Bose-Einstein Condensate

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Bose–Einstein condensate
A Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state
of matter (sometimes called the fifth state of
matter) which is typically formed when a gas of
bosons at low densities is cooled to temperatures
very close to absolute zero (-273.15 °C). Under
such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy
the lowest quantum state, at which point
microscopic quantum phenomena, particularly
wavefunction interference, become apparent
macroscopically. A BEC is formed by cooling a gas
Schematic Bose–Einstein condensation versus
of extremely low density, about one-hundred- temperature of the energy diagram
thousandth (1/100,000) the density of normal air,
to ultra-low temperatures.
This state was first predicted, generally, in 1924–1925 by Albert Einstein[1] following a paper written
by Satyendra Nath Bose, although Bose came up with the pioneering paper on the new statistics.[2]
Contents
History
Critical temperature
Derivation
Ideal Bose gas
Models
Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas
Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas
Gross–Pitaevskii equation
Numerical Solution
Weaknesses of Gross–Pitaevskii model
Other
Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion
Experimental observation
Superfluid He-4
Dilute atomic gases
Velocity-distribution data graph
Quasiparticles
Peculiar properties
Vortices
Attractive interactions
Current research
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose–Einstein_condensate 1/20
Dark matter
Isotopes
See also
References
Further reading
External links
History
Satyendra Nath Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the
quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons), in
which he derived Planck's quantum radiation law without any
reference to classical physics. Einstein was impressed,
translated the paper himself from English to German and
submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which
published it in 1924.[3] (The Einstein manuscript, once
believed to be lost, was found in a library at Leiden University
in 2005.[4]) Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to matter in Velocity-distribution data (3 views) for a
two other papers.[5][6] The result of their efforts is the concept gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the
of a Bose gas, governed by Bose–Einstein statistics, which discovery of a new phase of matter, the
Bose–Einstein condensate. Left: just
describes the statistical distribution of identical particles with
before the appearance of a Bose–
integer spin, now called bosons. Bosons, which include the Einstein condensate. Center: just after
4
photon as well as atoms such as helium-4 ( He), are allowed to the appearance of the condensate.
share a quantum state. Einstein proposed that cooling bosonic Right: after further evaporation, leaving
atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to fall (or a sample of nearly pure condensate.
"condense") into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting

in a new form of matter.
4
In 1938, Fritz London proposed the BEC as a mechanism for superfluidity in He and
superconductivity.[7][8]
On June 5, 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the
University of Colorado at Boulder NIST–JILA lab, in a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170
nanokelvins (nK).[9] Shortly thereafter, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT realized a BEC in a gas of sodium
atoms. For their achievements Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle received the 2001 Nobel Prize in
Physics.[10] These early studies founded the field of ultracold atoms, and hundreds of research groups
around the world now routinely produce BECs of dilute atomic vapors in their labs.
Since 1995, many other atomic species have been condensed, and BECs have also been realized using
molecules, quasi-particles, and photons.[11]
Critical temperature
This transition to BEC occurs below a critical temperature, which for a uniform three-dimensional gas
consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by:
where:
is the critical temperature,

is the particle density,
is the mass per boson,
is the reduced Planck constant,
is the Boltzmann constant, and
is the Riemann zeta function; [12]
Interactions shift the value and the corrections can be calculated by mean-field theory. This formula is
derived from finding the gas degeneracy in the Bose gas using Bose–Einstein statistics.
Derivation
Ideal Bose gas

For an ideal Bose gas we have the equation of state:
where is the per particle volume, the thermal wavelength, the fugacity and
. It is noticeable that is a monotonically growing function of in ,
which are the only values for which the series converge.
Recognizing that the second term on the right-hand side contains the expression for the average
ocupation number of the fundamental state , the equation of state can be rewritten as
Because the left term on the second equation must always be positive, and because
, a stronger condition is
which defines a transition between a gas phase and a condensed phase. On the critical region it is
possible to define a critical temperature and thermal wavelenght:
recovering the value indicated on the previous section. The critical values are such that if or
we are in the presence of a Bose-Einstein Condensate.
Understanding what happens with the fraction of particles on the fundamental level is crucial. As so,
write the equation of state for , obtaining
and equivalently .
So, if the fraction and if the fraction . At temperatures near to

absolute 0, particles tend to condensate in the fundamental state (state with momentum ).
Models
Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas

