Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
MLA format follows the author-page method of in-text citation. This means that the author's last name and the page number(s)
from which the quotation or paraphrase is taken must appear in the text, and a complete reference should appear on your
Works Cited page.
What is it?
Academic writing requires the author to support their arguments with reference to other published work or
experimental results/findings. A reference system will perform three essential tasks:
§ Enable a reader to quickly locate the source of the material you refer to so they can consult it if they wish.
The Modern Language Association (MLA) style is a widely used referencing system to help you achieve these
objectives
ow you compile a list of reference sources at the end of your text (reference list).
§ How you refer to other authors in the body of your text (in text citation).
Below is a list of some common citation types along with examples of how they are laid out within the MLA Style
guidelines.
Notation guide
REF: Author last name, First name. Title. Place of Publication: Publisher, Year of publication.
Example: McDonagh, Sean. Why are we Deaf to the Cry of the Earth. Dublin: Veritas, 2001
clear: it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose without needing additional
explanation.
focused: it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows.
concise: it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
complex: it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and
sources prior to composition of an answer.
arguable: its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts.
You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about.
The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A question appropriate for Biology, for
instance, is different from an appropriate one in Political Science or Sociology. If you are developing your question for
a course other than first-year composition, you may want to discuss your ideas for a research question with your
professor.
Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always keep your audience in
mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would that particular audience be interested in the
question you are developing?
Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and “why”
questions about your general topic. For example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working toward the
abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond to the conditions of the Great
Depression?”
The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t be adequately answered in a book-length piece, let alone
a standard college-level paper. The focused version narrows down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial
melting), a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is affected (penguins). It also requires the writer to
take a stance on which effect has the greatest impact on the affected animal. When in doubt, make a research
question as narrow and focused as possible.
The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few factual sentences; it leaves no room for
analysis. The more complex version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation
and evaluation from the writer. As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can answer a research question, it’s likely
not very effective
HOW TO PRESENT THE TECHNICAL REPORT
1. Introduction
A technical report is a formal report designed to convey technical information in a clear and easily accessible format. It is
divided into sections which allow different readers to access different levels of information. This guide explains the commonly
accepted format for a technical report; explains the purposes of the individual sections; and gives hints on how to go about
drafting and refining a report in order to produce an accurate, professional document.
2. Structure
Section Details
Title Page Must include the title of the report. Reports for assessment, where the word length has been
specified, will often also require the summary word count and the main text word count
Summary A short summary of the whole report including important features, results and conclusions
Contents Numbers and lists all section and subsection headings with page numbers
Introduction States the objectives of the report and comments on the way the topic of the report is to be treated.
Leads straight into the report itself
The sections Divided into numbered and headed sections. These sections separate the different main ideas in a
which make up logical order
the body of the
report
Conclusions A short, logical summing up of the theme(s) developed in the main text
References Details of published sources of material referred to or quoted in the text (including any lecture notes
and URL addresses of any websites used)
Bibliography Other published sources of material, including websites, not referred to in the text but useful for
background or further reading.
Acknowledgement List of people who helped you research or prepare the report, including your proofreaders
s
Appendices (if Any further material which is essential for full understanding of your report (e.g. large scale diagrams,
appropriate) computer code, raw data, specifications) but not required by a casual reader
3. Presentation
For technical reports required as part of an assessment, the following presentation guidelines are recommended;
Script The report must be printed single sided on white A4 paper. Hand written or dot-matrix printed reports are not
acceptable.
Page Do not number the title, summary or contents pages. Number all other pages consecutively starting at 1
numbers
Binding A single staple in the top left corner or 3 staples spaced down the left hand margin. For longer reports (e.g.
year 3 project report) binders may be used.
There are some excellent textbooks contain advice about the writing process and how to begin (see section 16). Here is a
checklist of the main stages;
Collect your information. Sources include laboratory handouts and lecture notes, the University Library, the reference
books and journals in the Department office. Keep an accurate record of all the published references which you
intend to use in your report, by noting down the following information;
author(s) author(s)
page numbers
Who is going to read the report? For coursework assignments, the readers might be fellow students and/or faculty markers. In
professional contexts, the readers might be managers, clients, project team members. The answer will affect the content and
technical level, and is a major consideration in the level of detail required in the introduction.
