CHAPTER-1

Introduction
1.1 Background
Wireless power transfer is a collective term that refers to number of different
technologies for transmitting energy by means of electromagnetic field. The
different technologies differs in the distance over which they can transfer power
efficiently, whether the transmitter must be aimed (directed) at the receiver and in
the type of electromagnetic energy they use time varying electric fields, magnetic
fields, radio waves, microwaves or infrared or visible light waves.
In general, a wireless power system consist of a “transmitter” connected to a
source of power such as main power line, which converts the power to a time-
varying electromagnetic field and one or more “receiver” devices which receives
the power and convert it back to DC or AC electric current which is used by an
electrical load. At the transmitter, the input power is converted to an oscillating
electromagnetic field by some type of “antenna” device. The word “antenna” is
used loosely here; it may be a coil of wire which generates a magnetic field, a
metal plate which generates an electric field, a metal plate which generates an
electric field, an antenna which radiates radio waves or a laser which generates
light. A similar antenna or coupling device at the receiver converts the oscillating
fields to an electric current. An important parameter that determines the type of
waves is the frequency in hertz of the oscillations. The frequency determines the
wavelength λ = c/f of the waves which carry the energy across the gap, where c is
the velocity of light.

1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The wired system of transmission of power which is also referred to as

electricity is accommodated by different hazardous situation. The innovation of a
wireless AC power transfer works to eliminate the hazardous occurrences of a
wired power transmission system.
1.3 AIM OF THE PROJECT

The aim of this project is to transmit power over a short distance.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

1. To design and implement a method to transmit wireless electrical power

through space.
2. To improve the efficiency of on/off load control through wireless
communication.
3. To make the implementation easy and cost effective.

2
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

After Nikola Tesla experimented with transmitting spark- excited radio

frequency resonant transformers, now called tesla coil, which generated high
AC voltages; many scientist and researchers have come up with different
reviews on wireless power alternating current (AC) transfer making use of
established theories, laws and phenomenon.
In 1826 Andre-Marie Ampere developed Ampere’s circuital law showing that
electric current produces a magnetic field[1]. Michael faraday developed
Faraday’s law of induction in 1831, describing the electromagnetic force
induced in a conductor by a time-varying magnetic flux. The fact that electrical
energy could be transmitted at a distance without wires was actually observed
by many investors and experiments [2]–[4] but limited understand of the
phenomenon meant it was usually attributed it to electromagnetic induction [1].
The explanation of these phenomenon would come from the 1860s
development of electromagnetism, a theory that unified electricity and
magnetism, thought of as two separate forces, with James Clark Maxwell
developing his Maxwell’s equations [5] with his prediction of the existence of
electromagnetic waves [8]. This was followed on by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz
1888 proof of the theory, which included the discovery of radio waves[6] .

Low wireless power transfer using inductive coupling for Mobile Phone
charger[7].A wireless power transfer (WPT) using inductive coupling for

3
 mobile phone charger is studied. The project is offer to study and fabricate
WPT using inductive coupling for mobile phone charger that will give more
information about distance is effect for WPT performance and WPT is not
much influenced by the presence of hands, books and types of plastics. The
components used to build wireless power transfer can be divided into three
parts components : the transceiver for Power transmission, the inductive coils
in this case as the antenna, receiver and the rectifier which act convert AC- DC.
Experiments have been conducted and the wireless power transfer using
inductive coupling is suitable to be implemented for mobile phone charger.

Wireless Power Transmission using resonance induction technique [8]. The major
objective of this project is to build up a device for wireless power transfer
(WPT). Wireless power transfer can make an extraordinary change in the field
of the electrical engineering which eliminates the use of conventional copper
cables and current carrying wires. WPT is based on strong coupling between
electromagnetic resonant objects to transfer energy wirelessly between them.
The tuned magnetic fields generated by the primary coil can be arranged to
interact vigorously with matched secondary windings in the distant equipment
but far more weakly with any surrounding objects as materials such as radio
signals or biological tissues. But for very long distances, microwave
transmission is used for the effective transfer of power.

