
saponins, Volume 94, Issues 2–3, October 2004, Pages 219-243 http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/S0378874104002557 in January 15, 2017.

22
Related Studies

A. Local Studies

Pungapong is widely distributed in the provinces of Luzon and Mindanao and

is commonly found along roads, trails and areas in low or medium altitude in settled

areas.14

On a study conducted by Castillo et al., Pungapong meal was prepared from

cleaned tubers that were chopped/sliced thin, boiled soft, and dried. They discovered

that meal from sliced, boiled soft pungapong was successfully used to replace corn

completely (100% substitution) in the rations for broilers and pigs. Due to nutritionally

balanced diets that were given to individually-penned-and fed broilers and pigs. The

performance of 5-week-old broilers fed pungapong meals in the first experiment were

much better than the control fed a diet containing 50% corn.15

Based on the research conducted by J Pajeres, in the province of Samar

Island, Badiang was used as a medicine for diarrhea, vomiting and abdominal pain.

13J.Nat.
Prod “Flavonoids as Antioxidants” retrieved from http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/
np9904509?journalCode=jnprdf in January 21, 2017.
14J.R. Pardales Jr. “Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Aroids in the Philippines I. Farmers’ Beliefs,
Experiences and Uses” retrieved from www.CropScienceSocietyofthePhilippines.org/Ethnobotanical_
Study_of_Edible_Aroids_in_the_Phiippines_I_Farmers_Beliefs_Experiences_and_Uses in January
13, 2017.
15L.S. Castillo et al., “Pongapong (Amorphophallus campanulatus (Roxb.) Blume ex Decne) meal as
complete replacement for corn in rations for broilers and growing-finishing pigs” retrieved from
agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=XB8110782 in January 16, 2017

23
He indicated in his study that through extraction from the plant, a medicine for the

said illness was provided.16

Thus, the studies provided by Castillo et al., and J Pajeres shows that Badiang

and Pungapong plant were used as an herbal medicine and can be offered as a meal

in certain animals like broilers and pigs.

B. Foreign Studies

Edible aroids (family Araceae) comprise of many underground food crops

grown in several tropical and sub-tropical countries.17Many aroids are very pretty

ornamental plants and often cultivated and others are important food plants, like

Colocasia esculenta, Alocasia macrorrhiza, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius and

Xanthosomaspp.18

Phytoconstituents that can be found in different plants vary. Research shows

that edible aroids such as Giant Taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza), and Elephant foot yam

16 Philippine traditional knowledge Digital Library on Health “Alocasia Macrorhizos (L.) G. Don”
retrieved fromhttp://www.tkdlph.com/index.php/ct-menu-item-3/ct-menu-item-7/12965-badyang in
January 15, 2017

17 J. Bogner “Morphological Variation in Aroids,” retrieved from http://www.aroid.org/gallery/gibe

mau/aroideana/0100201.pdf in January 14,2017

18Linius U. Opara “Edible Aroids,” retrieved from http://www.fao.org/3/a-av001e.pdf in January 15,

2017

24
(Amorphophallus campanulatus) has a presence of phytoconstituents that make

them useful in herbal medicine.19

Medicinal plants containing phytochemicals are well known because they

show a variety of pharmacological actions in human body. The presence of

polyphenolic compounds such as flavonoids and tannins are responsible for

antioxidant activity of the extracts. 20

On a study conducted by Banik et al., phytochemical analysis were conducted

on A. macrorrhizos extract and revealed the presence of Alkaloids, Carbohydrates,

Saponin, Phytosterols, Phenols, Tannins, Flavonoids, Proteins, and Terpenes on

crude extracts. The presence of Alkaloids, Phytosterols, Phenols, Tannins, and

Flavonoids are known to be useful as antimicrobial agent. Saponin shows

thrombolytic activity.21

Garaje cited the studies conducted by Ramlingam et al., Firdouse and Alam

on the plant Amorphophallus campanulatus in India. It was revealed that

phytochemical screening of methanol extracts of corm shows presence of alkaloids,

tannins, carbohydrate, phenols, flavonoids, saponins, protein and starch whereas

alkaloid, tannins, glycosides and phenols are present in chloroform extract of corm.

Only steroids are present in petroleum ether extract of corm. Preliminary

phytochemical analysis of hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate, hydro alcoholic extracts

19 Shimul Banik “Determination of Biological Properties of Alocasia Macrorrhizos: A Medicinal

plant” retrieved from www.wjpr.net/download/article/1414820660\ in January 14, 2017

20Ibid
21Ibid.

