Documenti di Didattica
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3
Electricity Prices, 1960-2010
Sources: EIA, Annual Energy Review, 2010, Figure 8.10; 2015, Fig 9
4
Utility Restructuring
5
State Variation in Electric Rates
6
The Goal: Customer Choice
7
The Result for California in 2000/1
OFF
OFF
8
The California-Enron Effect
WA
MT ND VT ME
MN
OR NH
ID SD WI NY MA
WY MI RI
IA PA CT
NV NE NJ
IN OH DE
UT IL W MD
DC
CO VA VA
CA KS MO KY
AZ TN NC
OK
NM AR SC
MS AL GA
TX
LA
AK
FL
HI
11
My Favorite Blackout Hoax Photo
My Favorite 8/14/2003 Blackout
Cartoon!
13
The Smart Grid
• The term “Smart Grid” dates officially to the 2007
“Energy Independence and Security Act”, Title 13
(“Smart Grid”)
• Use of digital information and control techniques
• Dynamic grid optimization with cyber-security
• Deployment of distributed resources including
• Customer participation and smart appliances
• Integration of storage including PHEVs
• Development of interoperability standards
14
Smart Grid Perceptions (Some of
Us Like the Term “Smarter”)
15
Renewable Portfolio Standards
(September 2012)
Source: http://www.dsireusa.org/
16
In the News: First US Offshore
Wind is Complete
• US wind has grown rapidly, but none has been offshore
• First offshore wind, Block Island Wind Farm, is now
complete and should be generating in October 2016
– It has five 6 MW GE
direct drive wind
turbines (30 MW total)
– Located three miles
southeast of Block Island,
Rhode Island
– Connected to grid by
underwater 34.5 kV
three-phase cables
Image source: New York Times, Aug 22, 2016
North America Electric Load and
Generation
Power System Modeling and Time
Frames
• Much of class covers power system models. An
important quote to keep in mind is
– “Essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful.
However, the approximate nature of the model must always
be borne in mind.” G.E.P. Box, N.R. Draper, Empirical
Model-Building and Response Surfaces, Wiley, 1987, p. 424.
• Power systems covers
many different time
frames, with essentially
no models valid for
all of them
Image: Sauer, P.W., M. A. Pai, Power System Dynamics and Stability, Stripes Publishing, 2007
19
Review of Phasors
1T 2 Vmax
v(t ) dt
T0 2
20
Phasor Representation
21
Phasor Representation, cont’d
The RMS, cosine-referenced voltage phasor is:
V V e jqV V qV
v(t ) Re 2 Ve jw t e jqV
V V cosqV j V sin qV
I I cosq I j I sin q I
(Note: Some texts use “boldface” type for
complex numbers, or “bars on the top”)
22
Advantages of Phasor Analysis
Device Time Analysis Phasor
Resistor v(t ) Ri (t ) V RI
di (t )
Inductor v(t ) L V jw LI
dt
1t 1
Capacitor i (t ) dt v(0) V I
C0 jw C
Z = Impedance R jX Z
R = Resistance
X = Reactance (Note: Z is a
X complex number but
Z = R2 X 2 =arctan( )
R not a phasor)
23
RL Circuit Example
V (t ) 2 100cos(w t 30 )
f 60Hz
R 4 X wL 3
Z 42 32 5 36.9
V 10030
I
Z 536.9
20 6.9 Amps
i(t) 20 2 cos(w t 6.9 )
24
Complex Power
Power
p (t ) v(t ) i (t )
v(t) = Vmax cos(w t qV )
i (t) = I max cos(w t q I )
1
cos cos [cos( ) cos( )]
2
1
p (t ) Vmax I max [cos(qV q I )
2
cos(2w t qV q I )]
25
Complex Power, cont’d
Average Power
1
p (t ) Vmax I max [cos(qV q I ) cos(2wt qV q I )]
2
T
1
Pavg p (t )dt
T0
1
Vmax I max cos(qV q I )
2
V I cos(qV q I )
26
Complex Power
S V I cos(qV q I ) j sin(qV q I )
P jQ (Note: S is a complex number but not a phasor)
V I*
P = Real Power (W, kW, MW)
Q = Reactive Power (var, kvar, Mvar)
S = Complex power (VA, kVA, MVA)
Power Factor (pf) = cos
If current leads voltage then pf is leading
If current lags voltage then pf is lagging
27
Complex Power, cont’d
Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P S cos
Q S sin S 1 pf 2
29
Conversation of Power Example
Earlier we found
I = 20-6.9 amps