KuliahBahagian2 PDF

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Kandungan
Hypothesis Testing
Comparing two variables using Parametric Tests
‐ Two Independent Samples
‐ Two Related Samples
Comparing two variables using Non‐Parametric Tests
‐ Two Independent Samples
‐ Two Related Samples
Comparing more than two variables using Parametric Tests
‐ Testing for More than Two Independent Samples
‐ Testing for More than Two Related Samples
Comparing more than two variables using Non‐Parametric Tests
‐ Testing for More than Two Independent Samples
‐ Testing for More than Two Related Samples
Chi Square
Correlation and Regression
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Hypothesis Testing
• The general goal of a

Introduction to hypothesis test is to rule out
chance (sampling error) as a
plausible explanation for the
results from a research study.
• Hypothesis testing is a
technique to help determine
whether a specific treatment
has an effect on the
individuals in a population.
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Hypothesis Testing
The hypothesis test is used to

evaluate the results from a
research study in which
1. A sample is selected from
the population.
2. The treatment is
administered to the sample.
3. After treatment, the
individuals in the sample
are measured.
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Hypothesis Testing (cont.)
• If the individuals in the sample are noticeably different

from the individuals in the original population, we have
evidence that the treatment has an effect.
• However, it is also possible that the difference between

the sample and the population is simply sampling
error
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Hypothesis Testing (cont.)
The purpose of the hypothesis test is to decide between two

explanations:
1. The difference between the sample and the population
can be explained by sampling error (there does not
appear to be a treatment effect)
2. The difference between the sample and the population
is too large to be explained by sampling error (there
does appear to be a treatment effect).
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Example 2:
Ho : Tidak terdapat perbezaan

Ho1 : Tidak terdapat perbezaan skor yang signifikan antara jantina.
XXXX yang signifikan antara YYY.
Dependent
Ho2 : Tidak terdapat perbezaan ranking pemilihan universiti antara
Independent
negeri.
Ho3 : Tidak terdapat perbezaan skor yang signifikan antara Ujian Fizik
Ho : Tidak terdapat perbezaan / hubungan dan Ujian Kimia
yang signifikan antara XXXX dan YYY.
dependent dependent
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Example 2: 11 The Null Hypothesis, the Alpha 12
Level, the Critical Region, and the

Test Statistic
Ho1 : Tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya kepimpinan
(mengarah) guru besar dengan motivasi guru.

(menyokong) guru besar dengan motivasi guru. The following four steps outline the process of
hypothesis testing and introduce some of the new
Ho3 : Tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya kepimpinan terminology:
(penglibatan) guru besar dengan motivasi guru.

(orientasi Kejayaan) guru besar dengan motivasi guru.
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Step 1
H0: µ1-µ2=0 (treatment has no effect )

H1 : µ1-µ2≠0 (treatment has an effect )
State the hypothesis
The α level establishes a criterion, or "cut-off", for making

a decision about the null hypothesis
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Step 2
Locate the critical region.

The critical region consists of outcomes that are very
unlikely to occur if the null hypothesis is true.
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Step 3 Step 4
If mean difference is large enough to be significant
Compute the test statistic. in the critical region, we conclude that the REJECT
difference is significant or that the the null hypothesis
The test statistic (in this chapter a z-score) forms a treatment has a significant effect. In this
ratio case we reject the null hypothesis.
If the mean difference is relatively small, Not

then the test statistic will have a low significant
value. In this case, we conclude that the FAIL TO
evidence from the sample is not REJECT
sufficient, and the decision is fail to reject the null hypothesis
the null hypothesis.
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Learning Check 1 Learning Check 1
An automobile manufacturer claims that a newly introduced model will µ=45 and σ=2. Find Z?
average µ=45 miles per gallon with σ =2. – M=42 for s sample of n=4 ?
A sample of n=4 cars is tested and averages only M=42 miles per =
gallon. =
Is this sample mean likely to occur if = 1
the manufacturer’s claim is true?
(Assume that the distribution of the millage
?
Is this sample mean likely to
occur if the manufacturer’s
scores is normal and significant level α=0.05) claim is true?
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Some Examples of Null Hypothesis
 Mean of M_Test of Group 1 is equal to mean of M_Test Group 2
H0 : 1 = 2
 Sample mean is equal to the population mean
Some Examples of H0 : =
NULL HYPOTHESIS  The three population means are equal to each other
H0 : 1 = 2 = 2
 The standard deviation of Group A is the standard deviation of

Group B
H0 : 1 =  2
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Eg. 1:
Using Table z, identify the critical values need for rejection

of the null hypothesis under the following conditions:
Directionality

one-tailed two-tailed
0.10 1.28 1.65
0.15 1.04 1.44

0.001 3.09 3.30
The structure of a research study to determine whether prenatal alcohol affects

birth weight. A sample is selected from the original population and is given
alcohol. The question is what would happen if the entire population were given
alcohol. The treated sample provides information about the unkonwn treated
population.
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Errors in Hypothesis Tests Errors in Hypothesis Tests (cont.)
• Just because the sample mean (following treatment) is • Because the hypothesis test relies on sample data, and
different from the original population mean does not because sample data are not completely reliable, there is
necessarily indicate that the treatment has caused a
change. always the risk that misleading data will cause the
• You should recall that there usually is some discrepancy hypothesis test to reach a wrong conclusion.
between a sample mean and the population mean simply • Two types of error are possible.
as a result of sampling error.
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Possible outcomes of a statistical decision Possible outcomes of a statistical decision
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Directional Tests Two Types of Hypotheses
The Research Hypothesis or
Alternative Hypothesis (H1)
• When a research study predicts a specific direction for the The hypothesis which states that the
treatment effect (increase or decrease), it is possible to The Null Hypothesis (Ho)
difference between the sample means
incorporate the directional prediction into the hypothesis The hypothesis which states or between the sample mean and the
test. that there is no real difference population mean is real (i.e. the
between the sample means or difference does exist!)
• The result is called a directional test or a one-tailed test. between the sample mean and
H1 : 1  2
A directional test includes the directional prediction in the the population mean
or
statement of the hypotheses and in the location of the H0 : 1 = 2
critical region. H1 : 1 < 2
or
H1 : 1 > 2
Strong Notes: H0 and H1 may involve statistical indexes other than means (refer to examples)!!
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Measuring Effect Size
Some Examples of Alternative Hypothesis
 Running time in the 100-metre dash is lower for men than women
• A hypothesis test evaluates the statistical significance of
H1 : males < females
the results from a research study.
• That is, the test determines whether or not it is likely that
 Practice improves test scores the obtained sample mean occurred without any
H1 : pg > cg contribution from a treatment effect.
• The hypothesis test is influenced not only by the size of the
 The relationship between income (X) and education (Y) for treatment effect but also by the size of the sample.
Adsians is different from those live in European communities • Thus, even a very small effect can be significant if it is
H1 : XYAsians  XYEuropeans observed in a very large sample.
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Measuring Effect Size
• Because a significant effect does not necessarily mean a