This is the stage at which your report will start to take shape as a professional, technical document. In revising what you have
drafted you must bear in mind the following, important principl
It is often the case that technical information is most concisely and clearly conveyed by means other than words. Imagine how
you would describe an electrical circuit layout using words rather than a circuit diagram. Here are some simple guideline
Diagrams
Keep them simple. Draw them specifically for the report. Put small diagrams after the text reference and as close as
possible to it. Think about where to place large diagrams.
Graphs
For detailed guidance on graph plotting, see the ‘Guide to laboratory report writing’
Tables
Is a table the best way to present your information? Consider graphs, bar charts or pie charts. Dependent tables (small) can
be placed within the text, even as part of a sentence Independent tables (larger) are separated from the text with table
numbers and captions. Position them as close as possible to the text reference. Complicated tables should go in an appendix.
Mathematics
Only use mathematics where it is the most efficient way to convey the information. Longer mathematical arguments, if they
are really necessary, should go into an appendix. You will be provided with lecture handouts on the correct layout for
mathematics.
The appearance of a report is no less important than its content. An attractive, clearly organised report stands a better chance
of being read. Use a standard, 12pt, font, such as Times New Roman, for the main text. Use different font sizes, bold, italic and
underline where appropriate but not to excess. Too many changes of type style can look very fussy.
9. Headings
Use heading and sub-headings to break up the text and to guide the reader. They should be based on the logical sequence
which you identified at the planning stage but with enough sub-headings to break up the material into manageable chunks. The
use of numbering and type size and style can clarify the structure as follows;
3.2.2 Rafts
In the main text you must always refer to any diagram, graph or table which you use
Whenever you make use of other people’s facts or ideas, you must indicate this in the text with a number which refers to an
item in the list of references. Any phrases, sentences or paragraphs which are copied unaltered must be enclosed in quotation
marks and referenced by a number. Material which is not reproduced unaltered should not be in quotation marks but must still
be referenced. It is not sufficient to list the sources of information at the end of the report; you must indicate the sources of
information individually within the report using the reference numbering system.
The summary, with the title, should indicate the scope of the report and give the main results and conclusions. It must be
intelligible without the rest of the report. Many people may read, and refer to, a report summary but only a few may read the
full report, as often happens in a professional organisation.
14. Proofreading
This refers to the checking of every aspect of a piece of written work from the content to the layout and is an absolutely
necessary part of the writing process. You should acquire the habit of never sending or submitting any piece of written work,
from email to course work, without at least one and preferably several processes of proofreading. In addition, it is not possible
for you, as the author of a long piece of writing, to proofread accurately yourself; you are too familiar with what you have
written and will not spot all the mistakes.
Advantages Advantages
Word processing and desktop publishing packages offer Word processing and desktop publishing packages offer great
great scope for endless revision of a document. This scope for endless revision of a document. This includes
includes words, word order, style and layout. words, word order, style and layout.
They allow for the incremental production of a long They can waste a lot of time by slowing down writing and
document in portions which are stored and combined later distracting the writer with the mechanics of text and graphics
manipulation
They can be used to make a document look stylish and Excessive use of ‘cut and paste’ leads to tedious repetition
professional. and sloppy writing
They make the process of proofreading and revision If the first draft is word processed, it can look so stylish that
extremely straightforward the writer is fooled into thinking that it does not need
proofreading and revision!
16. Recommended reading
2. van Emden J. Effective communication for Science and Technology (Palgrave 2001)
3. van Emden J. A Handbook of Writing for Engineers 2nd ed. (Macmillan 1998
4. van Emden J. and Easteal J. Technical Writing and Speaking, an Introduction (McGraw-Hill 1996)
LITERATURE CITED
The documentation needed to make your paper acceptable for academic purposes. It gives authoritative sources for your
statements, helps the reader gain access to those sources, and acknowledges the fact that the information used in a paper did
not originate with the writer.