Consider a collection of N non-interacting particles, which can each be in one of two quantum states,
and . If the two states are equal in energy, each different configuration is equally likely.
If we can tell which particle is which, there are different configurations, since each particle can be
in or independently. In almost all of the configurations, about half the particles are in and the
other half in . The balance is a statistical effect: the number of configurations is largest when the
particles are divided equally.
If the particles are indistinguishable, however, there are only N+1 different configurations. If there are
K particles in state , there are N − K particles in state . Whether any particular particle is in state
or in state cannot be determined, so each value of K determines a unique quantum state for the
whole system.
Suppose now that the energy of state is slightly greater than the energy of state by an amount E.
At temperature T, a particle will have a lesser probability to be in state by . In the
distinguishable case, the particle distribution will be biased slightly towards state . But in the
indistinguishable case, since there is no statistical pressure toward equal numbers, the most-likely
outcome is that most of the particles will collapse into state .
In the distinguishable case, for large N, the fraction in state can be computed. It is the same as
flipping a coin with probability proportional to p = exp(−E/T) to land tails.
In the indistinguishable case, each value of K is a single state, which has its own separate Boltzmann
probability. So the probability distribution is exponential:
For large N, the normalization constant C is (1 − p). The expected total number of particles not in the
lowest energy state, in the limit that , is equal to . It does not grow when N is
large; it just approaches a constant. This will be a negligible fraction of the total number of particles.
So a collection of enough Bose particles in thermal equilibrium will mostly be in the ground state,
with only a few in any excited state, no matter how small the energy difference.
Consider now a gas of particles, which can be in different momentum states labeled . If the number
of particles is less than the number of thermally accessible states, for high temperatures and low
densities, the particles will all be in different states. In this limit, the gas is classical. As the density
increases or the temperature decreases, the number of accessible states per particle becomes smaller,
and at some point, more particles will be forced into a single state than the maximum allowed for that
state by statistical weighting. From this point on, any extra particle added will go into the ground
state.
To calculate the transition temperature at any density, integrate, over all momentum states, the
expression for maximum number of excited particles, p/(1 − p):
When the integral (also known as Bose-Einstein integral) is evaluated with factors of and ℏ
restored by dimensional analysis, it gives the critical temperature formula of the preceding section.
Therefore, this integral defines the critical temperature and particle number corresponding to the
conditions of negligible chemical potential . In Bose–Einstein statistics distribution, is actually
still nonzero for BECs; however, is less than the ground state energy. Except when specifically
talking about the ground state, can be approximated for most energy or momentum states as .
Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas

Nikolay Bogoliubov considered perturbations on the limit of dilute gas,[13] finding a finite pressure at
zero temperature and positive chemical potential. This leads to corrections for the ground state. The
Bogoliubov state has pressure (T = 0): .
The original interacting system can be converted to a system of non-interacting particles with a
dispersion law.
Gross–Pitaevskii equation
In some simplest cases, the state of condensed particles can be described with a nonlinear
Schrödinger equation, also known as Gross–Pitaevskii or Ginzburg–Landau equation. The validity of
this approach is actually limited to the case of ultracold temperatures, which fits well for the most
alkali atoms experiments.
This approach originates from the assumption that the state of the BEC can be described by the
unique wavefunction of the condensate . For a system of this nature, is interpreted as the
particle density, so the total number of atoms is
Provided essentially all atoms are in the condensate (that is, have condensed to the ground state), and
treating the bosons using mean field theory, the energy (E) associated with the state is:
Minimizing this energy with respect to infinitesimal variations in , and holding the number of
atoms constant, yields the Gross–Pitaevski equation (GPE) (also a non-linear Schrödinger equation):
where:
is the mass of the bosons,

