Marketing management is “planning, organising, controlling and implementing of marketing

programmes, policies, strategies and tactics designed to create and satisfy the demand for the
firms' product offerings or services as a means of generating an acceptable profit.”
Marketing management employs tools from economics and competitive strategy to analyze the
industry context in which the firm operates. These include Porter's five forces, analysis of strategic
groups of competitors, value chain analysis and others.[1]
In competitor analysis, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the market, focusing
on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using SWOT analysis. Marketing managers
will examine each competitor's cost structure, sources of profits, resources and competencies,
competitive positioning and product differentiation, degree of vertical integration, historical responses
to industry developments, and other factors.
Marketing management often conduct market research and marketing research to perform
marketing analysis. Marketers employ a variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some
of the more common include:

 Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups and various types of interviews
 Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
 Experimental techniques such as test markets
 Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site) observation
Marketing managers may also design and oversee various environmental scanning and competitive
intelligence processes to help identify trends and inform the company's marketing analysis.

Works methods and measurement

What is method study and work measurement?
In short method study is concerned with determination of the best way of doing a job.
... Thus work measurement may be defined as the application of different techniques
to measure and establish the time required to complete the job by a qualified worker at
a defined level of performance.

Work Study: Meaning, Concept

and Techniques | Industry
After reading this article you will learn about:- 1. Meaning of
Work Study 2. Definition and Concept of Work Study 3.
Need 4. Techniques 5. Advantages.
Meaning of Work Study:
Work study is the investigation, by means of a consistent system of the
work done in an organization in order to attain the best utilisation of
resources i.e. Materials, Machines, Men and Money. All the
technologies and management systems are related with productivity.

Work study is one of the basic techniques of improving

productivity. In order to resolve this aspect, work study
aims:
(i) To analyse the work in order to achieve work simplification and
thereby improving productivity of the system.

(ii) To have optimum utilization of resources i.e., 4 Ms.

(iii) To evaluate the work content through work measurement.

(iv) To set time standards for various jobs.

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In nutshell work study is mainly concerned with the examination of

human work. In fact planning is not possible unless one knows how
long it will take to do a particular job. Thus time is very important to
the manufacturer who must keep to promise, to estimate quantities
and to other industrial and business arrangements or organizations.

Work study is not a theoretical concept but essentially a practical one

and deals with human beings who have their own attitude and style of
working. So the success of work study is dependent upon the relations
between the labour/employees and the management.
Work study involves lot of changes in various working methods. Since
the manpower in general does not like changes but prefers to continue
as already doing, so there will always be a tendency to resist any
modification or new method suggested by work study people
(officers/workers) and the manpower and the workers have
confidence in the ability, integrity and fair-mindedness of work study
man, there is a good chance that sound proposals will be accepted
willingly by the manpower.

Definition and Concept of Work Study:

Generally work study is used to describe a complete set of techniques
with the help of which work can be simplified, standardized and
measured.

When it is possible to simplify the existing work or new

methods are designed and introduced such that the
task/activity becomes simpler than following advantages are
possible:
(i) More production with less effort so goods/products are available at
cheaper rates.

(ii) Better equipment utilization shall lead to marked increase in the

total production without addition of new resources, thus productivity
may improve.

These advantages are possible through the willing cooperation of the

people engaged in production work. In view of these far reaching
benefits, work study has become an important tool of management.
In industries work study is considered as a tool of improving
productivity by way of:
(i) Resource utilization to a satisfactory level.

(ii) Capital investment to introduce latest technology.

(iii) Better management of the system.

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I. British Standard Institution defines work study as a generic term for

those techniques particularly “Method study” and “Work
Measurement” which are used in the examination of work in all its
contexts and which leads systematically to the investigation of all the
factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being
reviewed in order to incorporate improvements at various levels.

II. Work study may be defined as “The systematic critical, objective

and imaginative examination of all factors governing the operational
efficiency of any specific activity in order to achieve/ effect
improvement.”

Thus work study is the investigation by means of a consistent system

of the work done in an organization in order to achieve the best
possible utilization of resources i.e. man, machines and materials
available. Every organization tries to achieve best quality production
of various products in the minimum possible time.
The time required manufacturing a product/item depends on the
manufacturing procedure. One phase of work study called Method
Study or Motion Study aims at determining the best possible
manufacturing procedure which involves least time and cause
minimum fatigue to workers employed for performing the work.

In short method study is concerned with determination of the best way

of doing a job. Method study may be defined as the systematic
investigation of the existing method of doing a job in order to develop
and install an easy, quick, effective, efficient and comparatively less
tiring method or procedure for doing the same job at cheaper rates.