Cohen’s d uses the large effect, it is recommended that the hypothesis test be
standard deviation
to help measure
accompanied by a measure of the effect size.
effect size. • We use Cohen’s d as a standardized measure of effect
size.
• Much like a z-score, Cohen’s d measures the size of the
mean difference in terms of the standard deviation.
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Power of a Hypothesis Test Power of a Hypothesis Test
• The power of a hypothesis test is defined is the probability

that the test will reject the null hypothesis when the
treatment does have an effect.
Cohen’s d =
• The power of a test depends on a variety of factors
including the size of the treatment effect and the size of the
sample.
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• As you can see, there is

considerable overlap between the
two distribution even when
Cohen’s d indicates a large effect.
• This means that even for large
d= effects there will be many
individuals that go against the
d = 1.00 population-level pattern.
• Always keep these types of
figures in mind when trying to
interpret effect size measures.
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Power of a Hypothesis Test
Interpretation
1. Cohen’s d = 0.2 ( small effect)
2. Cohen’s d = 0.5 ( medium effect)
Cohen’s d
Percentage of variance accounted , 3. Cohen’s d = 0.8 ( Large effect)
1. r2=0.01 (Small effect)

2. r2=0.09 (Medium effect)
Percentage of
3. r2=0.25 (Large effect) variance accounted,
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How to write hypothesis?
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test your knowledge.. test your knowledge..
We always test a null hypothesis against an
1 alternative. The alternative hypothesis states that there is no
3 difference/no effect.
A. True
B. False A. True
ANSWER: A B. False
Statistical power tells us our level of Type I error.

2
A. True
B. False
ANSWER: B
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test your knowledge.. test your knowledge..
4 If our sample value is close to the null/population value, Type I error occurs when we
we conclude that
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A. correctly fail to reject a false null hypothesis.
A. we can neither accept or reject the null. B. correctly reject a false null hypothesis.
B. something happened in the study; there is a C. incorrectly reject a false null hypothesis.
significant effect. D. incorrectly reject a true null hypothesis.
C. nothing happened in the study; there is no effect. ANSWER: D
D. something happened in the study, but the effect is
very small.
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test your knowledge.. SPSS?
Hypothesis
6 = No Diff between score pre and post..
0.05
In hypothesis testing, what is the null hypothesis?
A. a statement of what the experiment is trying to prove or show, by
applying some kind of treatment on one or more variables
B. a statement of the probability of obtaining the experimental results
purely by chance
C. a statement of the validity of the experiment
D. a statement of no difference from what one would normally expect if
there were no effect of the experimental treatment If Sig, p > 0.05  Fail to Reject , No Diff
E. a statement of the relative effectiveness of a treatment applied to a If Sig, p 0.05  Reject , Have Diff
randomly selected group of subjects From table, the p-value @ sig value is 0.004. We reject the
null hypothesis, and conclude that the data Sig Diff
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Example: Example:
1
2
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Parametric VS Non-Parametric
T-test Parametric Non‐Parametric
Ratio / Interval Ordinal / Nominal
Mean Median
Pearson Spearman
Independent t‐test Mann‐Whitney test
One‐way independent ANOVA Kruskal‐Wallis test
Paired t‐test Wilcoxon test
One‐way repeated ANOVA Friedman’s test
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The t Test T-Test Assumptions
One Sample T‐Test Measurement scales
Dependent Sample T‐Test Normality
Independent Sample T‐Test Homogeneity of variance

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The t Test
One Sample T‐Test
- Known
- Compare with sample
vs 119,108,134,140,98,87,88, 97, ……
̅ 110 /
Populasi
/ Adakah terdapat
perbezaan halaju sampel
berbanding populasi?
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The Estimated Standard Error and
The t Test For One Sample
the t Statistic
• The hypothesis test allows researchers to evaluate the
mean difference between known population mean
(variance remain unknown) using the data from a single
sample.

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Example of One Sample t-test

A sample of n=25 individuals is randomly selected from
population with a mean of µ =65, and a treatment is
administered to the individuals in the sample. After treatment
the sample mean is found to be M=70.
a) If the sample standard b) If the sample standard
deviation is s =10, are the deviation is s=20, are the data
data sufficient to conclude sufficient to conclude that the
that the treatment has a treatment has a significant
significant effect using a two- effect using a two-tail test with
tail test with α =0.05? α =0.05?
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Example of One Sample t-test

1. State the hypothesis
n = 25 H0 :  = 65
(a)
µ =65 t=M-µ
H1 :   65
SM
M=70 2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= n ‐ 1
t = 70 – 65
2
t = 2.5
4. Make decision
(b) ???

