THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

7.2 Workshop Practices

CAR 66 Level
Objective
Reference B1
7.2 Workshop Practices 7.2 3
Care of tools, control of tools, use of workshop materials;
Dimensions, allowances and tolerances, standards of workmanship;
Calibration of tools and equipment, calibration standards.

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WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Despite the enormous advances in the mechanization and
computerization of the engineering industry in general, there
remains the requirement for a high degree of hand skills on the part
of technicians who are engaged in the day-to-day maintenance of
aircraft and their associated components. While the majority of
aerospace components are manufactured under stringent standards,
in factory (and laboratory) conditions, it is necessary to remove
many items of equipment for cleaning, inspection, overhaul and, if
needed, repair before they are, subsequently, re-installed in their
appointed locations. These actions may entail the use of many
specialist tools and materials, which are used while following
written procedures, while it is quite possible that some,
comparatively simple, repairs may call upon such basic hand skills
as the cutting, filing, drilling, riveting and painting of metals or
other materials. No matter whether there are specialist or basic
skills required, all will demand a certain quality of the work
practices (and of the work-force) involved.
CARE OF TOOLS
Engineers are responsible for the maintenance of their personal
tools, whilst other personnel, in designated Tool Stores, must care
for all the different, specialist tools for which they have the
responsibility. It is also the responsibility of engineers to ensure
that any tools, or other items of equipment they use, are not left in
an aircraft or associated components. The care required for
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different tools can vary. Ordinary hand tools may merely require
racking or locating within sturdy tool boxes, with careful, daily,
maintenance restricted to little more than a visual check. Precision
instruments however, require great care both in storage and in use.
They may need to be kept in special, soft-lined, boxes within other
storage facilities. Prior to use they should have a ‘zero’ check or
calibration. Some tools require that they have a light coating of
machine oil, to prevent the onset of corrosion. Each tool (whether
it be a hammer or a micrometer), will require some special care, to
ensure its optimum performance for, without this care, even the
most expensive tools very quickly become second rate and useless.
CONTROL OF TOOLS
Control of tools is important to good engineering practices and is
also vital to flight safety. A variety of systems can be used to
control tools but, whichever system is used, it must allow a 100%
check of the tools in use before it can be considered as acceptable.
One form of control is the ‘shadow board’ and ‘tool tag’ system,
(refer to Fig. 6). Each tool is positioned over its silhouette, on the
tool board. Technicians are issued with identification tokens
(numbered ‘tags’) which are exchanged for the tool and, usually, a
tag is hung above the silhouette, to be reclaimed, in exchange for
the tool, when it is returned to the board. The shadow board/tool
tag system works equally well when the tools are held within a
designated Tool Store arrangement.
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In workshops and bays it is normal for a toolkit to be held by the
department in addition to its engineers holding personal sets of
tools. The tools held by the department are often referred to as
‘special tools’, meaning that they are only for maintenance work on
the items being serviced in that workshop. A wheel bay, for
example, may have sets of special spanners, levers, seal applicators
and pre-set torque wrenches, which are used primarily for the
servicing of particular types of aircraft wheels. This dedicated tool
kit makes tool control much simpler and safer, with the tools all
being clearly marked as belonging to that specific bay.
In workshops and bays it is normal for a toolkit to be held by the
department in addition to its engineers holding personal sets of
tools. The tools held by the department are often referred to as
‘special tools’, meaning that they are only for maintenance work on
the items being serviced in that workshop. A wheel bay, for
example, may have sets of special spanners, levers, seal applicators
and pre-set torque wrenches, which are used primarily for the
servicing of particular types of aircraft wheels. This dedicated tool
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kit makes tool control much simpler and safer, with the tools all
being clearly marked as belonging to that specific bay.
No matter where tools are being used, it is the responsibility of
each technician to keep track of ALL of the tools used during a
particular task. The most important check of all is the final, ‘End of
Work’ tool check, when all tools must be collected and checked off
against personal inventories, ensuring all borrowed tools (from the
Tool Store for example), are returned and any personal tool tags
collected.
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS
Many of the wide variety of materials, used in workshops, require
some form of control in their handling. This control can involve: ·
Safety: relating to such topics as the toxicity, corrosiveness or
other health risks associated with the use of certain materials ·
Management: referring to the storage, use and correct handling of
all materials whether they are solid, liquid, or, in some instances,
gaseous · Economy: involving such matters as to the using of the
correct dosage or proportions when mixing compounds, using only
as much material as required for a specific task and to the keeping
in stock of only sufficient materials and thus avoiding ‘lifed’ items
reaching their expiry dates before being used. Abrasive papers,
solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre powder, oil spill
powder and so on, all require control of issue and use, though they
may not, normally, require stringent safety precautions. A huge
range of liquids can be used in the workshop situation, some of
which are harmless and some of which are extremely toxic. It is
vital that the work-force make themselves aware of the risks
involved when dealing with ANY materials, and especially when
working within enclosed areas. Some materials are flammable and
must, therefore, be stored outdoors. These include oils, greases,
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some adhesives, sealing and glazing compounds in addition to
many paints, enamels and epoxy surface finishes, which are stored
in metal cabinets and, usually, located (in the Northern
hemisphere) on the North side of a workshop or hangar. This
ensures that the cabinet remains in the shade of the building and
does not get exposed to the sun’s hot rays during the day. It is also
important that only the minimum amount of these materials is
taken indoors for the work which is being done. When handling
materials that give off fumes, it may be necessary to have the area
well ventilated and/or have the operator wearing a mask or some
form of remote breathing apparatus. The finished work may also
give off fumes for some time afterwards, so care must be taken to
keep it ventilated if necessary. Obviously all liquids must only be
used for the purpose for which they are designed and never mixed
together, unless the two materials are designed to be mixed, such
as with two part epoxy adhesives and sealants. Many liquids used
in workshops and in the hangar have (as mentioned earlier) a fixed
‘life’. This date is printed on the container and must be checked
before use, because many materials are unsafe if used beyond their
