Instrumentation Diploma

● Concept of Process Control

● Pressure Measurements
● Level Measurements
● Flow Measurements
● Temperature Measurements
● Control Valves
● Distributed Control System (DCS) 2
Concept of Process Control

Moataz Sherif
Senior Instrumentation and Control Engineer
Concept of Process Control
● Introduction
● Process Control Definition
● Basic Elements of Control Loop
● Open Loop and Closed Loop Control
● Closed Loop Control Modes
● Sensors and Transducers
● Standard Instrument Signals
● Smart Transmitters
4
Introduction

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Industrial Instrumentation
● Instrumentation is the science of automated
measurement and control.
● The first step, naturally, is measurement. If we can’t
measure something, it is really pointless to try to
control it.

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Industrial Instrumentation
● Once we measure the quantity we are interested in, we
usually transmit a signal representing this quantity to an
indicating or computing device where either human or
automated action then takes place.

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Industrial Instrumentation
● If the controlling action is automated, the computer sends
a signal to a final controlling device which then influences
the quantity being measured.

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Control System
● A system which responds to input
signals from the process and/or
from an operator and generates
output signals causing the process
to operate in the desired manner.
● The control system include
○ Input devices
○ Controller
○ Final elements
Definition from IEC 61511-1
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Control System
Control system choice depends on

● Purpose.
● Equipment Under Control (EUC).
● Scale.
● Available technology.
● Cost.
● Technical support. 10
Control System
Control system can be Control system can used as a

● Pneumatic ● Basic Process Control

● Electric System
● Electronic ● Safety Instrumented
● Programmable System
Electronic ● Combined BPCS-SIS
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Basic Process Control System
● Basic Process Control System (BPCS) is a system which
responds to input signals from the process, its associated
equipment, other programmable systems and/or an
operator and generates output signals causing the process
and its associated equipment to operate in the desired
manner but which does not perform any safety
instrumented functions with a claimed SIL ≥ 1 12
Pneumatic Control System

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Programmable Logic Control (PLC)

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Turbo machinery Control System

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Boiler Control System

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Safety Instrumented System
SIS takes some other names

● Trip and Alarm system

● Emergency Shutdown System (ESD)
● Safety Shutdown System
● Safety Interlock System
● Safety Related Control System
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BPCS vs. SIS
● SIS is a protection layer located to prevent the Hazards
from occurring.

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Safety Instrumented System
The system consists of

● Sensors
● Logic Solver
● Final control element

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Process Control Definition

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Process Control Definition
● A process is broadly defined as an operation that uses
resources to transform inputs into outputs.
● It is the resource that provides the energy into the process for
the transformation to occur.

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Process Control Definition
● Each process exhibits a particular dynamic (time varying)
behavior that governs the transformation.
● That is, how do changes in the resource or inputs over time
affect the transformation.
● This dynamic behavior is determined by the physical
properties of the inputs, the resource, and the process itself.

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Process Control Definition

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Terminology:
● The manipulated variable (MV) is a measure of resource being
fed into the process, for instance how much thermal energy.
● A final control element (FCE) is the device that changes the
value of the manipulated variable.
● The controller output (CO) is the signal from the controller to
the final control element.

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Terminology:
● The process variable (PV) is a measure of the process output
that changes in response to changes in the manipulated variable.
● The set point (SP) is the value at which we wish to maintain the
process variable at.

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Process Control Definition
● Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to
change the manipulated variable to maintain the process variable
at a desired set point.
● A corollary to our definition of process control is a controllable
process must behave in a predictable manner.
● For a given change in the manipulated variable, the process
variable must respond in a predictable and consistent manner.
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Basic Elements of Control Loop

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Basic Elements of Process Control
● Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic
elements:
○ the process itself
○ the sensor that measures the process value
○ the final control element that changes the manipulated
variable
○ the controller. 28
Basic Elements of Process Control
● Input devices used to see what’s going on in the process

● Control Systems make decisions based on process inputs,

operator inputs, and control software

● Output devices control the process

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Basic Elements of Process Control

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Basic Elements of Process Control

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Open Loop and Closed Loop
Control

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Open Loop Control
● The open-loop control is where output variable does not have
any influence on the input variable.
● In open loop control the controller output is not a function
of the process variable.

