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Tiruvannamalai – 606611
A Course Material
on
Surveying-II
By
R.Muralidaran
Assistant Professor
Civil Department
Quality Certificate
Subject Code:CE6404
Subject Name:Surveying II
Year/Sem:II/IV
Name: R.Muralidaran
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.D.Murali is of the
adequate quality. He has referred more than five books and one among them is from
abroad author.
Seal: Seal:
S.K.P.Engineering College,Tiruvannamalai IV Sem
OBJECTIVES:
• This subject deals with geodetic measurements and Control Survey methodology and
its adjustments. The student is also exposed to the Modern Surveying.
Horizontal and vertical control - Methods - specifications - triangulation- baseline - instruments and
Errors Sources- precautions and corrections - classification of errors - true and most probable
values- weighed observations - method of equal shifts -principle of least squares -0 normal
principle, Sources of Error, Infrared and Laser Total Station instruments. Microwave system:
Measuring principle, working principle, Sources of Error, Microwave Total Station instruments.
Comparis on between Electro-optical and Microwave system. Care and maintenance of Total
triangulation.
Simple curves - Compound and reverse curves - Setting out Methods - Transition curves -
Functions and requirements - Setting out by offsets and angles - Vertical curves - Sight distances-
hydrographic surveying - Tides - MSL - Sounding methods - Three-point problem - Strength of fix
- Sextants and station pointer- Astronomical Surveying - field observations and determination of
Remote Sensing
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
On completion of this course students shall be able to
• Understand the advantages of electronic surveying over conventional surveying methods
• Understand the working principle of GPS, its components, signal structure, and error
sources
• Understand various GPS surveying methods and processing techniques used in GPS
• observations
TEXT BOOKS:
1. James M. Anderson and Edward M. Mikhail, "Surveying, Theory and Practice",
7th Edition, McGraw Hill, 2001.
2. Bannister and S. Raymond, "Surveying", 7th Edition, Longman 2004.
3. Laurila, S.H. "Electronic Surveying in Practice", John Wiley and Sons Inc, 1993
REFERENCES:
rd
1. Alfred Leick, "GPS satellite surveying", John Wiley & Sons Inc., 3 Edition, 2004.
2. Guocheng Xu, " GPS Theory, Algorithms and Applications", Springer - Berlin, 2003.
3. Satheesh Gopi, rasathishkumar, N. madhu, "Advanced Surveying, Total Station GPS and
CONTENTS
1 Unit – I 01
2 Unit – II 31
3 Unit – III 58
4 Unit – IV 71
5 Unit – V 96
1
Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
8. Give the specification of first order triangulation. (CO1-L1) (AUC May/June 2009)
Average triangle closure : less than 1 second
Maximum triangle closure : not more than 3 seconds
Length of the base line : 5 to 15 km
Length of the sides of triangles : 30 to 150 km
Actual error of base : 1 in 300000
Probable error of base : 1 in 1000000
Discrepancy between two measures of section: 10 mm km
Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 60000 to 1 in 250000
Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 0.5 seconds
9. Name the different corrections to be applied to the length of a base line.
(CO1-L1) (AUC May/June 2013) (AUC May/June 2012) (AUC May/June 2009)
) Correction for absolute length
) Correction for temperature
) Correction for pull or tension
) Correction for sag
) Correction for slope
) Correction for alignment
) Reduction to sea level
10. Triangulation networks for covering a large area are composed of any one or a
combination of basic figures arranged as a series of chains or a connected centralized
network. Enumerate any two such arrangements. (CO1-L1)(AUC May/June 2012)
) Single chain of triangles
) Double chain of triangles
) Central point figures
) Quadrilateral or interlacing triangles
i) Single chain of triangles:
This type of figure is used where a narrowstrip of terrain is to be covered. This system is
economical and rapid. As the number of conditions to be fulfilled in the figure adjustment is
relatively small, it is not accurate for primary work.
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
11. What is meant by control surveying? (CO1-L1) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
A control survey is a survey that provides positions horizontal or vertical points to which
supplementary surveys are adjusted.
12. What is satellite station and reduction to center? (CO1-L1) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Satellite station:
It is selected as near as possible to the true station. From this station observations are
taken to the other triangulation stations with the same precision.
Reduction to centre:
Angles taken from satellite station are corrected and reduced to what they would have
been if the true station was occupied. This operation of applying corrections to the observed
angles due to the eccentricity of the station is termed as Reduction to centre.
13. Describe signals. (CO1-L1) (AUC May/June 2013 )
A signal is any device erected to define the exact position of an observed station.
Requirements:
) It should be clearly visible against any background.
) It should be feasible to centre accurately over the station mark.
) It should be suitable for accurate bisection.
) It should be free from phase.
14. What is meant by third order or tertiary triangulation? (CO1-L1)
Third order or tertiary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the
framework of secondary triangulation. These are the points which form the immediate control for
engineering and other surveys.
15. Name two groups of people involved in the measuring the base line. (CO1-L1)
The field work for the base-line measurement is carried out by two parties, viz, setting
out party and measuring party.
Setting out party consists of two surveyors and a number of porters. The duty of the
porters is to place the measuring tripods at correct intervals, in alignment in advance.
Measuring party consists of two observers, recorder, leveler and staffman for actual
measuremet.
16. Enlist the types of signals used in triangulation. (CO1-L2)
) Day light or Non - luminous signals
) Sun or Luminous signals
) Night signals
17. Give the classification of triangulation system. (CO1-L2)
) First order or primary triangulation
) Second order or secondary triangulation
) Third order or tertiary triangulation
18. List the equipments used for measurement of base line. (CO1-L2)
Standardized tape, Straining device, Spring balance, Thermometers, Steel tape and
tripods.
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
PART B
1. The following observations were made in a trigonometric leveling :
Angle of depression to G at S = 10 45' 2''
Height of Instrument at S = 1.180 m
Height of signal at G = 4.220 m
Horizontal distance between G and S = 6945 m
Co-efficient of refraction = 0.07
R sin 1" = 30.88 m. If RL of S is 345.32 m. Calculate RL of G.
(CO1-H2) (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
Solution:
d = 6945 m; β = 1 0 45' 32''; h = 1.180 m; s = 4.220 m; R sin 1" = 30.88 m; m = 0.07;
RL of S = 345.32 m
d sin 1 m
H 2
cos ( 1 m )
Here 1
s h 4.22 1.18
90.28" ( ve )
d sin 1" 6945 X sin 1"
1 1O 45' 32" 90.28"
= 10 45' 2.28"
d 6945 224.90" 3' 44.9"
R sin 1" 30.88
3' 44.9" 1' 52.45"
Curvature correction,
2 2
Refraction correction, r m 0.07 X 3' 44.9" 15.74"
d sin 1 m
H 2
cos ( 1 m )
6945 sin ( 1O 45' 2.28" ( 0.07 X 3' 44.9" ) 1' 52.45" )
cos ( 1O 45' 2.28" ( 0.07 3' 44.9" ) 3' 44.9" )
H = 209 m X
RL of G = RL of S + H = 345.32 + 209
RL of G = 554.32 m
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Civil Department
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S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
2 2
= 7.42 m
RL of N = RL of M + H = 395.46 + 7.42
RL of N = 402.88 m
3. What is meant by a satellite station and reduction to centre? Derive the expression
for reducing the angles measured at the satellite station to centre. (CO1-H2) (AUC
Apr/May 2010)
Satellite station:
Sometimes in order to form well-conditioned triangles of triangulation and also to have
better visibility objects such as church spirals, towers of temples, flag poles, etc are selected.
