UNIT 5

DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Signal Conditioning
2 Sample and Hold Circuits and Multiplexing
3 DC Telemetry
4 Position Telemetry
5 AC Telemetry
6 Pulse Telemetry
7 Radio Telemetry
8 Amplitude Modulation
9 Frequency Modulation
10 Pulse Modulation
11 Signal Recovery
12 Signal Filtering
13 Signal Correlation and Signal Coding
14 Data Processing
1.Signal Conditioning:

Data acquisition systems have developed gradually over time from what was
electromechanical recorders containing typically from one to four channels to all-
electronic systems capable of measuring hundreds of variables simultaneously. Earlier,
systems used paper charts and rolls or magnetic tape to record signals permanently,
However, since the advent of personal computers, the amount of data and speed with
which they could be collected increased dramatically. Many of the classical data-
collection systems still exist and are used regularly.

Signal conditioning is the technique of making a signal from a sensor or transducer

suitable for processing by data acquisition equipment.
For example, if you were measuring a voltage signal smaller than a few milli-volts, you
might need to amplify it. If you had a signal contaminated with noise you can also
filter it.

Types of Signal Conditioning

Amplification:
With the help of DAQ equipment the Amplification increases a voltage signal to a level
suitable for digitization. Mostly a Data Acquisition device is calibrated for input voltage s
in the 0 to 10V range.
A small voltage , let’s say coming from thermocouple or strain gauge bridge it has to
amplified 1000 times to get in the range between 0 and 10V.
In such cases the data acquisition systems have programmable amplifiers . If the signal
range is larger than the maximum input range then divide the signal down using resistor
network.

Excitation
Excitation is required for measuring force, pressure, relative humidity, temperature,
level, light level, concentration and vibration.
Many transducers, like strain gauges and RTDs (resistance temperature devices), need
power supply. The signal from these transducers can either be a voltage or a mA
current. For many transducers the supply will be low voltage DC, but for transducers
based on capacitance measurement an AC supply may be required.

Linearization
It is required when the signals produced by sensors do not have a straight-line
relationship with the physical measurement take for example when thermocouples are
used to measure temperature. Therefore linearization is achieved by using signal
conditioning.

Filtering :
Filtering reduces the noise errors in the signal. For many applications low pass filter is
used.
The low pass filter allows the low frequency components but attenuates high frequency
components. The cut-off frequency must be compatible with the frequencies present in
the actual signal and sampling rate is used for A-D conversion.
A low pass filter that prevents high frequency in either signal or noise , from introducing
distortion into the digitized signal is known as anti-aliasing filter.
These signal have sharper cut-off than normal low-pass filter used to condition the signal.
Anti-aliasing filter are specified according to sampling rate of the system and there must
be one filter per input signal.

Isolation:
A high transient voltage at one input may damage not only the input circuit, but can also
propagate it to other equipment connected to that input. This can be prevented by
providing isolation between inputs.

High Impedance
Certain types of transducer have high output impedance which do not supply enough
current to use a normal voltage input. When connected to a normal amplifier, the
currents which draws from the transducer can seriously distort the input signal. Typically
glass electrodes are used to measure pH, or gas concentration probes, for this type.
You should connect them to a voltage measuring circuit with a very high input
impedance.
 2.Sample and Hold Circuits and Multiplexing

The sample and hold circuits creates samples of the input voltage, then it holds these
samples for a definite time . The time during which the sample and hold circuit generates
the sample of the input signal is called sampling time. Similarly, the time duration of the
circuit during which it holds the sampled value is called holding time.
The capacitor is the heart of the sample and hold circuit because it charges to its peak value
when switch is opened during sampling and holds the sampled voltage to the point when
switch is closed.

Circuit Diagram:

The circuit diagram consists of two OP-Amps connected via switch . When the switch is
closed sampling process takes place and when the switch is opened holding takes place.
The capacitor connected to the second operational amplifier is the holding capacitor.

Working:

The main components of the sample and hold circuit are N-channel Enhancement type
MOSFET , capacitor to store and hold the electric charge and the high precision operational
amplifier.
 N- channel MOSFET will be used as a switching element. The input voltage is
applied at the drain and the control voltage at the gate terminal.
When positive pulse of control voltage is applied , The MOSFET is switched to ON
state and acts as closed switch.
When the MOSFET acts as closed switch the signal at the drain will be fed to the
capacitor.
The capacitor will charge to its peak value.
When the control voltage is zero then the MOSFET is switched to OFF state and acts
as open switch.
When the MOSFET switch is open the capacitor starts discharging.
The time of holding of the charge by capacitor for definite amount of time is called
as holding period.
The time in which samples of input voltage is generated is called sampling period.
The output is processed by the operational amplifier during hold period.
Therefore holding period holds significance for OP-AMPS.