wireless charging technologies; fundamentals, standards and network

applications[9] .Wireless charging is a technology of transmitting power
through an air gap to electrical devices for the purpose of energy
replenishment. The recent progress in wireless charging techniques and
development of commercial products has provided a promising alternative way
4
 to address the energy bottleneck of conventionally portable battery-powered
devices. However, the incorporation of wireless charging into the existing
wireless communication systems also brings along a series of challenging
issues with regard to implementations scheduling and power management.
Analysis, Experimental Results, and Range Adaptation of Magnetically
Coupled Resonators for Wireless Power Transfer.[2]
Description
Wireless power technology offers the promise of cutting the last cord,
allowing users to seamlessly recharge mobile devices as easily as data are
transmitted through the air. Initial work on the use of magnetically coupled
resonators for this purpose has shown promising results. We present new analysis
that yields critical insight into the design of practical systems, including the
introduction of key figures of merit that can be used to compare systems with
vastly different geometries and operating conditions. A circuit model is presented
along with a derivation of key system concepts, such as frequency splitting, the
maximum operating distance (critical coupling), and the behavior of the system as
it becomes under coupled. This theoretical model is validated against measured
data and shows an excellent average coefficient of determination of 0.9875. An
adaptive frequency tuning technique is demonstrated, which compensates for
efficiency variations encountered when the transmitter-to-receiver distance and/or
orientation are varied. The method demonstrated in this paper allows a fixed-load
receiver to be moved to nearly any position and/or orientation within the range of
the transmitter and still achieve a near-constant efficiency of over 70% for a range
of 0-70 cm.
Magnetic Resonant Coupling As a Potential Means for Wireless Power
Transfer to Multiple Small Receivers.[3]
5
 Wireless power transfer via magnetic resonant coupling is experimentally
demonstrated in a system with a large source coil and either one or two small
receivers. Resonance between source and load coils is achieved with lumped
capacitors terminating the coils. A circuit model is developed to describe the
system with a single receiver, and extended to describe the system with two
receivers. With parameter values chosen to obtain good fits, the circuit models
yield transfer frequency responses that are in good agreement with experimental
measurements over a range of frequencies that span the resonance. Resonant
frequency splitting is observed experimentally and described theoretically for the
multiple receiver system. In the single receiver system at resonance, more than
50% of the power that is supplied by the actual source is delivered to the load. In a
multiple receiver system, a means for tracking frequency shifts and continuously
retuning the lumped capacitances that terminate each receiver coil so as to
maximize efficiency is a key issue for future work.
Circuit-Model-Based Analysis of a Wireless Energy-Transfer System via
Coupled Magnetic Resonances. [10], [11]
A simple equivalent-circuit model is developed for a wireless energy-
transfer system via coupled magnetic resonances, and a practical design method is
also provided. Node equations for the resonance system are built with the method,
expanding on the equations for a transformer, and the optimum distances of the
coils in the system are derived analytically for optimum coupling coefficients for
high transfer efficiency. In order to calculate the frequency characteristics for a
lossy system, the equivalent model is established at an electric-design automation
tool. The model parameters of the actual system are extracted, and the modeling
results are compared with measurements. Through the developed model, it is seen

6
that the system can transfer power over a midrange of a few meters and that
impedance matching is important to achieve high efficiency.
Frequency Decrease Analysis of Resonant Wireless Power Transfer.[12]
Recent years have witnessed the booming development of resonant wireless
power transfer (RWPT). Compared with conventional inductive power transfer, the
frequency of RWPT is usually much higher. To reduce the resonant frequency
while maintaining the transfer efficiency constant at the same transfer distances,
two solutions are proposed and realized in this letter. Two fundamental structures
for RWPT are analyzed and the expressions of the transfer efficiency are deduced.
It is pointed out that the transfer quality factor and the load matching factor are two
important factors of achieving high transfer efficiency. The larger the transfer
quality factor, the higher the transfer efficiency. There is an optimal load matching
factor to reach the highest transfer efficiency. The transfer efficiency can remain
constant at the same distances if the transfer quality factor is kept at the same level
and the load is matched. Theoretical calculations and experimental results provide
a sound basis for decreasing frequency.
Effects of Magnetic Coupling of Nonadjacent Resonators on Wireless Power
Domino-Resonator Systems.[13]
In this paper, the effects of the magnetic coupling of nonadjacent resonators
on the optimal frequency of wireless power transfer are addressed. A power
analysis has been carried out to identify the adjacent and nonadjacent power flow
components. It is found that such cross-coupling effects of nonadjacent resonators
would cause the maximum efficiency operation to slightly shift away from the
resonance frequency of the resonators. Theoretical reasons for such phenomena are
provided and experimentally confirmed with practical measurements in a wireless