But the instrument cannot be set up over these true stations for the measurement of angles. In
such cases, a subsidiary station called as satellite station or eccentric station or false station is
selected as near as possible to the true station. From this station observations are taken to the
other triangulation stations with the same precision.
Reduction to centre:
Angles taken from satellite station are corrected and reduced to what they would have
been if the true station was occupied. This operation of applying corrections to the observed
angles due to the eccentricity of the station is termed as Reduction to centre.
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
7
Civil Department
Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
Positions of satellite stations:
Case 1: Position 81 to the left of B (fig.1)
True angle, 1 2
Case 2: Position 82 to the right of B (fig.2)
True angle, 1 2
Case 3: Position 83 between AC and B (fig.3)
True angle, 1 2
Case 4: Position 84 below B (fig.4)
True angle, 1 2
The observed angles are reduced to the meridian and the corrections are computed as
d sin
( in sec onds )
D sin 1"
Where θ = observed angle reduced to the assumed meridian.
D = distance from the true station to the observed station.
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Civil Department
Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
4. The following observations were made on a satellite station S to determine angle BAC.
Calculate the angle BAC. (CO1-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2010)
Solution:
The correction to any direction is given by,
d sin
sec onds
D sin 1"
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
Direction of AC = direction of BC + β = 100 15' 00" + 9' 7"
0
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
2
D
h (1 2m )
2R
Substituting m = 0.07 and R in km.
h = 0.06728 D2
h1 = 0.06728 D12 (metres)
where h1 = known elevation of station A above datum
D1 = distance from A to the point of tangency
D = known distance between A and B
h1
D1
0.06728
D1 3.853 h1
Knowing D1, D2 = D - D1
Where D2 = distance from B to the point of tangency.
Knowing D2, h2 the required elevation of B above datum may be calculated from
h2 = 0.06728 D12 (metres)
If the actual ground level of B is known, it can be known whether it is necessary to
elevate the station B above the ground. If found to be necessary the required height of tower
can be calculated.
It is a point to be noted that the line of sight should not graze the surface at the point of
tangency but should be atleast 2 to 3 m above.
iii) Intervening ground:
In general during the reconnaissance itself the elevations and positions of peaks in the
intervening ground between the proposed stations should be determined.
A comparison of the elevations of stations should be made to the elevation of the
proposed line of sight. If the line of sight is clear off the obstruction then the work is proceeded.
If not the problem can be solved based on the principle discussed in the previous sections.
6. The elevation of two triangulation stations A and B 150 km apart are 250 m and 1050 m
above MSL. The elevation of two peaks C and D on the profile between satellite stations
are 300 m and 550 m respectively. The distance AC = 50 km and AD = 85 km. design a
suitable signal required at B, so that it is visible from the ground station A.
(CO1-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2010)
Solution:
Let acedb be the visible horizon and a horizontal sight Ab 1, through A meet the
horizon tangentially at e. let AO, CO, DO and BO be the vertical lines through A, C, D and
B respectively and O being the centre of the earth. Distance Ae to the visible horizon from
station A of an elevation 250 m is given by
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
ed = AD - Ae = 85 - 60.96 = 24.04 km
eb = AB - Ae = 150 - 60.96 = 89.04 km
Let c 1, d1 and b1 be the points in which a horizontal line through A cut the vertical
lines through C, D and B respectively. The corresponding heights cc 1, dd1 and bb1 are given as
cc1 0.06728 ( ce ) 2 0.06728 (10.96 ) 2 8.08 m
Ac1 50
c1 c2 Bb1 X 516.6 X 172.2 m
Ab1 150
Ad1 85
d1 d 2 Bb1 X 516.6 X 292.74 m
Ab1 150
Elevation of line of sight at C = elevation of c 2
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Civil Department Surveying-
II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
= cc1 c1 c2 8.08 172.2 180.28 m
Elevation of line of sight at D = elevation of d2
= dd1 d1 d 2 38.88 292.74 331.62 m
Elevation of C = 300 m and elevation of D = 550 m
Thus the line of sight clears the peak D, but fails to clear the peak at C by
c 2C = 300 - 180.28 = 119.72 m
Let Ac 3 be the new line of sight, such that Cc 3 = 3 m (minimum)
c 2c 3 = Cc 3 + c 2C = 3 + 119.72 = 122.72 m
AB 150
Hence Bb3 = c 2 c3 X 122.72 X
AC 85
2
l ( wl ) 2 lW2
c s
2
24 n P
2
24 n 2 P 2
Where CS = tape correction per tape length
l = total length of the tape
W = total weight of the tape
n = number of equal spans
P = pull applied
If L = total length measured
N = number of whole length tape
Total sag correction = Nc s sag correction for any fractional tape length
8. From an eccentric station S, 12.25 m to the west of the main station B, the following
angles were measured.
Angle of BSC = 76° 25' 32"
Angle of CSA = 54° 32' 20"
The stations S and C are to the oppose sides of the line AB. Calculate the correct angle
ABC if the length AB and BC are 5286.5 m and 4932.2 m respectively.
(CO1-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Solution:
BS = d = 12.25 m; AB = c = 5286.5 m; BC = a = 4932.2 m; 54
0
32' 20" ;
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
76 0
25' 32"
Correct angle, 1 2
d sin ( )
1 x 206265
c
12.25 x sin ( 54 o 32' 20" 76 o 25' 32")
x 206265
5286.5
β1 = 360.92 sec = 6' 0.92"
d sin
2 x 206265
b
12.25 x sin ( 76 o 25' 32" )
x 206265
4932.2
β2 = 497.98 sec = 8' 17.98"
1 2
= 54 o 32' 20" 6' 0.92" 8' 17.98"
α = 540 30' 2.94"
9. A steel tape 20 m long standardized at 55° F with a pull of 98.1 N was used for measuring
a baseline. Find the correction per tape length, if the temperature at the time of
measurement was 80° F and the pull exerted was 156.96 N. Weight of 1 cubic metre of
steel = 77107 N. weight of tape = 7.85 N and E = 2.05 x 10 5 N/mm2. Coefficient of linear
expansion of tape per degree F = 6.2 x 10-6. (CO1-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Solution:
L = 20 m; T0 = 55oC; Tm = 80oC; Po = 98.1 N; P = 156.96 N; α = 6.2 x 10-
6
; Weight of steel = 77107 N; Weight of tape = 7.85 N; E = 2.05 x 10 5 N I
mm 2
i) Correction for Temperature:
Ct = α (Tm - T0) L
= 6.2 x 10-6 (80 - 55) x 20
Ct = 0.0031 m
ii) Correction for Pull:
P Po
CP = L
AE
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
Cs = 0.00208 m
Total correction = Ct + CP - Cs
= 0.0031 + 0.00112 - 0.00208
Total correction = 0.00214 m
True length = Length + correction
= 20 + 0.00214
True length = 20.00214 m
10. Explain the criterion of strength of a figure with reference to a well conditioned triangle.
(CO1-H2) (AUC May/June 2009)
The shape of the triangle formed by the selected triangulation stations should be such
that any error in the measurement of the angle shall have a minimum effect upon the length of
the calculated sides. Such a triangle is called a well-conditioned triangle.