• found at the end of the paper. And contains the complete reference for each of the in text citation used in your
paper. They are listed alphabetically by the first author’s last name.
EXAMPLE:
Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals, by a committee
of college and university examiners. New York: D. McKay.
Martin, J.K. (2009). English: Instructions to authors in the health sciences. Canada: The Free Press
Stultz, J. (2006). Integrating exposure therapy and analytic therapy in trauma treatment. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 76(4), 482-488. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.482
HOW?
The entries in the Literature Cited section should be in one alphabetical listing by author
Within each entry, list the authors in the order that they appear in the article you read
Include as many initials for each author as you find on the first page of the article
Only capitalize the first word in the article title as well as proper names
Do not include any information about the database that you used to access the article.
If the journal is only available online and has no print equivalent, include a DOI number
Conclusions
and
Recommendations
This section presents the generalizations drawn from the research results and discussion.
The Conclusions and Recommendations may be combined or, in long reports, presented in separate sections.
Relevant — must meet the purpose and the scope as stated in the Introduction section
FINDINGS
Although major research studies into operator fatigue have been reported, motorcoach operators have not been
included in those studies. Although the similarities between over-the-road truck drivers and over-the-road bus drivers
are many, the latter also have unique situations that may either increase or decrease incidences of fatigue. Managers
surveyed for this and other studies reported very few has crashes associated with bus operator fatigue. The research
personnel responding to the survey believe that bus operator fatigue may be a significant contributor to over-the-
road safety incidents. However, there is little statistical support for that belief. Bus company managers identified
operator training as a major countermeasure to bus operator fatigue. The researchers also identified rest and regular
schedules as key features of any fatigue countermeasure program. Managers reported significant pressure from
passengers to have bus operator's drive for longer periods. They also reported that as many as 75% of bus operators
also handle passenger luggage. Both drivers and managers believe that nearly all bus operators are familiar with
current Federal HOS regulations.
CONCLUSIONS
• There is no evidence that over-the-road has operators are any more susceptible to fatigue than other commercial
drivers or other transportation operators.
• There has been very little objective research conducted on over-the-road bus operators and this is particularly true
when it comes to fatigue research.
• Fatigue countermeasures that work for over-the-road truck operators should work for over-the-road bus operators
as well. Both bus and truck operators drive large vehicles on long, over-the-road routes. There is no evidence that bus
and truck operators are drawn from different work-force populations; they are also subject to the same work related
pressures, schedules, and challenges.
• The effects that passengers have on either combating or amplifying fatigue in bus operators have not been well documented
Post-research)
CONCLUSION
While it was generally agreed that the price was reasonable and the variety wide, more than half of those surveyed felt that the
quality of food could be improved upon, particularly in the areas of the taste of the food, size of food portions and freshness of
ingredients.
RECOMMENDATION
RECOMMENDATIONS
• A research study on the specific effects of fatigue on over-the-road bus operators should be conducted.
• Any research into either causes of fatigue or fatigue countermeasures should include over-the-road bus drivers as
part of the subject pool.
• Over-the-road bus companies and associations should be encouraged to provide counter-fatigue products, training
on fatigue effects, and combating fatigue information and support to all bus operators, even when those products
and materials may have been developed for the trucking industry.
• A research program on the effects of passengers on bus operator fatigue (including the effects of non-driving tasks)
should be instituted.
REFERENCING
APA STYLE
• Reference page
• Parenthetical Citation
REFRENCE PAGE
A references page is the last page of an essay or research paper that's been written in APA style. It lists all the sources you've
used in your project, so readers can easily find what you've cited.
Parenthetical Citation
Parenthetical citations are citations to original sources that appear in the text of your paper. This allows the reader to see
immediately where your information comes from, and it saves you the trouble of having to make footnotes or endnotes.
Technical report
Technical report (also known scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or result of technical or
scientific research. Including in-depth experimental details, data, and results.
2. Recommendation report
Analyze a problem, determine the best solution and recommendation the best solution
3. Research report
Content of report is actual work someone does in a laboratory or the in the field.
To make reader can easily understand the purpose and results of research.