is the external potential,
is representative of the inter-particle interactions.
In the case of zero external potential, the dispersion law of interacting Bose–Einstein-condensed
particles is given by so-called Bogoliubov spectrum (for ):
The Gross-Pitaevskii equation (GPE) provides a relatively good description of the behavior of atomic
BEC's. However, GPE does not take into account the temperature dependence of dynamical variables,
and is therefore valid only for . It is not applicable, for example, for the condensates of
excitons, magnons and photons, where the critical temperature is comparable to room temperature.
Numerical Solution
The Gross-Pitaevskii equation is a partial differential equation in space and time variables. Usually it
does not have analytic solution and different numerical methods, such as split-step Crank-Nicolson
[14] and Fourier spectral [15] methods, are used for its solution. There are different Fortran and C
programs for its solution for contact interaction [16][17] and long-range dipolar interaction [18] which
can be freely used.
Weaknesses of Gross–Pitaevskii model

The Gross–Pitaevskii model of BEC is a physical approximation valid for certain classes of BECs. By
construction, the GPE uses the following simplifications: it assumes that interactions between
condensate particles are of the contact two-body type and also neglects anomalous contributions to
self-energy.[19] These assumptions are suitable mostly for the dilute three-dimensional condensates.
If one relaxes any of these assumptions, the equation for the condensate wavefunction acquires the
terms containing higher-order powers of the wavefunction. Moreover, for some physical systems the
amount of such terms turns out to be infinite, therefore, the equation becomes essentially non-
polynomial. The examples where this could happen are the Bose–Fermi composite
condensates,[20][21][22][23] effectively lower-dimensional condensates,[24] and dense condensates and
superfluid clusters and droplets.[25]
Other
However, it is clear that in a general case the behaviour of Bose–Einstein condensate can be described
by coupled evolution equations for condensate density, superfluid velocity and distribution function
of elementary excitations. This problem was in 1977 by Peletminskii et al. in microscopical approach.
The Peletminskii equations are valid for any finite temperatures below the critical point. Years after,
in 1985, Kirkpatrick and Dorfman obtained similar equations using another microscopical approach.
The Peletminskii equations also reproduce Khalatnikov hydrodynamical equations for superfluid as a
limiting case.
Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion

The phenomena of superfluidity of a Bose gas and superconductivity of a strongly-correlated Fermi
gas (a gas of Cooper pairs) are tightly connected to Bose–Einstein condensation. Under
corresponding conditions, below the temperature of phase transition, these phenomena were
observed in helium-4 and different classes of superconductors. In this sense, the superconductivity is
often called the superfluidity of Fermi gas. In the simplest form, the origin of superfluidity can be seen
from the weakly interacting bosons model.
Experimental observation
Superfluid He-4
In 1938, Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener discovered that helium-4 became a new kind of
fluid, now known as a superfluid, at temperatures less than 2.17 K (the lambda point). Superfluid
helium has many unusual properties, including zero viscosity (the ability to flow without dissipating
energy) and the existence of quantized vortices. It was quickly believed that the superfluidity was due
to partial Bose–Einstein condensation of the liquid. In fact, many properties of superfluid helium also
appear in gaseous condensates created by Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle (see below). Superfluid
helium-4 is a liquid rather than a gas, which means that the interactions between the atoms are
relatively strong; the original theory of Bose–Einstein condensation must be heavily modified in order
to describe it. Bose–Einstein condensation remains, however, fundamental to the superfluid
properties of helium-4. Note that helium-3, a fermion, also enters a superfluid phase (at a much lower
temperature) which can be explained by the formation of bosonic Cooper pairs of two atoms (see also
fermionic condensate).
Dilute atomic gases