25
of tubers indicates that hydro alcoholic extract is most rich with respect to

phytochemicals in studied extracts of tubers.22

On the other hand, a study conducted by Rahman et al., the methanolic

extract from Amorphophallus campanulatus was evaluated for antihyperglycemic,

antioxidant, and cytotoxic effects. In alloxan-induced hyperglycemic mice, it produced

a significant decrease in blood glucose levels (<P.0.05). Extract also showed

antioxidant potential and cytotoxic effects on brine shrimp lethality assays. 23

Dietary fiber has recently gained much attention as it is said to reduce the

incidences of colon cancer, diabetes, heart disease and some other digestive

diseases.24 High fiber content indicates that giant taro corms could help treat

constipation and hence may improve the general health and well-being.25 Giant taro

corms contain high fiber could help treat constipation and hence may improve the

general health and well-being. Giant taro corms contained a moderate carbohydrate

22 Swapnali M. Garaje “Amorphophallus campanulatus : Review of Medicinal Properties” retrieved

from http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/97407790/amorphophallus-campanulatus-review-
medicinal-properties in January 15, 2017.
23 Masudur Rahman et al., “Antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities of Alocasia
macrorrhizos (L.) rhizome extract” retrieved from http://journals.tubitak.gov.tr/biology/issues/biy-12-36-
5/biy-36-5-11-1112-11.pdf in January 13, 2017.

24 Hilda Vasanthakaalam et al., “Comparison of the Nutrient composition of four sweet potato
varieties cultivated in Rwanda” retrieved from https://scihub.org/AJFN/PDF/2011/1/ in January 20,
2017

25 Ibiyemi O. Olayiwola et al., “Study of sweet potato (Ipomea batatas Lam) foods for indigenous
consumption through chemical and anti-nutritive analysis in Kwara state, Nigeria” retrieved
fromhttp://www.researchgate.net/publication/42973306_Study_of_Sweet_Potato_Ipomeas_batatas_L
am_Foods_for_Indigenous_Consumption_Through_ Chemical_and_Anti-Nutritive_Analysis_in_
Kwara_State_Nigeria in January 17, 2017

26
content as such they are a good source of energy. Giant taro corm was also found to

be rich in protein, but lower in fat content. High ash content found in giant taro corm

indicated that it rich in minerals.26

Based on the study of Gogoi, it was discovered that the tender shoot of the

Pungapong were used as vegetable and is said to cure sinusitis, while the corm of

the plant was used as treatment for Dysentery and Rheumatism.27

Furthermore, on a study conducted by Singh et al.,qualitative assay of

different solvent extracts of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius was carried out for the

presence of phytoconstituents. Extracts were taken of Petroleum ether, Chloroform,

Methanol and water and tested for the presence of different phytoconstituents. And

he revealed that the petroleum ether extract contain alkaloids, steroids, fats & fixed

oil. The chloroform extract contain alkaloids. The methanol extract contain alkaloids,

steroids, flavonoids and carbohydrates. The aqueous extract contains flavonoids,

tannins, proteins and carbohydrates.28

26 A. C. Kumoro, et al., “Calcium Oxalate Reduction During Soaking of Giant Taro (Alocasia
Macrorrhiza (L.) Schott) corm chips in sodium bicarbonate solution,” retrieved from
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/265014556_Calcium_oxalate_reduction_during_soaking_of_g
iant_taro_Alocasia_macrorrhiza_L_Schott_corm_chips_in_bicarbonate_solution in January 13, 2017
27 Barnali Gogoi et al., “Phytochemical Constituents of Some Medicinal Plant Species Used in
Recipe During ‘Bohag Bihu’ in Assam” retrieved from www.phytojournal.com/Phytochemical_Constitue
nts_of_Some__Medicinal_Plant_Species_Used_in_Recipe_During_Bohag_Bihu_in_Assam.pdf in
January 16, 2017
28Anuradha Singh et al., “A Review on Multiple Potential of Aroid: Amorphophallus Paeoniifolius”
retrieved from http://globalresearchonline.net/journalcontents/v24-1/11.pdf in January 14, 2017.

27
 Therefore, from the studies conducted by different researcchers, Badiang

(Alocasia macrorrhiza) and Pungapong (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) contains

phytoconstituents that make them useful as a food crop and medicine.

Synthesis

The related studies and literatures collected on local and foreign provided

significant support to the researcher's stand. The documents also provided facts to

support the significance and the great contribution of having an in-depth study on the

two toxic species of the family Araceae.

The gathered related studies and literature showed the different uses,

phytochemical constituents, and the potential of the species of the family Araceae.

The Araceae species are widely found in Asia and is utilized for different uses and

practices. The studies revealed that the genus Amorphophallus exhibit medicinal

properties - analgesic, antihelminthic, anticonvulsant, antibacterial, antidiabetic,

anticancerous and antioxidant properties. Its corm is also widely used in India as a

source of food and is mainly used as a vegetable for delicious cuisines. Another

genus of the family Araceae, the Alocasia is also valued for its high medicinal value

and food importance. Incidents on poisoning are recorded and are attributed to

calcium oxalate present in the plant. But these toxins are not fatal and would only

cause irritation especially to children as the commonly victim of the poisonings.

Despite of these toxics contained in the plant, essential phytochemicals are also

28
present, and these contribute to the medicinal capabilities and potentials of the plant

to cure certain illnesses.

The information gathered also revealed that there is a need to identify and

analyze the plant species for their medicinal potentials, and to recognize the plants

economic and environmental importance in our country

The species of the family Araceae found in the different barangays in Puerto

Princesa needs to be studied. If the species of the family Araceae in different parts of

the world became a great part of their diet, economy, and health, the same thing

could be done to our country. And if those species contain medicinal and nutritive

properties, the same species found in Puerto Princesa City belonging to the same

genus or family may also contain essential phytochemicals.

29