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Example : Manual
Mean, M 71.3
n= 10 Standard Deviation, s 15.853
67, 54, 78, 95, 56, 78, 44, 78, 76, 87 Standard Error, SM 5.013
Given , population mean = 65

Testing value
Mean ?
Standard Deviation ?
Standard Error ?
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Result Result
1. State the hypothesis 2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= n ‐ 1
H0 :  = 65 df = 9
H1 :   65 From Table
‐ 2.262 + 2.262

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Result Result
3. Compute t 4. Make decision
Fail to Reject hypothesis Null
t and
Compute, t = 71.3 – 65
71.3 – 65
‐ 2.262 + 2.262
5.013
5.013
= 1.256
1.256
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Test/ Computer..
Using SPSS for population mean of 65 at alpha
0.05
Spss view
Compare 0.241 with 0.05

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Result; Self Check
Fail to Reject hypothesis Null score: 4,4,3,2,5,1,1,4
Is there any significant different when

µ=5.5 at α=0.05? 71.3 – 65
‐ 2.365 + 2.365
5.013
‐4.677
Result : Reject H0
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How to get this from SPSS??
SPSS
The t Test For
One Sample

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29

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The t Test For

Two Independent Samples
One Sample T‐Test
Independent Sample T‐Test
47%
53% Male Dependent Sample T‐Test
Female
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A sample of two group Male and Female in Biology Quiz in df = n-1
one of the school. The data are as follows:
Female 10,8,7,9,13,7,6,12 2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= df1 + df2

Male 7, 4,9,3,7
a) Is the score of Female is better than Male at α = 0.05?
b) Calculate the value of r2 for these data.

4. Make decision
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Two Independent Samples Two Independent Samples
2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= df1 + df2
df = df1 + df2 = (8-1) + (5-1) = 7 + 4
df = 11
71.3 – 65 + 2.201
5.013

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Two Independent Samples From calculator
3. Compute, t 4. Make decision
n
M@/
t = 2.117
71.3 – 65 2.201
5.013
2.117
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SPSS…
Value of Sig, p >
Fail to reject hypothesis Null

Is the score of Female is better than Male? No
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= 9-6 (2.117)2
=
2.4494922 + 2.507132
(2.117)2 + 11
2
= 0.289
= 1.216
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cth
1. Cohen’s d = 0.2 ( small effect)
2. Cohen’s d = 0.5 ( medium effect) SPSS
3. Cohen’s d = 0.8 ( Large effect)
t-TEST
1. r=0.01 (Small effect) Independent sample
2. r=0.09 (Medium effect)
3. r=0.25 (Large effect)

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• Jantina
– Independent
• Markah Fizik
– dependent
• Markah Math
– dependent
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Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for Equality of
Variances t‐test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval of
Mean Std. Error the Difference
F Sig. t df Sig. (2‐tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
UJIAN FIZIK Equal variances
.575 .456 ‐.406 23 .688 ‐3.567 8.779 ‐21.728 14.595
assumed
Equal variances not
‐.412 20.347 .685 ‐3.567 8.658 ‐21.607 14.474
assumed
UJIAN MATEMATIK Equal variances
.236 .631 .561 23 .580 5.233 9.332 ‐14.072 24.538
assumed
Equal variances not
.577 21.187 .570 5.233 9.076 ‐13.630 24.097
assumed
Fail to reject hypothesis Null

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Repeated‐measures Designs
The related‐samples hypothesis test allows researchers to
evaluate the mean difference between two treatment
The T Test For conditions using the data from a single sample.
Two Related In a repeated‐measures design, a single group of
individuals is obtained and each individual is measured in
Samples both of the treatment conditions being compared.
Thus, the data consist of two scores for each individual.
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Hypothesis tests with the Hypothesis tests with the
repeated‐measures repeated‐measures
The repeated‐measures t statistic allows
researchers to test a hypothesis about the In this situation it is possible to compute a
population mean difference between two difference score for each individual:
treatment conditions using sample data from a difference score = D = X2 – X1
repeated‐measures research study.
Where X1 is the person’s score in the first
treatment and X2 is the score in the second
treatment.
Or
Where X1 is the person’s score in the pre‐test
(before treatment) and X2 is the score in the post‐
test (after treatment).

Hypothesis Tests With Matched‐ 5
Hypothesis Tests With The 6
subjects Design Repeated‐measures

Thus, the data consist of pairs of scores with each
The related‐samples t pair corresponding to a matched set of two
test can also be used for "identical" subjects.
a similar design, called a
For a matched‐subjects design, a difference score is
matched‐subjects
computed for each matched pair of individuals.
design, in which each
individual in one
treatment is matched
one‐to‐one with a
corresponding
individual in the second
treatment.
Hypothesis Tests with the

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Repeated‐Measures Repeated‐measures
• The sample of difference scores is used to

test hypotheses about the population of
difference scores. The null hypothesis
states that the population of difference
scores has a mean of zero,
H0: μD = 0

Repeated‐measures Repeated‐measures
In words, the null hypothesis says that there is no
consistent or systematic difference between the two
treatment conditions.
Note that the null hypothesis does not say that

each individual will have a difference score equal to
zero.
Some individuals will show a positive change from one
treatment to the other, and some will show a negative
change.
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Hypothesis Tests with the Example Of Repeated‐measures
Repeated‐Measures Designs
• Effect size for the independent‐measures t is The following data demonstrate these points:
measured in the same way that we measured
Subject X1 X2 D
effect size for the single‐sample t and the
independent‐measures t. A 9 16 ?
• Specifically, you can compute an estimate of B 25 28 ?
Cohen’s d to obtain a standardized measure of the
mean difference, or you can compute r2 to obtain a C 31 36 ?
measure of the percentage of variance accounted D 58 61 ?
for by the treatment effect.
E 72 79 ?

Example of Two Related 13 Example of Two Related 14
Samples Samples
1
2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= n‐1
4. Make decision
Example of Two Related 15 Example of Two Related 16
Samples Samples
12. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and df= n ‐ 1 3 S=2
df = 4
From Table
SS = 141 – 252 SMD = 0.894
5
‐ 2.776 + 2.776 SS = 16 t= 5–0
0.894
MD t = 5.593
‐ 2.776 + 2.776
5.593

