THAILAND CUSTOMS & TRADITIONS

Culture
Thailand lies between Cambodia, Myanmar, and Laos, with the Gulf of Thailand to its south. Its
culture mixes strong Indian influences, Chinese traditions, and elements that are uniquely Thai.
With its diverse geography, friendly people, and stunning scenery, the “Land of a Thousand
Smiles” is a must-see destination in South East Asia.
Thailand is the 50th largest country in the world with an area roughly equal to that of
France. With rugged mountains in the north and world-famous tropical beaches in the south, it is
a land of pristine beauty.
Thailand is separated into four distinct regions. Despite the overarching strength and unity of
Thai culture, each region has its own unique cultural and geographic features.
Northern Thailand shares its border with Myanmar and Laos. This region is mountainous and
filled with thick forests and river valleys. Its culture is heavily influenced by Burmese culture
and it carries strong influences from the historical Lanna kingdom.
Northeastern Thailand, also known as Isan, is largely isolated from the rest of Thailand by a
large mountain range. A Lao-speaking majority, as well as a primarily agricultural society,
characterize this culturally distinct region.
Southern Thailand, located on the Malay peninsula, is home to many of Thailand’s pristine
beaches and resorts. With a more tropical climate, this narrow land mass is home to a many
fishing communities.
It is the region of Central Thailand that is predominant, though. This region is the seat of
Thailand’s modern-day capital city, Bangkok. With its fertile plains, it has also long been the
economic center of the country, producing the majority of Thailand’s rice. Central Thailand is
also the area that has the greatest population density, and the greatest concentration of the ethnic
Thai majority. It is the political, economic, and cultural center of Thailand.

Cultural Identity
Much of Thailand’s culture comes from the ethnic Thai people. One of the most important
influences on Thai culture has been Buddhism. Many of the traditions and beliefs of the people
in Thailand stem directly from Buddhist principles. Hinduism has also made important
contributions to Thai culture, and the close links between Thailand and India can be seen in art,
literature, and in many Thai customs. The cultures of nearby Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, and
China have also played an important role in forming the traditions of Thailand, as have
indigenous belief systems such as Animism.
Of Thailand’s nearly 70 million people, roughly two thirds are from Thai ethnic groups.
Although the ethnic Thai people can be divided into dozens of different subgroups, their
traditions, languages, and cultures differ only slightly. This leads to a population with a strong
sense of shared traditions and cultural identity.
The remaining third of the population is made up primarily of Chinese, as well as various
minorities including Vietnamese, Khmer, Hmong, and Mein. Even among these diverse ethnic
groups, the Thai language is widely spoken and understood, and the Thai script is often used in
place of traditional writing styles.
Since the 1950s, Thailand’s government has made efforts to preserve and strengthen the sense of
national culture and national identity. During the 1980s and 1990s, however, Thailand saw a
resurgence in local culture and traditions. Although there is still a strong national identity, local
food, dances, music, celebrations, and beliefs have begun to play a more important role in Thai
life.

Values
Thai culture is deeply influenced by religion. With around 95% of the country being Theraveda
Buddhist, the belief system and values of Buddhism play a huge role in day-to-day life.
Throughout the country, the most important values that Thai people hold to are respect, self-
control, and a non-confrontational attitude. Losing face by showing anger or by telling a lie is a
source of great shame for Thai people.
In general, displays of emotion in public are viewed in a very negative light. No matter how
frustrated or upset a person might feel, he or she will always strive to maintain a positive and
friendly attitude, a sense of humor, and a smile.
Respect for elders and for those in higher social positions is also important. Hierarchies of social
status characterize nearly every interaction. Children are expected to respect their parents and
teachers. The young must show deference to the elderly. Those with highly prestigious positions
in society, such as doctors, important public figures, and monks are almost revered.
Family is central to Thai life. Although many newly-married couples will set up their own
households, it is not uncommon for extended family to live with them. Often, grandparents,
cousins, aunts, and uncles will all live in the same household and help to raise children and
provide for the family. Children are expected to show great respect for their parents, and they
maintain close ties, even well into adulthood.
Although Thailand’s family life and society has been traditionally male-dominated, women are
granted considerable respect. Recent laws and legislation have allowed women more freedom to
move out of traditional roles and into professions such as politics, medicine, and business.
Respect and equal rights for women has, in recent decades, become an important part of
Thailand’s law and values.
Another concept that is very important in Thai culture is sanuk. Sanuk is a wide-reaching idea
that embodies the playfulness and sense of humor that is so central to life in Thailand. It could
refer to a spontaneous and joyful meeting with someone on the street, or a humorous pun made at
just the right moment. The sense of humor and joie de vivre captured in sanuk is central to the
Thai way of life.
 SAWATDEE…..HELLO BEAUTIFUL BANGKOK
by Ethel Soliven-Timbol

Bangkok known as Krun Thep, which is Thai for "City of Angels," beckons with its golden
roofed temples and spicily curried cuisine. Seven million visitors come to Thailand each year
spending an average of six to seven days because there is so much to see and to relish in this
"Exotic Orient" as one enamored traveller dubbed the country.
Our agenda for the first day of our tour started with a tour of Wat Po. One of the 370 temples in
Bangkok alone, it is home to the famous Reclining Buddha, which is said to be 46 meters long.
Also world–famous are the golden Buddha at the Wat Trinig ("wat" being Thai for "temple") and
the dazzling Emerald Buddha. There are 2100 temples in all of Thailand, where 90 percent of the
people are Buddhists.
Our loquacious guide regales us with the colorful history of Bangkok and how it became the
imperial city 300 years ago, when the god-king Rama I moved the royal residence to this side of
the Chao Phraya River. Today, a boat excursion takes visitors on a tour of the old city, winding
down the "klong" canals for a glimpse of the water dwellers and the ancient edifices, remnants of
an era when Rama I divided his city into three sections: for the Thais, the Chinese and the
Indians. The best buys of Thai silks, spices and crafts are still at the riverside markets where one
can also produce gold, jade and other precious jewelry.
Not to be missed are the Temple of the Dawn along the Chao Phraya, a showcase of Chinese
porcelain mosaics, and the Temple of the Giant Swing for some of the finest murals. Only for
strong knees is the Temple of the Golden Mount, atop a climb of 300 steps, housing one of the
largest bronze buddhas in the world.
The Reclining Buddha was shipped from China by King Rama I, who also built the Wat Po
Temple on a 20-hectare compound adjacent to the Royal Palace, circa 1782, in the 2222-old
Chinese section. The King had also brought with him excellent samples of porcelain, which the
court artisans used to decorate pagodas using their elaborate spires. At the main temple, devotees
buy one–inch gold leaf squares which they stick to smaller buddhas as offering to their god.
Everyday, morning ceremonies are held at an adjacent temple surrounded by four magnificent
monuments: the first in red built by Rama I; the second in yellow, by Rama II; the third in green
by Rama III; and the fourth in blue, by Rama IV. Just as fascinating is the sala tree under which,
according to legend, Buddha was born (although in India). Its pink and red flowers are sweet-
smelling, a contrast to the brown gourd which are the ―fruit ―of the sala tree.
To cap a hectic first day, we had dinner at the Baa Thai Restaurant while watching heavily
costumed folk dancers from the lowland and highland villages, including favorite destinations,
like Chiang Mai, the second largest city up north, from whence one can visit the winter palace of
the Royal Family and the training school for working elephants.
Amazingly, Bangkok is clean, especially the day after Wednesday, which is "Clean Up Day"
according to our guide. So the sidewalk eateries are relatively sanitary, although foreign visitors
are advised to stick to bottled mineral water or soft drinks. In spite of the colossal traffic jams, no
thanks to the ubiquitous "toktok" pedicabs the air smells cleaner and less polluted than in Manila.
 THAILAND AT THE TURN OF THE CENTURY
1. Thailand, for one, as a pillar of the fast-growing Asian region has made sure
and steady strides over the years to ensure its place in the global community.
2. A country often compared to the Philippines for a score of reasons,
Thailand, like the Philippines is a nation of 60 million. It has an area of
513,115 sq. kms. and enjoys a climate typical of countries in the tropics;
thus, its’ traditional proclivity or agrarian-based economic activity.
3. Notwithstanding, a shift from agriculture to manufacturing. Thailand
continues to edge out its neighbors in terms of natural resources, with that
the bounty of its land and sea which has made it the world’s foremost
exporter of tapioca and rice. In addition, it is also a leader in the production
of maize, frozen shrimp, canned pineapple, natural rubber and sugar.
4. However, in the late 80’s and the 90’s, Thailand restructured its economy to
adapt to the demands of an urbanizing international community.
5. As a result, the share of the agricultural sector in Thailand’s national income
has declined from a high of 40 percent in 1960 to 17 percent during early
90’s.
6. Concomitantly, the manufacturing sector experienced strong growth,
expanding rapidly in its share of the national income from 13 percent in
1960 to over 30 percent in the 90’s. With the implementation of the
industrial Promotion Act in 1960 and various promotional programs
undertaken by the Board of Investment, the way was paved for the
remarkable growth of manufacturing sector.
7. Initially, industrial activity focused on food processing and import
substitution. However, in the 90’s, Thailand has developed heavily into
export promotion, notably textiles and garments, which accounted for 34.5
percent of principal exports in 1994 against the 12.7 percent output canned
food in the same year. On the whole, the industrial sector’s creditable
performance became a plus factor for Thailand because policy-makers knew
exactly where there was a need to put on weight to achieve an ideal balance
among the various diversified industries that the changing economy helped
to bring about.
8. It is equally worth nothing that at the highest point of Thailand’s growth at
the close of the last decade, the highest income generator and the largest
foreign exchange contributor for Thailand was its tourism sector. With the
full banking of Royal Thai Government extended to the Tourism Authority
of Thailand, the sector grew by a hefty 16 percent annum.
9. In addition to glowing figures posted by Thailand in the area of
manufacturing, tourism and foreign investment, much of its success can be
attributed to the growing independence of countries in the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and in the burgeoning Asian-Pacific
region.
10.Thailand rides high in this era of growth and is well on its way to and age of
prosperity at the turn of the century.
11.From 1988-1991, Thailand’s growth rate averaged 12.5 percent, the highest
in the world since 1993 when its economy rebounded from a worldwide
recession in the early 90’s, the Thai economy has experienced steady gains
reminiscent of the growth patterns of developed countries in the west.
 Makato and the Cowrie Shell - Thailand
Once upon a time there was a boy named Makato. He was an orphan, and had no
friends or family to take care of him. Because he had to make his own living he did
all kinds of odd jobs: chopping wood, feeding pigs, clearing and cleaning. He
didn't mind to work hard, and despite his small wages he was satisfied with his life.

He was only 4 when his mother passed away, but he remembered some stories she
had told about the kind-hearted king of Sukhotai. Ever since he was small he
wanted to meet this king. One day, when helping a friend to find food for
elephants, he found so many branches that the friend offered him a job to become
the assistant of the King's mahout. He worked hard cleaning elephants sheds and
finding food. One fine morning Makato's patience and hard work got rewarded: he
was to accompany the King's elephant an a parade. As the king mounted the beast,
in his splendid, shiny costume, he dropped a tiny cowrie shell. Makato picked it up
and held it out to the king. who told him to keep it.

At the time the people of Sukhotai used cowrie shells as money, and although one
little cowrie had little value, he wanted to use it wisely. He went to the market to
buy seeds, yet quickly realized he could not even buy the smallest bag of seeds,
while he noticed a lettuce seed stall.

"Lady, if I dip my finger into this pile of seeds, can I take those that stick to my
finger for one cowrie?", he asked. "Well why not", replied the sales lady, amused
by his suggestion. Makato carefully scraped the seeds from his finger and planted
them, watering the tiny sprouts daily, until the garden was covered in fresh, green
lettuce. Proud as he was, he offered to king his first produce.