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Open Loop Control

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Open Loop Control
● the controller output is fixed at a value until it is changed by an
operator.
● Many processes are stable in an open loop control mode and will
maintain the process variable at a value in the absence of a
disturbances.
● Disturbances are uncontrolled changes in the process inputs or
resources.
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Example for Open Loop Control

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Example for Open Loop Control
● A system consists of the "valve" with the output variable
"volumetric flow" and the input variable "control valve setting".
● This system can be controlled by adjusting the control valve. This
allows the desired volumetric flow to be set.
● if the applied pressure fluctuates, the volumetric flow will also
fluctuate.
● In this open system, adjustment must be made manually.
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Example for Open Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control
● process where the controlled variable is continuously
monitored and compared with the reference variable.
● Depending on the result of this comparison, the input
variable for the system is influenced to adjust the output
variable to the desired value despite any disturbing
influences.

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Closed Loop Control
● Closed loop control is also called feedback or regulatory control.
● The output of a closed loop controller is a function of the error.
● Error is the deviation of the process variable from the set point
and is defined as

E = SP - PV

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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control
● The controller now passes a signal to the manipulating element
dependent on the deviation.
● If there is a large negative deviation, that is the measured value of
the volumetric flow is greater than the desired value the valve is
closed further.
● If there is a large positive deviation, that is the measured value is
smaller than the desired value, the valve is opened further.
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Example for Closed Loop Control

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Closed Loop Control
● Setting of the output variable is normally not ideal:
○ If the intervention is too fast and too great, influence at the
input end of the system is too large. This results in great
fluctuations at the output.
○ If influence is slow and small, the output variable will only
approximate to the desired value.

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Closed Loop Control Modes

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Closed Loop Control Modes
● Closed loop control can be, depending on the algorithm that determines
the controller output:
■ Manual
■ On-Off
■ PID
■ Advanced PID (ratio, cascade, feedforward)
■ or Model Based

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Manual Control Mode
● In manual control an operator directly manipulates the
controller output to the final control element to maintain a
desired setpoint.
● Used in abnormal conditions when maintenance is required
for measuring instruments.

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Manual Control Mode

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On-Off Control Mode
● provides a controller output of on or off in response to error.

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On-Off Control Mode
● Upon changing the direction of the controller output, deadband is
the value that must be traversed before the controller output will
change its direction again.

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On-Off Control Mode

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PID Control Mode
● provides output that changes from 0 to 100% in response to error.

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PID Algorithm
● A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a
common feedback loop component in industrial control systems.

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PID Algorithm
● The PID can adjust process outputs based on the history and rate
of change of the error signal, which gives more accurate and stable
control.
● PID controllers can be easily adjusted (or "tuned") to the desired
application.

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PID Algorithm
● Kp: Proportional Gain - Larger Kp typically means faster response
since the larger the error, the larger the feedback to compensate.
● Ki: Integral Gain - Larger Ki implies steady state errors are
eliminated quicker..
● Kd: Derivative Gain - Larger Kd decreases overshoot, but slows
down transient response.

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PID Algorithm
1- Proportional:

● To handle the immediate error, the error is multiplied by a

constant Kp (for proportional), and added to the controlled
quantity.
● Kp is only valid in the band over which a controller's output is
proportional to the error of the system.

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PID Algorithm
2- Integral:

● To learn from the past, the error is integrated (added up) over a
period of time, and then multiplied by a constant KI (making an
average), and added to the controlled quantity.

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PID Algorithm
3- Derivative:

● To handle the future, the first derivative (the slope of the error)
over time is calculated, and multiplied by another constant KD, and
also added to the controlled quantity.

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PID Interacting Algorithm

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PID Interacting Algorithm
● The series or "interacting" form, where the output of each part of
the controller is used as the input for another part, so that separate
P, D and I controllers are connected together in series.
● This is effectively how older pneumatic and analog electronic
controllers worked. It is the more restricted form of the two.

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PID Non-interacting Algorithm

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PID Non-interacting Algorithm
● The parallel or "non-interacting" form, where the P, I and D parts
of the controller are all given the same error input in parallel and
their output is added together.
● This allows independent adjustment of the proportional, integral
and derivative constants.

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PID response graph

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PID response graph – single-step change

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Cascade Control Mode
● Cascade control uses the output of a primary (master or outer)
controller to manipulate the set point of a secondary (slave or
inner) controller as if the slave controller were the final control
element.

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Cascade Control Mode

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Cascade Control Mode
● The purpose of cascade control is to achieve greater stability of the
primary process variable by regulating a secondary process variable
in accordance with the needs of the first.
● An essential requirement of cascaded control is that the secondary
process variable be faster-responding than the primary process
variable.

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1
● heated air is used to evaporate water from a granular solid.
● The primary process variable is the outlet air exiting the dryer,
which should be maintained at a high enough temperature
● This outlet temperature is fairly slow to react, as the solid material
mass creates a large lag time.