Example of Two Related 17 18
Samples Using SPSS…
4 Make decision..
Reject hypothesis Null
‐ 2.776 + 2.776
5.593
Reject null hypothesis
19 SPSS 20
Example of Repeated‐ The t Test for Two Related Samples
Measures Designs
• Notice that the original data show big differences
from one treatment to another. 1
• These big individual differences are eliminated

when the difference scores are calculated.
• Because the individual differences are removed, 2
the D scores are usually much less variable than
the original scores.
• Again, a smaller variance will produce a smaller
standard error, which will increase the likelihood
of a significant t statistic. 3
4
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Pastikan anda dapat menterjemah
setiap nilai yang ditunjukkan…
Kesimpulan?
1 p > α  Gagal menolak Ho, Tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan
Ambil
2
3 Perhatian p < α  Ho ditolak, Terdapat Perbezaan yg signifikan
p = Sig.
• p = 0.005
4 5 6 • p < α
11 • @ p < 0.05 , maka Ho ditolak.
Terdapat perbezaan yang
9
7
8 10
signifikan antara skor X1 dan
X2
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Parametric VS Non‐
Parametric
Mann-Whitney U Test Parametric Non‐Parametric
Ratio / Interval Ordinal / Nominal
Mean Median
Pearson Spearman
Parametric : Data
Interval/ Independent t‐test Mann‐Whitney test
ratio
Normal One‐way independent ANOVA Kruskal‐Wallis test
distribution Non Parametric
Paired t‐test Data : Ordinal/Wilcoxon test
Not Normal
One‐way repeated ANOVA distribution Friedman’s test
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• Uses ordinal data from two separate

Non parametric samples to test a hypothesis about the
difference between two population or
Independent Sample two treatment condition.
Mann‐Whitney U Test • Alternative to the independent
measures t test in situations where
the data can be ranked.

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Hipotesis ..
Ho1 : Tidak terdapat perbezaan pilihan (s1) antara jantina

1 = Lelaki
2 = perempuan
Latihan1Q3.sav
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1 = Lelaki
6 2 = perempuan
7 9
2
8
3

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Output Kesimpulan?
p > α  Gagal menolak Ho, Tidak terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan
2
1 3 p < α  Ho ditolak, Terdapat Perbezaan yg signifikan
p = Asymp.Sig.
Ambil
Bagi s1;
Perhatian • p = 0.772
• p > α
• @ p > 0.05 , maka Ho GAGAL
4
ditolak. Tidak terdapat
perbezaan yang signifikan
antara pilihan yang dibuat.
5
11

1 2
• Uses the data from a repeated‐measures or

matched‐samples
Non parametric • Design to evaluate the difference between
For two related sample two treatment condition
• Alternative to the related t test in situation
Wilcoxon Test in which the sample data (difference scores)
can be ranked.
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1
Contoh
Kajian dilakukan
untuk melihat
adakah terdapat
perbezaan pilihan
bagi calon yang
memilih UTM 2
berdasarkan pilihan
3
mereka sebelum dan
selepas taklimat
diberikan.
4
Latihan1Q5.sav

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1
2
5
3 4 5
7 5
Ambil
Perhatian
6 6
9
7
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Kesimpulan?
p < α  Ho ditolak, Terdapat Perbezaan yg signifikan
p = Asymp Sig.
• p = 0.008
• p < α
• @ p < 0.05 , maka Ho ditolak.
Terdapat perbezaan yang
signifikan antara pilihan
sebelum dan selepas taklimat

Comparing more than two variables using Parametric Tests 2
ANOVA
Analysis of Variance
ANOVA – Independent samples
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The Logic and the Process of
• ANOVA can be used in situations where there
are two or more means being • ANOVA allows researcher to evaluate all
compared, whereas the t tests are limited to
only two means are involved.
ANOVA vs t-test
of the mean differences in a single
• These situations would require a series of hypothesis test using a single α‐level
several t tests to evaluate all of the mean and, thereby, keeps the risk of a Type I
differences. (t test can compare only 2 means error under control no matter how many
at a time.) different means are being compared.
• Although each t test can be done with a specific
α‐level (risk of Type I error), the α‐levels
accumulate over a series of tests so that
the final experimentwise α‐level can be quite
large
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• The test statistic for ANOVA is an F‐ratio, which is a

ratio of two sample variances. In the context of
ANOVA, the sample variances are called mean
squares, or MS values.
• The top of the F‐ratio MSbetween measures the size of

mean differences between samples. The bottom of
the ratio MSwithin measures the magnitude of
differences that would be expected without any
treatment effects.
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The structure and sequence of calculations for the ANOVA.

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The Logic and the Process of
Analysis of Variance (cont.)
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Example Steps
One experiment call examining learning performance 1. State the hypothesis
under three temperature condition (GroupA1, GroupA2,
Ho: µ1= µ2= µ3
Group A3). The dependent variable is the number of
problem solved correctly. H1: At least one of the treatment means is different.
Temperature conditions 2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05 and F(between, within)
Is there any
A1 ‐ 50o A2 ‐70o A3‐ 90o significant
0 4 1 different between
three groups at
1 3 2
alpha 0.05?
3 6 2
1 3 0
4. Make decision
0 4 0

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Example 1 Example
Temperature conditions
A1 ‐150o A2 ‐702 o 3 o
A3‐ 90
Temperature conditions
0 4 1
A1 ‐ 50o A2 ‐70o A3‐ 90o
1 3 2 G=30 G = T1 + T2 + T3
0 4 1
3 6 2
1 3 2
1 3 0
N=15 N = n1 + n2 + n3
3 6 2
0 4 0 k=3
1 3 0
T1=5 T2=20 T3=5
0 4 0
SS1=6 SS2=6 SS3=4
n1=5 n2=5 n3=5
Source SS df MS F 15 16
Between SSbetween dfbetween

subject subject
Within SSwithin dfwithin
treatment
Total SStotal dftotal
Draw
Anova table ?

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SPSS OUTPUT SPSS OUTPUT

ANOVA ANOVA
Sum of Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups Between Groups
30.00 2 15.00 11.25 .002
Within Groups Within Groups
16.00 12 1.33
Total Total
46.00 14
19
Analysis of Variance 20
and Post Tests
• The null hypothesis for ANOVA states that for the

general population there are no mean differences
among the treatments being compared; H0: μ1 = μ2
= μ3 = . . .
• When the null hypothesis is rejected, the
conclusion is that there are significant mean
differences.
• However, the ANOVA simply establishes that
differences exist, it does not indicate exactly which
treatments are different.