"Where did you get these, my boy?" the king asked surprised, and Makato told him
the story. He king was impressed by so much intelligence and industry that he
offered him a fixed position at the palace.
The Tale of the Two Brothers
Once upon a time there were two brothers, so the story goes, having the same mother and the
same father. Anubis was the name of the elder, and Bata was the name of the younger. Now as
for Anubis, he [possessed] a house and had a wife, [and] his younger brother was (associated)
with him after the manner of a son, so that it was he (that is, the elder brother) who made clothes
for him while he (that is, the younger brother) followed behind his cattle to the fields, since it
was he who had to plow. It was he who reaped for him, and it was [he] who did for him every
chore that was in the fields. Indeed, his younger brother [was] a perfect man: there was none like
him in entire land, for a god's virility was in him.
After many days following this, his younger brother / [was tending] his cattle according to his
daily habit,and he would [leave work] for his house every evening laden [with] every vegetable
of the field, [with] milk, with wood, and [with] every [good produce of] the field; he would place
them before his [elder brother] while he was sitting with his wife, and he would drink and eat,
and [he would leave to spend the night in] his stabel among his cattle [daily].
After dawn and the next day had come about, [he prepared foods] which were cooked, and he
would place them before his elder brother, [and he would] give him bread for the fields, and he
would drive his cattle to let them graze in the fields while he followed behind his cattle. [And
th]ey [would] tell him: The herbage of such and such a place is good. And he would listen to all
that they said and take them to the place / with good herbage which they were desiring. The
cattle that were in his charge became so exceedingly fine that they multiplied their offspring
exceedingly.
At plowing time his [elder] brother told him: have a team [of oxen] made ready for us for
plowing, for the soil has emerged so that it is just right for tilling.Also, you are to come to the
field with seed because we shall begin to cultivate tomorrow. So he said to him. Then his /
younger brother made all preparations that his elder brother had told him to [make]. And after
dawn [and the next] day had come about, they went to the field carrying their [seed] and began
[to] plow with [their hearts] exceedingly pleased about their project as [they] began to work.
After many [days] following this, while they were in the field, they needed seed. He sent his
younger brother, saying: You shall go and fetch us seed from town. His younger brother found
the wife of his elder brother seated plaiting her (hair). he told her: Get up and give me seed / so
that may hurry off to the field, because it is for me that my elder brother is waiting. don't cause a
delay. Then she told him: Go, open the magazine and fetch for yourself what you want. Don't
make leave my hairdressing unfinished.
then the youth entered his stable and fetched a large vessel, since it was his desire to take out a
lot of seed. he loaded himself with barley and emmer and came out carrying it. Then she said to
him: how much is it that is on your shoulder? And he told her: It is / three sacks of emmer and
two sacks of barley, totaling five, that are on my shoulder. So he said to her. Then she [spoke
with] him, saying: There is [great] virility in you, for I have been observing your exertions daily.
For it was her desire to know him through sexual intimacy. she got up, seized hold of him, and
told him: Come, let's spend for ourselves an hour sleeping (together). Such will be to your
advantage, for I will make you fine clothes.
Then the youth became like an Upper Egyptian panther in harsh rage over the wicked
proposition that she had made to him, and she become exceedingly fearful. he argued with her,
saying: Now look, you are (associated) with me after the manner of a mother, and your husband
is (associated) with me after the manner of a father, for the one who is older than I it is who has
brought me up. What means / this great offense which have said to me? Don't say it to me again.
but I shall tell it to no one, for I will not let it escape my mouth to anybody. he picked up his load
and went off to the field. Then he reached his elder brother, and they began to work their project.
Afterward, at evening time, his elder brother left work for his house, while his younger brother
was (still) tending his cattle and [would] load himself with all produce of the field and bring back
his cattle / before him to let them spend the night their stable, which was in town. The wife of his
elder brother was fearful the proposition which she had made. She then fetched grease and fat
and feigningly became like one who has been assaulted with the intention of telling her husband:
it's your younger brother who has assaulted . Her husband left work in the evening according to
his daily habit.He reached his house and found his wife lying (down), feigning (to be) sick, so
that she did not pour water upon his hand(s) according to his custom, nor had she prepared
lighting for his arrival, so that his house was in darkness as she lay vomiting. her husband said to
her: Who has quarreled with you? She said to him: No one has quarreled with me except your /
younger brother. When he returned to take out seed for you, he found me sitting alone and said to
me, "Come, let's spend an hour sleeping (together). You shall put on your wig." So he said to me,
but I refused to obey him. "Isn't it so that I am your mother, and that your brother is (associated)
with you after the manner of a father?" So I said to him. And he became afraid and assaulted to
prevent me from making a disclosure to you. Now if you let him live, I'll take my life. See, as
soon as he returns, don't,,,him, because I denounce this wicked proposition which he would have
carried out yesterday.
then his elder brother became / like an Upper Egyptian panther, and he had his spear sharpened
and placed in his hand. His elder stood behind the door his stable in order to kill his younger
brother upon his return in the evening to let his cattle enter the stable. Now when the sun set, he
loaded himself all (sorts of) vegetables of the fields, according to his daily habit, and returned.
the lead cow entered the stable and said to its herdsman: Look, your elder brother is standing in
wait for you bearing his spear to kill you. You shall depart from his presence. He understood
what his lead cow had said, and / the next one entered and said it also. He looked under the door
of his stable and observed his elder brother's feet as he was standing behind the door with his
spear in his hand. he set his load onto the ground and hastened to run off flight, and his elder
brother went in pursuit of him, carrying his spear.
Then his younger brother prayed to Pre-Harakhti, / saying: My good lord, it is you who
distinguishes wrong from right. Thereupon Pre heard all his petitions, and Pre caused a great
(gulf of) water to come between him and his elder , infested with crocodiles, so that one of them
came to be on one side and the other on the other (side). His elder brother struck twice upon (the
back of) his hand because he had failed to kill him. Then his younger brother called to him on the
(other) side, saying: Wait there until dawn. As soon as the sun rises, I shall / be judged with you
in his presence, and he shall deliver the culprit to the just, for I will never again be present in
your company nor will I be present in a place where you are. I shall go to the Valley of the Pine.
Now after dawn and the next day had come about, Pre-Harakhti arose, and they observed each
other. Then the youth argued with his elder brother, saying: What's the meaning of your coming
in pursuit of me in order to kill unjustly without having heard what I have to say? for I am still
your younger brother, and / you are (associated) with me after the manner of a father, and your
wife is (associated0 with me after the manner of a mother, isn't it so? When you sent to fetch us
seed, your wife said to me, "Come, let's spend an hour sleeping (together)." But see, it has been
distorted for you as something otherwise. Then he informed him about all that had transpired
between him and his wife. he swore by Pre-Harakhti saying: As for your in order to kill me
unjustly, carrying your spear, it was on account of a sexually exhausted slut. he fetched a reed
knife, cut off his phallus, and threw it into the water. The catfish swallowed , and he / grew weak
and became feeble. his elder brother became exceedingly grieved and stood weeping for him
aloud. He could not cross over to where his younger brother was because of the crocodiles.
then his younger brother called to him, saying: If you have recalled a grievance, can't you recall a
kindness or something that I have done on your behalf? Please depart to your home and take care
of your cattle, for I shall not stay in a place where you are. I shall go off to the Valley of the Pine.
now what you shall do on my behalf is to come and care for me if find out that something has
happened to me I extract my heart and put it on top of the flower of the pine tree. and if the pine
tree is cut down and falls to the ground, / you are to come to search for it. If you shall have spent
seven years in searching for it, don't let your heart become discouraged, for if you do find it and
put it into a bowl of cool water, then I will become alive in order that may avenge the wrong
done to me. Now you shall ascertain whether something to me if a beaker of beer is delivered to
you in your hand and produces froth. Don't delay upon seeing that this comes to pass with you.
then he went off to the Valley of the Pine, and his elder brother went off to his home with his
hand(s) placed upon his head and his (body) smeared with dirt. Presently he reached his home,
and he killed his wife, cast her the dogs, and sat down in morning over his younger brother. After
many days following this, his younger brother was in the Valley of the Pine with no one with
him while he spent all day hunting desert game. He returned in the evening to spend the night
under the pine tree on top of whose flower his heart was. And after / many days followed this, he
built for himself a country villa with his (own) hands the Valley of the Pine, filled with all (sorts
of) good things with the intention of establishing a home for himself.
Presently he went out form his country villa and encountered the Ennead as they were walking
(along) governing the entire land. The Ennead spoke in unison, saying to him: Oh, Bata, Bull of
the Ennead, are you alone here having abandoned your town before the face of the wife of
Anubis, your elder brother? / See, has killed his wife, and thus you will be avenged upon him
every wrong done against you. For they were exceedingly sorry for him. Pre-Harakhti told
Khnum: Please fashion a marriageable woman for Beta so that he does not (have to) live alone.
thereupon Khnum made for him a house-companion who was more beautiful in her body than
any woman in the entire land, for every god was in her. then the seven Hathors came see her and
said all together: It is by an execution knife that she shall die.
Then he proceeded to covet her exceedingly while she was dwelling in his house and while he
spent all day / hunting desert game, bringing (it) back, and putting (it) down before her. he told
her: Don't go outside lest the sea carry you away, for I will be unable to rescue you from it,
because I am a female like you and my heart lies on top of the flower of the pone tree. but if
another finds it, I will fight with him. Then he revealed to her all his inmost thoughts.
After many days following this, while Bata went to hunt according to his daily habit,/ the maiden
went out to stroll under the pine tree which was next to her house. thereupon she beheld the sea
surging up behind her, and she hastened to flee from it and entered her house. then the sea called
to the pine tree, saying: Seize hold of her for me. And the pine tree removed a curl form her hair.
The sea brought it to Egypt and deposited it in the place of the launderers of Pharaoh, l.p.h. then
the scent of the curl of hair appeared in the clothes of Pharaoh, l.p.h., and the king wrangled with
the launderer of Pha. oh, l.p.h., saying: Scent of ointment is in the clothes of Pharaoh, l.p.h. The
king came to wrangling with them daily, but / they didn't know what to do. the chief launderer of
Pharaoh, l.p.h., went to the bank with his mind exceedingly vexed as a consequence of the
wranglings with him daily. then stopped still and stood by the seashore opposite the curl of hair
that was in the water. he had someone go down, and it was brought to him. scent was found
exceedingly fragrant, and he took it away to Pharaoh, l.p.h.
then the learned scribes of Pharaoh, l.p.h., were brought. They told Pharaoh, l.p.h.: As for this
braid of hair, / it belongs to a daughter of Pre-Harakhti in whom there is the seed of every god.
Now it is a tribute to you another country. Send envoys forth to every foreign country in order to
search for her. As for the envoy who will go to the Valley of the Pine, have many men go with in
order to fetch her. Then His Majesty, l.p.h., said: what you have said is very good, very good.
and (they) were sent off.
After many days following this, the men who had gone to a foreign country returned to render
report to His Majesty, l.p.h., whereas those who had gone to the Valley of the Pine failed to
return, for Bata had killed them leaving (only) one of them to render report to His Majesty, l.p.h.
then His Majesty, l.p.h., again sent forth many soldiers as well as chariotry in order to fetch her,
there being / a woman among them through whom all (sorts of) beautiful feminine adornment
were presented to her.
The woman returned to Egypt with her, and there was jubilation for her in the entire land. Then
His Majesty, l.p.h., proceeded to love her exceedingly, and the king appointed her to be Chief
Lady. the king spoke with her in order to have her describe the nature of her husband and she
said to His Majesty, l.p.h.: have the pine tree cut down and hacked up. the king sent / soldiers
bearing their copper (implements) in order to cut down the pine tree, and they reached the pine
tree. they cut off the flower upon which was Bata's heart, and he fell dead at the very same
moment.
After dawn and the next day had come about and after the pine tree had been cut down, Anubis,
the elder brother of Bata, entered his house and sat down and washed his hand(s). he was handed
a beaker of beer, and it produced froth. Another of wine was handed him, and it turned bad. then
he took his / staff and his sandals as well as his clothes and his weapons, and he hastened to
journey to the Valley of the Pine. He entered the country villa of his younger brother and found
his younger brother lying dead upon his bed. He wept when saw younger brother lying in a state
of death, and he went to search for his younger brother's heart beneath the pine tree under which
his younger brother slept in the evening. / he spent three years in searching for it without finding
it. Now when he had commenced the fourth year, his heart desired to return to Egypt, and he
said: I shall depart tomorrow.So he said in his heart.
After dawn and the next day had come about, he began walking under the pine tree and spent all
day searching for it. he gave up in the evening. Again he spent time in order to search for it, and
he found a (pine) cone. he left for home with it. It was really his younger brother's heart. And he
fetched a bowl of cool water, dropped it into it, and sat down according to his daily . After
darkness had fallen, / his heart absorbed the water, and Bata shuddered over all his body and
began looking at his elder brother while his heart was (still) in the bowl. Anubis, his elder
brother, took the bowl of cool water in which was his younger brother's heart and him drink it.
His heart assumed its (proper) position so that he became as he used to be. Then each embraced
the other, and they conversed with one another. Then Beta said to his / elder brother: Look, I
shall become a large bull that has every beautiful color and whose sort is unparalleled, and you
shall sit upon back. As soon as the sun rises, we shall be where my wife is that may avenge
myself, and you shall take me to where the king is, for every sort of good thing shall be done for
you and you shall be rewarded with silver and gold for taking me to Pharaoh, l.p.h., because I
shall become a great marvel, and there shall be jubilation for me in the entire land, and (then)
you shall depart to your (home) town.
After dawn / and the next day had come about, Bata changed into the form which he had
mentioned to his elder brother. Then Anubis, his elder brother, sat down upon his back until
dawn, and he reached the place where the king was, and His Majesty, l.p.h., was informed about
him. He saw him and became exceedingly joyful over him. He served him a grand oblation,
saying: It is a great marvel that has come to pass. And there was jubilation for him in the entire
land. then / his weight was made up in silver and gold for his elder brother, who (again) took up
his abode in his (home) town. the king gave him much personnel and a lot of goods, for Pharaoh,
l.p.h., preferred him exceedingly over anybody (else) in the entire land.
Now after many days following this, he entered the kitchen and stood in the place where the
Lady was. he began speaking with her, saying: See, I'm still alive! She said to him: Who are you,
I ask? And he told her: I am Bata. I realize that when you caused the pine tree to be hacked up
for Pharaoh, l.p.h., it was on account of me, to keep me from staying alive. See, / I'm still alive,
but as a bull.
The Lady became exceedingly fearful because of the revelation which her husband had made to
her. then he left the kitchen, and His Majesty, l.p.h., sat down and made holiday with her. She
poured (drinks) for His Majesty, l.p.h., so that the king was exceedingly happy in her company.
then she said to His Majesty, l.p.h.: Swear to me by god as follows, "As for what will say, I shall
grant it to her." And he heard all that she said: Let me eat of the liver of this bull, / for he never
will amount to anything. So she said speaking to him. The king became exceedingly vexed over
what she had said, and Pharaoh, l.p.h., was exceedingly sorry for him.
After dawn the next day had come about, the king proclaimed a grand oblation as an offering to
the bull, and the king sent a first royal cupbearer of His Majesty, l.p.h., to sacrifice the bull. And
subsequently he was sacrificed. While he was upon the shoulders of the men, he trembled in his
neck and caused two drops of blood to be shed beside the two doorposts of His Majesty, l.p.h.,
one landing on one side of the great portal of Pharaoh, l.p.h., and the other on the other side. they
grew into / two large Persea trees, each one of which was choice. Then someone went to tell His
Majesty, l.p.h.: Two large Persea trees have grown this night as a great marvel for His Majesty,
l.p.h., beside the great portal of His Majesty, l.p.h. And there was jubilation for them in the entire
land, and the king presented an offering to them.
After many days followoing this, His Majesty, l.p.h., appeared at the audience window of lapis
lazuli with a wreath of every sort of flower on neck, and he a chariot of electrum / and came out
from the palace, l.p.h., in order to inspect the Persea trees. Then the Lady came out in a chariot
following Pharaoh, l.p.h. His Majesty, l.p.h., sat down under one Persea tree, spoke with his
wife: Ha, you liar! I am Bata. I'm alive in spite of you. I realize that as for your having had cut
down for Pharaoh, l.p.h., it was on account of me. And I became a bull, and you had me killed.
After many days following this, the Lady stood pouring (drinks) for His Majesty, l.p.h., so that
the king was happy in her company. She told His Majesty, l.p.h.: Swear to me by god as follows,
"As for what the Lady will tell me, I shall grant it to her." So you shall say. and he heard / all that
she said, and she said: have these two Persea trees cut down and made into fine furniture. Then
the king heard all that she had said, and after a brief moment His Majesty, l.p.h., sent skilled
craftsmen, and the Persea trees were cut down for Pharaoh, l.p.h. the queen, the Lady, observed
it (being done), and a splinter flew up and entered the Lady's mouth. / She swallowed and
became pregnant in the space of a split second, and the king made out of them whatever was her
desire.
After many days following this, she bore a son, and someone went in order to tell His Majesty,
l.p.h.: A son has been born to you. then he was brought, and nurse and maids were assigned to
him. There was jubilation in the entire land, and the king sat down and made holiday and
proceeded to hold him on his lap. His Majesty, l.p.h., cherished him exceedingly immediately,
and the king appointed him / Viceroy of Kush.
After many days following this, His Majesty, l.p.h., made him crown prince of the entire land.
and after many days following this, when he had completed many [years] as crown prince in
entire land, His Majesty, l.p.h., flew up to the sky. Then the (new) king said: Have my great
officials of His Majesty, l.p.h., brought to me that I may inform them regarding every situation /
that I have been involved in. His wife [was] brought to him, and he was judged with her in their
presence. A consensus was reached among them. His elder brother was brought to him, and he
appointed him crown prince in the entire land. he thirty years as King of Egypt. he departed from
life, and his elder brother acceded to his throne on the day of death.
Thus it concludes happily and successfully.
 The Taximan’s Story
By: Catherine Lim
Very good,Madam.Sure,will take you there in plenty good time for your
meeting,Madam.This way better,less traffic,less car jams.Half hour should make it,Madam,so
not to worry.
What is it you say,Madam?Yes,yes,ha,ha,been taximan for twenty years
now,Madam.Long time ago,Singapore not like this–so crowded so busy.Last time more
peaceful,not so much taximen,or so much cars and buses.
Yes,Madam,can make a living.So so.What to do.Must work hard if wants to success in
Singapore.People like us,no education,no capital for business,we must sweat to earn money for
wife and children.
Yes.Madam,quite big family–eight children,six sons,two daughters.Bigfamily!Ha!ha!No
good,Madam.In those days,where got Family Planning in Singapore?People born many,many
children,every year,one childs.Is no good at all.Today is much better.Two children,three
children,enough,stop.Our goverment say stop.
Lucky for me,all my children big now.Four of my sons working–one a businessman,two
clerks,one a teacher in Primary school,one in National Service,one still schooling,in
Secondary Two.My eldest daughter,she is twenty plus,stay at home,help
the mother.No,not married yet–very shy,and her health not so good,but a
good,obedient girl.My other girl–Oh,Madam!very hard for father when daughter is no good and
go against her parents.Very sad,like punishment from God Today,young people not like us when
we are young.We obey.Our parents say don’t do this,we never do.Otherwise,the cane.My father
cane me,I was big enough to be married,and still,got caning.My father he was very strict,and that
is good thing for parents to be strict.If not,young boys and girls become very useless.Do not want
to study,but run away,and go to night clubsand take drugs and
make love.You agreewith me.Madam?Today,young people they are very trouble to
their parents.Madam,you see this young people over there,outside the coffee-house?See what I
mean,Madam?They are only schoolboys and schoolgirls,but they act like big shots,spending
money,smoking,waering latest fashion,and making love.Ah Madam,I know,I know!As taximan,I
know them and their habits.Madam,you are a teacher,you say?You know or not that young
schoolgirls,fifteen,sixteen years old,they go to school in the morning in their uniforms and then
after school,they don’t go home,they have clothes in their schoolbag,and they go to public
lavatory or hotel and change into these clothes,and they put make-up on their face.Their parents
never know.They tell their Mum got school meeting,got sports and games,this,that,but they
really come out and play the fool.Ah,Madam,I see yuo surprise,but I know,I know all their
tricks.I take them about in my taxi.They usual is wait in bowling alley or coffee house or
hotel,and they walk up,and friend,friend,the European and American tourists,and this is how they
make fun and also extra money.Madam,you believe or not when I tell you how much money they
got?I say!Last night,Madam,this young girl,very pretty and made-up,and wear sexy dress,she
told me take her to Orchid Mansions–this place famous,Madam,fourth floor flat–and she open
her purse to pay me,and I say!all American notes–ten dollar notes all,and she pull one out and
say keep change!as she has no time already.Madam,I tell you this,every month,I got more money
from these young girls and their American and European boyfriends in my taxi,more than I get
from other people who bargain and say don’t want go by meter and wait even for ten
cents change.Phui!!Some of them really make me mad.But these young girls and their boyfriends
don’t bargain,they just pay,pay,and they make love in taxi so much they don’t know if you go
round and round and charge them by meter!I tell you,Madam,some of them don’t care how much
they spend on taxi.It is like this:after 1p.m. taxi fare double,and I prefer working this
time,because naturally,much more money.I go and wait outside Elroy Hotel or Tung Court or
Orchid Mansions,and such enough,Madam,will have plenty business.LastSaturday,Madam,no
joking,on one day alone I make nearly one hundred and fifty dollars!Some of it
for services.Some of tourists don’t know where,so I tell them and take them there,and that’s
extra money.Ah Madam,if I tell you all,no end to the story.But I will tell you this,Madam.If you
have young daughter and she say Mummy I got meeting today in school and will not come
home,you must not say,Yes,yes,but you must go and ask her where and why and who,and you
find out.Today young people not to trust,like young people in many years ago.Oh,Madam,I tell
you because I myself have a daughter–oh,Madam,a daughter I love very much,and she is so good
and study hard.And I see her report cards and her teacher write’Good work’and ‘Excellent’so
on,so on.Oh,Madam,she my favourite child,and I ask her what she want to be after left
school,and she says go to University.None of my other children could go to University,but this
one,she is very smart and intelligent–no boasting,Madam–her teachers write ‘Good’and
‘Excellent’,and so on,so on,in her report cards.She study at home,and help the mother,but
sometimes a little lazy,and she say teacher want her to go back to school to do extra work,extra
coaching,in her weak subject,which is maths,Madam.So I let her stay back in school and day
after day she come home in evening,then she do her studies and go to sleep.Then one day,oh
Madam,it make me so angry even now–one day,I in my taxi driving,driving along and hey!I see
a girl looking like my Lay Choo,with other girls and some Europeans outside a coffee-house but
I think,it cannot be Lay Choo,how can,Lay Choo is in school,and this girl is all dressed up and
make-up,and very bold in her behaviour,and this is not like my daughter at all.Then they go
inside the coffee-house,and my heart is very,very–how you describe it,Madam,My heart is very
‘susah hati’and I say to myself,I will watch that Lay Choo and see her monkey tricks.Thevery
next day she is there again I stop my taxi,Madam,and I am so angry.I rush up to this wicked
daughter and I catch her by the shoulders and neck,and slap her and she scream,but I
don’t care.Then I drag her to my taxi and drive all the way home,and at home I thrash the stupid
food and I beat her and slap her till like hell.My wife and some neighbours they pull me
away,and I think if they not pull me away,I sure to kill that girl.I lock her up in her room for
three days,and I ashamed to tell her teacher,so I just tell the teacher that Lay Choo is sick,so
please to excuse her.Oh,Madam,how you feel in my place?Make herself so cheap,when her
father drive taxi all day to save money for her University.What is it,Madam?Yes,yes,everything
okay now,thank you.She cannot leave the house except to go to school,and I tell her mother
always check,check in everything she do,and her friends–what sort of people they
are…What,Madam?Oh,so sorry,Madam,cannot wait for you to finish your meeting.Must go
off,please to excuse me.In a hurry,Madam.Must go off to Hotel Elroy–there plenty people to
pick up.So very sorry,Madam,and thank you very much.
 BATUH BELAH BATU BERTANGKAP
(The Devouring Rock)