7
power transfer system comprising several magnetically coupled resonators
arranged in a straight domino form.
Wireless power domino-resonator systems with noncoaxial axes and circular
structures [14]
In this paper, a general analysis on wireless power domino-resonator
systems with non-coaxial axes is presented. The mathematical formulation
established can in principle be used to analyze wireless resonator systems with
various domino forms. In this study, it is used to analyze and evaluate wireless
domino-resonator systems with circular structures because such structures have
more than one main power flow paths and have not been analyzed previously.
Based on the superposition method, individual power flow paths are analyzed and
then their interactions are emerged and explained with vector diagrams. Unlike the
resonator pair used by Tesla, it is demonstrated that optimization of the domino
systems can be achieved under “non-resonance frequency” operation and optimal
load conditions. The shift of the optimal frequency from the resonance frequency is
due to the multiple power flow paths. The theoretical results have been favorably
verified with practical measurements obtained from two circular systems.
Contactless power delivery system for mining applications. [15]
The ability to transfer large amounts of electrical power (up to 1 MW) to a
moving load has traditionally used means that are unreliable, inefficient, and
potentially unsafe. These include sliding or rolling metal contacts, sliding carbon
brushes, and trailing cables. More recently, flat inductively coupled coils have been
used to help mitigate these problems. Except for inductively coupled coils, these
techniques have not been developed with the capabilities of power electronics in
mind. This paper presents the first conceptual description of a power delivery
system design unifying power electronics and a coaxial-winding transformer for
8
devices that require a contactless connection and/or relative motion while
delivering large amounts of power. The transformer's unique characteristics and
how they might be used to advantage in combination with power electronics are
emphasized. Potential applications are flexible power distribution, material
handling, electric vehicle boost, and battery opportunity recharge. Test results of a
small scale prototype are presented and verify these initial concepts.

Sliding transformers for linear contactless power delivery[16]

Contactless power delivery systems for mobile loads use transformers
comprised of a core with a secondary winding sliding along an extended primary
winding. The sliding transformer is identified as the most limiting component in
the system and is analyzed by representing it as a special, multiturn power
transmission line. Two performance parameters, namely the transmission line
efficiency and system penalty factor, are introduced. It is shown that fundamental
restrictions may limit the attainable performance of the system. The inductance of
the primary winding is identified as a parameter which can be optimized to
improve the system performance. Experimental results for a short- and a long-
stroke transformer are presented.
A contactless electrical energy transmission system[15]
Most mains-operated equipment in use today is connected to the supply via
plugs and sockets. These are generally acceptable in benign environments, but can
be unsafe or have limited life in the presence of moisture. In explosive
atmospheres and in undersea applications, special connectors must be used. This
9
paper describes a technique, the contactless energy transfer system (CETS), by
which electrical energy may be transmitted, without electrical connection or
physical contact, through nonmagnetic media of low conductivity. The CETS,
which has been used to transfer up to 5 kW across a 10 mm gap, employs high-
frequency magnetic coupling and enables plug-in power connections to be made in
wet or hazardous environmental conditions without the risk of electric shock, short
circuiting, or sparking. Energy may be transmitted without the necessity for
accurately manufactured “plug-and-socket” mechanisms and may be transmitted
from source to load, even when there is relative motion. Load-source voltage
matching may be made inherent to the system.
A noncontact charger using a resonant converter with parallel capacitor of the
secondary coil[17]
A noncontact charging system using a resonant converter is presented in this
paper, where the power transfer ability of a detachable transformer is improved by
using a parallel capacitor connected to the secondary coil. A method to get the
optimum value of the capacitance which would maximize the charging current is
described. A method of application to the practical circuit such as a voltage
resonant converter is also described.
Power transfer capability and bifurcation phenomena of loosely coupled
inductive power transfer systems [18]
Loosely coupled inductive power transfer (LCIPT) systems are designed to
deliver power efficiently from a stationary primary source to one or more movable
secondary loads over relatively large air gaps via magnetic coupling. In this paper,
a general approach is presented to identify the power transfer capability and
bifurcation phenomena (multiple operating modes) for such systems. This is
achieved using a high order mathematical model consisting of both primary and
10
secondary resonant circuits. The primary compensation is deliberately designed to
make the primary zero phase angle frequency equal the secondary resonant
frequency to achieve maximum power with minimum VA rating of the supply. A
contactless electric vehicle battery charger was used to validate the theory by
comparing the measured and calculated operational frequency and power transfer.
For bifurcation-free operation, the power transfer capability and controllability are
assured by following the proposed bifurcation criteria. Where controllable
operation within the bifurcation region is achievable, a significant increase in
power is possible.