The first "pure" Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co-workers
at JILA on 5 June 1995. They cooled a dilute vapor of approximately two thousand rubidium-87
atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of laser cooling (a technique that won its inventors Steven
Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William D. Phillips the 1997 Nobel Prize in Physics) and magnetic
evaporative cooling. About four months later, an independent effort led by Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT
condensed sodium-23. Ketterle's condensate had a hundred times more atoms, allowing important
results such as the observation of quantum mechanical interference between two different
condensates. Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle won the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics for their
achievements.[26]
A group led by Randall Hulet at Rice University announced a condensate of lithium atoms only one
month following the JILA work.[27] Lithium has attractive interactions, causing the condensate to be
unstable and collapse for all but a few atoms. Hulet's team subsequently showed the condensate could
be stabilized by confinement quantum pressure for up to about 1000 atoms. Various isotopes have
since been condensed.
Velocity-distribution data graph

In the image accompanying this article, the velocity-distribution data indicates the formation of a
Bose–Einstein condensate out of a gas of rubidium atoms. The false colors indicate the number of
atoms at each velocity, with red being the fewest and white being the most. The areas appearing white
and light blue are at the lowest velocities. The peak is not infinitely narrow because of the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle: spatially confined atoms have a minimum width velocity distribution. This
width is given by the curvature of the magnetic potential in the given direction. More tightly confined
directions have bigger widths in the ballistic velocity distribution. This anisotropy of the peak on the
right is a purely quantum-mechanical effect and does not exist in the thermal distribution on the left.
This graph served as the cover design for the 1999 textbook Thermal Physics by Ralph Baierlein.[28]
Quasiparticles
Bose–Einstein condensation also applies to quasiparticles in solids. Magnons, Excitons, and
Polaritons have integer spin which means they are bosons that can form condensates.[29]
Magnons, electron spin waves, can be controlled by a magnetic field. Densities from the limit of a
dilute gas to a strongly interacting Bose liquid are possible. Magnetic ordering is the analog of
superfluidity. In 1999 condensation was demonstrated in antiferromagnetic TlCuCl3,[30] at
temperatures as great as 14 K. The high transition temperature (relative to atomic gases) is due to the
magnons' small mass (near that of an electron) and greater achievable density. In 2006, condensation
in a ferromagnetic yttrium-iron-garnet thin film was seen even at room temperature,[31][32] with
optical pumping.
Excitons, electron-hole pairs, were predicted to condense at low temperature and high density by
Boer et al., in 1961. Bilayer system experiments first demonstrated condensation in 2003, by Hall
voltage disappearance. Fast optical exciton creation was used to form condensates in sub-kelvin Cu2O
in 2005 on.
Polariton condensation was first detected for exciton-polaritons in a quantum well microcavity kept at
5 K.[33]
Peculiar properties
Vortices
As in many other systems, vortices can exist in BECs. These can be created, for example, by 'stirring'
the condensate with lasers, or rotating the confining trap. The vortex created will be a quantum
vortex. These phenomena are allowed for by the non-linear term in the GPE. As the vortices
must have quantized angular momentum the wavefunction may have the form
where and are as in the cylindrical coordinate system, and is the angular number. This is
particularly likely for an axially symmetric (for instance, harmonic) confining potential, which is
commonly used. The notion is easily generalized. To determine , the energy of must be
minimized, according to the constraint . This is usually done computationally,
however in a uniform medium the analytic form:
, where:
is density far from the vortex,
is healing length of the condensate.