This is generally achieved by eliminating unnecessary movements or

motions involved in a certain procedure or by changing the sequence
of the operation of the process itself

The role of time study or work measurement starts with the

determination of the time allowed to complete the job by the
developed improved procedure for doing that job. Thus work
measurement may be defined as the application of different
techniques to measure and establish the time required to complete the
job by a qualified worker at a defined level of performance.

Need For Work Study:

Principles of work study have been used since long to identify the
improvements to be incorporated, when industrial set up was simple
and involved lesser problems. The industries of today with increased
complexities and modernisation naturally demand a more systematic
approach like work study in its present form for solution of various
problems.

Work study is most valuable tool of management because:

(i) It is a direct means of improving productivity of the system
involving very less or no cost.

(ii) The approach is simple, systematic, consistent and based on

handling of facts. Thus the part played by opinions in taking decisions
is minimized.

(iii) No factor affecting the efficiency of operation is overlooked in this

approach.

(iv) It provides most accurate means of setting standards of

performance which are helpful in the process of production planning
and control.

(v) Application of work study result in immediate savings.

(vi) It is a universal tool for management.

(vii) It is a most penetrating tool of investigation available to the

management of the industrial unit.

Techniques of Work Study:

Basically there are two techniques:
Method study and work measurement as shown in Fig. 17.1
Thus work study is the term used to embrace the techniques of
Method Study and Work Measurement which are used to ensure the
best utilization of manpower and material resources in carrying out
specified activity.

The sequential order of the correct procedure to be adopted

for having effective or purpose oriented results of method
study include the following:
(i) Select the work/procedure to be analysed.

(ii) Record all the relevant information related with the existing work
system with the help of various recording devices or techniques.

(iii) Make critical examination of collected data/facts.

(iv) Develop and improve the method which is economical and

practical after giving due consideration to the alternative method
possible.

(v) Install the new selected method with proper instructions.

(vi) Maintain the latest standards of methods through periodic
verification etc.

Similarly, the logical order of correct procedure to be

adopted for having effective results of work measurement
includes the followings:
(i) Divide the selected procedure into small work elements.

(ii) By direct observations record the relevant information regarding

the various work elements.

(iii) In the light of relevant information examine the work critically.

(iv) Measure the work content in the terms of time of the work
elements involved in method being adopted.

(v) Define and design the new selected method.

(vi) Finally convert the work content time in standard time.

Objectives of Method Study:

Some important objectives of method study are:
(1) Better design of plant equipment and buildings.

(2) Less fatigue or workers by avoiding unnecessary movements of

manpower.

(3) Better working conditions and environment for

workers/employees.
(4) To have more effective utilisation of materials, machines and
manpower and money.

(5) Better Product quality.

(6) Efficient and fast material handling equipment.

(7) Leads to standardisation, rationalisation, simplification and

specialisation.

(8) Efficient planning of the section.

(9) Streamlined working procedures.

Objectives of Work Measurement:

Effective planning and control of production, distribution and
administration can not be achieved unless these are based on facts.
One of the most important of these facts is the time required for job
completion which can be obtained by motion study or work
measurement.

Other objectives of work measurement are as follows:

(1) When two alternative methods which seem equally advantageous,
one which requires less time for completion of the job (i.e. faster) can
be established.

(2) The man power required for a job or new plant can be determined
on the basis of accurate knowledge of the amount of work that has to
be done so it helps in manpower economy.
(3) Work measurement data provides reliable basis to decide
equipment.

(4) Provides requisite information for effective production planning

and improving efficiency of the system.

(5) Provides basis for fair and reliable incentive schemes.

(6) Decides realistic labour budgeting and provides a basis for

standard costing system.

Advantages of Work Study:

(1) It is direct means of improving productivity.

(2) It results in uniform and improved production flow.

(3) It reduces the manufacturing cost.

(4) With its help fast and accurate delivery dates are possible.

(5) It provides better service and consumer satisfaction.

(6) It improves employee-employer relations.

(7) It provides job satisfaction and job security to workers.

(8) Better working conditions are possible for workers.

(9) It is most important tool of analysis and can help in providing

better wages to workers on scientific basis.
(10) Most accurate method and yet provides a sound basis for
production planning, control and incentives for man power.

(11) Everyone concerned with industries is benefited from it such as

worker, consumer and management of the unit.

Objectives, Procedure and

Selection of Work for Method
Study
Objectives, Procedure and Selection of Work for Method
Study!
Always, the objective of method study is to simplify the job and
develop more economical methods of doing it. Method study is
systematic both in investigation of problem being considered and in
the development of its solutions. It can be stated as one of most
penetrating tools of investigation available to management.