DC analysis technique for inductive power transfer pick-ups [19]

Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems are now being used in
applications where their efficiency and stability are critically important. In this
paper, an ICPT pick-up is analyzed under conditions where the pick-up tuning is
assumed to be essentially perfect, and all diodes are assumed to have continuous
current flow in them. The analysis proceeds by replacing the existing parallel
resonant tank and rectifier circuit with a DC source and transformer equivalent,
thereby reducing the complexity of the circuit, and eliminating the diodes. The DC
equivalent is shown to have the same energy storage and power capability as the
original circuit and is accurate under all loadings for both transient and steady-state
conditions. With this simplification, analytic transfer functions for the pick-up with
respect to its excitation current and its control switch duty cycle are developed. The
ICPT system model is shown to have multiple poles, with complex zeroes on the
right half plane. The model allows a sophisticated controller to be designed to give
the ICPT system the required stability at high efficiency.
11
 CHAPTER 3
Materials and methods

3.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

WPT Section

12
 Fig 3.1 WPT Section
Controlling Section

Fig 3.2 Controlling Section

3.2BLOCK DESCRIPTION
HF Power Amplifier
Utility ac power is converted to controllable dc voltage by the active front end.
Adjustable dc voltage is applied to the high power rails of a HF inverter having
selectable duty ratio. HF inverter provides excitation current to the tuned primary
coil at a standardized center frequency. HF transformer to provide electrical
13
isolation of the WPT primary pad and cabling from the utility. An HF produces a
modulated HF wave whose voltage level is boosted by an HF transformer
Coupled transmitting and receiving coils
Magnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as wire, It made up of copper
Here uses coil shaped magnetic field such that it increase the strength of magnetic
field produced by a given current. When two magnetic coils are come closer then it
create a magnetic flux and the magnetic core make the flux propagate upwards.
Other magnetic coil which is deployed at the base portion of AC Loa

It includes several stages to charge an EV wirelessly. Wireless EV consists of

the following main parts Coupled transmitting and receiving coils, The
compensation network. The power electronics converters First, the utility ac power
is converted to a dc power source by an ac to dc converter with power factor
correction. Then, the dc power is converted to a high-frequency ac to drive the
transmitting coil through a compensation network. This alternating current is
driven into magnetic coils which are built into track. Magnetic coil is an electrical
conductor such as wire, It made up of copper. Here uses coil shaped magnetic field
such that it increase the strength of magnetic field produced by a given current.
When two magnetic coils are come closer then it create a magnetic flux and
the magnetic core make the flux propagate upwards. Other magnetic coil which is
deployed at the base portion of vehicle. The magnetic core capture the magnetic
flux which induce voltage along the coil. Compensation capacitors are connected
to the coil to compensate the impendence of inductance. This magnetic coil is
connected to rectifier which convert A.C. to D.C. Current. Here we are using half
wave bridge rectifier circuit and electric vehicle battery is charged. Also intelligent

14
system includes IR sensor for detection the obstacle for automatic braking system
purpose. The system will be design to prevent the safety for the vehicle. minutes.
3.3 POWER SUPPLY SECTION
POWER SUPPLY
An effective functioning of any device or instrument relies on the
availability of uninterrupted and specific range of supply voltage. Hence, this
necessitates the design of a suitable power supply unit which acts as the basic
driving force for the components used.