In a triangle one side may be computed from the computation of adjacent triangle. The
error in other two sides may affect the rest of the figure. If the two sides are to be equally
accurate, then they should be of equal length, which could be possible only by making the
triangle isosceles. In order to find the m agnitude of the angle of triangle, let ABC be an
isosceles triangle with AB of known length.
Differentiating the above equation with respect to A and equating to zero, we get after reduction
4 cos 2 A 2 cos 2 A 1 0
From which A is got 560 14' approximately.
Hence the best shape of a triangle is an isosceles triangle with base angles 56 0 14'.
However for practical consideration 56 0 14' = 600.
For all practical purposes, an equilateral triangle is the most suitable. In general,
however, triangles having angles smaller than 30 0 or greater than 1200 should be avoided.
11. A tape 20 m long of standard length at 29 0C was used to measure a line, the mean
temperature during measurement being 190C. the measured distance was 882.10 m, the
following being the slopes: 2o 20' for 100 m; 4o 12' for 150 m; 1o 06' for 50 m; 7o 48' for
200 m; 3o 00' for 300 m; 5o 10' for 82.10 m. find the true length of the line if the coefficient
of expansion is 6.5 x 10-6 per degree F. (CO1-H2) (AUC May/June 2009)
Solution:
L = 882.10 m; T0 = 29oC = 860 F; Tm = 19oC = 680 F; α = 6.5 x 10-6;
i) Correction for Temperature:
Ct = α (Tm - T0) L
= 6.5 x 10-6 (68 - 86) x 882.10
Ct = - 0.103 m
ii) Correction for Slope:
Csl l ( 1 cos )
= 100 ( 1 cos 20 10' ) + 150 ( 1 cos 40 12' ) + 50 ( 1 cos 10 06' ) +
200 ( 1 cos 7 0 48' ) + 300 ( 1 cos 30 00' ) + 82.1 ( 1 cos 50 10' )
Cs = 3.078 m
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
Total correction = Ct - Csl
= - 0.103 - 3.078
Total correction = - 3.181 m
True length = Length + correction
= 882.1 - 3.181
True length = 878.919 m
12. Write short notes on Selection of site for base line. (CO1-H1) (AUC May/June
2009)
The length of the base line to be adopted depends on the magnitude of triangulation
work ie., the grade of the triangulation. Apart from main base line additional check bases are
also provided at some suitable intervals.
The location of the base line should be such that the site affords accurate measurement . The
following factors should be considered in the selection of the location.
) The ground selected should be as plain as possible. However, gentle slope may also be
adopted.
) All the main stations of triangulation should be visible from both the ends of the base
line.
) It should be possible to build up a network of well-proportioned triangles on the base.
) The site should be free from obstructions throughout the length of the base line. The
expenses involved in clearing the site should be minimum.
) The ground should be reasonably firm and water gaps, if any, should not be wider than
the length of a tape.
) The site should be possible for extension to primary triangulation. This is an important
aspect, as the error in extension may exceed the error in measurement.
13. A steel tape of nominal length 30 m was suspended between two supports to measure
the length on a slope of 04o 25' is 29.861 m. the mean temperature during measurement
was 15o C and pull applied was 120 N. if standard length of the tape was 30.008 m at 27 o C
and the standard pull of 50 N, calculate the correct horizontal length. Take the weight of
the tape as 0.16 N/m, its cross sectional area equal to 2.75 mm2 coefficient of linear
thermal expansion = 1.2 x10-5 per degree Celsius and E = 2.05 x 105 N / mm-2.
(CO1-H2) (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
Lt = 30 m; Lsl = 29.861 m; Ls = 30.008 m; T0 = 270 C; Tm = 150 C; Po = 50 N; P = 120 N;
α = 1.2 x 10-5; Area = 2.75 mm 2; Weight of tape = 0.16 Nim; E = 2.05 x 10 5 N i mm 2
i) Correction for slope:
h2
c
2L
Here h = Lsl sin = 29.861 x sin (40 25') = 2.3 m
2.3 2
c = 0.0886 m
2 x 29.861
ii) Correction for absolute length:
Lc 29.861 x ( 30.008 29.861)
ca
/ 30.008
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
Ca = 0.146 m
iii) Correction for Temperature:
Ct = α (Tm - T0) Lsl
= 1.2 x 10 - 5 (15 - 27) x 29.861
Ct = · 0.0043 m
iv) Correction for Pull:
P Po 120 50
CP = L= x 29.861
AE 2.75 x 2.05 x 10 5
CP = 0.0037 m
v) Sag Correction:
LW 2 29.861 x 0.16 2
Cs = 2 2 =
24n P 24 x 12 x 120 2
Cs = 0.0000022 m
Total correction = - C + Ca + Ct + CP - Cs
= - 0.0886 + 0.146 - 0.0043 + 0.0037 - 0.0000022
Total correction = 0.0568 m
True length = Length + correction
= 29.861 + 0.0568
True length = 29.92 m
14. Two stations P and Q are 81 km apart. They are situated on either side of a sea. The
instrument axis at P is 39 m above MSL. The elevation of Q is 207 m above MSL.
Calculate the minimum height of the signal at Q. T he coefficient of refraction is 0.08 and
the mean radius of earth is 6370km. (CO1-H2) (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
There is no intervening ground.
D2
Hence the height of the signal at Q, h = ( 1 2 m )
2R
81 2
= ( 1 ( 2 x 0.08 ) ) x
2 x 6370
Minimum height of signal, h = 0.43 m
15. Briefly explain the following:
i) Satellite stations
ii) Phase of a signal. (CO1-H1) (AUC May/June 2012)
Satellite stations:
Sometimes in order to form well-conditioned triangles of triangulation and also to have
better visibility objects such as church spirals, towers of temples, flag poles, etc are selected.
But the instrument cannot be set up over these true stations for the measurement of angles. In
such cases, a subsidiary station called as satellite station or eccentric station or false station is
selected as near as possible to the true station. From this station observations are taken to the
other triangulation stations with the same precision.
Angles taken from satellite station are corrected and reduced to what they would have
been if the true station was occupied. This operation of applying corrections to the observed
angles due to the eccentricity of the station is termed as Reduction to centre.
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Civil Department Surveying-II
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The distance between the true station and the false station may be obtained either by
method of trigonometrical levelling or by triangulation. It is to be noted that in primary
triangulations satellite stations should be avoided.
Phase of a signal:
Phase is the error of bisection of some type of signals when they are partly in light and
partly in shade. This is commonly the case with cylindrical signals as the observer sees only its
illuminated portion and bisects it. This is the apparent displacement of the centre of the signal.
Thus the phase correction is necessary.
The correction may have to be applied under two conditions when
i) The observation is made on the bright portion.
ii) The observation is made on the bright line.
i) The observation is made on the bright portion:
When the observation is made on the bright portion FD is shown in figure (a).
Let A be the position of the observer and
B be the centre of the signal
FD be the visible portion of the illuminated surface.
AE be the line of sight.
E be the mid-point of FD
β be the phase correction
1 and 2 be the angles which the extremities of the visible portion make with AB.
α be the angle which the direction of the sun makes with AB.
r be the radius of the signal.
D be the distance AB.