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1
● There are several parameters influencing the temperature of the
outlet air.
● These include air flow, ambient air temperature, and variations in
steam temperature.
● If any of these parameters were to suddenly change, the effect
would be slow to register at the outlet temperature
● Correspondingly, the control system would be slow to correct for
any of these changing loads. 70
Cascade Control Mode - Example 1

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 1
● Installing a second temperature transmitter at the inlet duct of the dryer,
with its own controller to adjust steam flow at the command of the
primary controller will be a great solution.
● Now, if any of the loads related to incoming air flow or temperature vary,
the secondary controller (TC-1b) will immediately sense the change in
dryer inlet temperature and compensate by adjusting steam flow through
the heat exchanger. Thus, the “slave” control loop (1b) helps stabilize the
“master” control loop (1a) by reacting to load changes long before any
effect might manifest at the dryer outlet.

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 2

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 2
● The “secondary” or “slave” flow controller works to maintain
feedwater flow to the boiler at whatever flow rate is desired by the
level controller. If feedwater pressure happens to increase or
decrease, any resulting changes in flow will be quickly countered
by the flow controller without the level controller having to react
to a consequent upset in steam drum water level.

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Cascade Control Mode - Example 2
● Thus, cascade control works to guard against steam drum level
instability resulting from changes in the feedwater flow caused by
factors outside the boiler.
● As stated previously, the slave (flow) controller effectively shields
the master (level) controller from loads in the feedwater supply
system, so that master controller doesn’t have to deal with those
loads.
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Feedforward control
● It is based on that if all significant loads on a process variable
are monitored, and their effects on that process variable are
well-understood.
● A control system programmed to take appropriate action
based on load changes will shield the process variable from
any ill effect.

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Feedforward control
● The feedforward control system uses data from load sensors
to predict when an upset is about to occur, then feeds that
information forward to the final control element to
counteract the load change before it has an opportunity to
affect the process variable.

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Feedforward control

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Feedforward control
● Feedback control systems are reactive, taking action after to
changes in the process variable occur.
● Feedforward control systems are proactive, taking action
before changes to the process variable can occur.

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Feedforward control

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Feedforward control
● We have a liquid level control system on an open tank, where three
different fluid ingredients are mixed to produce a final product.
● A level transmitter (LT) measures liquid level, while a level controller
(LC) compares this level to a Setpoint value, and outputs a signal calling
for a certain amount of discharge flow.
● A cascaded (slave) flow controller (FC) senses outgoing flow via a flow
transmitter (FT) and works to maintain whatever rate of flow is “asked”
for by the level controller.
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Feedforward control
● The level control system acts to keep liquid level constant in the vessel,
ensuring adequate mixing of the three ingredients.
● Being a feedback level control system, it adjusts the discharge flow rate in
response to measured changes in liquid level. Like all feedback control
systems, this one is reactive in nature: it can only take corrective action
after a deviation between process variable (level) and Setpoint is detected.

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Feedforward control

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Feedforward control
● Let us now change the control system strategy from feedback to
feedforward. It is clear what the loads are in this process: the three
ingredient flows entering the vessel. If we measure and sum these three
flow rates, then use the total incoming flow signal as a setpoint for the
discharge flow controller, the outlet flow should (ideally) match the inlet
flow, resulting in a constant liquid level.
● Being a purely feedforward control system, there is no level transmitter
(LT) any more, just flow transmitters measuring the three loads.
84
Feedforward control
● If all flow transmitter calibrations are perfect, the summing of flow rates
flawless, and the flow controller’s tuning robust, this level control system
should control liquid level in the vessel by proactive effort (“thinking
ahead”) rather than reactive effort (“after the fact”).
● Any change in the flow rate of ingredients A, B, and/or C is quickly
matched by an equal adjustment to the discharge flow rate. So long as
total volumetric flow out of the vessel is held equal to total volumetric
flow into the vessel, the liquid level inside the vessel cannot change
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Feedforward control
● In reality, this pure feedforward control system is impractical even if all
instrument calibrations and control calculations are perfect. There are still
loads unaccounted for: evaporation of liquid from the vessel, for example,
or the occasional pipe fitting leak.
● Furthermore, since the control system has no “knowledge” of the actual
liquid level, it cannot make adjustments to that level

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Feedforward control
● If an operator, for instance, desired to decrease the liquid level he or she
would have to manually drain liquid out of the vessel, or temporarily
place the discharge flow controller in “manual” mode and increase the
flow there (then place back into “cascade” mode where it follows the
remote setpoint signal again).
● The advantage of proactive control and minimum deviation from setpoint
over time comes at a fairly high price of impracticality and inconvenience.