Analysis of Variance 21
Post ‐Hoc 22
and Post Tests

• With more than two treatments, this creates a
problem. Specifically, you must follow the ANOVA
with additional tests, called post tests, to
determine exactly which treatments are different
and which are not.
• The Scheffe test and Tukey=s HSD are examples
of post tests.
• These tests are done after an ANOVA where H0 is
rejected with more than two treatment conditions.
The tests compare the treatments, two at a time, to
test the significance of the mean differences.
23 24
Measuring Effect Size for an Measuring Effect Size for an
Analysis of Variance Analysis of Variance
• To supplement the hypothesis test, it is • For the t statistics, this percentage was identified
recommended that you calculate a measure of as r2, but in the context of ANOVA the percentage is
effect size. identified as η2 (the Greek letter eta, squared).
• For an analysis of variance the common technique • The formula for computing effect size is:
for measuring effect size is to compute the
percentage of variance that is accounted for by the SSbetween treatments
treatment effects. η2 = ───────────
SStotal

25 26
Measuring Effect Size for an Example 2
8438.641
η2 = ─────────── = 0.183 Treatment
46122.166 A B C
2 3 7
6 7 5
2 6 4
6 4 8
27 Source SS df MS F 28
Example 2
Treatment Within
subject
SSwithin
subject
dfwithin
A B C treatment
2 3 7 Total SStotal dftotal

G=60
6 7 5 N=12
2 6 4
k=3
6 4 8
T1=16 T2=20 T3=24
SS1=16 SS2=10 SS3=10
n1=4 n2=4 n3=4

29 30
One Way Anova SPSS OUTPUT

Source SS df MS F
ANOVA
subject subject
ANSWER
Within SSwithin dfwithin Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
treatment Between
Groups
Within Groups
Total
31 32
SPSS OUTPUT
ANOVA
ANSWER
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Between
Groups 8 2 4 1 0.405
Within Groups
36 9 4
Total
44 11

33 34
ANOVA TABLE
ANOVA TABLE
ANSWER ANSWER
Sum of Mean Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Squares df Square F
Between Between
Groups Groups 468.7 2 234.35 28.53
Within Groups Within Groups
345 42 8.21
Total Total
813.7 44
35 36
Ho: Tidak terdapat

perbezaan markah
pensyarah yang
ANOVA signifikan antara
Independent‐measures program
Latihan1Q2.sav
37 38
1
2
3 5
4
6
39 40
1 2
10
Ambil
Perhatian
4
5 6 7
3

41 42
Kesimpulan?
• p = 0.000 p = Sig.
• p < α
• @ p < 0.05 , maka Ho ditolak. Terdapat perbezaan
markah pensyarah yang signifikan antara
program. Perbezaan ini wujud antara program
‐ SPA dengan SPE
‐ SPA dengan SPS
‐ etc
2
The Logical Background for a
Repeated‐Measures ANOVA
• The repeated‐measures design eliminates
individual differences from the
between‐treatments variability because the same
subjects are used in every treatment condition.
• The result is a test statistic similar to the
independent‐measures F‐ratio but with all
Repeated‐Measures individual differences removed.
Comparing Independent‐ 3 Comparing Independent‐ 4

Measures and Repeated‐ Measures and Repeated‐Measures
Measures ANOVA ANOVA
• The independent‐measures analysis is used in • What makes the repeated‐measures analysis

research situations for which there is a separate different from the independent‐measures analysis is
sample for each treatment condition. the treatment of variability from individual
• The analysis compares the mean square (MS) differences. The independent‐measures F ratio
between treatments to the mean square within (Chapter 13) has the following structure:
treatments in the form of a ratio MS between treatments treatment effect + error (including individual differences)
MS between treatments F = ──────────── = ───────────────────────────────────
MS within error (including individual differences)
F = ───────────
• In this formula, when the treatment effect is zero (H0
MS within treatments true), the expected F ratio is one.

Measures and Repeated‐Measures Measures and Repeated‐Measures
ANOVA ANOVA
• In the repeated‐measures study, there are no
individual differences between treatments • That is, we want the repeated‐measures F‐
because the same individuals are tested in every
treatment.
ratio to have the following structure:
• This means that variability due to individual
differences is not a component of the numerator of treatment effect + error (without individual differences)
the F ratio. F = ────────────────────────────────────
error (with individual differences removed)
• Therefore, the individual differences must also be
removed from the denominator of the F ratio to
maintain a balanced ratio with an expected value
of 1.00 when there is no treatment effect.

Measures and Repeated‐Measures Measures and Repeated‐Measures
ANOVA ANOVA
• This is accomplished by a two‐stage analysis. In • In the second stage of the analysis, we
the first stage, total variability (SS total) is
partitioned into the between‐treatments SS and measure the individual differences by
within‐treatments SS. computing the variability between subjects,
• The components for between‐treatments or SS between subjects
variability are the treatment effect (if any) and
error. • This value is subtracted from SS within leaving
• Individual differences do not appear here because a remainder, variability due to experimental
the same sample of subjects serves in every
treatment. On the other hand, individual error, SS error
differences do play a role in SS within because the
sample contains different subjects.

9 10
Example 1
Participant 24H 36H 48H

A 0 0 6
B 1 3 5
C 0 1 5
D 4 5 9
E 0 1 5
11 12
Steps
Ho: µ1= µ2= µ3
H1: At least one of the treatment means is different.
2. Find the critical value with α = 0.05
4. Make decision

13 14
Example 1
Participant 24H 36H 48H P Total

A 0 0 6 6 N=15
B 1 3 5 9 G=45
C 0 1 5 6
D 4 5 9 18
E 0 1 5 6
T 5 10 30
SS 12 16 12
15 16
ANOVA table ANOVA table
Source SS df MS F Source SS df MS F
Between SSbetween dfbetween Between
Within SSwithin dfwithin Within
Between Subject Ssbetween subject dfbetween subject Between Subject
Error SSerror dferror Error
Total

17 18
ANOVA table SPSS

Tests of Within‐Subjects Effects
Source SS df MS F Measure:MEASURE_1
Between 70 2 35 70 Type III Sum Mean