4. Technical specifications
5. Business plan
To provide whatever information the audience may need to consider the idea.
Format of business plan, use the format for formal report, the format proposals or some combinations of these two.
6. Backgrounds reports
Two essential infrastructures of the backgrounds reports are definitions and classification.
The literature review is a written overview of major writings and other sources on a selected topic. Sources covered
in the review may include scholarly journal articles, books, government reports, Web sites, etc. The literature
review provides a description, summary and evaluation of each source.
A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature review surveys
scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of research. ... It should give a theoretical
base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your research.
Narrative or Traditional literature reviews. Narrative or Traditional literature reviews critique and summarise a body
of literature about the thesis topic.
Scoping Reviews.
Cochrane Reviews.
Campbell Collaboration.
A narrative or traditional literature review is a comprehensive, critical and objective analysis of the current
knowledge on a topic. They are an essential part of the research process and help to establish a theoretical
framework and focus or context for your research.
Scoping Reviews
For the purposes of this study, a scoping review is defined as a type of research synthesis that aims to
'map the literature on a particular topic or research area and provide an opportunity to identify key concepts; gaps in
the research; and types and sources of evidence to inform practice, policymaking, and research‘.
Systematic quantitative literature reviewing is a smart and effective method for undertaking literature reviews,
particularly for research students and others exploring new disciplines. It bridges the gap between traditional
narrative review methods and meta-analysis.
Cochrane Reviews
Cochrane Reviews are systematic reviews of primary research in human health care and health policy, and are
internationally recognised as the highest standard in evidence-based health care. They investigate the effects of
interventions for prevention, treatment and rehabilitation.
Campbell Collaboration
The Campbell Collaboration describes itself as a "nonprofit organization that aims to help people make well-
informed decisions about the effects of interventions in the social, behavioral, and educational arenas."
Research & Types of Research
Research
is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of datay that is a process of systematic inquiry
that entails collection of data entails collection of data
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Types of Research
Basic Research –
Applied Research –
conducted to understand the exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions.
Qualitative Research –
Quantitative Research –
By:
Kyle Edrian C. Estares
Teachers Name:
Ms.Cassandra June Velasco
Mrs. Maria Soccoro Lupina
NO TO DRUGS TO LIQOUR
Hello everyone, good morning! I am Kyle Estares and I’m here in front of you all to
present my speech. First of all, I would like to know how many of you guys here have
tried doing drugs and alcohol. Well, I know some of you won’t admit to using it but you
guys are fully aware of how every teenager thinks right? We are very curious about how
these things can affect our minds. We want to pique our curiosity. So maybe some of will
try it. We tend to disregard the fact that it can affect our body but as long as we are
having fun, we do not care about what’s going to happen. Highschool, a stage of our lives
where drinking is almost present in every gathering like in parties, karaoke bars, and even
at home. Drinking is one of the teenage problems that society faces. Yes, teens do this
kind of stuff but they still don’t know the consequences to their actions, physical, mental
or emotional. Being abused or neglected at home shouldn’t be the reason why a person or
a student should drink, no matter how big or small your problem is you shouldn’t escape
reality by doing drugs and alcohol.
Yes, you can temporarily forget about the things that cause you to feel hopeless or
unwanted. To fit in which is one of the reasons why teenagers drink and do drugs. Teens
that drink or use drugs not only affect themselves but also to those around them. Teenage
pregnancy, a big issue in society, and mostly because of alcohol. Alcohol can also cause a
person to commit suicide especially if that person already had thoughts of committing
such a thing. Your thoughts or perception can be altered permanently by doing these
kinds of stuff. Using alcohol or drugs can make it hard for young people to control their
actions. Avoid these things and you can reduce the risk of developing and even dying
from heart disease.
In conclusion, alcohol and drug abuse is a major problem in our society. Addiction is an
involuntary process that often we tend to overlook it. Young ones, we are the future of
our society. Let us turn our backs on drugs and alcohol. A large population can identify
with this and the solution is through us joining hands and working as a team in ensuring
that we approach the problem. A nation that does not abuse drugs is one that is
productive and healthy.