Input and Output Waveforms.

The waveforms are clearly shown in the figure. It clearly indicates the voltage present in the
ON and OFF state.
Performance Parameters

 Acquisition time:

The time required by the capacitor to get the charge of the input voltage applied to
sample and hold circuit is known as acquisition time.
 Aperture Time:

The time required by the capacitor to change its state from sampling to holding. Due
to propagation, delay of switches even after the hold command is given the capacitor
still keeps charging for short duration of time. This is nothing but aperture time.

 Hold Mode Settling time :

After the generation of hold commands the input voltage used by the capacitor for
charging takes some time to settle completely. This is called Hold mode settling time.

Applications of Sample and Hold Circuit

 Data Distribution System
 Sampling Oscilloscopes
 Data Conversion System
 Digital Voltmeters
 Signal Construction Filters.

Multiplexing

A multiplexer is a circuit that allows you to select any of several inputs, as specified by
digital control signals . Since analog switches are bi-directional, this circuit could also
be used as a demultiplexer. It could also be uses as a digital MUX since logic levels
are just voltages
2. Telemetry

Telemetry is the automatic recording and transmission of data from remote or

inaccessible sources to an IT system in a different location for monitoring and
analysis.

Telemetry data may be relayed using radio, infrared, ultrasonic, GSM, satellite or
cable, depending on the application.

Telemetry System

Block Diagram of Telemetry System

The Telemetry system consists of :

Transducer or Sensor:

It converts the physical variable to be telemetered (that is, the measurand) into an
electrical quantity. This quantity in most cases is an electrical parameter

Signal Conditioner-1

It converts the electrical output (which may or may not be a signal,) of the transducer
(or sensor) into an electrical signal compatible with the next element, i.e. the
transmitter. The incompatibility could be either in the form (such as parameter
versus signal, voltage versus current, analog versus digital, etc) or the magnitude of
the signal (that is, it is too weak to be used by the next element).

Transmitter

Its purpose is to transmit the information signal coming from the signal conditioner-1
using a suitable carrier signal to the receiving end.

It may perform one or more of the following functions:

(i) Modulation: Modulation of a carrier signal by the information signal.

(ii) Amplification: As and if required for the purpose of transmission.

(iii) Signal Conversion: As and if required for the purpose of transmission. For
example, voltage to current conversion, or analog to digital conversion, or
electrical signal to radio wave conversion

(iv) Multiplexing: If more than one physical variables need to be telemetered

simultaneously from the same location, then either frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM) or time-division multiplexing (TDM) is used.

Signal Transmission Medium

It is the medium or link that connects the sending or transmitting end to the receiving
end, over which the transmitter can transmit its output signal to the receiver.

Receiver

Its purpose is to receive the signal(s) coming from the transmitter (located at the
sending end of the telemetry system) via the signal transmission medium and
recover the information from the same. It may perform one or more of the following
functions:

(i) Amplification: Amplification of the received signal as and if required for the
purpose of further processing.

(ii) Demodulation: Demodulation of the received signal to recover information

signal. The demodulation process has to be complementary of the modulation
performed by the transmitter.

(iii) Reverse Signal Conversion: This conversion is generally the reverse of the
conversion performed by the transmitter. Thus the receiver is required to
perform current to voltage conversion, or digital to analog conversion
depending on the nature of the carrier signal and the signal transmission
medium.

(iv) De-multiplexing: It refers to the process of segregating or separating various

information signals so that they can be delivered to their respective end
devices. The process in the receiver has to be essentially the reverse of the
multiplexing carried out by the transmitter.

Signal Conditioner-2

It processes the receiver output as necessary to make it suitable to drive the given
end device.
End Device:

The element called because it appears at the end of the system. Depending on the
purpose of the telemetry in the given situation, the end device may be performing
one of the following functions:

 Analog Indication:

Analog indication of the value of the measurand through the

deflection of a pointer on a scale. The device used is very often
a permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) meter.

 Digital Display:

Digital display of the value of the measurand on LEDs, LCD,

monitor screen etc.

 Digital Storage:

Storage of the digital value of the measurand in electronic or

optical storage device for a later use.

 Data Processing:

The measured digital values may be given to a data processor,

such as a microprocessor, digital signal processor or computer,
for analysis etc.

 Closed-Loop Control:

The analog or digital output of the signal conditioner-2,

representing the measured value may be fed to an automatic
controller as the feedback signal.