expiry date.The disposal of liquids is a critical operation, and must
only be carried out in accordance with company (and, often,
national or international) regulations. Liquids must never be
disposed of by pouring them into spare or unidentified containers
and they must not be allowed to enter the ‘domestic’ drains
systems. The working with, and the use of, high pressure gas
containers and oxygen systems, was adequately discussed in the
Safety Precautions topic.
CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT AND
CALIBRATION STANDARDS
Requirements within the relevant airworthiness codes, applicable
to the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Industry, such as the British
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Civil Aviation Requirements (BCARs), Joint Aviation
Requirements (JARs), and Air Operators Certificates, prescribe
that, where necessary, tools, equipment and, in particular, test
equipment are all calibrated to acceptable standards. This topic
provides an overall picture of the types of requirements and tests
required in establishing and maintaining an effective calibration
system. It takes into account factors such as the degree of accuracy
required, frequency of use and the reliability of the equipment. The
key factor is the need to establish confidence in the accuracy of the
equipment when it is required for use. The required calibration
frequency for any particular piece of test equipment is that which
will ensure it is in compliance with the standards applicable to its
intended use. In all cases, standards used are attributed upon the
need for ultimate traceability to one of the following:
· The standard specified by the equipment manufacturer/design
organisation
· The appropriate National/International Standards.
General Notes on Calibration
The appropriate standards are used to achieve consistency between
measurements made in different locations, possibly using alternate
measuring techniques. The calibration of test equipment is best
achieved by the operation of a methodical system of control. This
system should be traceable by an unbroken chain of comparisons,
through measurement standards of successively better accuracy up
to the appropriate standard. Where recommendations for
calibration standards are not published, or where they are not
specified, calibration should be carried out, in the UK, in
accordance with British Standard EN 30012-1: Quality Assurance
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Requirements for Measuring Equipment. As an alternative to
operating an internal Measurement and Calibration System, an
Approved Organisation or an Approved/Licensed Engineer may
enter into a sub-contracting arrangement to use an Appliance
Calibration Service. This arrangement does not absolve the
contractors of the service from maintaining standards as if they
were carrying out the work themselves.
In all instances, it is the responsibility of the user to be satisfied
that the unbroken traceability chain is in place. External
organisations, which supply an external Calibration Service, should
be those holding accreditation of the National Accreditation of
Measurement and Sampling, (NAMAS). Procedures The definition
of appliances requiring calibration are those items which are
necessary to perform measurements or tests of an aircraft, a system
or a component, to defined limits, as specified in the technical
documentation of the Type Certificate holder. Procedures,
controlling regular inspection, servicing and, where appropriate,
calibration of such items, are to indicate to the users that the item is
within any inspection time limit. These ‘Next Inspection’ labels
must clearly state when, and, if necessary, where the next
calibration is due. There should be a programme that plans the
periodic inspection, service or calibration within the defined time
limit, which ensures that the item remains in calibration. It is
common sense to stagger the calibration of items, so that the
largest number are available for use at all times. It is also
important, that a register of all items requiring calibration is held,
so that cross-checking can be simply carried out. Where a small
number of particular items are held, then contract loan of
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equipment is permitted. The intervals at which calibration is
required, can vary with the nature of the equipment, the conditions
under which it is used and the consequences of incorrect results.
The frequency will be in accordance with the manufacturer or
supplier’s instructions, unless the organisation can show that a
different interval is warranted in a particular case. This would
normally require a system of continuous analysis of calibration
results to be established, to support the variation to the
recommended calibration intervals. Any appliance, the
serviceability of which is in doubt, should be removed from service
and clearly labelled accordingly. The appliance must not be
returned to service unless the reason for its unserviceability has
been eliminated and its continued calibration re-validated. Action
must be taken, if an item of equipment is found, during re-
calibration, to have a significant error. This must include
rechecking of measurements made prior to finding the fault. The
scope of the records maintained, are dependent upon the standards
required and the nature of the equipment. The record system can
also provide a valuable reference in case of dispute or warranty
claims. These records can also indicate ‘drift’ and can help in
reassessing calibration intervals.Calibration records or certificates
should, as a minimum, contain the following information for each
appliance calibrated: · Identification of equipment · Limits of
permissible error · Standard used · Authority under which the
document was issued · Results obtained · Any limitation of use of
equipment · Uncertainty of measurement · Date when each
calibration was conducted · Assigned calibration interval. Where
calibration services are provided by outside organisations, it is
acceptable that the accuracy of the equipment is attested by a
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release document in the name of the Calibration Company. Any Allowance - Allowance is calculated as the difference between the
measurement is affected, to some degree, by the environment in maximum shaft size and minimum hole size is known as
which it is made. The equipment will need to be calibrated, allowance.
transported and stored under conditions compatible with the type
of equipment, to ensure its accuracy is not impaired. To provide It is a amount of designed (intentional) deviation between two
valid and repeatable test results, the facilities used for calibration mating parts of dimensions in a fit.
must have a controlled environment. It is necessary to control the In a clearance fit it is have a minimum clearance and is positive
temperature, humidity, vibration, dust, cleanliness, electromagnetic allowance.
interference, lighting and other factors that may affect the standard
of the results. If any of these requirements cannot be met, then In an interference fit it is have a maximum interference and is
compensation corrections must be applied to the calibration negative allowance.
standard to ensure continued accuracy. A measurement Checking
Allowance is the difference between the dimensions of hole and
Standard can be applied, at the work place, to check the accuracy
shaft.
of an appliance and to ensure its continued correct functioning. The
Checking Standard will be robust and its accuracy will not match
that of a full calibration check, but it will give confidence between
checks that the equipment is functioning correctly. The company
Quality System has the responsibility of ensuring the continued
accuracy, not only of the items of equipment, but also of the actual
testing facilities.