Once upon a time, in a small village in Sambas, West Kalimantan, there lived a widow named
Mak Minah. She had three children, two sons, and a daughter. Her son’s names were Utuh and
Ucin. And her youngest child’s name was Diang.
Everyday, Mak Minah always went to the jungle to collect some fire woods. She sold the woods
in the market and used the money for their daily needs. She always worked alone. Her three
children were lazy and only liked to play. They never helped her.
It was already late in the evening. Mak Minah did not feel well. After selling the woods in the
market, she wanted to go to the bed immedately. However dinner was not ready yet. So she
asked her three children to help her.
“Utuh, Ucin, and Diang… please help me prepare the dinner,” asked Mak Minah.
Those three children ignored their mother and continued playing in the front yard. Mak Minah
then forced herself to prepare the dinner. When it was ready, she called her children to have
dinner. This time they listened to Mak Minah. Sadly after they finished eating, the children did
not help their mother clean the dishes. Instead, they played again.
Mak Minah cried. She was so sad. It was not the first time her children did not help her and
ignored her. She was so sick that she went to bed immediately.
In the morning, Mak Minah went to the riverside. There was a magical stone called Betangkup
Stone. The stone had magical power. It could open and close its body like a sea shell. the stone
could also talk to humans.
“Betangkup Stone, please help me. I cannot hold the pains anymore. I’m so sick and my children
did not want to help me. They always ignored me. Please swallow my body,” begged Mak
Minah.
“Well, If that’s what you want, get inside. I will open my body now.”
Betangkup Stone then opened its body. Mak Minah later went inside. Her long hair was still
outside of the stone.
In the meantime, Utuh, Ucin, and Diang woke up and felt hungry. Breakfast was not ready so
they were looking for their mother. The children went here and there to find their mother.
Finally, they were in front of the Betangkup Stone. They saw their mother was inside Betangkup
Stone’s body.
“Please open your body. Let my mother go outside,” scream Diang.
“No, I won’t! You are not good children. You always ignored your mother and never helped
her,” said Batangkup Stone.
“But we need her now…” cried Utuh.
“You need her now because you are hungry. You only listen to her when you want to eat. But
you never help her. You will never see your mother anymore!” said Betangkup Stone.
Those three children cried loudly. They knew they were wrong. But it was too late, they would
never see their mother anymore. (end)
Grammar: Sentence Structure and Types of Sentences
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font = prepositional phrase
Independent clause: An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a
subject and a verb and is a complete idea.