demonstrates the correct behavior, and is a good approximation.
A singly charged vortex ( ) is in the ground state, with its energy given by
where is the farthest distance from the vortices considered.(To obtain an energy which is well
defined it is necessary to include this boundary .)
For multiply charged vortices ( ) the energy is approximated by
which is greater than that of singly charged vortices, indicating that these multiply charged vortices
are unstable to decay. Research has, however, indicated they are metastable states, so may have
relatively long lifetimes.
Closely related to the creation of vortices in BECs is the generation of so-called dark solitons in one-
dimensional BECs. These topological objects feature a phase gradient across their nodal plane, which
stabilizes their shape even in propagation and interaction. Although solitons carry no charge and are
thus prone to decay, relatively long-lived dark solitons have been produced and studied
extensively.[34]
Attractive interactions
Experiments led by Randall Hulet at Rice University from 1995 through 2000 showed that lithium
condensates with attractive interactions could stably exist up to a critical atom number. Quench
cooling the gas, they observed the condensate to grow, then subsequently collapse as the attraction
overwhelmed the zero-point energy of the confining potential, in a burst reminiscent of a supernova,
with an explosion preceded by an implosion.
Further work on attractive condensates was performed in 2000 by the JILA team, of Cornell, Wieman
and coworkers. Their instrumentation now had better control so they used naturally attracting atoms
of rubidium-85 (having negative atom–atom scattering length). Through Feshbach resonance
involving a sweep of the magnetic field causing spin flip collisions, they lowered the characteristic,
discrete energies at which rubidium bonds, making their Rb-85 atoms repulsive and creating a stable
condensate. The reversible flip from attraction to repulsion stems from quantum interference among
wave-like condensate atoms.
When the JILA team raised the magnetic field strength further, the condensate suddenly reverted to
attraction, imploded and shrank beyond detection, then exploded, expelling about two-thirds of its
10,000 atoms. About half of the atoms in the condensate seemed to have disappeared from the
experiment altogether, not seen in the cold remnant or expanding gas cloud.[26] Carl Wieman
explained that under current atomic theory this characteristic of Bose–Einstein condensate could not
be explained because the energy state of an atom near absolute zero should not be enough to cause an
implosion; however, subsequent mean field theories have been proposed to explain it. Most likely they
formed molecules of two rubidium atoms;[35] energy gained by this bond imparts velocity sufficient to
leave the trap without being detected.
The process of creation of molecular Bose condensate during the sweep of the magnetic field
throughout the Feshbach resonance, as well as the reverse process, are described by the exactly
solvable model that can explain many experimental observations.[36]
Current research
Compared to more commonly encountered states of matter, Bose– Unsolved problem in
Einstein condensates are extremely fragile.[37] The slightest physics:
interaction with the external environment can be enough to warm How do we rigorously
them past the condensation threshold, eliminating their prove the existence of
interesting properties and forming a normal gas. Bose–Einstein
condensates for
Nevertheless, they have proven useful in exploring a wide range of general interacting
questions in fundamental physics, and the years since the initial systems?
discoveries by the JILA and MIT groups have seen an increase in (more unsolved problems in
physics)
experimental and theoretical activity. Examples include
experiments that have demonstrated interference between
condensates due to wave–particle duality,[38] the study of superfluidity and quantized vortices, the
creation of bright matter wave solitons from Bose condensates confined to one dimension, and the
slowing of light pulses to very low speeds using electromagnetically induced transparency.[39] Vortices
in Bose–Einstein condensates are also currently the subject of analogue gravity research, studying the
possibility of modeling black holes and their related phenomena in such environments in the
laboratory. Experimenters have also realized "optical lattices", where the interference pattern from
overlapping lasers provides a periodic potential. These have been used to explore the transition
between a superfluid and a Mott insulator,[40] and may be useful in studying Bose–Einstein
condensation in fewer than three dimensions, for example the Tonks–Girardeau gas. Further, the
sensitivity of the pinning transition of strongly interacting bosons confined in a shallow one-
dimensional optical lattice originally observed by Haller[41] has been explored via a tweaking of the
primary optical lattice by a secondary weaker one.[42] Thus for a resulting weak bichromatic optical
lattice, it has been found that the pinning transition is robust against the introduction of the weaker
secondary optical lattice. Studies of vortices in nonuniform Bose–Einstein condensates [43] as well as
excitatons of these systems by the application of moving repulsive or attractive obstacles, have also
been undertaken.[44][45] Within this context, the conditions for order and chaos in the dynamics of a
trapped Bose–Einstein condensate have been explored by the application of moving blue and red-
detuned laser beams via the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation.[46]
Bose–Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of isotopes have been produced.[47]
Cooling fermions to extremely low temperatures has created degenerate gases, subject to the Pauli
exclusion principle. To exhibit Bose–Einstein condensation, the fermions must "pair up" to form
bosonic compound particles (e.g. molecules or Cooper pairs). The first molecular condensates were
created in November 2003 by the groups of Rudolf Grimm at the University of Innsbruck, Deborah S.
Jin at the University of Colorado at Boulder and Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT. Jin quickly went on to
create the first fermionic condensate, working with the same system but outside the molecular
regime.[48]
In 1999, Danish physicist Lene Hau led a team from Harvard University which slowed a beam of light
to about 17 meters per second using a superfluid.[49] Hau and her associates have since made a group
of condensate atoms recoil from a light pulse such that they recorded the light's phase and amplitude,
recovered by a second nearby condensate, in what they term "slow-light-mediated atomic matter-
wave amplification" using Bose–Einstein condensates: details are discussed in Nature.[50]
Another current research interest is the creation of Bose–Einstein condensates in microgravity in

