Skull bones

The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones can be further classified by
location:

 Cranial bones. The eight cranial bones form the bulk of your skull. They help to
protect your brain.

There are eight cranial bones, each with a unique shape:

 Frontal bone. This is the flat bone that makes up your forehead. It also
forms the upper portion of your eye sockets.

 Parietal bones. This a pair of flat bones located on either side of your
head, behind the frontal bone.

 Temporal bones. This is a pair of irregular bones located under each of the
parietal bones.

 Occipital bone. This is a flat bone located in the very back of your skull. It
has an opening that allows your spinal cord to connect to your brain.

 Sphenoid bone. This is an irregular bone that sits below the frontal bone. It
spans the width of your skull and forms a large part of the base of your
skull.

 Ethmoid bone. This is an irregular bone located in front of the sphenoid

bone. It makes up part of your nasal cavity.

 Facial bones. There are 14 facial bones. They’re found on the front of the skull
and make up the face.

o Inferior nasal concha (inferior turbinated bone or inferior

turbinal/turbinate) is one of the three paired nasal conchae in the
nose.

o Lacrimal bone is a small and fragile bone of the facial skeleton; it is

roughly the size of the little fingernail.

o Mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest

bone in the human face.It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower
 teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only
movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle
ear).

o Maxilla in animals is the upper fixed bone of the jaw formed from
the fusion of two maxillary bones.

o Nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in
different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and
upper part of the face and by their junction, form the bridge of the
nose.

o Palatine bones are two irregular bones of the facial skeleton in

many animal species. Together with the maxillae they comprise the
hard palate.

o Volmer is one of the unpaired facial bones of the skull. It is located

in the midsagittal line, and articulates with the sphenoid, the
ethmoid, the left and right palatine bones, and the left and right
maxillary bones.

o Zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired irregular

bone which articulates with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the
sphenoid bone and the frontal bone.
Auditory ossicles Ear

The auditory ossicles are six small bones

found within the inner ear canal in the
skull. There are three auditory ossicles on
each side of the head, known as the:

 Malleus (hammer)

o The malleus is the outermost and largest of the three small bones in
the middle ear, and reaches an average length of about eight
millimeters in the typical adult.

 Incus (anvil)

o There are three bones located in the middle ear: the incus, the
malleus and the stapes. Collectively, all three bones comprise the
ossicles.

 Stapes (stirrup)

o Before becoming recognized by the brain, sound waves must enter

via the auditory canal, go through the tympanic membrane
(eardrum), and then enter the middle ear compartment. There,
sound waves vibrate three bones known as the ossicles, which are
made up of the malleus, the incus and the stapes

They work together to transmit sound waves from the surrounding environment
to the structures of the inner ear.

Hyoid

The hyoid is a U-shaped bone found at

the base of the jaw. It serves as a point
of attachment for muscles and
ligaments in the neck.
Vertebral column

The vertebral column is made up 26 bones. The first 24 are all vertebrae,
followed by the sacrum and coccyx (tailbone).

The 24 vertebrae can be further divided into the:

 Cervical vertebrae. These seven bones are found in the head and neck.
 C1 Vertebra (the atlas).
The top vertebra, called
the atlas, is the only
cervical vertebra to not
have a vertebral body.
Instead, it is shaped
more like a ring. The
atlas connects to the
occipital bone above
to support the base of
the skull.
This connection is the
atlanto-occipital joint.
About 50% of the
head’s
forward/backward
range of motion occurs at this joint.
 C2 Vertebra (the axis). The second vertebra, called the axis, has a large bony
protrusion (the odontoid process) that points up from its vertebral body, and
fits into the ring-shaped atlas above it. The atlas is able to rotate around the
axis, forming the atlanto-axial joint.
 C3 Vertebral body. This is a cylindrical-shaped, thick part at the front of the
bony vertebra. When vertebrae are stacked on top of each other, the disc in
between them at each level provides cushioning between the bony
vertebrae and helps absorb shocks. The vertebral body handles most of the
load for a vertebra.
 C4 Vertebral arch. This bony arch wraps around the spinal cord toward the
back and consists of two pedicles and two laminae. The pedicles connect
with the vertebral body in the front, and the laminae transition into the
spinous process in the back of the vertebra.
 C5 Facet joints. Each vertebra has a pair of facet joints, also known as
Zygapophysial joints, or Z joints for short. These joints, located between the
pedicle and lamina on each side of the vertebral arch, are lined with smooth
cartilage to enable limited movement between two vertebrae. The small
ranges of motion between the two vertebrae can add up to significant
ranges of motion for the entire cervical spine in terms of rotation,
forward/backward, and side bending.
 C6 & 7 vertebra prominens, is considered a unique vertebra and usually has
the most prominent spinous process.
 Thoracic vertebrae. These 12 bones are found in the upper back.

 First thoracic vertebra (T1)

 The first thoracic vertebra has, on either side of the body, an entire
articular facet for the head of the first rib, and a demi-facet for the upper
half of the head of the second rib.
 Second thoracic vertebra (T2)
 The thoracic spinal nerve 2 (T2) passes out underneath it. The second
thoracic vertebra is larger than the first thoracic vertebra
 Third thoracic vertebra (T3)
 The thoracic spinal nerve 3
(T3) passes out underneath
it.
 Fourth thoracic vertebra
(T4)
 The fourth thoracic
vertebra, together with the
fifth, is at the same level as
the sternal angle.
 The thoracic spinal nerve 4
(T4) passes out underneath
it.