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Feedforward control

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Feedforward control
● For these reasons, feedforward control is most often found in conjunction
with feedback control.
● To show how this would work in the liquid level control system, we will
incorporate a level transmitter and level controller back into the system,
the output of that level controller being summed with the feedforward
flow signal (by the LY summing relay) before going to the cascaded
setpoint input of the discharge flow controller.

89
Feedforward control
● This hybrid control strategy is sometimes called feedforward with trim. In
this context, “trim” refers to the level controller’s (LC) output signal
contributing to the discharge flow setpoint, helping to compensate for
any unaccounted loads (evaporation, leaks) and provide for level setpoint
changes.
● This “trim” signal should do very little of the control work in this system,
the bulk of the liquid level stability coming from the feedforward signals
provided by the incoming flow transmitters.
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Feedforward control

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Feedforward control
● A very similar control strategy commonly used on large steam boilers for
the precise control of steam drum water level.
● Such a control system is called “three-element” because it makes use of
three process measurements:
○ Feed water flow rate
○ Steam drum water level
○ Steam flow rate

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Feedforward control
● Feedwater flow is controlled by a dedicated flow controller
(FIC), receiving a remote Setpoint signal from a summing
relay (LY).
● The summer receives two inputs: a steam flow signal and the
output signal (trim) from the level controller (LIC).

93
Feedforward control
● The feedforward portion of this system (steam flow feeding forward to
water flow) is intended to match the mass flow rates of water into the
boiler with steam flow out of the boiler.
● If steam demand suddenly increases, this feedforward portion of the
system immediately calls for a matching increase in water flow into the
boiler, since every molecule of steam exiting the boiler must come from
one molecule of water entering the boiler.

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Feedforward control
● The level controller and transmitter act as a feedback control
loop, supplementing the feedforward signal to the cascaded
water flow controller to make up for (“trim”) any
shortcomings of the feedforward loop.

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Sensors and Transducers

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Sensors and Transducers
● A sensor is a device that has a characteristic that changes in a
predictable way when exposed to the stimulus it was designed to
detect.
● A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another.

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Sensors and Transducers
● Industrial process control rely on the control of many process physical
quantities that are very important to measure accurately. The basic
quantities are:
○ Temperature
○ Pressure
○ Level
○ Flow
● There are many other important quantities like Vibration, speed and
analyzers. 98
Standard Instrument Signals

99
Standard Instrument Signals
● Standard instrument signals for controllers to accept as
inputs from instrumentation and outputs to final control
elements are:
● pneumatic
● current loop
● 0 to 10 volt

100
Pneumatic Signals
3 to 15 psig

● Before 1960, pneumatic signals were used almost exclusively to

transmit measurement and control information.
● Today, it is still common to find 3 to 15 psig used as the final signal
to a modulating valve.
● Most often an I/P (I to P) transducer is used.
● This converts a 4-20 mA signal (I) into a pressure signal (P).
101
Current Loop
4-20 milliamp

● Current loops are the signal workhorses in our processes.

● A DC milliamp current is transmitted through a pair of wires from
a sensor to a controller or from a controller to its final control
element.
● Current loops are used because of their immunity to noise and the
distances that the signal can be transmitted.
102
Current Loop
Output Scaling

● Scale outputs for a one-to-one correspondence.

● Controller output is configured for 0% to correspond to a 4mA
signal and 100% to correspond to a 20mA signal.
● The final control element is calibrated so that 4mA corresponds to
its 0% position or speed and 20mA corresponds to its 100%
position or speed.
103
Current Loop
Input Scaling

● Scale inputs for a one-to-one correspondence as well.

● Example:
● If we were using a pressure transducer with a required operating range of 0 psig
to 100 psig we would calibrate the instrument such that 0 psig would correspond
to 4mA output and 100 psig would correspond to a 20mA output.
● At the controller we would configure the input such that 4mA would correspond
to an internal value of 0 psig and 10mA would correspond to an internal value of
100 psig. 104
0 to 10 Volt
● 0 to 10 volt is not commonly used in control systems because this

signal is susceptible to induced noise and the distance of the

instrument or final control element is limited due to voltage drop.

● You may find 0-10 volt signals used in control systems providing

the speed reference to variable speed drives.