 DC Telemetry
These telemetry systems have no modulation. The information signal varies
slowly and considers DC signal to be transmitted such as:

Direct Voltage Telemetry System

Direct Current Telemetry system

 AC Telemetry
These telemetry systems use an AC carrier, which is modulated using one of the
AC modulation techniques.

Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Pulse Telemetry

These telemetry systems use a pulse carrier, which is modulated using one of the pulse
modulation techniques. They are:

o Pulse Amplitude Modulation Telemetry System.

o Pulse Phase Modulation Telemetry System
o Pulse Frequency Modulation Telemetry
o Pulse Code Modulation Telemetry System

Radio Telemetry

Radio telemetry uses radio signals, made up of invisible and silent electromagnetic waves,
to determine location. A radio telemetry system consists of Radio transmitter, Radio
antenna, Radio receiver.
The radio transmitter is worn by the animal and is the part that transmits, or sends, the radio
signal. Scientists use the antenna to pick up the radio signals, which are then transformed
into a beeping sound by the receiver. As the receiver gets closer to the transmitter, the
beeps get louder, meaning the animal wearing the transmitter is close by. The researcher
can use this audible clue to locate and follow the animal wearing the transmitter.

Position Telemetry

 Transmitting instrument that adjusts the relation between the signal corresponding to
the measurement.
 Receiving Instrument converts these signals to displacement.
 Measurements are represented by mechanical parts.
 Operation is based on comparison of two or more electrical magnitudes.
 Requires at least three conductors between transmitting and receiving units.

3. Modulation:

Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of the carrier signal, in accordance
with the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.

Need for Modulation

The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For a signal to travel
longer distances, its strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency
carrier wave, which does not affect the parameters of the modulating signal.

Types of modulation

 Amplitude modulation (AM): in which the height that is the strength or intensity of the
signal carrier is varied to represent the data being added to the signal.
 Frequency modulation (FM): in which the frequency of the carrier waveform is varied
to reflect the frequency of the data.

 Phase modulation (PM): in which the phase of the carrier waveform is varied to reflect
changes in the frequency of the data. In PM, the frequency is unchanged while the phase
is changed relative to the base carrier frequency. It is similar to FM.

 Pulse-code modulation, in which an analog signal is sampled to derive a data stream

that is used to modulate a digital carrier signal.

 Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), which uses two AM carriers to encode two
or more bits in a single transmission.

Amplitude Modulation

Definition: The amplitude of the carrier signal varies in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal that is the amplitude of the carrier signal containing no
information varies as per the amplitude of the signal containing information, at each instant.

 Amplitude modulation or AM is used for radio transmissions for broadcasting and

two way radio communication applications.

 One of the key reasons for the use of amplitude modulation was its ease of use. The
system simply requires the carrier amplitude to be modulated, but more usefully the
detector required in the receiver could be a simple diode based circuit. This meant
that AM radios did not need complicated demodulators and costs were reduced - a
key requirement for widespread use of radio technology, especially in the early days
of radio when ICs were not available.
 • The first figure shows the modulating wave, which is the message signal.
• The next is the carrier wave, which is a high frequency signal and contains no
information.
• The last one is the resultant modulated wave.
• It can be observed that the positive and negative peaks of the carrier wave, are
interconnected with an imaginary line.
• This line helps recreating the exact shape of the modulating signal. This imaginary
line on the carrier wave is called as Envelope. It is the same as that of the message
signal.

Applications

Amplitude modulation is used in a variety of applications.

 Broadcast transmissions: AM is still widely used for broadcasting on the long, medium
and short wave bands. It is simple to demodulate and this means that radio receivers
capable of demodulating amplitude modulation are cheap and simple to manufacture.

 Air band radio: VHF transmissions for many airborne applications still use AM. . It is
used for ground to air radio communications as well as two -way radio links for ground
staff as well.

 Single sideband: Amplitude modulation in the form of single sideband is still used for HF
radio links. Using a lower bandwidth and providing more effective use of the transmitted
power this form of modulation is still used for many point to point HF links.

 Quadrature amplitude modulation: AM is widely used for the transmission of data in

everything from short range wireless links such as Wi-Fi to cellular telecommunications
and much more. Effectively it is formed by having two carriers 90° out of phase.

Even though it is not as widely used as it was in previous years in its basic format it can
nevertheless still be found.