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to

an independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a subordinate clause.

o Although I like spaghetti,…

o Because he reads many books,…

Subject: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that does an action. Determine the
subject in a sentence by asking the question “Who or what?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Verb: Expresses what the person, animal, place, thing, or concept does. Determine the
verb in a sentence by asking the question “What was the action or what happened?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.
o The movie is good. (The be verb is also sometimes referred to as a copula or a
linking verb. It links the subject, in this case the movie, to the complement or the
predicate of the sentence, in this case, good.)

Object: A person, animal, place, thing, or concept that receives the action. Determine the
object in a sentence by asking the question “The subject did what?” or “To whom?/For
whom?”

o I like spaghetti.
o He reads many books.

Prepositional Phrase: A phrase that begins with a preposition (i.e., in, at for, behind, until,
after, of, during) and modifies a word in the sentence. A prepositional phrase answers one
of many questions. Here are a few examples: “Where? When? In what way?”

o I like spaghetti for dinner.

o He reads many books in the library.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:

 A new sentence begins with a capital letter.

o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an exclamation

point).
o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.

o Smith he obtained his degree.

 A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.

 o He obtained his degree.

 A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.

o He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).

 A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also called an
independent clause.
o He obtained his degree.

Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an object and
modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Key: Yellow, bold = subject; green underline = verb, blue, italics = object, pink, regular
font =prepositional phrase
Here are a few examples:

 She read.
 She completed her literature review.
 He organized his sources by theme.
 They studied APA rules for many hours.

Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These two independent
clauses can be combined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined
Here are a few examples:

 She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
 He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
 They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still much
to learn.

Using some compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who, which) the sequence/time (since,
while), or the causal elements (because, if) of the independent clause.
If a sentence begins with a dependent clause, note the comma after this clause. If, on the
other hand, the sentence begins with an independent clause, there is not a comma
separating the two clauses.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma = pink, regular font; dependent clause
= blue, italics
Here are a few examples:

 Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

 Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to
follow.
o Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent clause.

 They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting.
o Note that there is no comma in this sentence because it begins with an
independent clause.
  Using some complex sentences in writing allows for more sentence variety.

Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence contains at
least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause.
Key: independent clause = yellow, bold; comma or semicolon = pink, regular font;
coordinating conjunction = green, underlined; dependent clause = blue, italics

 She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
 Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
 With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and
objective.

 Using some complex-compound sentences in writing allows for more sentence

variety.
 Pay close attention to comma usage in complex-compound sentences so that the
reader is easily able to follow the intended meaning.
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of
equal grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by
using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.
I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch. We needed a place to concentrate, so we
packed up our things and went to the library. Jesse didn’t have much money,
but she got by.
Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two
independent clauses.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some
examples are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.
Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my
history essay. I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A
subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a
contrast, or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common
subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though,
while, and whereas. Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can
function as a conjunction.
I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.
Here, the adverb until functions as a coordinating conjunction to connect two
ideas: I can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the
dependent clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence;
the dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense.
The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the
sentence. It has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause
can come before the independent clause.
Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.
If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent
clause.
I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty. Because I was thirsty, I drank a
glass of water.
Starting a Sentence with a Conjunction
Many of us were taught in school that it is an error to begin a sentence with a
conjunction, but that rule is a myth. As mentioned above, a subordinating
conjunction can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes before the
independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating
conjunction. Often, it’s a good way to add emphasis. Beginning too many
sentences with conjunctions will cause the device to lose its force, however, so
use this technique sparingly.
Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get home. Gertie flung open
the door. But there was no one on the other side.
List of Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Correlative Conjunctions
both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or
Some Subordinating Conjunctions
after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because,
before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event
that, lest , now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that,
than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever,
whether or not, while
Reading Skills: Story Elements

What Are Story Elements?

Developing a solid understanding of the elements of a story is essential for our students to
follow and fully comprehend the stories they read. However, before students can understand how
these elements contribute to the overall meaning and effect of a story, they must first be able to
identify the component parts confidently.

So, what are these elements then? For the purpose of teaching our students, we can usefully
divide these elements into two groups.

The first group comprises the basic components of a story and is generally taught to elementary
and middle school students, while the second group consists of more complex elements taught to
more advanced students.

Though the elements identified below provide a comprehensive overview, they are not an
exhaustive analysis of every possible element of a story.

Basic Story Elements:

BASIC STORY ELEMENTS

1. character
2. setting
3. plot
4. conflict
5. theme
these are the five key elements of a story
Setting: A story's setting refers not only to the physical location, but also the time the action
takes place. It is the where and the when of a story.
Character: Depending on the nature of the story, characters are most often people or animals.
Writers use characters to perform the actions and speak the dialogue of a story. They move a
story’s plot forward. They are the who of a story.
Plot: The plot relates to the events that happen in a story. Plot can be further divided into sub-
elements such as: introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. It is the what
of the story. Plot usually begins with a problem and ends in the story’s resolution.
Conflict: Every story worth its salt requires conflict. This conflict can be thought of as a
challenge or problem that drives the action of the story. No conflict, no story. Setting up a series
of cause and effect events, conflict gives these events their why.
Theme: a little more abstract than the previous elements, the theme refers to the underlying
insight, the moral or idea that the writer is expressing through the story. It is often thought of as
the ‘message’ of the story.
Parallelism

Parallel sentence elements in grammar are just like parallel lines in geometry:
they face the same direction and never meet.

More precisely, in grammar, it’s less about meeting and more about
balance. Parallelism in grammar is defined as two or more phrases or clauses
in a sentence that have the same grammatical structure.

The Why

A sentence with parallel construction makes your writing effective, classy, and
certain to impress anyone who reads your stuff.

The How

Here’s a handy trick for testing parallelism: rewrite the sentence for each
element that should be parallel. For example:

A sentence with parallel construction makes your writing effective. A sentence

with parallel construction makes your writing classy. A sentence with parallel
construction makes your writing certain to impress anyone who reads your
stuff.

Effective, classy, and certain are all adjectives. Even though “certain to impress
anyone who reads your stuff” is a mouthful compared to the other two, each
sentence element is the same part of speech. That makes the sentence
balanced, and therefore, parallel.

The What
Lack of parallelism can happen in a lot of ways, but the mistake is usually clear
enough to make you wince when you hear it. Read on for the most common
parallelism problems you’ll encounter—and how to avoid them.

Verb Forms

Example: Olympic athletes usually like practicing, competing, and to eat ice
cream sandwiches.

In this sentence, practicing and competing are gerunds (verbs functioning as

nouns) and “to eat” is an infinitive. It sounds pretty awkward—just like being
an athlete with a sweet tooth.

Instead:

Correct: Olympic athletes usually like practicing, competing, and eating ice
cream sandwiches.
or
Correct: Olympic athletes usually like to practice, compete, and eat ice cream
sandwiches.

Note that you don’t need to repeat the “to” in each instance of the infinitive
form of the verb. As long as the form of the verb is the same in all three cases,
you’re good to go.

Nouns vs. Verbs

Example: For dinner we like lamb chops and to fry brussel sprouts.

Lamb chops is a noun. Brussel sprouts is a noun too, but to fry is a verb. Tsk tsk.

Correct: For dinner we like lamb chops and brussel sprouts.

or
Correct: For dinner we like to grill lamb chops and fry brussel sprouts.

Delicious.

Noun Number

Example: Public transit such as buses or a train can help reduce air pollution.

Multiple buses, one train? That’s not going to solve any environmental issues.
Here’s a better solution:
Correct: Public transit such as buses or trains can help reduce air pollution.

More Mismatched Parts of Speech

Example: The detective deftly and with pizzazz outlined how the crime had
been committed.

What’s the adverb of “pizzazz”? Great question. Both deftly (adverb) and with
pizzazz(a prepositional phrase) need to be the same part of speech for this
sentence to be properly parallel. And if “pizzazzilly” isn’t a word, that means
two nouns are needed.

Correct: With deftness and pizzazz, the detective outlined how the crime had
been committed.

Subject Matter

Example: He decided to cover the gown in sequins, and had a steak for dinner.

Huh? Unless being a fabulous designer is a recipe for steak, these two actions
don’t seem to have much in common. Parallelism in subject matter means that
everything discussed in a sentence should have at least some amount of
clarity and relatedness.

Correct: He decided to cover the gown in sequins, and to celebrate, he had a

steak for dinner.
or
Correct: He was hungry after he covered the gown in sequins, so he had a
steak for dinner.

The possible connections are endless, but for proper parallelism, that
connection must be clear to the reader.

Parallelism in Rhetoric

In rhetoric—that is, in the world of literature and speeches, or anytime you

want to sound extra fancy—parallelism involves one or more sentences with
similar structures to produce a pattern of repetition and balance.

I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For
every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.
—Walt Whitman, “Song of Myself”

Love me, love me, say that you love me, Fool me, fool me, go on and fool me.
—The Cardigans, “Lovefool”

Easy come, easy go.

—Common saying

Parallelism helps make your writing as neat as a geometry equation.

Specifically, one with parallel lines. To keep your writing lined up straight,
don’t forget to keep your eyes peeled for these elements:

Matching parts of speech Noun number Subject matter Rhetoric

You know what they say: you win some, you lose some. But use parallelism
correctly in your writing and speech, and you’re that much more likely to say:
I came, I saw, I conquered.
 Conditional Sentences
 There are four types of conditional sentences.

 It’s important to use the correct structure for each of these different conditional
sentences because they express varying meanings.

 Pay attention to verb tense when using different conditional modes.

 Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Conditional sentences are statements discussing known factors or hypothetical

situations and their consequences. Complete conditional sentences contain a
conditional clause (often referred to as the if-clause) and the consequence.
Consider the following sentences:

Example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

Example: I would travel around the world if I won the lottery.

Example: When water reaches 100 degrees, it boils.

What Are the Different Types of Conditional Sentences? There are four different
types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different degree of
probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain
circumstances.

 Zero Conditional Sentences

 First Conditional Sentences

 Second Conditional Sentences

 Third Conditional Sentences

Let’s look at each of these different types of conditional sentences in more detail.

How to Use Zero Conditional Sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one

thing always causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking
about a general truth rather than a specific instance of something. Consider the
following examples:

Example: If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

Example: When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences in which the
zero conditional is used. First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense
to use in both clauses is the simple present tense. A common mistake is to use the
simple future tense.

Incorrect: When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer .

Secondly, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these
zero conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will always be the same,
so it doesn’t matter “if” or “when” it happens.

How to Use First Conditional Sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome
is likely (but not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples
below:

Example: If you rest, you will feel better.

Example: If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and simple future tense
in the main clause—that is, the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is
how we indicate that under a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a
specific result will likely happen in the future. Examine some of the common
mistakes people make using the first conditional structure:

Incorrect: If you will rest , you will feel better.

Correct: If you rest, you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

Example: If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

Example: If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.
Explanation: Use the zero conditional (i.e., simple present + simple present)
only when a certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first
conditional (i.e., simple present + simple future).

How to Use Second Conditional Sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are
completely unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the
examples below:

Example: If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Example: If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Notice the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the
simple past tense in the if-clause and an auxiliary modal verb (e.g., could, should,
would, might) in the main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or
unlikely outcome). The following sentences illustrate a couple of the common
mistakes people make when using the second conditional:

Incorrect: If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Correct: If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in
the if-clause.

Incorrect: If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.

Correct: If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the
second conditional mood to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually
happen.

How to Use Third Conditional Sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances

would be different if something different had happened in the past. Look at the
following examples:

Example: If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.
Example: If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough, but did not actually
happen in the past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early,
but did not. Along these same lines, the speaker in the second sentence was
capable of cleaning the house, but did not. These are all conditions that were
likely, but regrettably did not happen.

Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had +
past participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, shoud, etc.) +
have + past participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation
that could have happened.

Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

Incorrect: If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Correct: If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb
in the if-clause.

Incorrect: If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

Correct: If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional mood expresses a situation that could have
only happened in the past if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use
the modal auxiliary verb + have + the past participle.