Important objectives of method study are:

(1) The improvement of processes and procedures.

(2) Factory and work place layout improvement.

(3) Improvement in the design of plant and equipment.

(4) Reduction in unnecessary fatigue and movements.

(5) Use of improved materials, machines and manpower.

(6) Better Working conditions.

While examining any problem, analyses should be done in a definite

and ordered sequence. Usually the sequence is firstly defining the
problems and obtaining all the relevant information regarding the
problems. Then, there facts or information’s are examined critically.
Then decision is taken and is acted upon. All this is always followed by
routine checks.

So, the following seven steps constitute the basic procedure

of method study:
(1) Selecting the work to be studied.

(2) Obtaining all the relevant information’s or facts regarding the

exiting method by direct observation.

(3) Examining these facts critically but impartially.

(4) Developing the most effective and practical method.

(5) Defining the new method so as to create its identity.

(6) Installing the new method.

(7) Maintaining this method by regular routine checks.

We will be discussing all these stages separately in coming pages.

Selection of Work:
There are certain factors which are to be taken into account
while selecting the work for method study:
(1) Economic factors:
Only those jobs are selected which keep good economic importance.
Jobs involving bottlenecks which hold up other production operations,
operations involving repetitive work etc. are the works that are
investigated and studied.

(2) Technical factors:

Availability of the technical knowledge with which study is to be
carried out is an important consideration that is to be kept in mind
while selecting the job. Take an example of a machine tool which in
not running at a speed at which the efficiency is maximum.

So, study will say that speed should be increased but, can the tool be
speeded up or in the machine structure able to take up this increased
load are the questions which always comes in mind while selecting the
job to be studied.

(3) Human considerations:

Human reactions are always very difficult to predict. So, the
experience of local personnel and conditions will reduce the problems.
So, if the works selected involves the unpleasant features like dirty
jobs or lifting of heavy weight are readily accepted by the workers.

Management Techniques to
Reduce Work Content and to
Eliminate Ineffective Time
Management Techniques to Reduce Work Content and to
Eliminate Ineffective Time!
In both underdeveloped and developed countries, there are limited
resources which should be utilized to obtain maximum output i.e. the
tendency should be to perform a job by cheaper, safer and quicker
ways. The aim should be the optimum utilization of resources so as to
provide maximum satisfaction with minimum effort and expenditure.

This aim can be achieved by obtaining maximum productivity with

existing resources. In all cases it must be as a result of action by the
management, with the cooperation of the workforce, together with, in
some cases, extra scientific or technical knowledge. Further this is
possible by reducing the work content and ineffective time. The
management techniques are used to reduce work content and
ineffective time in following fields.

Reducing Work Content with Proper Product Development

and Design:
The product development and design is closely related with product
simplification, specialization and standardization. These techniques if
adopted lead to variety reduction of products/goods/components and
increase in batch sizes and adoption of high production processes.

If the product design restricts the utilization of most economical

methods of production then the production and design staff should
work closely from the beginning. In this manner the production
manpower can examine the components and assemblies and suggest
changes required before the investment is made for procurement of
tools and equipment’s.

In case the quality standards are higher than necessity for the efficient
functioning of the products, time taken of manufacture would
generally be more and would result in more rejections. Thus quality
standards must be geared to requirements. They should be set neither
too high nor too low, and they should be consistent.

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In addition to these considerations, the management must be sure

about the consumer and market requirements as well as the technical
requirements of the product itself. These can be fulfilled by market
consumer and product research staff.

The quality control or inspection function would ensure that the

quality requirements of the product are met from production
department. Value analysis is another technique which is used to
reduce the work content due to process or method. In this way the
management can reduce the work content by the systematized
investigation of the product and its manufacture.

Reducing Work Content with Proper Process Planning:

The process planning function is responsible for the specifications of
the machines and equipment on which the products and components
shall be produced, the type of tools required and the speeds and other
operating conditions under which the machines shall work. In all types
of manufacturing industries, it may be essential to carryout process
research in order to identify the best manufacturing techniques.

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Proper maintenance will not only reduce the machine down time but
will also prolong the life of plant and machinery, so reducing capital
expenditure. Process planning coupled with method study would
ensure the selection of the most suitable tools meant for production.

Method study and operator training would reduce the work content
due to bad layout and bad working methods.

Use of Management Techniques for Elimination of

Ineffective Time:
The management cannot escape the responsibility of the achievement
of high productivity, especially in the elimination or reduction of
ineffective time. Even where working methods are very good,
ineffective time may lead to great loss. The reduction of ineffective
time starts with.