order to use its properties for high precision atom interferometry. The first demonstration of a BEC in
weightlessness was achieved in 2008 at a drop tower in Bremen, Germany by a consortium of
researchers led by Ernst M. Rasel from Leibniz University Hannover.[51] The same team
demonstrated in 2017 the first creation of a Bose–Einstein condensate in space[52] and it is also the
subject of two upcoming experiments on the International Space Station.[53][54]
Researchers in the new field of atomtronics use the properties of Bose–Einstein condensates when
manipulating groups of identical cold atoms using lasers.[55]
In 1970, BECs were proposed by Emmanuel David Tannenbaum for anti-stealth technology.[56]
Dark matter
P. Sikivie and Q. Yang showed that cold dark matter axions form a Bose–Einstein condensate by
thermalisation because of gravitational self-interactions.[57] Axions have not yet been confirmed to
exist. However the important search for them has been greatly enhanced with the completion of
upgrades to the Axion Dark Matter Experiment(ADMX) at the University of Washington in early
2018.
Isotopes
The effect has mainly been observed on alkaline atoms which have nuclear properties particularly
suitable for working with traps. As of 2012, using ultra-low temperatures of or below, Bose–
Einstein condensates had been obtained for a multitude of isotopes, mainly of alkali metal, alkaline
7 23 39 41 85 87 133 52 40 84 86 88
earth metal, and lanthanide atoms ( Li, Na, K, K, Rb, Rb, Cs, Cr, Ca, Sr, Sr, Sr,
174 164 168
Yb, Dy, and Er). Research was finally successful in hydrogen with the aid of the newly
4
developed method of 'evaporative cooling'.[58] In contrast, the superfluid state of He below 2.17 K is
not a good example, because the interaction between the atoms is too strong. Only 8% of atoms are in
the ground state near absolute zero, rather than the 100% of a true condensate.[59]
The bosonic behavior of some of these alkaline gases appears odd at first sight, because their nuclei
have half-integer total spin. It arises from a subtle interplay of electronic and nuclear spins: at ultra-
low temperatures and corresponding excitation energies, the half-integer total spin of the electronic
shell and half-integer total spin of the nucleus are coupled by a very weak hyperfine interaction. The
total spin of the atom, arising from this coupling, is an integer lower value. The chemistry of systems
at room temperature is determined by the electronic properties, which is essentially fermionic, since
room temperature thermal excitations have typical energies much higher than the hyperfine values.
See also
Atom laser Macroscopic quantum phenomena
Atomic coherence Macroscopic quantum self-trapping
Bose–Einstein correlations Slow light
Bose–Einstein condensation: a network Superconductivity
theory approach Superfluid film
Bose–Einstein condensation of quasiparticles Superfluid helium-4
Bose–Einstein statistics Supersolid
Cold Atom Laboratory Tachyon condensation
Electromagnetically induced transparency Timeline of low-temperature technology
Fermionic condensate Super-heavy atom
Gas in a box Ultracold atom
Gross–Pitaevskii equation Wiener sausage
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C. A. Regal; M. Greiner & D. S. Jin (2004). "Observation of Resonance Condensation of