Exceptions and Special Cases When Using

Conditional Sentences

As with most topics in the English language, conditional sentences often present
special cases in which unique rules must be applied.

Use of the Simple Future in the If-Clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One
exception is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the
main clause. For example, consider the following sentence:
Example: If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take
place only after the speaker takes them later that night.

“Were to” in the If-Clause

The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the
likely or unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were
to is used to place emphasis on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

Example: If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

Example: If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the manager.

Example: If the rent were to have been a penny more, they would not have been able to pay it.

Note that the emphatic “were to” can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios
in the present, future, and past.

Punctuating Conditional Sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly

is really simple!

Here’s the skinny:

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

Example: If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.

Example: I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.

Allegory
Definition:
An allegory suggests a hidden meaning via the use of metaphoric examples. An allegory is a device
where the meaning of a greater, often abstract moral or political concept is conveyed with the aid of
more material objects or ideas being used as an example.

Example:
Faith is like a stony uphill climb: a single stumble might send you sprawling but belief and
steadfastness will see you to the very top.

Alliteration
Definition:
Alliteration is a literary device where words are used in quick succession and begin with letters
belonging to the same sound group. Whether it is the consonant sound or a specific vowel group, the
alliteration involves creating a repetition of similar sounds in the sentence. Alliterations are also
created when the words all begin with the same letter. Alliterations are used to add character to the
writing and often add an element of ‘fun’ to the piece.

Example:
The Wicked Witch of the West went her own way. The ‘W’ sound is highlighted and repeated
throughout the sentence.

Tongue twisters are a good example of alliteration. For instance, in “Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers”, the “P” sound is repeated.

Allusion
Definition:
An allusion is a figure of speech whereby the author refers to a subject matter such as a place, event,
or literary work by way of a passing reference. It is up to the reader to make a connection to the
subject being mentioned.

Example:
It’s no wonder everyone refers to Mary as another Mother Teresa in the making; she loves to help
and care after people everywhere, from the streets to her own friends.

In the example the author uses the mention of Mother Teresa to indicate the sort of qualities that
Mary has.

Amplification
Definition:
Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more
information to it in order to increase its worth and understandability. When a plain sentence is too
abrupt and fails to convey the full implications desired, amplification comes into play when the
writer adds more to the structure to give it more meaning.

Example:
Original sentence: “The thesis paper was difficult.” After amplification: “The thesis paper was
difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of
fieldwork.

Anagram
Definition:
Anagrams are an extremely popular form of literary device wherein the writer jumbles up parts of the
word to create a new word. From the syllables of a phrase to the individual letters of a word, any
fraction can be jumbled to create a new form. Anagram is a form of wordplay that allows the writer
to infuse mystery and a little interactive fun in the writing so that the reader can decipher the actual
word on their own and discover a depth of meaning to the writing.
Example:
An anagram for “debit card” is “bad credit”. As you can see, both phrases use the same letters. By
mixing the letters a bit of humor is created

Analogy
Definition:
An analogy is a literary device that helps to establish a relationship based on similarities between two
concepts or ideas. By using an analogy we can convey a new idea by using the blueprint of an old
one as a basis for understanding. With a mental linkage between the two, one can create
understanding regarding the new concept in a simple and succinct manner.

Example:
In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and
riches without hard work

Anastrophe
Definition:
Anastrophe is a form of literary device wherein the order of the noun and the adjective in the
sentence is exchanged. In standard parlance and writing the adjective comes before the noun but
when one is employing an anastrophe the noun is followed by the adjective. This reversed order
creates a dramatic impact and lends weight to the description offered by the adjective.

Example:
He spoke of times past and future, and dreamt of things to be.

Anecdote
Definition:
The word anecdote, phonetically pronounced an.ik.doht, means a short verbal accounting of a funny,
amusing, interesting event or incident. The story is usually a reminiscence from the teller’s life but at
best is a related story of fact, as opposed to a contrived work of fiction. The origin of the word
anecdote comes from the Greek Byzantine period, A.D. 527 to 565 during the reign of emperor
Justinian.

In his court, Justinian had a historian named Procopius who was a gifted writer who wrote many
witty, amusing and somewhat bawdy accounts of court life. Never intending for this stories to
become public he entitled his writings as “Anecdota” which was Greek for unpublished and kept
secret. After his secret writings did indeed become public and published, the term anecdote became
commonly used for similar accounts.

Example:
Amusing anecdotes many times find their way into wedding receptions, family reunions and any
other gathering of people who know each other well. Teachers and educators often tell classrooms of
pupils anecdotes about famous people. The anecdotes are not always flattering, but are usually
revealing of character and invariably amusing. Here is an example of an anecdote about Winston
Churchill:

Winston Churchill was very fond of his pet dog Rufus. He ate in the dining room with the family on
a special cloth and was treated with utmost respect. When enjoying movies, Rufus had the best seat
in the house; on Winston Churchill’s lap. While watching “Oliver Twist,” Churchill put his hands
over Rufus’ eyes during the scene where Bill Sike’s intends to drown his dog. Churchill is believed
to have said to Rufus: “don’t look now, dear. I’ll tell you about it later.”

Anthropomorphism
Definition:
Anthropomorphism can be understood to be the act of lending a human quality, emotion or ambition
to a non-human object or being. This act of lending a human element to a non-human subject is often
employed in order to endear the latter to the readers or audience and increase the level of relativity
between the two while also lending character to the subject.

Example:
The raging storm brought with it howling winds and fierce lightning as the residents of the village
looked up at the angry skies in alarm.
Antithesis
Definition:
An antithesis is used when the writer employs two sentences of contrasting meanings in close
proximity to one another. Whether they are words or phrases of the same sentence, an antithesis is
used to create a stark contrast using two divergent elements that come together to create one uniform
whole. An antithesis plays on the complementary property of opposites to create one vivid picture.
The purpose of using an antithesis in literature is to create a balance between opposite qualities and
lend a greater insight into the subject.

Example:
When Neil Armstrong walked on the moon it might have been one small step for a man but it was
one giant leap for mankind.

Aphorism
Definition:
An aphorism is a concise statement that is made in a matter of fact tone to state a principle or an
opinion that is generally understood to be a universal truth. Aphorisms are often adages, wise sayings
and maxims aimed at imparting sense and wisdom. It is to be noted that aphorisms are usually witty
and curt and often have an underlying tone of authority to them.

Example:
Upon seeing the shoddy work done by the employee, the boss told him that anything worth doing, is
worth doing well

Archetype
Definition:
An archetype is a reference to a concept, a person or an object that has served as a prototype of its
kind and is the original idea that has come to be used over and over again. Archetypes are literary
devices that employ the use of a famous concept, person or object to convey a wealth of meaning.
Archetypes are immediately identifiable and even though they run the risk of being overused, they
are still the best examples of their kind.

Example:
Romeo and Juliet are an archetype of eternal love and a star-crossed love story

Assonance
Definition:
Assonance refers to repetition of sounds produced by vowels within a sentence or phrase. In this
regard assonance can be understood to be a kind of alliteration. What sets it apart from alliterations is
that it is the repetition of only vowel sounds. Assonance is the opposite of consonance, which implies
repetitive usage of consonant sounds.

Example:
“A long song”. (Where the ‘o’ sound is repeated in the last two words of the sentence)

Asyndeton
Definition:
Asyndeton refers to a practice in literature whereby the author purposely leaves out conjunctions in
the sentence, while maintaining the grammatical accuracy of the phrase. Asyndeton as a literary tool
helps in shortening up the implied meaning of the entire phrase and presenting it in a succinct form.
This compact version helps in creating an immediate impact whereby the reader is instantly attuned
to what the writer is trying to convey. Use of this literary device helps in creating a strong impact and
such sentences have greater recall worth since the idea is presented in a nutshell.

Example:
1. Read, Write, Learn.
2. Watch, Absorb, Understand.
3. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle.

Authorial Intrusion
Definition:
Authorial Intrusion is an interesting literary device wherein the author penning the story, poem or
prose steps away from the text and speaks out to the reader. Authorial Intrusion establishes a one to
one relationship between the writer and the reader where the latter is no longer a secondary player or
an indirect audience to the progress of the story but is the main subject of the author’s attention.

Example:
In many olden novels, especially in suspense novels, the protagonist would move away from the
stream of the story and speak out to the reader. This technique was often used to reveal some crucial
elements of the story to the reader even though the protagonist might remain mystified within the
story for the time being.

Bibliomancy
Definition:
As the very name itself suggests, this kind of literary device finds its roots in biblical origins. This
term refers to the practice of basing a plot happening or event and anticipating the results it will have
on a faction of the Bible. It involves a random selection process wherein the biblical passage is
chosen as a founding stone for basing the outcome of the writing. In an overall context, not limited to
just literature, bibliomancy refers to foretelling the future by turning to random portions of the Bible
for guidance.

Example:
The Vedas serve as a tool for bibliomancy to the Hindus while Muslims rely on the Koran.

Bildungsroman
Definition:
This is a very popular form of storytelling whereby the author bases the plot on the overall growth of
the central character throughout the timeline of the story. As the story progresses, the subject
undergoes noticeable mental, physical, social, emotional, moral, and often spiritual advancement and
strengthening before the readers’ eyes. It has often been seen that the protagonist begins with views,
aims and dreams that are in contrast to the other character’s in the story and then fights his or her
way through to achieve them.

Example:
Scarlet O’Hara in Gone With the Wind experiences immense personal growth as she learns the value
of friends and hard work under duress, without compromising her own dreams.

Cacophony
Definition:
A cacophony in literature refers to the use of words and phrases that imply strong, harsh sounds
within the phrase. These words have jarring and dissonant sounds that create a disturbing,
objectionable atmosphere.

Example:
His fingers rapped and pounded the door, and his foot thumped against the yellowing wood.

Caesura
Definition:
This literary device involves creating a fracture of sorts within a sentence where the two separate
parts are distinguishable from one another yet intrinsically linked to one another. The purpose of
using a caesura is to create a dramatic pause, which has a strong impact. The pause helps to add an
emotional, often theatrical touch to the sentence and conveys a depth of sentiment in a short phrase.

Example:
Mozart- oh how your music makes me soar!

Characterization
Definition:
Characterization in literature refers the step by step process wherein an author introduces and then
describes a character. The character can be described directly by the author or indirectly through the
actions, thoughts, and speech of the character.
Example:
Michael Corleone was not jus’ a mafiaso, but a family man. A man who walked the knife’s edge to
preserve his sanity

Chiasmus
Definition:
Chiasmus is a figure of speech containing two phrases that are parallel but inverted to each other.

Example:
You can take the patriot out of the country but you cannot take the country out of the patriot.

Circumlocution
Definition:
Circumlocution is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long and complex sentences
in order to convey a meaning that could have otherwise been conveyed through a shorter, much
simpler sentence. Circumlocution involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect manner that leaves
the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning.

Example:
Instead of writing “At 8 pm he arrived by car for the dinner party.” the author writes, “Around 3
hours after sunset, it was winter at the time, the man arrived in a combustion engine driven piece of
technology with four wheels to join other bipedal creatures in the ingestion of somewhat large
quantities of food and drink while having discourse around a large wooden mesa designed for such a
purpose”.

Conflict
Definition:
It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance the protagonist of the story finds in achieving
his aims or dreams. The conflict is a discord that can have external aggressors or can even arise from
within the self. It can occur when the subject is battling his inner discord, at odds with his
surroundings or it may be pitted against others in the story.

Example:
John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his
parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.

Connotation
Definition:
Connotations are the associations people make with words that go beyond the literal or dictionary
definition. Many words have connotations that create emotions or feelings in the reader.

Example:
And once again, the autumn leaves were falling.

This phrase uses ‘autumn’ to signify something coming to an end.

Consonance
Definition:
Consonance refers to repetition of sounds in quick succession produced by consonants within a
sentence or phrase. The repetitive sound is often found at the end of a word. Consonance is the
opposite of assonance, which implies repetitive usage of vowel sounds.

Example:
He struck a streak of bad luck.

Denotation
Definition:
Denotation refers to the use of the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word.

Example:
They built a house.
In the above sentence, house is meant literally as in a building where a family lives. If the word
“home” was used instead in the above sentence in place of “house”, the meaning would not be so
literal as there are many emotions associated with the word “home” beyond simply the structure
where people live.

Deus ex Machina
Definition:
Deus ex Machina is a rather debatable and often criticized form of literary device. It refers to the
incidence where an implausible concept or character is brought into the story in order to make the
conflict in the story resolve and to bring about a pleasing solution. The use of Deus ex Machina is not
recommended as it is seen to be the mark of a poor plot that the writer needs to resort to random,
insupportable and unbelievable twists and turns to reach the end of the story.