1 )
The phase correction, 1 ( 1
2 2
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Civil Department Surveying-II
S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
1
( 2 )
2 1
r
But 2 radians and
D
r sin ( 90 0 ) r cos
radians
D D
1 r cos r
r (1 cos ) (0r)
2 D D 2D
r cos 2 r cos 2
2 radians 2 sec
D D sin 1"
206265 r cos 2
2 sec onds
D
ii) Observation is made on the bright line:
0bservation is made on the bright line formed by the reflected rays as indicated by the
1
path SE is shown in figure (b). AE is the observed line of sight. 90O ( )
2
Let β be equal to EAB
As S E and S1 A are parallel.
sEA 180 O ( )
1 1
Δ BEA = 1800 sEA 180 O [ 180 O ( ) ]
2 2
1
= 900 + ( )
2
EBA 180 ( BEA )
O
1
= 1800 - β - 90 0 ( )
2
1
= 900 ( )
2
= 900 since β is small in comparison to α.
2
r sin 90 O
2
radians
D
r cos
= 2 radians
D
r cos
= 2 sec onds
D sin 1"
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Civil Department
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S.K.P.Engineering College IV Sem
206265 r cos
2 sec onds
D
16. Explain about the curvature and refraction correction in trigonometrical leveling.
(CO1-H1) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Correction for refraction:
Figure represents two stations A and B located at very far distance whose difference in
elevation is to be found. Let 0 be the point represent the centre of the earth.
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the ground surface. AA' is therefore the apparent sight from A to B and BB' is the apparent sight
from B to A.
The angle measured at A towards B is the angle between the apparent sight A'A and the
horizontal line O'A. Hence the A' AO' is the observed angle α1. Without the effect of refraction
the true angle of elevation is BAO' . Hence the correction for refraction is A' AB (Say
the angle r). Then the correction is subtractive.
Correct angle BAO' = A' AO' O' AB
= α1 - r
Similarly the angle measured at B towards A is B1 BB2 1 . The true angle of depression in
the absence of refraction is ABB2 .
Correct angle ABB2 = B' BB2 B' BA
= β1 + r
Thus the correction for refraction is subtractive to the angle of elevation and additive to the
angle of depression.
Coefficient of refraction:
It is defined as the ratio of angle of refraction and the angle subtended at the centre
of the earth by the distance over which observations are taken, thus
r
m
r m
The coefficient of refraction may be determined for the following two cases:
i) Distance d small and H large:
In this case one angle α1 is the angle of elevation and the other β1 is the angle of
depression.
In Δ ABO'
ABB BAO' BO'
A
1 r 1 r
1
r 1
2 2
Substituting r = m
1 1 (1 2 m )
ii) Distance d large and H small:
In this case both α1 and β1 are angles of depression.
Changing the sign of α1 we get,
r 1 1
2 2
Which reduces to 1 1 (1 2 m )
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The angle α1 is measured with reference to the horizontal lines AB' but it should be
measured with the chord AA1 where A1 is the vertical projection of B on a level line passing
through A.
Hence the correction = O' AA1 and is additive.
2
Similarly the angle 1 was measured with reference to the horizontal line BO' while it should be
measured with the chord BB1.
Hence the correction, B2 BB1 and is subtractive.
2
Thus the correction for curvature is for angles of elevation and for angles of
2 2
depression.
Combined correction:
( 1 2 m ) d
Combined angular correction = sec
2R sin 1"
The combined correction is positive for angles of elevation and negative for angles of
depression.
17. From a satellite station S, 5.8 m from main triangulation station A, the following
directions were measured.
o o o o
A = 0 0' 0"; B = 132 18' 30"; C = 232 24' 06"; D = 296 06' 11"; AB = 3265.5 m;
AC = 4022.2 m; AD = 3086.4 m. determine the directions of AB, AC and AD.
(CO1-H2) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Solution:
The correction to any direction is given by,
d sin
sec onds
D sin 1"
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132 18' 30" ; d = AS = 5.8 m; D = AB = 3265.5 m;
0
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Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 0.5 seconds
ii) Second order or secondary triangulation:
The secondary triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
primary triangulation. The stations are fixed at close intervals s o that the sizes of the triangles
formed are smaller than the primary triangulation. The instruments and methods used are not
of the same utmost refinement. The general specifications of the secondary triangulation are:
Average triangle closure : 3 seconds
Maximum triangle closure : 8 seconds
Length of the base line : 1.5 to 5 km
Length of the sides of triangles : 8 to 65 km
Actual error of base : 1 in 150,000
Probable error of base : 1 in 500,000
Discrepancy between two measures of section: 20 mm km
Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 20,000 to 1 in 50,000
Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 2 seconds
iii) Third order or Tertiary triangulation:
The third order triangulation consists of a number of points fixed within the framework of
secondary triangulation and forms the immediate control for detailed engineering and other
surveys. The sizes of the triangles are small and instrument with moderate precision may be
used. The general specifications of the third order triangulation are:
Average triangle closure : 6 seconds
Maximum triangle closure : 12 seconds
Length of the base line : 0.5 to 3 km
Length of the sides of triangles : 1.5 to 10 km
Actual error of base : 1 in 750,000
Probable error of base : 1 in 250,000
Discrepancy between two measures of section: 25 mm km
Probable error of computed distance : 1 in 5,000 to 1 in 20,000
Probable error in astronomic azimuth : 5 seconds
19. Find the sag correction for 30 m steel tape under a pull of 80 N in three equal spans of 10
m each. Mass of one cubic cm of steel = 7.86 g/cm3. Area of cross section of the tape
= 0.10 sq.cm. (CO1-H2) (AUC May/June 2013 )
Solution:
Sag Correction:
LW 2
Cs =
24n 2 P 2
30
Here each span = 10 m
3
Weight of tape, W = (Area x 1 x weight of steel) x length
= (0.10 x 1 x 7.86 x 10 - 3) x 30 x 100
= 2.358 kg
30 x 100 x 2.358 2
Cs = 2
24 x 3 2 x ( 80 9.81 )
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Cs = 1.16 cm
20. A 30 m steel tape was standardized on the flat and was found to be exactly 30 m under
no pull at 66o F. it was used in catenary to measure a base of 5 bays. The temperature
during the measurement was 92o F and the pull exerted during measurement was 100N.
The area of cross section of the tape was 8 mm2. The specific weight of steel is
78.6 kN/m2, α = 0.63 x 10·5 Fo and E = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2. Find the true length of the tape.
(CO1-H2) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Solution:
-5
L = 30 m' T0 = 660 F' Tm = 920 F' P0 = 0' P = 100 N' α = 0.63 x 10 ' A = 8 mm2'
Weight of steel = 78.6 kNim 2' E = 2.1 x 105 N i mm 2
i) Correction for Temperature:
Ct = α (Tm - T0) L
-5
= 0.63 x 10 (92 - 66) x 30
Ct = 0.00491 m
ii) Correction for Pull:
P Po L = 100 0
CP = x 30
AE 8 x 2.1 x 10 5
CP = 0.00178 m
iii) Sag Correction:
LW 2
Cs =
24n 2 P 2
30
Here each span = 6m
5
Weight of tape, W = (Area x 1 x weight of steel) x length
= (8 x 10 - 6 x 1 x 78.6 x 103) x 6
= 3.773 N
Cs =
6 x 3.773 2
2 2
24 x 1 x 100
Cs = 0.000356 m
Total sag correction, Cs = 5 x 0.000356 = 0.00178 m
Total correction = Ct + CP - Cs
= 0.00491 + 0.00178 - 0.00178
Total correction = 0.00491 m
True length = Length + correction
= 30 + 0.00491
True length = 30.00491 m
21. Explain with reference to signals, Non·luminous, luminous and night signals.
(CO1-H1) (AUC May/June 2013)
Signal:
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A signal is any device erected to define the exact position of an observed station.