Source of Squares df Square F Sig.
factor1 Sphericity
70.000 2 35.000 70.000 .000
Within 40 12 Assumed
Greenhouse‐
70.000 1.000 70.000 70.000 .001
Geisser
Between Subject 36 4 Huynh‐Feldt 70.000 1.000 70.000 70.000 .001
4 Lower‐bound 70.000 1.000 70.000 70.000 .001
Error 8 0.5
Error(factor1) Sphericity
4.000 8 .500
Total 110 14 Assumed
Greenhouse‐
4.000 4.000 1.000
Geisser
Huynh‐Feldt
4.000 4.000 1.000
Lower‐bound
4.000 4.000 1.000
19 20
Example 2 Example 2
Depression Scores
Sample Before Therapy After Therapy 6 Month Person
Depression Scores Follow up Total
Sample Before Therapy After Therapy 6 Month A 71 53 55 179 n=5
Follow up
B 62 45 44 151 K=3
A 71 53 55
C 82 56 61 199 N=15
B 62 45 44
D 77 50 46 173 G=892
C 82 56 61
E 81 54 55 190
D 77 50 46
T=373 T=258 T=261
E 81 54 55
SS=273.2 SS=73.2 SS=198.8

21 22
ANOVA table ANOVA table
Source SS df MS F Source SS df MS
Between SSbetween dfbetween Between
Within SSwithin dfwithin Within
Between Subject Ssbetween subject dfbetween subject Between Subject
Error SSerror dferror Error
Total
23 24
Measuring Effect Size for the
ANOVA table Repeated‐Measures Analysis of
Variance
Source SS df MS The formula for computing effect size for a repeated‐measures
Between 1718.5 2 859.25 69.6 ANOVA is:
Within 545.2 12 SS between treatments SS between treatments

η2 = ───────────── = ──────────────
Between Subject 446.4 4
SS total ‐ SS between subjects SS error + SS between treatments
Error 98.8 8 12.35
Total 2263.7 14

26
Ho:‐ Tidak terdapat

SPSS perbezaan skor
pencapaian pelajar
ANOVA dalam ujian‐ujian yang
diduduki.
Repeated‐Measures
Latihan3Q1.sav
27 28

29 30
Kesimpulan?
p = Sig.
• p = 0.000
• p < α
@ p > 0.05 , maka Ho ditolak. Terdapat
perbezaan skor pencapaian pelajar dalam
ujian‐ujian yang diduduki.
31
31

1 2
Non parametric Kajian dilakukan untuk

Independent‐measured melihat adakah terdapat
perbezaan pilihan
Kruskal‐Wallis Test
universiti antara empat
For ordinal data kumpulan.
Lebih dari 2 1 data ordinal/
kumpulan / Dependent
independent
Latihan1Q6.sav
3 4

5 6
Kesimpulan?
p = Asymp Sig.
• p = 0.470
• p > α
• @ p > 0.05 , maka Ho GAGAL
ditolak. Terdapat perbezaan
pilihan yang signifikan antara
kumpulan
7
7

1 2
SPSS‐Ordinal data
SPSS • Uses ordinal data from three or more

treatment condition to test a hypothesis
Non Parametric
about the differences between three or
Repeated‐Measures more populations (or treatment condition)
Friedman Test • Alternative to the repeated measure ANOVA
in situations in which the data can be rank‐
ordered.
3 4
Sampel
Ho: Tidak terdapat

perbezaan pilihan
yang dibuat antara
penyataan soalan
1‐ 5.

5 6
8
7 8
Kesimpulan?
p = Asymp Sig.
• p = 0.000
• p < α
• @ p > 0.05 , maka Ho ditolak.
Perdapat perbezaan pilihan
yang dibuat antara penyataan
soalan 1‐ 5.

2
Non Parametric Goal Parametric Non parametric

Median, interquartile
Describe one group Mean, SD
range
Compare one group to a
One‐sample t‐test Wilcoxon test
hypothetical value
Compare two unpaired groups Unpaired t test Mann‐Whitney test
Compare two paired groups Paired t test Wilcoxon test
Compare three or more unmatched
One‐way ANOVA Kruskal‐Wallis test
groups
Compare three or more matched
Repeated‐measures ANOVA Friedman test
groups
Quantify association between two
Pearson correlation Spearman correlation
variables
3 4
Chi‐square Test Nonparametric Tests
Non‐parametric hypothesis tests

(distribution free test) using the chi‐square
statistic:
1. the chi‐square test for goodness of fit
2. the chi‐square test for independence.

5
The Chi‐Square Test 6
Nonparametric Tests
for Goodness‐of‐Fit
• The chi‐square test for goodness‐of‐fit uses
frequency data from a sample to test hypotheses
about the shape or proportions of a population.
• The data, called observed frequencies, simply
count how many individuals from the sample are
in each category. (eg. How many choose Likert
scale no. 4)
The Chi‐Square Test 7 8

How to compare?
for Goodness‐of‐Fit
• The null hypothesis specifies the proportion
of the population that should be in each
category.
• The proportions from the null hypothesis
are used to compute expected frequencies 21
that describe how the sample would appear 3
if it were in perfect agreement with the null 12
hypothesis. 4

9 10
Nominal Data EXAMPLE‐ Goodness‐of‐Fit
Independent Dependent
variables variables
YES NO
GROUP A 16 34
GROUP B 7 43
12
11 12
Example‐ Goodness‐of‐Fit Goodness‐of‐Fit

A survey of 50 respondent to choose
preferable view of their future houses. 1. State the hypothesis
Ho: No preference for any specific view
Lake view Sea view River view Town view H1: One or more specific view is preferred
18 17 7 8

13 14
13 14
Goodness‐of‐Fit Goodness‐of‐Fit

Ho: No preference for any specific view
H1: One or more specific view is preferred
Lake view Sea view River view Town view Lake Sea River Town

25% 25% 25% 25% view view view view
Observed frequency 18 17 7 8
Expected frequency 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
15 16
15 16
Goodness‐of‐Fit Goodness‐of‐Fit

17 18
Goodness‐of‐Fit
CHI SQUARE
Goodness‐of‐Fit
4. Make decision
Reject hypothesis Null
19 20
SPSS
Ho: Tidak terdapat

perbezaan pilihan view oleh
pembeli rumah.
Recode kpd Numeric

21 22
Keptusan?
• p = 0.044
• p < α
• @ p < 0.05 , maka Ho
ditolak. Terdapat
perbezaan pilihan view
oleh pembeli rumah.
23 24
Lake view Sea view River view Town view

Bagaimana jika data 18 17 7 8
dikutip dalam bentuk
frekuensi..
Data Structure On
Spss

25 26
27 28
SPSS
Output

29 30
Decision
The respondent showed

significant
The Chi‐Square Test for Independence
preference among the four views.
The Chi‐Square Test for 31

The Chi‐Square Test for 32
Independence Independence
The second chi‐square test, the chi‐ A frequency distribution showing willingness to
square test for independence, can use mental health service according to gender
be used and interpreted in two for a sample of 150
different ways: Willingness to use Mental Health Service
a) Testing hypotheses about the Probably No Maybe Probably yes
relationship between two Male 17 32 11
variables in a population, or Female 13 43 34
b) Testing hypotheses about

differences between proportions
for two or more populations.