Example:
If in a suspense novel the protagonist suddenly finds a solution to his dilemmas because of divine
intervention.

Chiasmus
Definition:
Chiasmus is a figure of speech containing two phrases that are parallel but inverted to each other.

Example:
You can take the patriot out of the country but you cannot take the country out of the patriot.

8 Comments

Circumlocution
Definition:
Circumlocution is a form of writing where the writer uses exaggeratedly long and complex sentences
in order to convey a meaning that could have otherwise been conveyed through a shorter, much
simpler sentence. Circumlocution involves stating an idea or a view in an indirect manner that leaves
the reader guessing and grasping at the actual meaning.

Example:
Instead of writing “At 8 pm he arrived by car for the dinner party.” the author writes, “Around 3
hours after sunset, it was winter at the time, the man arrived in a combustion engine driven piece of
technology with four wheels to join other bipedal creatures in the ingestion of somewhat large
quantities of food and drink while having discourse around a large wooden mesa designed for such a
purpose”.

8 Comments

Conflict
Definition:
It is a literary device used for expressing a resistance the protagonist of the story finds in achieving
his aims or dreams. The conflict is a discord that can have external aggressors or can even arise from
within the self. It can occur when the subject is battling his inner discord, at odds with his
surroundings or it may be pitted against others in the story.

Example:
John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his
parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.

9 Comments

Connotation
Definition:
Connotations are the associations people make with words that go beyond the literal or dictionary
definition. Many words have connotations that create emotions or feelings in the reader.

Example:
And once again, the autumn leaves were falling.
This phrase uses ‘autumn’ to signify something coming to an end.

4 Comments

Consonance
Definition:
Consonance refers to repetition of sounds in quick succession produced by consonants within a
sentence or phrase. The repetitive sound is often found at the end of a word. Consonance is the
opposite of assonance, which implies repetitive usage of vowel sounds.

Example:
He struck a streak of bad luck.

6 Comments

Denotation
Definition:
Denotation refers to the use of the dictionary definition or literal meaning of a word.

Example:
They built a house.

In the above sentence, house is meant literally as in a building where a family lives. If the word
“home” was used instead in the above sentence in place of “house”, the meaning would not be so
literal as there are many emotions associated with the word “home” beyond simply the structure
where people live.

10 Comments

Deus ex Machina
Definition:
Deus ex Machina is a rather debatable and often criticized form of literary device. It refers to the
incidence where an implausible concept or character is brought into the story in order to make the
conflict in the story resolve and to bring about a pleasing solution. The use of Deus ex Machina is not
recommended as it is seen to be the mark of a poor plot that the writer needs to resort to random,
insupportable and unbelievable twists and turns to reach the end of the story.

Example:
If in a suspense novel the protagonist suddenly finds a solution to his dilemmas because of divine
intervention.

11 Comments

Diction
Definition:
Diction is the distinctive tone or tenor of an author’s writings. Diction is not just a writer’s choice of
words it can include the mood, attitude, dialect and style of writing. Diction is usually judged with
reference to the prevailing standards of proper writing and speech and is seen as the mark of quality
of the writing. It is also understood as the selection of certain words or phrases that become peculiar
to a writer.

Example:
Certain writers in the modern day and age use archaic terms such as ‘thy’, ‘thee’ and ‘wherefore’ to
imbue a Shakespearean mood to their work

Doppelganger
Definition:
The term is derived from the German language and literally translates into ‘double walker’. It refers
to a character in the story that is actually a counterfeit or a copy of a genuine character.
Doppelgangers of the main characters usually bear the ability to impersonate the original but have
vastly different spirits and intentions. The doppelganger usually has a different appearance but an
earthly soul and supernatural hoodwinking abilities that allow it to fool other unsuspecting characters
Ekphrastic
Definition:
Ekphrastic refers to a form of writing, mostly poetry, wherein the author describes another work of
art, usually visual. It is used to convey the deeper symbolism of the corporeal art form by means of a
separate medium. It has often been found that ekphrastic writing is rhetorical in nature and symbolic
of a greater meaning.

Example:
A photograph of an empty landscape can convey desolation, abandon and loss. Similarly, one can
convey the same sentiments and concepts by using phrases such as ‘an empty doorway’ or ‘a
childless nursery’

Epilogue
Definition:
Epilogues are an inherent part of any story or poem and are essential to the structure of any written
form. The epilogue is an important literary tool that acts as the afterword once the last chapter is
over. The purpose of an epilogue is to add a little insight to some interesting developments that
happen once the major plot is over. Epilogues often act as a teaser trailer to any possible sequels that
might be created later.

Sometimes the epilogue is used to add a little bit about the life or future of the main characters after
the story itself has unfolded and wrapped up. Epilogues can be written in a number of ways:
sometimes the same narrative style as adopted in the story is continued while at other times one of
the characters might take up the narrative or speak one to one with the audience.

Example:
In a remarkably contemporary moment at the end of The Tempest, Shakespeare’s wizard Prospero
addresses the audience directly, breaking down the boundaries of the play. He informs them that the
play is over, his powers are gone, and thus his escape from the play’s island setting depends on their
applause that they, in effect, get to decide his fate.

This serves as a Epilogue for Shakespeare’s tragicomedy The Tempest.

Epithet
Definition:
An epithet is a literary device that is used as a descriptive device. It is usually used to add to a person
or place’s regular name and attribute some special quality to the same. Epithets are remarkable in that
they become a part of common parlance over time. These descriptive words and phrases can be used
to enhance the persona of real and fictitious places, objects, persons and divinities.

Example:
“Alexander the Great” is the epithet commonly used to refer to Alexander III of Macedon. The young
king has come to be recognized by this epithet in all of history and popular culture owing to his
spectacular achievements in creating one of the largest ever historical empires.

Euphemism
Definition:
The term ‘euphemism’ is used to refer to the literary practice of using a comparatively milder or less
abrasive form of a negative description instead of its original, unsympathetic form. This device is
used when writing about matters such as sex, violence, death, crimes and things “embarrassing”. The
purpose of euphemisms is to substitute unpleasant and severe words with more genteel ones in order
to mask the harshness.. The use of euphemisms is sometimes manipulated to lend a touch of
exaggeration or irony in satirical writing.

Example:
Using “to put out to pasture” when one implies retiring a person because they are too old to be
effective.

Downsizing – This is used when a company fires or lays off a larger number of employees

Friendly fire – This is used by the military when soldiers are accidentally killed by other soldiers on
the same side.
Tipsy – This is a soft way to say that someone has had to much to drink.

Golden years – This is used to describe the later period of life when someone is of old age.

Gone to heaven – This is a polite way to say that someone is dead.

Enhanced interrogation – This is modern euphemism to minimize what by many people would be
viewed as torture

Euphony
Definition:
The literary device “euphony” refers to the use of phrases and words that are noted for possessing an
extensive degree of notable loveliness or melody in the sound they create. The use of euphony is
predominant in literary prose and poetry, where poetic devices such
as alliteration, rhyme and assonance are used to create pleasant sounds. Euphony is the opposite of
cacophony, which refers to the creation of unpleasant and harsh sounds by using certain words and
phrases together. This literary device is based on the use and manipulation of phonetics in literature.

Example:
It has been said that the phrase “cellar door” is reportedly the most pleasant sounding phrase in the
English language. The phrase is said to depict the highest degree of euphony, and is said to be
especially notable when spoken in the British accent.

Faulty Parallelism
Definition:
In literature, the term ‘parallelism’ is used to refer to the practice placing together similarly structure
related phrases, words or clauses. Parallelism involves placing sentence items in a parallel
grammatical format wherein nouns are listed together, specific verb forms are listed together and the
like. When one fails to follow this parallel structure, it results in faulty parallelism. The failure to
maintain a balance in grammatical forms is known as faulty parallelism wherein similar grammatical
forms receive dissimilar or unequal weight.

Example:
On the TV show The Simpsons, lead character Bart Simpson says, “they are laughing, not with me”.

Flashback
Definition:
Flashback is a literary device wherein the author depicts the occurrence of specific events to the
reader, which have taken place before the present time the narration is following, or events that have
happened before the events that are currently unfolding in the story.

Flashback devices that are commonly used are past narratives by characters, depictions and
references of dreams and memories and a sub device known as authorial sovereignty wherein the
author directly chooses to refer to a past occurrence by bringing it up in a straightforward manner.
Flashback is used to create a background to the present situation, place or person.

Example:
Back in the day when Sarah was a young girl…

You can see flashbacks used very often in movies. For example, it is common in movies for there to
be a flashback that gives the viewer a look into the characters life when they were younger, or when
they have done something previously. This is done to help the viewer better understand the present
situation

Foil
Definition:
A foil is another character in a story who contrasts with the main character, usually to highlight one
of their attributes.

Example:
In the popular book series, Harry Potter, the character of Hogwarts principal Albus Dumbledore, who
portrays ‘good’, is constantly shown to believe in the power of true love (of all forms and types) and
is portrayed as a strong, benevolent and positive character while the antagonist Lord Voldemort, who
depicts the evil and ‘bad’ in the series is constantly shown to mock and disbelieve the sentiment of
love and think of it as a foolish indulgence, a trait that is finally his undoing

Foreshadowing
Definition:
The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of words or phrases that set the stage for the story
to unfold. It gives the reader a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story
or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story.

Example:
“He had no idea of the disastrous chain of events to follow”. In this sentence, while the protagonist is
clueless of further developments, the reader learns that something disastrous and problematic is about
to happen to/for him.

Hubris
Definition:
Hubris, in this day and age, is another way of saying overly arrogant. You can tell the difference of
hubris and just regular arrogance or pride by the fact that the character has seemed to allow reality
slip away from them. The character portraying hubris, also commonly referred to as hybris, may have
just gained a huge amount of power and the false belief that they are “untouchable”.

The term hubris used to have a slightly different meaning and was a very negative subject back in
ancient Greek. It used to be closely related to a crime in Athens. In writing and literature hubris is
generally considered a “tragic flaw” and it is saved for the protagonist. The reason for this is because
at the end of the story you should be able to see that it is this flaw that brings the “bad guy” down.

Example:
A classic example of hubris is featured in Shakespeare’s play Macbeth. Macbeth, the protagonist,
overfilled with ambition and arrogance, allows his hubris to think you would be able to kill the
valiant Duncan without penalty so he can claim the throne of Scotland for himself. Obviously murder
is highly frowned upon, so this eventually leads to Macbeth’s demise as well.

Hyperbaton
Definition:
A hyperbaton is a literary device wherein the author plays with the regular positioning of words and
phrases and creates a differently structured sentence to convey the same meaning. It is said that by
using a hyperbaton, words or phrases overstep their conventional placements and result in a more
complex and intriguing sentence structure. This literary device is used to add more depth and interest
to the sentence structure.

Example:
“Alone he walked on the cold, lonely roads”. This sentence is a variation of the more conventional,
“He walked alone on the cold, lonely roads”.

Hyperbole
Definition:
A hyperbole is a literary device wherein the author uses specific words and phrases that exaggerate
and overemphasize the basic crux of the statement in order to produce a grander, more noticeable
effect. The purpose of hyperbole is to create a larger-than-life effect and overly stress a specific
point. Such sentences usually convey an action or sentiment that is generally not practically/
realistically possible or plausible but helps emphasize an emotion.

Example:
“I am so tired I cannot walk another inch” or “I’m so sleepy I might fall asleep standing here”.

Imagery
Definition:
In literature, one of the strongest devices is imagery wherein the author uses words and phrases to
create “mental images” for the reader. Imagery helps the reader to visualize more realistically the
author’s writings. The usage of metaphors, allusions, descriptive words and similes amongst other
literary forms in order to “tickle” and awaken the readers’ sensory perceptions is referred to as
imagery. Imagery is not limited to only visual sensations, but also refers to igniting kinesthetic,
olfactory, tactile, gustatory, thermal and auditory sensations as well.

Example:
The gushing brook stole its way down the lush green mountains, dotted with tiny flowers in a riot of
colors and trees coming alive with gaily chirping birds.

Internal Rhyme
Definition:
In literature the internal rhyme is a practice of forming a rhyme in only one lone line of verse. An
internal rhyme is also known as the middle rhyme because it is typically constructed in the middle of
a line to rhyme with the bit at the end of the same metrical line.

Example:
The line from the famed poem Ancient Mariner, “We were the first that ever burst”.

Inversion
Definition:
The term ‘inversion’ refers to the practice of changing the conventional placement of words. It is a
literary practice typical of the older classical poetry genre. In present day literature it is usually used
for the purpose of laying emphasis this literary device is more prevalent in poetry than prose because
it helps to arrange the poem in a manner that catches the attention of the reader not only with its
content but also with its physical appearance; a result of the peculiar structuring.