Requirements:
) It should be clearly visible against any background.
) It should be feasible to centre accurately over the station mark.
) It should be suitable for accurate bisection.
) It should be free from phase.
Non·luminous or Opaque signal:
Day light or non-luminous signals consist of the various forms of mast, target or tin
cone types. They are generally used for direct signals less than 30 kilometers. For sights under
6 kilometers, pole signals consisting of round pole painted black and white in alternate section
and supported on a tripod may be used. A target signal consists of a pole carrying two square or
rectangular targets placed at right angles to each other. The targets are made of cloth stretched
on wooden frames. The signals should be of dark colour for visibility against the sky and should
be painted white or black strips against a dark background. The top of the mast should carry a
flag. Its height above the station should be roughly proportional to the length of the longest sight
upon it. A height in the vertical plane corresponding to at least 30" is necessary. The following
rules may serve as a guide:
Diameter of signal in cm = 1.3D to 1.9D, where D is in kilometers
Height of signal in cm = 13.3D, where D is in kilometers
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Various forms of oil lamps with reflectors or optical collimators for lines of sight less than
80 kilometers.
Acetylene lamp designed by captain G.T.Mccaw for lines of sight up to 80 kilometers.
22. The altitude of two proposed stations A and B, 100 km apart, are respectively 420 m and
700 m. The intervening obstruction situated at C, 70 km from A as an elevation of 478 m.
Ascertain if A and B are intervisible, and if necessary find how much B should be raised
so that the line of sight must be less than 3 m above the surface of the ground. (CO1-H2)
Solution:
Let aceb be the visible horizon and a horizontal sight Ab 1, through A meet the horizon
tangentially at e. Distance Ae to the visible horizon from station A of an altitude 420 m is given
by
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Bb1 = Bb - bb1 = 700 - 29.64 = 670.36 m
Let AB be the line of sight. Now from Ac1 c2 and Ab1 B
70
c1 c2 Bb1 x 670.36 x 469.25 m
Ac1 100
Ab1
Elevation of line of sight at C = elevation of c 2
= cc1 c1 c2 5.46 469.25 474.71 m
Elevation of C = 478 m
Thus the line of sight fails to clear the peak at C by
c 2C = 478 - 474.71 = 3.29 m
Let Ac 3 be the new line of sight, such that Cc 3 = 3 m (minimum)
c 2c 3 = Cc 3 + c 2C = 3 + 3.29 = 6.29 m
AB 100
Hence Bb3 = c 2 c3 x 6.29 x
Ac 2 70
Bb3 = 8.99 m 9 m (say)
Hence height of scaffold at B required is 9 m.
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SURVEYING II
PART A
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7. What do you mean by figure adjustment in triangulation? (CO2-L1) (AUC May/June
2009)
Figure adjustment is the determination of the most probable values of the angles
involved in any geometrical figure so as to fulfill the geometric requirements.
It invariably involves one or more conditional equations. Conditional equations may
be framed by the method of normal equation or by the method of correlates. In case of
more condition equations, the solution may be applied easily by the method of correlates.
8. Distinguish between the observed value and the most probable value of a quantity.
(CO2-L2)(AUC May/June 2012 & 13)
Observed value:
The observed value of a quantity is the value obtained as a result of an observation
which is corrected for all errors.
Most probable value:
Most probable value of a quantity is the value which is more likely to be the true value
than any other value.
9. What are normal equations? (CO2-L1) (AUC May/June 2012)
A normal equation is an equation of condition by means of which the most probable
value of any unknown quantity may be determined corresponding to a set of values assigned to
other unknown quantities.
10. What is method of correlates? (CO2-L1) (AUC May/June 2013)
Correlates are the unknown multiples or independent constants employed for finding the
most probable values of unknowns.
In this method of correlates all the condition equations are collected. One more
equation of condition, i.e., the sum of the squares of the residual errors should be minimum is
added.
11. How do you determine the most probable values? (CO2-L1)
Direct observation of quantities of equal weights.
Direct observation of quantities of unequal
weights.
Indirect observations involving unknowns of equal weights.
Indirect observations involving unknowns of unequal weights.
Observation equations are accompanied by condition
equations.
12. Define principles of least squares. (CO2-L1)
The principle of least squares may be defined as "In observation of equal precision
the most probable values of the observed quantities are those that render the sum of the squares
of the residual errors a minimum". This is also known as Method of least squares.
13. What are the laws of accidental errors? (CO2-L1)
Small errors occur often compared to large errors and such errors are denoted as
most probable.
Additive and subtractive errors occur frequently which may be of same size, such
errors are called as equally probable.
Large errors occur rarely and of impossible category.
14. What are the conditions to be satisfied when correcting the measured angles? (CO2-L1)
Correction to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the weight of the
observation.
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Correction to be applied to an observation is directly proportional to the square of
the probable error.
Correction to be applied to an observation is proportional to the length in case of line of
levels.
15. Define direct and indirect observation. (CO2-L1)
Direct
observation:
An observation is the numerical value of a measured quantity, and may be either direct or
indirect. A direct observation is the one made directly on the quantity being determined, e.g., the
measurement of a base, the single measurement of an angle etc.
Indirect
observation:
An indirect observation is one in which the observed value is deduced from the
measurement of some related quantities, e.g., the measurement of angle by repetition (a
multiple of the angle being measured.)
16. Explain level net. (CO2-L1)
A level net is an interconnecting net work of level circuits formed by level lines
interconnecting three or more bench marks.
In adjusting a level net, the method of least squares may be
adopted.
17. State Gauss's rule. (CO2-L1)
Gauss's rule is applied when the weights of the observation are not directly known. If the residual
error of each observation is known the weights can be calculated by gauss's rule given by the
following expression:
n2 2
w
v2
Where w is the weight to be assigned to a quantity.
n is the number of observations made for the quantity.
Lv2 is the sum of squares of residuals.
18. Why figure adjustment is made? (CO2-L1)
Figure adjustment is needed so as to fulfill the geometric conditions of any geometrical
figure. The figure adjustment involves one or more condition equations.
19. What is method of equal shift? (CO2-L1)
Method of equal shift indicates that any shift which is necessary to satisfy the local
equilibrium should be the same for each triangle of a polygon. Similarly any shift necessary to satisfy
the side equation should be the same for each triangle.
20. Differentiate between conditioned quantity and conditional equation. (CO2-L1)
Conditioned quantity:
A quantity is said to be conditioned when its value is dependent upon the values of one or
more quantities. It is also called as dependent quantity.
Conditional equation:
A conditional equation is an equation expressing the relation existing between the several
dependent quantities.
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PART B
1. The following are the observed values of the angle A with the corresponding
weights. (i) 510 20' 30'' Weight 2
(ii) 510 20' 28'' Weight 3
(iii) 510 20' 29'' Weight 2.
Determine:
(1) the standard deviation
(2) the standard error of the weighted mean
(3) the probable error of single observation of weight 3
(4) the probable error of the weighted mean. (CO2-H2) (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
Solution:
As the error is in seconds only, the needed details are arranged as under.