Fermionic Atom Pairs". Phys. Rev. Lett. 92 (4): 040403. arXiv:cond-mat/0401554 (https://arxiv.org/
abs/cond-mat/0401554). Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92d0403R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004
PhRvL..92d0403R). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.040403 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLet
t.92.040403). PMID 14995356 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14995356).
C. J. Pethick and H. Smith, Bose–Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 2001.
Lev P. Pitaevskii and S. Stringari, Bose–Einstein Condensation, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003.
M. Mackie; K. A. Suominen & J. Javanainen (2002). "Mean-field theory of Feshbach-resonant
interactions in 85Rb condensates". Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (18): 180403. arXiv:cond-mat/0205535 (htt
ps://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0205535). Bibcode:2002PhRvL..89r0403M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.
edu/abs/2002PhRvL..89r0403M). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.180403 (https://doi.org/10.1103%2
FPhysRevLett.89.180403). PMID 12398586 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12398586).
Monique Combescot and Shiue-Yuan Shiau, "Excitons and Cooper Pairs: Two Composite Bosons
in Many-Body Physics", Oxford University Press (ISBN 9780198753735).
External links
Bose–Einstein Condensation 2009 Conference (https://web.archive.org/web/20100113160458/htt
p://iqoqi.at/bec2009/) Bose–Einstein Condensation 2009 – Frontiers in Quantum Gases
BEC Homepage (https://web.archive.org/web/20051220142130/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/
2000/bec/index.html) General introduction to Bose–Einstein condensation
Nobel Prize in Physics 2001 (http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2001/index.html) – for the
achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early
fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates
Physics Today: Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose–Einstein Condensates
(http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/magazine/physicstoday/article/54/12/10.1063/1.1445529)
Bose–Einstein condensates at JILA (http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/)
Atomcool at Rice University (http://atomcool.rice.edu/)
Alkali Quantum Gases at MIT (https://web.archive.org/web/20051226061445/http://cua.mit.edu/ke
tterle_group/home.htm)
Atom Optics at UQ (http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/atomoptics/)
Einstein's manuscript on the Bose–Einstein condensate discovered at Leiden University (http://ww
w.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/)
Bose–Einstein condensate on arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=2&index1
=145786)
Bosons – The Birds That Flock and Sing Together (http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/dream/jan2002/
article1.htm)
Easy BEC machine (http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/BEC_for_everyone/) – information on
constructing a Bose–Einstein condensate machine.
Verging on absolute zero – Cosmos Online (http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/online/217
6/verging-absolute-zero)
Lecture by W Ketterle at MIT in 2001 (https://techtv.mit.edu/videos/15968-bose-einstein-condensa
tes-the-coldest-matter-in-the-universe)
Bose–Einstein Condensation at NIST (https://web.archive.org/web/20110709214322/http://bec.nis
t.gov/) – NIST resource on BEC
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1/26/2020 Bose–Einstein condensate - Wikipedia

"condense") into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting

is the critical temperature,

Ideal Bose gas

. It is noticeable that is a monotonically growing function of in ,

So, if the fraction and if the fraction . At temperatures near to

Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas

Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas

particle density, so the total number of atoms is

is the mass of the bosons,

Weaknesses of Gross–Pitaevskii model

Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion

Dilute atomic gases

Velocity-distribution data graph

is density far from the vortex,

is healing length of the condensate.

For multiply charged vortices ( ) the energy is approximated by

Bose–Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of isotopes have been produced.[47]

Another current research interest is the creation of Bose–Einstein condensates in microgravity in

D. S. Jin; J. R. Ensher; M. R. Matthews; C. E. Wieman & E. A. Cornell (1996). "Collective

C. A. Regal; M. Greiner & D. S. Jin (2004). "Observation of Resonance Condensation of

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bose–Einstein_condensate&oldid=936863328"

This page was last edited on 21 January 2020, at 13:36 (UTC).

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