Example:
In the much known and read Paradise Lost, Milton wrote:

“Of Man’s First Disobedience, and the Fruit

Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal taste

Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man

Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,

Sing Heav’nly Muse. . .”

Irony
Definition:
The use of irony in literature refers to playing around with words such that the meaning implied by a
sentence or word is actually different from the literal meaning. Often irony is used to suggest the
stark contrast of the literal meaning being put forth. The deeper, real layer of significance is revealed
not by the words themselves but the situation and the context in which they are placed.

Example:
Writing a sentence such as, “Oh! What fine luck I have!”. The sentence on the surface conveys that
the speaker is happy with their luck but actually what they mean is that they are extremely unhappy
and dissatisfied with their (bad) luck

Juxtaposition
Definition:
Juxtaposition is a literary device wherein the author places a person, concept, place, idea or theme
parallel to another. The purpose of juxtaposing two directly or indirectly related entities close
together in literature is to highlight the contrast between the two and compare them. This literary
device is usually used for etching out a character in detail, creating suspense or lending a rhetorical
effect.

Example:
In Paradise Lost, Milton has used juxtaposition to draw a parallel between the two protagonists,
Satan and God, who he discusses by placing their traits in comparison with one another to highlight
their differences.

Kennings
Definition:
The use of kennings in literature is characteristically related to works in Old English poetry where
the author would use a twist of words, figure of speech or magic poetic phrase or a newly created
compound sentence or phrase to refer to a person, object, place, action or idea. The use of imagery
and indicative, direct and indirect references to substitute the proper, formal name of the subject is
known as kennings. The use of kennings was also prevalent in Old Norse and Germanic poetry.

Example:
Kennings are rare in modern day language. Here are a few examples from Beowulf:

Battle-sweat = blood
Sky-candle = sun
Whale-road = ocean
Light-of-battle = sword

Litotes
Definition:
Litotes are figures of rhetoric speech that use an understated statement of an affirmative by using a
negative description. Rarely talked about, but commonly used in modern day conversations, litotes
are a discreet way of saying something unpleasant without directly using negativity.

Sometimes called an ironical understatement and/or an avoidance of a truth which can be either
positive or negative. Common examples: “I’m not feeling bad,” or “he’s definitely not a rocket
scientist.” The actual meanings are: “I am feeling well,” and “he is not smart.” Litotes were used
frequently in Old English Poetry and Literature, and can be found in the English, Russian, German,
Dutch and French languages.

Example:
In everyday conversations in the 21st century, one may hear expressions like:

“not the brightest bulb”

“not a beauty”
“not bad”
“not unfamiliar”

These are all examples of negative litotes that mean the opposite: “a dim bulb, or dumb,” “plain in
appearance,” “good,” and “knows very well.” Perhaps our society is not trying to be humorous or
sarcastic, but kinder?

Sometimes double negatives in literature, music and films create a litote that was not intended; for
instance in the Rolling Stones hit “I Can’t Get No Satisfaction,” actually means “I CAN receive
satisfaction.”

Perhaps some best description litotes are found in the bible: take for instance, Jeremiah 30:19:

“I will multiply them, and they shall not be few; I will make them honored, and they shall not be
small.” Correctly interpreted, he is saying “there will be many and they will be great or large.”

Malapropism
Definition:
Malapropism in literature refers to the practice of misusing words by substituting words with similar
sounding words that have different, often unconnected meanings, and thus creating a situation of
confusion, misunderstanding and amusement.
Malapropism is used to convey that the speaker or character is flustered, bothered, unaware or
confused and as a result cannot employ proper diction. A trick to using malapropism is to ensure that
the two words (the original and the substitute) sound similar enough for the reader to catch onto the
intended switch and find humor in the result.

Example:
In the play Much Ado About Nothing, noted playwright William Shakespeare’s character Dogberry
says, “Our watch, sir, have indeed comprehended two auspicious persons.” Instead, what the
character means to say is “”Our watch, sir, have indeed apprehended two suspicious persons.”

Metaphor
Definition:
Metaphors are one of the most extensively used literary devices. A metaphor refers to a meaning or
identity ascribed to one subject by way of another. In a metaphor, one subject is implied to be
another so as to draw a comparison between their similarities and shared traits.

The first subject, which is the focus of the sentences is usually compared to the second subject, which
is used to convey a degree of meaning that is used to characterize the first. The purpose of using a
metaphor is to take an identity or concept that we understand clearly (second subject) and use it to
better understand the lesser known element (the first subject).

Example:
“Henry was a lion on the battlefield”. This sentence suggests that Henry fought so valiantly and
bravely that he embodied all the personality traits we attribute to the ferocious animal. This sentence
implies immediately that Henry was courageous and fearless, much like the King of the Jungle.

Metonymy
Definition:
Metonymy in literature refers to the practice of not using the formal word for an object or subject and
instead referring to it by using another word that is intricately linked to the formal name or word. It is
the practice of substituting the main word with a word that is closely linked to it.

Example:
When we use the name “Washington D.C” we are talking about the U.S’ political hot seat by
referring to the political capital of the United States because all the significant political institutions
such as the White House, Supreme Court, the U.S. Capitol and many more are located her. The
phrase “Washington D.C.” is metonymy for the government of the U.S. in this case.

Mood
Definition:
The literary device ‘mood’ refers to a definitive stance the author adopts in shaping a specific
emotional perspective towards the subject of the literary work. It refers to the mental and emotional
disposition of the author towards the subject, which in turn lends a particular character or atmosphere
to the work. The final tone achieved thus is instrumental in evoking specific, appropriate responses
from the reader.

Example:
In Erich Segal’s Love Story, the relationship of the two protagonists is handled with such beauty,
delicateness and sensitivity that the reader is compelled to feel the trials and tribulations of the
characters.

Motif
Definition:
The literary device ‘motif’ is any element, subject, idea or concept that is constantly present through
the entire body of literature. Using a motif refers to the repetition of a specific theme dominating the
literary work. Motifs are very noticeable and play a significant role in defining the nature of the
story, the course of events and the very fabric of the literary piece.

Example:
In many famed fairy tales, the motif of a ‘handsome prince’ falling in love with a ‘damsel in distress’
and the two being bothered by a wicked step mother, evil witch or beast and finally conquering all to
live ‘happily ever after’ is a common motif.
Another common motif is the simple, pretty peasant girl or girl from a modest background in fairy
tales discovering that she is actually a royal or noble by the end of the tale.

Negative Capability
Definition:
The use of negative capability in literature is a concept promoted by poet John Keats, who was of the
opinion that literary achievers, especially poets, should be able to come to terms with the fact that
some matters might have to be left unsolved and uncertain. Keats was of the opinion that some
certainties were best left open to imagination and that the element of doubt and ambiguity added
romanticism and specialty to a concept.

Example:
The best references of the use of negative capability in literature would be of Keats’ own works,
especially poems such as Ode on a Grecian Urn and Ode to a Nightingale.

Nemesis
Definition:
In literature, the use of a nemesis refers to a situation of poetic justice wherein the positive characters
are rewarded and the negative characters are penalized. The word also sometimes refers to the
character or medium by which this justice is brought about as Nemesis was the patron goddess of
vengeance according to classical mythology.

Onomatopoeia
Definition:
The term ‘onomatopoeia’ refers to words whose very sound is very close to the sound they are meant
to depict. In other words, it refers to sound words whose pronunciation to the actual sound they
represent.

Example:
Words such as grunt, huff, buzz and snap are words whose pronunciation sounds very similar to the
actual sounds these words represent. In literature such words are useful in creating a stronger mental
image. For instance, sentences such as “the whispering of the forest trees” or “the hum of a thousand
bees” or “the click of the door in the nighttime” create vivid mental images.

Oxymoron
Definition:
Oxymoron is a significant literary device as it allows the author to use contradictory, contrasting
concepts placed together in a manner that actually ends up making sense in a strange, and slightly
complex manner. An oxymoron is an interesting literary device because it helps to perceive a deeper
level of truth and explore different layers of semantics while writing.

Example:
Sometimes we cherish things of little value.
He possessed a cold fire in his eyes.

Paradox
Definition:
A paradox in literature refers to the use of concepts or ideas that are contradictory to one another, yet,
when placed together hold significant value on several levels. The uniqueness of paradoxes lies in the
fact that a deeper level of meaning and significance is not revealed at first glance, but when it does
crystallize, it provides astonishing insight.

Example:
High walls make not a palace; full coffers make not a king.

Pathetic Fallacy
Definition:
Pathetic fallacy is a type of literary device whereby the author ascribes the human feelings of one or
more of his or her characters to nonhuman objects or nature or phenomena. It is a type of
personification, and is known to occur more by accident and less on purpose.
Example:
The softly whistling teapot informed him it was time for breakfast.

Periodic Structure
Definition:
In literature, the concept of a periodic structure refers to a particular placement of sentence elements
such as the main clause of the sentence and/or its predicate are purposely held off and placed at the
end instead of at the beginning or their conventional positions. In such placements, the crux of the
sentence’s meaning does not become clear to the reader until they reach the last part. While
undeniably confusing at first, a periodic structure lends a flair of drama and romanticism to a
sentence and is greatly used in poetry.

Example:
Instead of writing, “brokenhearted and forlorn she waited till the end of her days for his return” one
may write, “for his return, brokenhearted and forlorn, waited she till the end of her days”.

Periphrasis
Definition:
The term ‘periphrasis’ refers to the use of excessive language and surplus words to convey a meaning
that could otherwise be conveyed with fewer words and in more direct a manner. The use of this
literary device can be to embellish a sentence, to create a grander effect, to beat around the bush and
to draw attention away from the crux of the message being conveyed.

Example:
Instead of simply saying “I am displeased with your behavior”, one can say, “the manner in which
you have conducted yourself in my presence of late has caused me to feel uncomfortable and has
resulted in my feeling disgruntled and disappointed with you”.

Personification
Definition:
Personification is one of the most commonly used and recognized literary devices. It refers to the
practice of attaching human traits and characteristics with inanimate objects, phenomena and
animals.

Example:
“The raging winds”

“The wise owl”

“The warm and comforting fire”

Plot
Definition:
The plot usually refers to the sequence of events and happenings that make up a story. There is
usually a pattern, unintended or intentional, that threads the plot together. The plot basically refers to
the main outcome and order of the story. There is another kind of plot in literature as well; it refers to
the conflict or clash occurring as a part of the story. The conflict usually follows 3 regular formats: a)
characters in conflict with one another b) characters in conflict with their surroundings and c)
characters in conflict with themselves.

Example:
Many date movies follow a similar simple plot. Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy wins girl back in
the end.

Point of View
Definition:
Point of view is the manner in which a story is narrated or depicted and who it is that tells the story.
Simply put, the point of view determines the angle and perception of the story unfolding, and thus
influences the tone in which the story takes place. The point of view is instrumental in manipulating
the reader’s understanding of the narrative. In a way, the point of view can allow or withhold the
reader access into the greater reaches of the story.

Two of the most common point of view techniques are the first person, wherein the story is told by
the narrator from his or her standpoint and the third person wherein the narrator does not figure in the
events of the story and tells the story by referring to all characters and places in the third person with
third person pronouns and proper nouns.

Example:
In the popular Lord of the Rings book series, the stories are narrated in the third person and all
happenings are described from an “outside the story” point of view. Contrastingly, in the popular
teen book series, Princess Diaries, the story is told in the first person, by the protagonist herself.

Portmanteau
Definition:
In literature, this device refers to the practice of joining together two or more words in order to create
an entirely new word. This is often done in order to create a name or word for something by
combining the individual characteristics of 2 or more other words.

Example:
1. The word “smog” is a portmanteau that was built combining “fog” and “smoke” and “smog” has
the properties of both fog and smoke.

2. Liger= Lion + Tiger= A hybrid of the two feline species, possessing characteristics of both.

Prologue
Definition:
A prologue can be understood to be a sort of introduction to a story that usually sets the tone for the
story and acts as a bit of a backgrounder or a “sneak peek” into the story. Prologues are typically a
narrative ‘spoken’ by one of the characters and not from the part of the author.

Example:
1. “The origin of this story is…”

2. “It all began one day when…”

Puns
Definition:
Puns are a very popular literary device wherein a word is used in a manner to suggest two or more
possible meanings. This is generally done to the effect of creating humor or irony or wryness. Puns
can also refer to words that suggest meanings of similar-sounding words. The trick is to make the
reader have an “ah!” moment and discover 2 or more meanings.

Example:
Santa’s helpers are known as subordinate Clauses.