The Chi‐Square Test for 33 34
Version 1:
Independence
A frequency distribution showing willingness to
Ho : In the general population, there is no use mental health service according to gender
relationship between gender and for a sample of 150
willingness to use mental health service.
Willingness to use Mental Health Service
Probably No Maybe Probably yes
Version 2
Male 17 32 11 60
Ho : In the general population, the Female 13 43 34 90
30 75 45 N=150
distribution of reported willingness to use
mental health service is the same for male and
female.
36
35 36
Male 17 (12) 32 (30) 11 (18) 60
Female 13 (18) 43 (45) 34 (27) 90
Male 17 (12) 32 (30) 11 (18) 60
30 75 45 N=150
Female 13 (18) 43 (45) 34 (27) 90
20% 50% 30%
30 75 45 N=150
20% 50% 30%
=30/150*100
=75/150*100
=45/150*100 =30% from 90 =30% from 60

The Chi‐Square Test for 37 38
Version 1:
Independence R=Row = (2‐1)(3‐1)
C=Column
Ho : In the general population, there is no 2
1
relationship between gender and
willingness to use mental health service.
3 Compute
H1: In the general population, there is a consistent
predictable relationship between gender and
willingness to use mental model service.
39 40
Table
5.99 Calculation
8.23
SPSS
CHI SQUARE
Reject H0
4 Or
There is a significant relationship for Independence
between gender and willingness to use
mental model service.

41 42
Bagaimana input data dalam
SPSS? SPSS
Willingness to use Mental Health
Service
1Probably No Maybe 2 Probably yes3
Male 1 17 32 11
Female 2 13 43 34
1 1 17
1 2 32
1 3 11
2 1 13
…
43 44

45 46
47 48
Keputusan?

49

2
Correlation
Y
Y = mX + c ??
3 4
Correlations: Measuring and
Describing Relationships
• A correlation is a statistical
method used to measure and
describe the relationship between
two variables.
• A relationship exists when
changes in one variable tend to be
accompanied by consistent and
predictable changes in the
other variable.

5 6
• A correlation typically
evaluates three aspects
of the relationship:
the
degree
the
form
the
direction
7 8
Correlations: Measuring and Correlations: Measuring and
Describing Relationships Describing Relationships
• The direction of the relationship is measured by

the sign of the correlation (+ or ‐). A positive
correlation means that the two variables tend to
change in the same direction; as one increases, the
other also tends to increase.

9 10
Correlations: Measuring and Correlations: Measuring and
Describing Relationships Describing Relationships
• The most common form of relationship

is a straight line or linear relationship
which is measured by the Pearson
correlation.
relationships that are not linear
11 12
• The degree of relationship 1.00

perfect
(the strength or consistency of relationship
the relationship) is measured
by the numerical value of the
correlation. A value of 1.00
indicates a perfect relationship
and a value of zero indicates no
relationship.
0.00
no relationship.

13 14
a perfect negative ??
correla on, −1.00 no linear
trend, 0.00
a relatively weak
negative correlation,
approximately −0.40
a strong positive
relationship,
approximately
+0.90
15 16
Examples of positive and
negative relationships.

17 18
Describing Relationships The Pearson Correlation
• To compute a correlation you need
two scores, X and Y, for each
individual in the sample.
• The Pearson correlation requires
that the scores be numerical
values from an interval
or ratio scale of
measurement.
19 20
Example Scatter plot
Student X Y
A 0 4
B 2 1
C 8 10
D 6 9
E 4 6

21 22
Find r
HIPOTESIS
23 24
Reporting SPSS
• A correlation for the data revealed that

score subject X and score subject Y were not
significantly related, r=0.86, n=5 , α = 0.05
two tails.

25 26
EXAMPLE 2: Question 14 pg#559 Scatter Plot
Student X Y
A 11 14
B 6 7
C 16 15
D 4 7
E 1 3
F 10 9
G 5 9
H 3 8
27 28
SPSS
Correlations
XX YY
XX Pearson Correlation
1 .904**
Sig. (2‐tailed)
.002
N
8 8
YY Pearson Correlation
.904** 1
Sig. (2‐tailed)
.002
N
8 8
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2‐tailed).

29 30
The Point‐Biserial Correlation
SKIP/Optional and the Phi Coefficient
• The Pearson correlation formula can also be

used to measure the relationship between
• Spearman correlation two variables when one or both of the
• Point‐Biserial variables is dichotomous.
correlation • A dichotomous variable is one for which
• Phi‐coefficient there are exactly two categories: for
example, men/women or succeed/fail or
Yes/No
31 32
The Point‐Biserial Correlation The Point‐Biserial Correlation
and the Phi Coefficient and the Phi Coefficient
• In situations where one variable
With either one or two dichotomous variables the is dichotomous (nominal or
point-biserial correlation
calculation of the correlation precedes as follows: 0,1 vs numeric

ordinal)and the other consists of
regular numerical scores
1. Assign numerical values to the two categories of
(interval or ratio scale), the
the dichotomous variable(s). Traditionally, one
resulting correlation is called a
category is assigned a value of 0 and the other is phi-coefficient.
point‐biserial correlation.
assigned a value of 1. 0,1 vs 0,1
• When both variables are
2. Use the regular Pearson correlation formula to
dichotomous, the resulting
calculate the correlation.
correlation is called a phi‐
coefficient.