Value Weight (value x weight) v v2 wv 2
30" 2 60" 1.14 1.2996 2.5992
28" 3 84" - 0.86 0.7396 2.2188
29" 2 58" 0.14 0.0196 0.0392
Lw = 7 Weighted mean = 28.86" L wv2 = 4.86
( 30 x 2 ) ( 28 x 3 ) ( 29 x 2 ) 2 02
Weighted arithmetic mean = 2 8.86"
2 3 2 7
v1 30" 28.86" 1.14"; v 2 28" 28.86" 0.86"; v 3 29" 28.86" 0.14"
Probable error of single observation of unit weight = ES
wv 2
= 0.6745
n 1
4.86
= 0.6745
3 1
= 1.05
i) Standard deviation:
wv2 4.86
Standard deviation = 0.69
w 7
ii) Standard error of weighted mean:
( 30 x 2 ) ( 28 x 3 ) ( 29 x 2 ) 202
Weighted arithmetic mean = 28.86"
2 3 2 7
iii) Probable error of single observation of weight 3 :
ES 1.05
= 0.61
w 3
iv) Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean:
wv 2 4.86
= 0.6745 = 0.6745 = 0.4
w (n 1) 7x2
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2. Find the most probable values of the following angles closing the horizontal at a station.
P = 450 23' 37'' Weight = 1
Q = 750 37' 1 '' Weight = 2
R = 1250 21' 21'' Weight = 3
S = 1130 37' 9'' Weight = 3. (CO2-H2) (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
Solution:
0 0 0 0
Sum of observed angles = 45 23' 37'' + 75 37' 15'' + 125 21' 21'' + 113 37' 59''
= 3600 O' 12''
Error = + 12"
Total correction = - 12"
Let C 1, C 2, C 3 & C 4 be the corrections to the observed angles P, Q, R and S. the
error will be distributed to the angles in an inverse proportion to their weights.
P = 450 23' 37'' + C 1
Q = 750 37' 15'' + C 2
R = 1250 21' 21'' + C 3
S = 1130 37' 59'' + C 4
C 1 : C 2 : C 3 : C 4 = (1)2 : (2)2 : (3)2 : 1 : 4 : 9 : 9 ……………..……………. (1)
(3)2
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Also, C 1 + C 2 + C 3 + C 4 = 12" ……………..……………. (2)
From (1) C42 Cl
C39 Cl
C49 Cl
Substituting these values of C 2, C 3 & C 4 in (2), we get
C 1 + 4 C 1 + 9 C 1 + 9 C 1 = 12"
12
C1 0.521"
23
C42 Cl 4 X 0.522" 2.08"
C93 Cl 9 X 0.522" 4.70"
C94 Cl 9 X 0.522" 4.70"
Hence the corrected angles are
P = 450 23' 37'' - 0.521" = 450 23' 3 .
8'' Q = 750 37' 15'' - 2.08" = 750 37'
12.92'' R = 1250 21' 21'' - 4.70" =
1250 21' 1 .3'' S = 1130 37' 59'' -
4.70" = 1130 37' .3''
Sum = 3600 00' 00''
3. What do you understand by the terms station adjustment and figure adjustment and
also explain the method of adjustment by least squares. (CO2-H1) (AUC Apr/May 2010)
Station adjustment:
It is the process of obtaining the most probable values of two or more angles
measured at a station so as to satisfy the condition of being geometrically consistent.
Figure adjustment:
It is the determination of the most probable values of the angles involved in
any geometrical figure so as to fulfill the geometric requirements.
Method of adjustment of least squares:
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1
C3 x 6.62" 1.66"
4
Hence the corrected angles are
A = 77° 14' 20" + 6.62" = 77° 14' 26.62"
B = 49° 40' 35" + 3.72" = 49° 40' 38.72"
c = 53° 04' 53" + 1.66" = 53° 4' 54.66"
Sum = 1800 00' 00''
5. What is meant by weight of an observation and enumerate laws of weights giving
examples. (CO2-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2010) (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Weight of an observation:
Weight of an observation is a measure of its relative worth which may be indicated by a
number. Thus if a certain observation is said to have weightage 5, it is meant to say that it is five
times as much as an observation of weight 1.
Laws of weights:
(1) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit weight is equal to
the number of observations.
For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values:
A Weight A Weight
30° 20′ 8" 1 30° 20′ 10" 1
30° 20′ 10" 1 30° 20′ 9" 1
30° 20′ 7" 1 30° 20′ 10" 1
1
Arithmetic mean = 30° 20′ + (8" + 10" + 7" + 10" + 9" + 10")
6
= 30° 20′ 9".
Weight of arithmetic mean = number of observations = 6.
(2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum of the individual
weights.
For example, let an angle A be measured six times, the following being the values:
A Weight A Weight
30° 20′ 8" 2 30° 20′ 10" 3
30° 20′ 10" 3 30° 20′ 9" 4
30° 20′ 6" 2 30° 20′ 10" 2
Sum of weights = 2 + 3 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 2 =16
Arithmetic mean = 30° 20′ + 1/16 (8"X2 + 10" X3+ 7"X2 + 10"X3 + 9" X4+ 10"X2)
= 30° 20′ 9".
Weight of arithmetic mean = 16.
(3) The weight of algebric sum of two or more quantities is equal to the reciprocals of
the sum of individual weights.
For Example angle, A = 30° 20′ 8", Weight 2
B = 15° 20′ 8", Weight 3
1 1 3
Sum of reciprocals of individual weights =
4 2 4
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1 1 4
Weight of A + B = 45° 40′ 16" =
1 1 3 3
4 2 4
1 1 4
Weight of A - B = 15° 00′ 00" =
1 1 3 3
4 2 4
(4) If a quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained by dividing its given weight by the square of the factor.
For example, let A = 42° 10′ 20", weight 6.
6 2
Then weight of 3A = 126o 31' =
32 3
(5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of the result is
obtained by multiplying its given weight by the square of the factor.
For example, let A = 42° 10′ 30", weight 4.
Then weight of A = 14o 3' 30" = 4 (3)2 = 36
3
(6) If a equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.
3
For example, let A + B = 98° 20′ 30", weight .
5
Then weight of 3 (A B) = 59o 0' 18" is equal to 5 .
5 3
(7) The weight of the equation remains unchanged, if all the signs of the equation are
changed or if the equation is added or subtracted from a constant.
Angle Weight
Determine probable error of observation of weight 3 and that of the weighted arithmetic
mean. (CO2-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2010)
Solution:
As the error is in seconds only, the needed details are arranged as under.
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2 2
Value Weight (value x weight) v v wv
18" 2 36" -1 1 2
19" 3 57" 0 0 0
20" 2 40" 1 1 2
Lw = 7 Weighted mean = 19" L wv2 = 4
7. Find the most probable values of the angles A, B, C from the following observations at a
station P. (CO2-H2) (AUC Apr/May 2011)
A = 38° 25' 20" Weight 1
B = 32° 36' 12" Weight 1
A+B = 71° 01' 29" Weight 2
A+B+C = 119° 10' 43" Weight 1
B+C = 80° 45' 28" Weight 2
Solution:
Normal equation of A:
A = 38° 25' 20"
2A + 28 = 142° 2' 58"
A + 8 + c = 119° 10' 43"
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Normal equation of B:
8 = 32° 36' 12"
2A + 28 = 142° 2' 58"
28 + 2c = 161° 30' 56"
A + 8 + c = 119° 10' 43"
Normal equation of C:
28 + 2c = 161° 30' 56"
A + 8 + c = 119° 10' 43"
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\
c) Forming the normal equation for z: Coefficients of x are 1, 2, 4.