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Smart Transmitters

106
Smart Transmitters

107
Field Communicator

108
What is PACTware?
● PACTware is a manufacturer and
fieldbus-independent software for
operating field instruments.
● PACTware enables open,
comprehensive adjustment of
different field instruments via any
bus system.
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USB HART Interface
● HART compliant for
communication with any HART
field device
● Integrated connector cable
terminates in 2 test clips and 1
USB connector cable

110
USB HART Interface

111
Smart Transmitters
● A smart transmitter is a digital device that converts the analog information from a
sensor into digital information, allowing the device to simultaneously send and
receive information and transmit more than a single value.
● Smart transmitters, in general, have the following common features:
○ Digital Communications
○ Configuration
○ Re-Ranging
○ Signal Conditioning
○ Self-Diagnosis
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Smart Transmitters

113
Smart Transmitters
● Smart transmitters are capable of digital communications with both a
configuration device and a process controller.
● Digital communications have the advantage of being free of bit errors, the
ability to multiple process values and diagnostic information, and the
ability to receive commands.
● Some smart transmitters use a shared channel for analog and digital data
(HART or Modbus over 4-20mA). Others use a dedicated
communication bus (Profibus, Foundation Fieldbus, DeviceNet,
Ethernet). 114
Smart Transmitters
Digital communication with Smart Transmitters

● The most common digital communication protocols is HART protocol,

which stands for Highway Addressable Remote Transducer.
● A HART transmitter contains both a conventional analogue mA signal
and a digital signal superimposed on top of the analogue signal. Since it
also has the analogue signal, it is compatible with conventional
installations. Field bus and Profibus contain only a digital output, with no
analogue signal.
115
Smart Transmitters
● Most smart instruments wired to multi-channel input cards require
isolated inputs for the digital communications to work.

Configuration

● Smart transmitters can be configured with a handheld terminal

and store the configuration settings in non-volatile memory.

116
Smart Transmitters
Signal Conditioning

● Smart transmitters can perform noise filtering and can provide

different signal characterizations.

Self-Diagnosis

● Smart transmitters also have self-diagnostic capability and can

report malfunctions that may indicate erroneous process values.
117
Smart Transmitters
Calibration versus re-ranging
● To calibrate an instrument means to check and adjust (if necessary) its
response so the output accurately corresponds to its input throughout a
specified range. The instrument has to be exposed to an actual input
stimulus of precisely known quantity.
● For a pressure gauge, indicator, or transmitter, this would mean
subjecting the pressure instrument to known fluid pressures and
comparing the instrument response against those known pressure
quantities. 118
Smart Transmitters
Calibration versus re-ranging
● To range an instrument means to set the lower and upper range
values so it responds with the desired sensitivity to changes in
input.
● For example, a pressure transmitter set to a range of 0 to 200 PSI
(0 PSI = 4 mA output ; 200 PSI = 20 mA output) could be
re-ranged to respond on a scale of 0 to 150 PSI (0 PSI = 4 mA ; 150
PSI = 20 mA).
119
Smart Transmitters
Calibration versus re-ranging
● In analog instruments, re-ranging could only be accomplished by
re-calibration, since the same adjustments were used to achieve
both purposes.
● In digital instruments, calibration and ranging are typically
separate adjustments (i.e. it is possible to re-range a digital
transmitter without having to perform a complete recalibration)
120
Smart Transmitters
What Instrument Properties Affect a Process:

● The instrument’s range and span.

● The resolution of the measurement.

● The instrument’s accuracy and precision.

● The instrument’s dynamics

121
Smart Transmitters
Range and Span
● The range of a sensor is the lowest and highest values it can measure
within its specification.
● The span of a sensor is the high end of the Range minus the low end of
the Range.
● Match Range to Expected Conditions
● Instruments should be selected with a range that includes all values a
process will normally encounter, including expected disturbances and
possible failures.
122
Smart Transmitters
● Resolution is the smallest amount of input signal change that the
instrument can detect reliably.
● Accuracy of a measurement describes how close the measurement
approaches the true value of the process variable.
● Precision is the reproducibility with which repeated measurements
can be made under identical conditions.
● This may be referred to as drift.
123
Smart Transmitters
Accuracy vs. Precision

124
Smart Transmitters
● The sensitivity of a sensor is the ratio of the output signal to the

change in process variable.

● The dead time of an instrument is the time it takes for an

instrument to start reacting to process change.

125
Smart Transmitters
Instrumentation Dynamics: Time Constant
● As for processes, one time constant for an instrument is the time it
takes to provide a signal that represents 63.2% of the value of
variable it is measuring after a step change in the variable.
● Instrument manufacturers may sometimes specify the rise time
instead of the time constant.

126
Smart Transmitters
Instrumentation Dynamics: Rise Time
● Rise time is the time it takes for an instrument to provide a signal
that represents 100% of the value of the variable it is measuring
after a step change in the variable.
● The rise time of an instrument is equal to 5 time constants.

127