33 34
Data Structure
SPSS
CORRELATION
35 36

37 38
Correlations r=0.861 ( strong correlation)

X Y But not significant
X Pearson Correlation 1 .861
Sig. (2‐tailed)
.061
N 5 5
Y Pearson Correlation .861 1
Sig. (2‐tailed)
.061
N 5 5
39

1
Introduction to 2
Linear Regression
• The Pearson correlation measures the
degree to which a set of data points form
a straight line relationship.
• Regression is a statistical procedure that
determines the equation for the straight
line that best fits a specific set of data.
Introduction to Regression
Introduction to 3
Introduction to 4
Linear Regression Linear Regression

• Any straight line can be represented by an
equation of the form Y = bX + a, where b
and a are constants.
• The value of b is called the slope constant
and determines the direction and degree to
which the line is tilted.
• The value of a is called the Y‐intercept and
determines the point where the line crosses
the Y‐axis.

Introduction to 5
Introduction to 6
Linear Regression Linear Regression

The equation for the regression line is
Introduction to 7 8
Linear Regression
Example
X Y
2 3
6 11
0 6
4 6
5 7
7 12
5 10
3 9

9 10
SPSS
SPSS
Regression
11 12

13 14
Introduction to Multiple Regression
with Two Predictor Variables
Multiple Regression • In the same way that linear regression

produces an equation that uses values of X
optional to predict values of Y, multiple regression
produces an equation that uses two
different variables (X1 and X2) to predict
values of Y.
15 16
Introduction to Multiple Regression with

Two Predictor Variables (cont.)
• For two predictor variables, the general form of
the multiple regression equation is:
Ŷ= b1X1 + b2X2 + a
• The ability of the multiple regression equation to

accurately predict the Y values is measured by first
computing the proportion of the Y‐score
variability that is predicted by the regression
equation and the proportion that is not predicted.

17 18
Example (pg#582)
Person Y(dependent) X1(independent) X2(independent)
A 11 4 10
B 5 5 6
C 7 3 7
D 3 2 4
E 4 1 3
F 12 7 5
G 10 8 8
H 4 2 4
J 8 6 10
J 6 2 3
19 20
Example
Person Y(dependent) X1(independent) X2(independent)
A 11 4 10
B 5 5 6
C 7 3 7 SPx1y=52
D 3 2 4
E 4 1 3 SPx2y=47
F 12 7 5
G 10 8 8 SPx1x2=35
H 4 2 4
J 8 6 10
J 6 2 3
My=7 Mx1=4 Mx2=6
SSy=90 SSx1=52 SSx2=64

21 22
SPSS
Multiple Regression
23 24
SPSS

25 26
example
X1 X2 Y
2 4 3
6 3 11
0 4 6
4 5 6
5 6 7
7 4 12
5 6 10
3 5 9
27 28
Coefficientsa
ANOVAb
Standardize
Unstandardized d
Coefficients Coefficients Sum of Mean
Model Squares df Square F Sig.
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig. 1 Regression
1 (Constant)
37.147 2 18.573 3.458 .114a
5.726 4.123 1.389 .224 Residual
X1 26.853 5 5.371
1.011 .387 .758 2.612 .048
X2 Total
‐.382 .827 ‐.134 ‐.462 .663 64.000 7
a. Dependent Variable: Y
a. Predictors: (Constant), X2, X1
b. Dependent Variable: Y
Y=1.011X1 ‐ 0.382X2 + 5.726

29 30
Partial Correlation Partial Correlation (cont.)
• A partial correlation measures the • For example, there probably is no

relationship between two variables (X and underlying relationship between weight and
Y) while eliminating the influence of a third mathematics skill for elementary school
variable (Z). children.
• Partial correlations are used to reveal the • However, both of these variables are
real, underlying relationship between two positively related to age: Older children
variables when researchers suspect that the weigh more and, because they have spent
apparent relation may be distorted by a more years in school, have higher
third variable. mathematics skills.
31 32
Partial Correlation (cont.)
• As a result, weight and mathematics skill

will show a positive correlation for a sample
of children that includes several different
ages.
• A partial correlation between weight and
mathematics skill, holding age constant,
would eliminate the influence of age and
show the true correlation which is near
zero.

33 34
35

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1

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• The general goal of a

The hypothesis test is used to

• If the individuals in the sample are noticeably different

• However, it is also possible that the difference between

The purpose of the hypothesis test is to decide between two

Ho : Tidak terdapat perbezaan

Example 2: 11 The Null Hypothesis, the Alpha 12

Level, the Critical Region, and the

Ho2 : Tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya kepimpinan

Ho4 : Tidak terdapat hubungan yang signifikan antara gaya kepimpinan

H0: µ1-µ2=0 (treatment has no effect )

State the hypothesis

The α level establishes a criterion, or "cut-off", for making

Locate the critical region.

If the mean difference is relatively small, Not

 Mean of M_Test of Group 1 is equal to mean of M_Test Group 2

 Sample mean is equal to the population mean

 The standard deviation of Group A is the standard deviation of

Using Table z, identify the critical values need for rejection

0.10 1.28 1.65

0.15 1.04 1.44

The structure of a research study to determine whether prenatal alcohol affects

Errors in Hypothesis Tests Errors in Hypothesis Tests (cont.)

Possible outcomes of a statistical decision Possible outcomes of a statistical decision

• Because a significant effect does not necessarily mean a

• The power of a hypothesis test is defined is the probability

• As you can see, there is

1. r2=0.01 (Small effect)

Statistical power tells us our level of Type I error.

47 How to Interpret Result From 48

T-test Parametric Non‐Parametric

Ratio / Interval Ordinal / Nominal

Independent t‐test Mann‐Whitney test

One‐way independent ANOVA Kruskal‐Wallis test

Paired t‐test Wilcoxon test

One‐way repeated ANOVA Friedman’s test

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The t Test T-Test Assumptions

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Example of One Sample t-test

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Example of One Sample t-test

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Given , population mean = 65

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Compare 0.241 with 0.05

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

Result; Self Check

Fail to Reject hypothesis Null score: 4,4,3,2,5,1,1,4

Is there any significant different when

How to get this from SPSS??

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global

The t Test For

www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global www.utm.my innovative ● entrepreneurial ● global