Dimensions, allowances and tolerances,

Dimensions - a measurable extent of a particular kind, such as

length, breadth, depth, or height. Tolerance

The difference between the upper limit and lower limit is called
tolerance.

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It is impossible to make any part to exact size. when working to a
high degree of accuracy condition,
The amount of error that can be tolerated can be is represented by
limits on the drawing.
Tolerance is the limit of random(unintentional) deviation of a
dimensions from nominal values.
Metal parts are used in many numbers in assembles and
manufacturing industries. These parts must have to fit each other
with comfortably.
In the assembly metal parts need to have tolerance that allows
compress.
The limit of tolerance of a metal is based on the metal properties.
Tolerance is the limit of random (unintentional) deviation of a
dimension from its nominal value.
Allowance is the amount of designed (intentional) deviation
between two mating dimensions in a fit, which, in combination
with their respective tolerances, results into a maximum and
minimum clearance or interference.
3.5 STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP Whilst the standards of
workmanship, during the hand-working of metals and other
materials, is controlled by the craftsperson, once machinery is used
in the manufacturing process, then the standards of finish and
workmanship depend upon the allowances set by the designer and
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on the type of machinery being used. With hand tools, there are
standards of finish, but these depend upon the skill of the
craftsperson and, again, on the tools being used. For example,
when filing metal, different grades of files are used, to obtain a
comparatively smooth surface finish while other methods, such as
abrasive papers, pastes and polishes, are then used, to provide the
final finish. When sawing, the same procedures apply in that blades
with finer teeth will give a better finish to the sawn edges, which
may then be further smoothed, using an appropriate selection of
files. When drilling a hole, the conventional twist drill will only
produce a finish of a certain standard. If a finer finish, to the inside
of the hole, is required, then a reamer would be used, to smooth the
material inside the hole, so that, if a tight fitting pin is to be fitted
through the hole, there will be better surface contact. There are a
variety of machines that can generate a smooth surface on a piece
of metal, the selection between them being decided by the quality
of finish. A lathe can produce an exceptionally smooth surface on a
bar or some other rotated shape. If a large area is required to have a
smooth finish, then perhaps, after initial casting or forging, the
choice may be of employing either a grinding machine or a milling
machine, to .provide the desired result. In summary, the quality of
the finished article is dependent both on the skill of the
craftsperson and the equipment available to complete the task. It
does not matter whether the tools in use are files and emery cloth
or an expensive milling machine; the standard of workmanship of
the craftsperson can make a great deal of difference to the finished
article.
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