Rhyme Scheme
Definition:
The rhyme scheme is the practice of rhyming words placed at the end of the lines in the prose or
poetry. Rhyme scheme refers to the order in which particular words rhyme. If the alternate words
rhyme, it is an “a-b-a-b” rhyme scheme, which means “a” is the rhyme for the lines 1 and 3 and “b”
is the rhyme affected in the lines 2 and 4.

Example:
Roses are red (a)

Violets are blue (b)

Beautiful they all may be (c)

But I love you (b)

The above is an “a-b-c-b” rhyme scheme.

Rhythm & Rhyme
Definition:
The concept of ‘rhythm and rhyme’ refers to a pattern of rhymes that is created by using words that
produce the same, or similar sounds. Rhythm and rhyme together refer to the recurrence of similar
sounds in prose and poetry, creating a musical, gentle effect.

Example:
“I am a teapot

Short and stout;

This is my handle

And this is my spout.

When the water’s boiling

Hear me shout;

Just lift me up

And pour me out”

Satire
Definition:
The use of satire in literature refers to the practice of making fun of a human weakness or character
flaw. The use of satire is often inclusive of a need or decision of correcting or bettering the character
that is on the receiving end of the satire. In general, even though satire might be humorous and may
“make fun”, its purpose is not to entertain and amuse but actually to derive a reaction of contempt
from the reader.

Example:
An example of satire in modern pop culture is the TV series Southpark that uses satire as it primary
medium for drawing attention the flaws in society, especially American society at present. The
scripts and writing for the show are an excellent example of satire in written form.

Setting
Definition:
In literature, the word ‘setting’ is used to identify and establish the time, place and mood of the
events of the story. It basically helps in establishing where and when and under what circumstances
the story is taking place.

Example:
In the first installment of the Harry Potter series, a large part of the book takes place at the
protagonist, Harry’s, aunt’s and uncle’s place, living in the “muggle” (non-magical) world with the
“muggle” folks, and Harry is unaware of his magical capabilities and blood. This setting establishes
the background that Harry has a non-magical childhood with other “muggle” people and has no clue
about his special powers or his parents and is raised much like, actually worse than, regular people,
till his 11th birthday.

Simile
Definition:
Similes are one of the most commonly used literary devices; referring to the practice of drawing
parallels or comparisons between two unrelated and dissimilar things, people, beings, places and
concepts. By using similes a greater degree of meaning and understanding is attached to an otherwise
simple sentence. The reader is able to better understand the sentiment the author wishes to convey.
Similes are marked by the use of the words ‘as’ or ‘such as’ or ‘like’.

Example:
He is like a mouse in front of the teacher.

Spoonerism
Definition:
Spoonerism refers to the practice of interchanging the first letters of some words in order to create
new words or even to create nonsensical words in order to create a humorous setting. While they are
often unintentional and known as a “slip of the tongue”, in literature they are welcomed as witty
wordplay.

Example:
The phrase “flesh and blood” being spoken as a character as “blesh and flood” in urgency and
heightened emotion.

Stanza
Definition:
The term stanza refers to a single, related chunk of lines in poetry. It basically refers to one unit or
group of lines, which forms one particular faction in poetry. The most basic kind of stanza is usually
4 lines per group, with the simplest rhyme scheme “a-b-a-b” being followed.

Example:
“The greedy paddy cat,

Chased after the mice;

She got so round and fat,

But it tasted so nice”

Stream of Consciousness
Definition:
The phrase ‘stream of consciousness’ refers to an uninterrupted and unhindered collection and
occurrence of thoughts and ideas in the conscious mind. In literature, the phrase refers to the flow of
these thoughts, with reference to a particular character’s thinking process. This literary device is
usually used in order to provide a narrative in the form of the character’s thoughts instead of using
dialogue or description.

Example:
All writings by Virginia Woolf are a good example of literary stream of consciousness.

“Life is not a series of gig lamps symmetrically arranged; life is a luminous halo, a semi-transparent
envelope surrounding us from the beginning of consciousness to the end.” The Common Reader
(1925)

Suspense
Definition:
Suspense is the intense feeling that an audience goes through while waiting for the outcome of
certain events. It basically leaves the reader holding their breath and wanting more information. The
amount of intensity in a suspenseful moment is why it is hard to put a book down. Without suspense,
a reader would lose interest quickly in any story because there is nothing that is making the reader
ask, “What’s going to happen next?” In writing, there has to be a series of events that leads to a
climax that captivates the audience and makes them tense and anxious to know what is going to
happen.

Example:
A cliffhanger is a great way to create suspense. You remember when you were a kid and very excited
to watch those Saturday morning shows. You can probably recall the feeling you had at the pit of
your stomach when, after about 25 minutes and lots of commercials, you were hoping to find out
what happened to your favorite character. However, you didn’t get to find out. Instead they would
make the “Tune In Next Week” announcement and you already knew that you would be there. Same
time, same place. Suspense is a powerful literary tool because, if done correctly, you know your
audience will be back for more and more.

Symbol
Definition:
A symbol is literary device that contains several layers of meaning, often concealed at first sight, and
is representative of several other aspects, concepts or traits than those that are visible in the literal
translation alone. Symbol is using an object or action that means something more than its literal
meaning.

Example:
The phrase “a new dawn” does not talk only about the actual beginning of a new day but also
signifies a new start, a fresh chance to begin and the end of a previous tiring time.

Synecdoche
Definition:
A synecdoche is a literary device that uses a part of something to refer to the whole or vice versa. It
is somewhat rhetorical in nature, where the entire object is represented by way of a fraction of it or a
fraction of the object is symbolized by the whole.

Example:
“Weary feet in the walk of life”, does not refer to the feet actually being tired or painful; it is
symbolic of a long, hard struggle through the journey of life and feeling low, tired, unoptimistic and
‘the walk of life’ does not represent an actual path or distance covered, instead refers to the entire
sequence of life events that has made the person tired.

Synesthesia
Definition:
While the term synesthesia literally refers to a medical condition wherein one or many of the sensory
modalities become joined to one another, in literature it refers to the depiction of a strong connection,
link or bond between the different senses. Characters in literature are sometimes described to be
experiences synesthesia. Synesthesia is the conflation of the senses.

Example:
The Sound of Blue by Hollu Payne which portrays synesthesia with respect to the Romantic ideal.

Syntax
Definition:
Syntax in literature refers to the way in which words and sentences are placed together. Usually in
the English language the syntax should follow a pattern of subject-verb-object agreement but
sometimes authors play around with this to achieve a lyrical, rhythmic, rhetoric or questioning effect.
It is not related to the act of choosing specific words or even the meaning of each word or the overall
meanings conveyed by the sentences.

Example:
The sentence “The man drives the car” would follow normal syntax in the English language. By
changing the syntax to “The car drives the man”, the sentence becomes awkward.

Theme
Definition:
The theme of any literary work is the base that acts as a foundation for the entire literary piece. The
theme links all aspects of the literary work with one another and is basically the main subject. The
theme can be an enduring pattern or motif throughout the literary work, occurring in a complex, long
winding manner or it can be short and succinct and provide a certain insight into the story.

Example:
The main theme in the play Romeo and Juliet was love with smaller themes of sacrifice, tragedy,
struggle, hardship, devotion and so on.

Tone
Definition:
The tone of a literary work is the perspective or attitude that the author adopts with regards to a
specific character, place or development. Tone can portray a variety of emotions ranging from
solemn, grave, and critical to witty, wry and humorous. Tone helps the reader ascertain the writer’s
feelings towards a particular topic and this in turn influences the reader’s understanding of the story.

Example:
In her Harry Potter series, author J.K. Rowling has taken an extremely positive, inspiring and
uplifting tone towards the idea of love and devotion.

Tragedy
Definition:
In literature, the concept of tragedy refer to a series of unfortunate events by which one or more of
the literary characters in the story undergo several misfortunes, which finally culminate into a
disaster of ‘epic proportions’. Tragedy is generally built up in 5 stages: a) happy times b) the
introduction of a problem c) the problem worsens to a crisis or dilemma d) the characters are unable
to prevent the problem from taking over e) the problem results in some catastrophic, grave ending,
which is the tragedy culminated.

Example:
In the play Julius Caesar, the lead character is an ambitious, fearless and power hungry king who
ignores all the signs and does not heed the advice of the well-meaning: finally being stabbed to death
by his own best friend and advisor Brutus. This moment has been immortalized by the phrase “Et tu
Brute?”, wherein Caesar realizes that he has finally been defeated, and that too through betrayal.

Verisimilitude
Definition:
Verisimilitude tends to be based around the appearance or proximity to being real, or the truth. It was
a large part of the work of Karl Popper, and can be used in a variety of different ways to describe
something, as well. It is a way of implying the believability or likelihood of a theory or narrative.
However, just because something can be described as having Verisimilitude does not mean that it is
true, only that merely appears to or seems to be true.

Example:
It can be used in a variety of ways, for example;

“While some dislike the content of the novel due to its graphic nature, you cannot deny that the
content certainly gives the book some Verisimilitude”

An example of Verisimilitude in concept, though, could be a doubtful statement in a court of law or

even a false testimonial for a restaurant. If something “seems” like it’s all well and good, but you
can’t quite decide, then it can be said to have Verisimilitude.

Verse
Definition:
The literary term ‘verse’ is used to refer to any single, lone line of a poetry composition. A metrical
writing line is known as verse. The word can however, also refer to a stanza or any other part of the
poetry.

Example:
A single line or stanza in a poem would be an example of verse.
Cause and Effect Relationship
Think about when you woke up today. In all likelihood, you were probably woken up by the sound of an alarm
clock. The loud sound of the alarm was the cause. Without the alarm, you probably would have overslept. In this
scenario, the alarm had the effect of you waking up at a certain time. This is what we mean by cause and effect.

A cause-effect relationship is a relationship in which one event (the cause) makes another event happen (the
effect). One cause can have several effects. For example, let's say you were conducting an experiment using regular
high school students with no athletic ability. The purpose of our experiment is to see if becoming an all-star athlete
would increase their attractiveness and popularity ratings among other high school students.

Suppose that your results showed that not only did the students view the all-star athletes as more attractive and
popular, but the self-confidence of the athletes also improved. Here we see that one cause (having the status of an
all-star athlete) has two effects (increased self-confidence and higher attractiveness ratings among other students).

Examples of Cause and Effect

 We received seven inches of rain in four hours. - The underpass was flooded.
 I never brush my teeth. - I have 5 cavities.
 Smoking cigarettes - Lung cancer
 Many buffalo were killed. - Buffalo almost became extinct.
 The streets were snow-packed and icy. - Cars needed more time to stop.
 He broke his arm. - The doctor put it in a cast.
 The boss was busy. - Her secretary took a message.
 A basketball player was traveling. - The referee called a penalty.
 I flipped the light switch on. - The light came on.
 An oil spill - Many deaths to wildlife
 Sedentary lifestyle - Childhood obesity

Cause and Effect Examples in Sentences

 When water is heated, the molecules move quickly, therefore the water boils.
 A tornado blew the roof off the house, and as a result, the family had to find another place to live.
 Because the alarm was not set, we were late for work.
 The moon has gravitational pull, consequently the oceans have tides.
 Since school was canceled, we went to the mall.
 John made a rude comment, so Elise hit him.
 When the ocean is extremely polluted, coral reefs die.
 The meal we ordered was cheaper than expected, so we ordered dessert.
 Since helium rises, a helium balloon floats.
 There has been an increase in greenhouse gases, therefore global warming is happening.
 Betty completed each task perfectly, therefore she was promoted.
 Some believe dinosaurs died out because a large meteor hit the earth.
 I had to get the mop since I spilled my juice.
 Tsunamis happen when tectonic plates shift.
 Fred was driving 75 in a 35 mile zone, therefore he got a speeding ticket.
 Because of changes in classifications, Pluto is no longer a planet.
 Maria didn't follow the recipe correctly, so the cake did not come out as expected.
 The weather forecast called for rain, so he took his umbrella.
 Because of a price increase, sales are down.
 Water is formed when two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom combine.
 The baby was crying, so Dad picked him up.
 I learned to play the drums quickly because I took lessons from a pro.
 The batter couldn't hit the softball because he didn't keep his eyes on the ball.
 When the manuscript is edited, the company will publish it.
 Because the cat was frightened, he arched his back and fluffed his tail.
 A peacock will spread his feathers so he will attract a female.
 Since the electricity went out for most of the day, the ice cream in the freezer melted.
 As the wind speed increases, the sail boat moves faster.
 When nuclear fusion stops or starts, a star explodes.
 Wind is produced when the surface of the Earth is heated unevenly.
 Because of inflation, the dollar is worth less than before.
 Since the refrigerator was practically empty, we had to go to the store.