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The marketing policy of the enterprise or organization. The level of

productivity is concerned with the factor if the unit/firm specialize in a
small number of products to be manufactured in large volumes at the
lowest possible cost and to sell them cheaply or if the firm shall try to
meet the special requirements of every consumer.
In case the variety of products being produced is more this means that
the machines are to be stopped for change over from one type of
products to another; workers are unable to acquire enough practice on
any one job.

Unfortunately, in many organizations/firms the variety/range of

product/ item grows unnoticed because of efforts to improve sales by
meeting every special demand for variations, most of which may not
be needed at all. Thus these decisions should be taken with a sufficient
knowledge of its effects. Hence specialization of products can be an
important step in order to eliminate in effective time.

Mostly it is possible to standardize most of the components in a range

of models of the same type of products; this would reduce the change
over time spent on the machines resulting in longer production runs.
Hence parts/ components standardization would reduce the
ineffective time.

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Sometimes much ineffective time occurs when the product fails to

meet the customer requirements before it is put into full production.
The solution is redesign or modification which results in ineffective
time. This effect can be eliminated with proper materials management
and control.

Workers and machines may be forced to remain idle for want of

materials or tools which results in ineffective time. This effect can he
eliminated with proper materials management and control. The
machine’s and plant breakdown time causes idleness of men and
machines which must be regarded as ineffective time. This reduces
productivity and increase manufacturing cost. The remedy is proper
maintenance of break downs.

Improved or good working conditions enable the workers to work

efficiently and smoothly. If the management is unable to provide good
working conditions, ineffective time will be increased since workers
would require more rest to overcome fatigue due to the effects of bad
lighting, heat, cold or fumes etc.

In addition to this, if proper precautions for the safety of the workers

are not taken by management, ineffective time will be increased
because of time lost though accidents and absenteeism etc. Thus it can
be concluded that the work content of product and process can be
reduced when time is properly utilized. Much of the responsibility in
this regard lies with the management.

Reduction of Ineffective Time within the Control of the

Workers with the Help of Management Techniques:
It depends upon the worker as how usefully and fully he utilizes the
time available to him for performing a job. A worker can save time
mainly by reducing the amount of time wasted, while networking that
is, when he is resting, smoking talking to his fellow workers, waiting to
clock off, being late or absent etc. to reduce the ineffective time, that is
within the control of the worker the efforts of the management might
help in this direction.
Good personnel policy adopted by the management and its attitude
forwards the worker can affect or change the willingness of the worker
to get on with the job and reduce the ineffective time.

Since the personnel policy is concerned with the whole relationship

between the employees and employer so any management techniques
would work satisfactorily if personnel policy is good. An appropriate
training of managers, foremen and supervisory staff of all ranks in
proper attitudes to and relations with the workmen is part of sound
personnel policy.

Likewise a soundly based wage structure, including wage incentives

related to time standards decided by work measurement would be
helpful in reducing ineffective time. This technique would encourage
the workers to earn more in proportion to their output, will discourage
any tendency to waste time and hence improve productivity.

Hence management has a very great responsibility for reducing the

effectiveness due to bad attitudes of mind on the part of workers by
adopting suitable personnel policy and providing proper training to
supervisory staff.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory

of Motivation (Explained With
Diagram)
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory of Motivation!
Abraham Maslow’s motivation theory is based on the human needs.
These needs are classified into a sequential hierarchy from the lower
to higher order as five need clusters as shown in the following Figure
10.2:

The above five need-clusters are now discussed in seriatim:

1. Physiological Needs:
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These needs are of the lowest-order and most basic needs of human
beings. These involve satisfying fundamental biological drives, such as
the need for food, air, water, cloth, and shelter generally expressed in
the names of roti, kapada aur makan. These needs exert tremendous
influence on human behaviour. Entrepreneur also being a human
being has to meet his physiological needs for survival. Hence, he / she
is motivated to work in the enterprise to have economic rewards to
meet his / her basic needs.

2. Safety and Security Needs:

The second level of need in Maslow’s hierarchy is emerged once
physiological needs are met. Safety needs involve the need for a secure
environment, free from threats of physical and psychological harm.
These needs find expression in such desires as economic security and
protection from physical dangers. Meeting these needs requires more
money and, hence, the entrepreneur is prompted to work more in his/
her entrepreneurial pursuit. Like physical needs, these become
inactive once they are also satisfied.

3. Social Needs:
Man is social animal. These needs, therefore, refer to belongingness or
affiliation. All individuals want to be recognized and accepted by
others. Likewise, an entrepreneur is motivated to interact with fellow
entrepreneurs, his employees, and others.