Fig. 3.3 Power supply

TRANSFORMER
When A.C. is applied to the primary winding of the power transformer it can
either be stepped down or up depending on the value of the D.C. needed. In our
circuit the transformer performs the step-down operation where the 230V A.C.
appears as 12V A.C. across the secondary winding. (Practically as 15V A.C.) One
alternation of the input voltage will cause the top of the transformer to be positive
and the bottom negative. The next alternation will cause the polarity reverse.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
15
 A commonly used circuit for supplying large amounts of dc power is the
bridge rectifier. In this rectifier configuration, we have used four diodes, two
diodes will conduct during the negative alternation and two will conduct during
positive alternation.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Due to the fluctuation in the supply we need a regulator to provide a
constant voltage of 5V. The IC regulator 7805 produces a constant voltage of 5V
and IC Regulator 7812 produces a constant voltage of 12V for a given input
ranging from 17.5V to 7.5V. The DC output produced will be as unidirectional
pulsating current with a ripple frequency of 120Hz
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
The LM 7805 series of three terminals regulator is available with several
fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of
these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems, associated
with single point regulation. The voltages allow this regulation to be used in logic
systems, instrumentation, Hifi and other solid state electronic equipment. Although
designed primarily a fixed voltage regulators these device can be use with external
components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.
The LM 7805 series is available in an aluminum To-3 package which allows
over 1.0Amps load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is
included to limit the peak of current to a safe level. Safe area protection for the
output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power
dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided. The thermal shutdown
current takes over preventing the IC from overheating.
For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides
the output range from 1.2V to 5.7V.
16
 Table 1: list of components, specification and their quantity used to build prototype

Component Specification Quantity

Transistor IRF840 2

Capacitor 100µF 1

Capacitor 1nF 2

Diode 2

Induction 22mH 3

Microcontroller PIC 16F877A 1

Relay Driving IC ULN2003 1

Encoder HT 12E 1

Decoder HT12D 1

Relay

Light Emitting Diode

12v Battery

555 timer

Crystal oscillator

keypad

Printed circuit board

TRANSISTORS

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic

signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to
one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of
terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling
17
(input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous
device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical
devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to
use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control
function than to design an equivalent mechanical control function Working
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small
signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at
another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. It can produce a stronger
output signal, a voltage or current, that is proportional to a weaker input signal;
that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount
of current is determined by other circuit elements

CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two terminal

electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors (plates) separated by dielectric (i.e. insulator) the conductors can be

18
thin films, foils or sintered bead of metal or conductive electrolyte etc the non-
conducting dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vaccum, paper, mica,
oxide layer etc. capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuit in many
common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate
energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field
between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g when a

capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative charge
-Q to collect on the other plate.
If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time,
no current can flow through the capacitor. However, if a time- varying voltage is
applied across the leads of the capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

DIODE

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with

asymmetric conductance; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,

19
the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with
a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the
first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were
made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon,
but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.

The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass

in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including
extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are
forms of rectifiers.

INDUCTOR

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists
of a conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows
through it, energy is stored temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil. When the
20
current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field
induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, which opposes the change in current that created it.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio of the voltage to the
rate of change of current, which has units of henries (H). Inductors have values that
typically range from 1 µH (10−6H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a magnetic core
made of iron or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field
and thus the inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of
the three passive linear circuit elements that make up electric circuits. Inductors are
widely used in alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio
equipment. They are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors
designed for this purpose are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters
to separate signals of different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to
make tuned circuits, used to tune radio and TV receivers.

PIC 16F877A

The PIC microcontroller , PIC 16F877A is one of the most renowned

microcontroller in the industries. This controller is very convinent to use, the
coding or programming of this controller is also easier. One of the main advantage
is that it can write – erase as many as possible because it use Flash Memory
21
Technology. It has total number of 40 pins and there are 33 pins for input and

output.

PIC 16F877A finds its application in huge number of the devices. It is used
in remote sensors, security and safety devices, home automation and many
industrial instruments.
An electrically erasable programmable and read only memory (EEPROM) is
also featured in it which makes it possible to store some of the information
permanently like transmitter codes and receiver frequencies and some other related
data. The cost of this controller is low and its handling is also easy. The flexible

22
and can be used in areas where microcontrollers have never been used before as in
coprocessor application and time function etc.

RELAY DRIVER CIRCUIT

Relays are used mostly interfaced with microcontrollers and digital systems.
But microcontroller usually cannot provide enough current to drive relays.
Microcontroller’s pins usually provide maximum current of 1-2 mA per pin which
is not enough to operate relay. The circuits which are used to drive the relays are
called relay driver circuits. Therefore, relay driver circuits using ULN2003
Integrated circuit used to drive relays.
While working on electronics project which used microcontroller, we need
to use relays to control AC loads or high voltage loads. Relays are used to provide
isolation between microcontroller circuit and high voltage operating loads.
Microcontrollers are only used to provide on/off signals to relays.