3x + 3y + z - 4 = 0
2x + 4y + 4z - 12 = 0
20x + 4y + 16z - 84= 0
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11. Give the general rules for the adjustments of a geodetic triangle. (8)
(CO2-L1) (AUC May/June 2009)
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12. Some leveling was carried out with the following results.
Rise or Fall Weight
P to Q +4.32m 1
Q to R +3.17m 1
R to S +2.59m 1
S to P -10.04m 1
Q to S +5.68 m 2
The R.L of P is known to be 131.31 m above datum. Determine the probable levels of other
points. (CO2-H2) (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
PQRSP is closed circuit.
Error of closure = 4.32 + 3.17 + 2.59 - 10.04 = 0.04
Let e1, e2, e3 and e4 be the corrections to be observed quantities taken in order.
Hence the condition equation is
e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 = - 0.04
As the weightage is 1.
e1 = e2 = e3 = e4 = - 0.01
RL of P = 131.31 m
And rise = 4.32 - 0.01 = 4.31 m
RL of Q = 131.31 + 4.31 = 135.62 m
And rise = 3.17 - 0.01 = 3.16 m
RL of R = 135.62 + 3.16 = 138.78 m
And rise = 2.59 - 0.01 = 2.58 m
RL of S = 138.78 + 2.58 = 141.36 m
Subtract fall = - 10.04 - 0.01 = - 10.05 m
RL of P = 141.36 - 10.05 = 131.31 m
Hence satisfied. However the measurement from Q to S gave a rise of + 5.68 m with
weightage of 2.
considering the points Q and S again
Difference in RL from Q to S = 141.36 - 135.62 = 5.74 m
Error = 5.74 - 5.68 = 0.06
Let e2 & e4 be the corrections considered, then
e2 + e4 = - 0.06 ………………. (i)
From least square condition
2 e22 e24 = 0 ………………… (ii)
Differentiating eqn. (i) & (ii)
e2 e4
0
2e δ e e δe 0
2 2 4 4
Multiplying eqn. (i) by - λ and adding with eqn. (ii) we have,
e ( 2e ) e (e ) 0
2 2 4 4
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i.e., 2 e 0 ( or ) e
2 2 2
e 0 ( or ) e
4 4
i.e., e2 e 4 30 0.06
i.e., 0.04
Hence probable levels of points are
RL of P = 131.31 m
RL of Q = 135.62 - 0.02 = 135.60 m
RL of R = 138.78 m
RL of S = 141.36 - 0.04 = 141.32 m
13. The following are the mean values observed in the measurement of three angles A, B and
C at a station.
A 76o 42' 46.2" Weight 4
A+B 134o 36' 32.6" Weight 3
o
B+C 185 35' 24.8" Weight 2
o
A+B+C 262 18' 10.4" Weight 1
Calculate the most probable value of each angle using normal equation.
(CO2-H2) (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
Normal equation of A:
4A = 306o 51' 4.8"
3A + 38 = 403° 49' 37.8"
A + 8 + c = 262° 18' 10.4"
Normal equation of B:
3A + 38 = 403° 49' 37.8"
28 + 2c = 371° 10' 49.6"
A + 8 + c = 262° 18' 10.4"
Normal equation of C:
28 + 2c = 371° 10' 49.6"
A + 8 + c = 262° 18' 10.4"
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4A + 68 + 3c = 1037° 18' 37.8"
2A + 38 + 3c = 633° 29' 00"
8y solving above equations we get,
A = 76° 42' 46.11"
B = 57° 53' 46.49"
c = 127° 41' 38.14"
14. Find the most probable value of the following.
A = 28o 24' 27.4"
B = 32o 14' 16.3"
c = 51o 18' 18.8"
A+B = 60o 38' 45.6"
B+c = 83o 32' 28.2". (CO2-H2) (AUc Nov/Dec 2012)
Solution:
8y using normal equation method we find the most probable values of A, 8 and c.
Normal equation of A:
o
A = 28 24' 27.4"
A+8 = 60o 38' 45.6"
Normal equation of B:
8 = 32o 14' 16.3"
A+ 8 = 60o 38' 45.6"
8 + c = 83o 32' 28.2"
Normal equation of c:
o
c = 51 18' 18.8"
8 + c = 83o 32' 28.2"
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15. Explain the general principles of least squares. (CO2-H2) (AUc Nov/Dec 2012)
According to the principle of least squares, the most probable value of an observed
quantity available from a given set of observations is the one for which the sum of the squares of
the residual errors is a minimum. When a quantity is being deduced from a series of observations,
the residual errors will be the difference between the adopted value and the several observed
values,
Let V1, V2, V3 etc. be the observed values
x = most probable value
x VI eI
then,
x V2 e2
x Vn en ............ (l)
Where e's are the respective errors of the observed value.
If M = arithmetic mean, then
vl V2 ....... Vn v
M ............(2)
n n
Where, n = number of observed values.
From equation (1)
nx v e
v e
x
n n
but v = M from (2)
n
e
x M ....... .......(3)
n
e
If n is large and e is kept small by making precise measurement, becomes practically
n
infinitesimal with respect to M. Hence x M
Thus the arithmetic mean is the true value where the number of observed value is very large.
Let rl , r2 , r3 ,........rn , be the residuals,
M vl rl
M v2 r2
M vn rn ...........(4)
Adding the above,
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nM v r
v r
M
n n
v
M
n
r
here, 0 ........ ............(5)
n
The sum of the residuals equals zero and sum of plus residual equals the sum of the minus
residuals.
Let N be any other value of the unknown other than arithmetic mean.
N vl rl '
N v2 r2 '
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16. Adjust the following angles closing the horizon at a station.
A = 122o 05' 58.9" weight 1
B = 86o 45' 16.4" weight 1
c = 72o 50' 31.2" weight 3
D = 78o 18' 16.6" weight 1. (CO2-H2) (AUc Nov/Dec 2012)
Solution:
Sum of observed angles = 122o 05' 58.9" + 86o 45' 16.4" + 72o 50' 31.2" + 78o 18' 16.6"
= 3600 0' 3.1''
Error = + 3.1"
Total correction = - 3.1"
Let c1, c2, c3 & c4 be the corrections to the observed angles A, 8, c and D. The error
will be distributed to the angles in an inverse proportion to their weights.
A = 122o 05' 58.9" + c1
8 = 86o 45' 16.4" + c2
c = 72o 50' 31.2" + c3
D = 78o 18' 16.6" + c4
2 2 2 2
c1 : c2 : c3 : c4 = (1 ) : (1 ) : ( 3 ) : (1 ) l : 1 : 9 : 1 ……………..……………. (1)
c2 0.258"
c3 9 X 0.258" 2.322"
c4 0.258"
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17. Define the following terms (i) True error, (ii) Residual error, (iii) Most probable error.
(CO2-L2) (AUc May/June 2013)
i) True error:
A true error is the difference between the true value of a quantity and its observed value.
ii) Residual error:
A residual error is the difference between the most probable value of a quantity and its
observed value.
iii) Most probable error:
Most probable error is defined as that quantity which added to and subtracted from the
most probable value which fixes the limits. 8y this limits there is an even chance the true
value of the measured quantity may lie.
18. How will you obtain error from direct observations of unequal weights on a single
quantity? (CO2-L1)
In case of observations made with unequal weights, the most probable value of the
observed quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean of the observed quantities.