4. Esteem Needs:
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These needs refer to self-esteem and self-respect. These include such

needs that indicate self-confidence, achievement, competence,
knowledge, and independence. In case of entrepreneurs, the
ownership and self- control over enterprise satisfies their esteem
needs by providing them status, respect, reputation, and
independence.

5. Self-Actualization:
The final step under the need hierarchy model is the need for self-
actualization. This refers to self- fulfillment. The term ‘self-
actualization’ was coined by Kurt Goldstein and means to become
actualized in what one is potentially good. An entrepreneur may
achieve self-actualization in being a successful entrepreneur.

In Maslow’s above need hierarchy theory, human needs are arranged

in a lowest to the highest order. The second need does not dominate
unless the first is reasonably satisfied and the third need does not
dominate until the first two needs have been reasonably satisfied. This
process goes on till the last need.

This is because man is never satisfied. If one need is satisfied, another

need arises. Once a need is satisfied, it ceases to be a motivating factor.
For entrepreneurs, it is mainly social, esteem, and self-actualization
needs which motivate them to work more and more for satisfying
them.

Work Methods
What are work methods?
Work methods are the physical actions employed to perform a task. Evaluating and
modifying work methods to prevent discomfort and injury is one of several components
of an effective ergonomics program. Work methods are also called work practices.
Work Methods
Definition - What does Work Methods mean?
Work methods are the physical actions employed to perform a task. Evaluating and
modifying work methods to prevent discomfort and injury is one of several components
of an effective ergonomics program. Work methods are also called work practices.

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Proper Diagnosis
Workplace Testing explains Work Methods
The work methods used for a task include each physical step performed during the
process of the work. The physical way in which a task is performed can have a
substantial impact on the level of ergonomic risk associated with the job.
For instance, a work method that employs awkward postures to achieve the worker's
goal is more likely to cause a musculoskeletal injury than one that maintains a neutral
posture throughout the task. Bending over to lift a heavy item or reaching above the
shoulder to grab an object are examples of poor work methods that can lead to injury.
These poor work methods can result from poor worker training, lack of knowledge, or a
lack of good ergonomic job design.
Ergonomics programs include analysis of work methods to ensure that safe practices
are being used for job tasks. Training and work practice controls are then implemented
to ensure that proper methods are used to reduce employee exposure to ergonomic
risks.

Work study
Work study is a means of enhancing the production efficiency (productivity) of the firm by
elimination of waste and unnecessary operations. It is a technique to identify non-value adding
operations by investigation of all the factors affecting the job.

What are working methods?

Work methods are the physical actions employed to perform a task. Evaluating and
modifying work methods to prevent discomfort and injury is one of several components
of an effective ergonomics program. Work methods are also called work practices.

Working methods and techniques

© Zea Harbour Project

Digital survey of a submerged tower, Piraeus, Greece. Archaeologists from the Danish-Greek Zea
Harbour Project digitally survey a partly-submerged tower in the fortifications of the Classical-period
naval base in Mounichia Harbour (modern Mikrolimano). In the shoreline interface the 5th century BC
harbour tower is documented using terrestrial archaeological methods, such as total-station survey,
and in the sea, underwater archaeological methods (Zea Harbour Project 2006).
In order to correctly intervene, archaeologists must well-define project objectives and then use appropriate
methods and working techniques. Research is integral to any intervention though there is no single recipe, but
it is up to the archaeologist to identify and use the best methodology available. The scientific method, as
implied by its etymology, is a means of arriving at reliable knowledge. Irrespective of the concrete methodology
 chosen, it will have to meet some minimum conditions if it is to respond effectively to the challenges that
working under water presents.
The working method will have to be:
1. Clearly explained. It will need to be understood by the team working under water, often taking turns, which will have
to take individual decisions.
2. Rapid to implement. There is a limit to the time that can be spent under water.
3. Straightforward to implement. Working under water is hard enough without the addition of further complications.
A basic rule is that not everything that can be done on land ought to be done on the working platform, and
things that can be done on the surface ought not to be done under water. Furthermore every contingency will
need to be exhaustively planned for, so that problems can be resolved under the best possible conditions. If
there is anything besides discipline and orderliness that ought to characterize the operations of an underwater
archaeological excavation, it is planning for possible incidents that might affect the safety of individuals and the
site itself.

Sections:
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The Method of Research

Suitability of the method

Types of research methodology

Site survey

Investigation and analysis

Techniques for in situ preservation

Considerations on excavation
Illustrations