23
CRYSTAL OSCILLATION

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical
signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep
track of time (as in quartz wrist watches), to provide a stable clock signal for
digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and
receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz
crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as “crystal
oscillators”.

Fig 4.6 Crystal Oscillator

Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few ten of

megahertz. More than two billion (2*109) crystals are manufactured annually.
Most are used for consumer devices such as wrist watches, clocks, radios,
computers and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and
measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators and oscilloscopes.
24
KEYPAD

A keypad is a set of buttons arranged in block or pad which usually bear

digits symbols and usually a complete set of alphabetical letters. A keypad consists
of set of buttons that may be pressed to provide input to an embedded system,
since such systems may lack the keyboard that comes with standard desktop
systems.
4.4.7 RF Module
 In this RF system, the digital data is represented as variations in the
amplitude of carrier wave.
 This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).
 RF can travel through larger distances making it suitable for long range
applications.
 This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver.
 The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz.
 In RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF
through its antenna connected at pin4.
 The transmission occurs at the rate of 1Kbps - 10Kbps.
 The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at the same
frequency as that of the transmitter.
 The RF module is often used alongwith a pair of encoder/decoder. The
encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while
reception is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D
Pin Diagram

25
HT12E RF Encoder
 HT12E is an encoder integrated circuit of 212 series of encoders.
 They are paired with 212 series of decoders for use in remote control system
applications.
 It is mainly used in interfacing RF and infrared circuits.
 The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same number of addresses
and data format.
 HT12E converts the parallel inputs into serial output.
 It encodes the 12 bit parallel data into serial for transmission through an RF
transmitter.
 These 12 bits are divided into 8 address bits and 4 data bits.
 HT12E has a transmission enable pin which is active low.
 When a trigger signal is received on TE pin, the programmed addresses/data
are transmitted together with the header bits via an RF or an infrared
transmission medium
Pin Diagram

26
HT12D RF Decoder
 HT12D is an encoder integrated circuit of 212 series of encoders.
 It is mainly used in interfacing RF and infrared circuits.
 The chosen pair of encoder/decoder should have same number of addresses
and data format.
 HT12D converts the serial input into parallel outputs.
 It decodes the serial addresses and data received by, say, an RF receiver, into
parallel data and sends them to output data pins.
 The serial input data is compared with the local addresses three times
continuously.
 The input data code is decoded when no error or unmatched codes are found.
 A valid transmission in indicated by a high signal at VT pin.
 HT12D is capable of decoding 12 bits, of which 8 are address bits and 4 are
data bits.
 The data on 4 bit latch type output pins remain unchanged until new is
received.

27
Pin Diagram

4.4.8 DIODE
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with
asymmetric conductance; it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode,
the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with
a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two
electrodes, a plate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the
first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were
made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes are made of silicon,
but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass
in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an
electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
28
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including
extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are
forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–
off action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor
diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in
voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be
forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little
with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a
temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by
varying the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the
materials. These techniques are used to create special-purpose diodes that perform
many different functions. For example, diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener
diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to
electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio-
frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to
produce light (light-emitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit
negative resistance, which is useful in microwave and switching circuits

29
4.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

30
WPT Section

Controlling Section

31
 CONCLUSION
The significant improvements in terms of power-transfer efficiency have
been achieved. Magnetic resonant coupling can be used to deliver power wirelessly
from a source coil to a load coil. Potentially robust means for delivering wireless
power to a receiver from a source coil. This paper presented a review of wireless
AC Power Transfer System. Wireless charging will provide many benefits
compared to wire charging. In particular, when the roads are electrified with
wireless charging capability, it will provide the foundation for mass market
penetration for EV regardless of battery technology. With technology development,
wireless charging of EV can be brought to fruition.
Future Scope
 The significant improvements in terms of power-transfer efficiency have
been achieved.
 Magnetic resonant coupling can be used to deliver power wirelessly from a
source coil to a load coil.
 Potentially robust means for delivering wireless power to a receiver from a
source coil

32
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