Advantages
 simple to implement
 Demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few components
 AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized components are needed.
Disadvantages
 It is not efficient in terms of its power usage
 It is not efficient in terms of its use of bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice
that of the highest audio frequency
 It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and obviously
AM detectors are sensitive to it.
Frequency Modulation

Definition: The frequency of the carrier signal is varied proportional to (in accordance
with) the Amplitude of the input modulating signal. The input is a single tone sine wave.
 The frequency of a carrier (fc) will increase as the amplitude of modulating (input)
signal increases.
 The carrier frequency will be maximum (fc max) when the input signal is at its peak.
 The carrier deviates maximum from its normal value. The frequency of a carrier will
decrease as the amplitude of the modulating (input) signal decreases.
 The carrier frequency will be minimum (fc min) when the input signal is at its lowest.
The carrier deviates minimum from its normal value.
 The frequency of the carrier will be at its normal value (free running) fc when the
input signal value is 0V. There is no deviation in the carrier.

Frequency Deviation
 The amount of change in the carrier frequency produced, by the amplitude of the input
modulating signal, is called frequency deviation.
 The Carrier frequency swings between fmax and fmin as the input varries in its
amplitude.
 The difference between fmax and fc is known as frequency deviation. fd = fmax – fc
 Similarly, the difference between fc and fmin also is known as frequency deviation. fd = fc
–fmin
 It is denoted by Δf. Therefore Δf = fmax – fc = fc – fmin
 Therefore fd = fmax – fc = fc – fmin

Modulation index

The FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency.

m= Frequency deviation /Modulation frequency

FM deviation ratio

Accordingly the FM deviation ratio can be defined as: the ratio of the maximum carrier
frequency deviation to the highest audio modulating frequency.

m=Max frequency deviation/Max modulation frequency

Bandwidth

Tthe bandwidth of a complex signal like FM is the difference between its highest and lowest
frequency components, and is expressed in Hertz (Hz). Bandwidth deals with only
frequencies.

FM signal spectrum is quite complex and will have an infinite number of sidebands as shown
in the figure. This figure gives an idea, how the spectrum expands as the modulation index
increases. Sidebands are separated from the carrier by fc ± fm, fc ± 2fm, fc ± 3fm and so on.

Bandwidth of FM Signal
As a rule of thumb, often termed as Carson’s Rule, 98% of the signal power in FM is
contained within a bandwidth equal to the deviation frequency, plus the modulation
frequency doubled.

Carson’s rule: Bandwidth of FM BWFM = 2 [ Δf + fm ].

Differences between AM and FM

AM FM
Modulation index can have any value greater Modulation index will be between 0 and 1
than 1 or less than 1
Transmitted power does not depend on Transmitted power depends on modulation
modulation index index

fference between AM and FM

The main difference between AM and FM include the following.
 Equation for FM: V= A sin [ wct +Δf / fm sin wmt ] = A sin [ wct + mf sin wmt ]
 Equation for AM = Vc ( 1 + m sin ωmt ) sin ωct where m is given by m = Vm / Vc
 In FM, the Modulation Index can have any value greater than 1 or less than one
 In AM, the Modulation Index will be between 0 and 1
 In FM, carrier amplitude is constant.
 Therefore transmitted power is constant.
 Transmitted power does not depend on the modulation index
 Transmitted power depends on the modulation index
 PTotal = Pc [ 1+ (m2/2) ]
 The number of significant sidebands in FM is large.
 Only two sidebands in AM
 A bandwidth of FM depends on the modulation index of FM
 Bandwidth does not depend on the modulation index of AM. Always 2 sidebands. BW of
AM is 2 fm
 FM has better noise immunity.FM is rugged/robust against noise. The quality of FM will
be good even in the presence of noise.
 In AM, quality is affected seriously by noise
 The bandwidth required by FM is quite high.FM bandwidth = 2 [Δf + fm].
 The bandwidth required by AM is less (2 fm)
 Circuits for FM transmitter and receiver are very complex and very expensive.
 Circuits for AM transmitter and receiver are simple and less expensive
Thus, this is all about frequency modulation. The applications of frequency
modulation include in FM radio broadcasting, radar, seismic prospecting, telemetry, &
observing infants for seizure through EEG, music synthesis, two-way radio systems,
magnetic tape recording systems, video broadcast systems, etc. From the above
information, finally, we can conclude that, in frequency modulation, both efficiencies as
well as bandwidth depends on the maximum the modulation index and modulating
frequency. Contrasted to amplitude modulation, the frequency modulation signal has a
larger bandwidth, superior efficiency, & improved immunity toward the noise.

Frequency Modulation
 DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM : signal conditioning, sample and hold circuits and
multiplexing,
telemetry: DC

telemetry, position telemetry AC telemetry PULSE telemetry AND RADIO telemetry:

modulation: amplitude,

frequency and pulse modulation: signal recovery: signal filtering, signal averaging, signal
correlation and signal

coding. Data processing.