 Fifth thoracic vertebra (T5)

 The fifth thoracic vertebra, together with the fourth, is at the same level as
the sternal angle. The human trachea divides into two main bronchi at the
level of the 5th thoracic vertebra, but may also end higher or lower,
depending on breathing.
 The thoracic spinal nerve 5 (T5) passes out underneath it.
 Sixth thoracic vertebra (T6)[edit]
 The thoracic spinal nerve 6 (T6) passes out underneath it.

 Seventh thoracic vertebra (T7)

 The thoracic spinal nerve 7 (T7) passes out underneath it.

 Eighth thoracic vertebra (T8)

 The eighth thoracic vertebra is, together with the ninth thoracic vertebra,
at the same level as the xiphisternum.

 The thoracic spinal nerve 8 (T8) passes out underneath it.

 Ninth thoracic vertebra (T9)

 The ninth thoracic vertebra may have no demi-facets below. In some
subjects however, it has two demi-facets on either side; when this occurs
the tenth doesn't have facets but demi-facets at the upper part.

 The thoracic spinal nerve 9 (T9) passes out underneath it.

 The xiphisternum (or xiphoid process of the sternum) is at the same level in
the axial plane.

 Tenth thoracic vertebra (T10)

 The tenth thoracic vertebra has an entire articular facet (not demi-facet)
on either side, which is placed partly on the lateral surface of the pedicle.
It doesn't have any kind of facet below, because the following ribs only
have one facet on their heads.

 The thoracic spinal nerve 10 (T10) passes out underneath it.

 Eleventh thoracic vertebra (T11)

 In the eleventh thoracic vertebra the body approaches in its form and size
to that of the lumbar vertebrae.

 The articular facets for the heads of the ribs are of large size, and placed
chiefly on the pedicles, which are thicker and stronger in this and the next
vertebra than in any other part of the thoracic region.

 The spinous process is short, and nearly horizontal in direction.

 The transverse processes are very short, tuberculated at their extremities,
and do not have articular facets.

 The thoracic spinal nerve 11 (T11) passes out underneath it.

 Twelfth thoracic vertebra (T12)

 The twelfth thoracic vertebra has the same general characteristics as the
eleventh, but may be distinguished from it by its inferior articular surfaces
being convex and directed lateralward, like those of the lumbar
vertebrae; by the general form of the body, laminae, and spinous
process, in which it resembles the lumbar vertebrae; and by each
transverse process being subdivided into three elevations, the superior,
inferior, and lateral tubercles: the superior and inferior correspond to the
mammillary and accessory processes of the lumbar vertebrae. Traces of
similar elevations are found on the transverse processes of the tenth and
eleventh thoracic vertebrae.

 The thoracic spinal nerve 12 (T12) passes out underneath it

 Lumbar vertebrae. These five bones are found in the lower back.

o L1 is the 1st lumbar vertebra is the smallest and most superior of the
lumbar vertebrae.

o L2 vertebra is the second

uppermost of the five (5)
lumbar vertebrae toward the
lower end of the spinal
column, within the lower
back.

o The L3 vertebra is in the

middle of the five (5) lumbar
vertebrae in the lower back
portion of the spinal column.

o The fourth lumbar spine vertebra (L4) is located towards the bottom
of the lumbar section, near the sacral vertebrae at the bottom of
the spine.

o L5 vertebra is the largest and most inferior of the lumbar vertebrae.

The sacrum and coccyx are both

made up of several fused vertebrae.
They help support the weight of the
body while sitting. They also serve as
attachment point for various ligaments.
Thoracic cage

The thoracic cage is made up of the

sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs
of ribs. These bones form a
protective cage around the organs
of the upper torso, including the
heart and lungs.

Some of the ribs attach directly to

the sternum, while others are linked
to the sternum via cartilage. Some
have no attachment point and are
referred to as “floating ribs.”

Appendicular skeleton anatomy

There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular skeleton. It consists of the
bones that make up the arms and legs, as well as the bones that attach them to
the axial skeleton.

Pectoral girdle

The pectoral girdle is where the

arms attach to the axial skeleton.
It’s made up of the clavicle
(collarbone) and scapula (shoulder
blade). There are two of each of
these — one for each arm.
Upper limbs

Each arm contains 30 bones, known as the:

 Humerus. The humerus is the long

bone of the upper arm.

 Radius. The radius is one of two long

bones of the forearm, found on the
thumb side.

 Ulna. The ulna is the second long

bone of the forearm, found on the
pinky finger side.

 Carpals. The carpals are a group of

eight bones found in the wrist area.

 Metacarpals. The metacarpals are

five bones found in the middle area
of the hand.

 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14

bones that make up the fingers.

Pelvic girdle

The pelvic girdle, commonly known as the hips, is where the legs attach to the
axial skeleton. It’s made up of two hipbones — one for each leg.

Each hip bone consists of three parts, known as the:

 Ilium. The ilium is the top portion of each

hip bone.

 Ischium. The ischium is a curved bone that

makes up the base of each hip bone.

 Pubis. The pubis is located in the front part

of the hip bone.
Lower limbs

Each leg is composed of 30 bones, known as the:

 Femur. The femur is the large bone

of the upper leg.

 Patella. The patella is also called

the kneecap.

 Tibia. The tibia is the main bone of

the lower leg. It forms the shin.

 Fibula. The fibula is the second

bone in the lower leg, found in the
outer leg.

 Tarsals. The tarsals are the seven

bones that make up the ankle.

 Metatarsal. The metatarsals are the

five bones that make up the middle
area of the foot.

 Phalanges. The phalanges are 14

bones that comprise the toes.
 St. Catherine’s College
Higher Education Department

6019 Carcar City, Cebu

Submitted By:

Alo, Earl Matthew P.

Submitted To:

Ms. Roanne P. Aliser