8ased on the principle of least squares the most probable values of the observed quantities with
unequal weights are those which make the sum of the weighted squares of the residual errors a
minimum.
Then by the above concept
w1r 2 w2 r22 w3 r32 ....... wn rn2 min
1 imum
where,
r1 N vl
r2 N v2
r3 N v3
rn N vn …………………………….. (1)
N = the most probable value of quantity.
V1, V2, V3, Vn = the observed quantities with weights w1, w2, w3, etc.
w1 ( N Vl ) 2
w2 ( N V2 ) 2 w3 ( N V3 ) 2 ....... wn ( N Vn ) 2 0 ............. ... (2)
wlvl w2v2 w3v3 ......... wnvn
Rearranging, N .........................(3)
w1 w2 w3 ......... wn
With the knowledge of N, the residual errors r1, r1, r1, etc can be found from eqn (1)
i) Probable error of a single observation of unit weight (ES)
wr 2
ES 0.6745 .....................(4)
n l
ii) Probable error of single observation of weight (w)
probable error of sin gle observation of unit weight ES
w ................(5)
weight w
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wr 2
w 0.6745 ........................(6)
w ( n 1)
iii) Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean (Em)
wr 2
Em 0.6745 ............................(7)
w (n 1)
19. The following angles were measured at a station 'O' so as to close the horizontal angles:
Adjust the angles by method of correlates. (CO2-H2)
Inst station Angle Weight
Solution:
Sum of observed angles = 83 ° 42' 28.75" + 102 ° 15' 43.26" + 94 ° 38' 27.2" + 79 ° 23' 23.77"
= 360° 00' 2.98"
Error = + 2.98"
Total correction = - 2.98"
Let e1,e ,e3 & e 4 be the corrections.
2
e1 e
2
e3 e 4 2.98" ………………. (1)
From least square condition, w e2 0
+ + + = 2.98"
3 2 4 2
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= 1.88"
e1 0.63"
e2 0.94"
e3 0.47"
e4 0.94"
The most probable values are
A = 83 ° 42' 28.75"- 0.63" = 830 42' 28.12''
8 = 102 ° 15' 43.26" - 0.94" = 1020 15' 42.32''
c = 94 ° 38' 27.2" - 0.47" = 940 38' 26.73''
D = 79 ° 23' 23.77" - 0.94" = 790 23' 22.83''
Sum = 3600 00' 00''
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UNIT-III
PART –A
1. Define Total Station. [CO3 –L2]
EDMs are now being incorporated with an Electronic theodolite and a microprocessor with memory
unit, so called Total Station. They can simultaneously and automatically measure both distances
and angles. They record field notes electronically and transmit them to computers, plotters and
other office equipment for processing. These instruments can record horizontal and vertical angles
together with slope distances.
(i) quick setting of the instrument on the tripod using laser plummet
(ii) On-board are computation programme to compute the area of the field
3. Greater accuracy in area computation because of the possibility of taking acrs in
area computation.
4. Graphical view of plots and land for quick visualization.
5. Coding to do automated mapping. As soon as the field jobs are finished, the map of
the area with dimensions is ready after data transfer.
PART-B
Although taping and theodolites are used regularly on site - total stations are also used
extensively in surveying, civil engineering and construction because they can measure both
distances and angles.
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Because the instrument combines both angle and distance measurement in the same unit, it is
known as an integrated total station which can measure horizontal and vertical angles as
wellasslopedistances.
Using the vertical angle, the total station can calculate the horizontal and vertical distance
components of the measured slope distance.
As well as basic functions, total stations are able to perform a number of different survey tasks
and associated calculations and can store large amounts of data.
As with the electronic theodolite, all the functions of a total station are controlled by its
microprocessor, which is accessed thought a keyboard and display.
To use the total station, it is set over one end of the line to be measured and some reflector is
positioned at the other end such that the line of sight between the instrument and the reflector
is unobstructed (as seen in the figure below).
-The measuring sequence is initiated and a signal is sent to the reflector and a part of this
signal is returned to the total station
-This signal is then analysed to calculate the slope distance together with the horizontal and
vertical angles.
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-Total stations can also be used without reflectors and the telescope is pointed at the point that
needs to be measured
-Some instruments have motorised drivers and can be use automatic target recognition to
search and lock into a prism - this is a fully automated process and does not require an
operator.
-Some total stations can be controlled from the detail pole, enabling surveys to be conducted
by one person
Although angles and distances can be measured and used separately, the
most common applications for total stations occur when these are combined to
define position in control surveys.
As well as the total station, site surveying is increasingly being carried out
using GPS equipment. Some predictions have been made that this trend will
continue, and in the long run GPS methods may replace other methods.
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Although the use of GPS is increasing, total stations are one of the predominant
instruments used on site for surveying and will be for some time.
Developments in both technologies will find a point where devices can be made
both methods.
DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
When a distance is measured with a total station, am electromagnetic wave or pulse is used for
the measurement - this is propagated through the atmosphere from the instrument to reflector
or target and back during the measurement.
Distances are measured using two methods: the phase shift method, and the pulsed
laser method.
This technique uses continuous electromagnetic waves for distance measurement
although these are complex in nature, electromagnetic waves can be represented in their
simplest from as periodic
waves.
The wave completes a cycle when moving between identical points on the wave and the
number of times in one second the wave completes the cycle is called the frequency of the
wave. The speed of the wave is then used to estimate the distance.
laser radiation to travel from the instrument to a prism (or target) and back. As in the
phase shift method, the pulses are derived an infrared or visible laser diode and they are
transmitted through the telescope towards the remote end of the distance being measured,
where they are reflected and returned to the instrument.
Since the velocity v of the pulses can be accurately determined, the distance D can be obtained
using 2D = vt, where t is the time taken for a single pulse to travel from instrument -
target - instrument.
The transit time t is measured using electronic signal processing techniques. Although only a
single pulse is necessary to obtain a distance, the accuracy obtained would be poor. To
improve this, a large number of pulses (typically
20,000 every second) are analysed during each measurement to give a more accurate
distance.
The pulse laser method is a much simpler approach to distance measurement than the phase
shift method, which was originally developed about 50 years ago.
Both the phase shift and pulsed laser methods will measure a slope distance L from the total
station along the line of sight to a reflector or target. For most surveys the horizontal
distance D is required as well as the vertical component V of the slope distance.
Where a is the vertical angle and z is the is the zenith angle. As far as the user is
concerned, these calculations are seldom done because the total station will
either display D and V automatically or will dislplay L first and then D and V after pressing
buttons
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The constant a is independent of the length being measured and is made up of internal
sources within the instrument that are normally beyond the control of the user. It is an
estimate of the individual errors caused by such phenomena as unwanted phase shifts in
electronic components, errors in phase and transit time measurements.
The systematic error b is proportional to the distance being measured, where 1 ppm (part
per million) is equivalent to an additional error of 1mm for every kilometre measured.
Typical specifications for a total station vary from ±(2mm + 2ppm) to ±(5mm + 5 pmm).
For example: ±(2mm + 2ppm), at 1OOm the error in distance measurement will be
±2mm but at 1.5km, the error will be ±(2mm + [2mm/km * 1.5km]) = ±5mm
Reflectors used in distance measurement
Since the waves or pulses transmitted by a total station are either visible or infrared, a plane
mirror could be used to reflect them. This would require a very accurate alignment of the mirror,
because the transmitted wave or pulses have a narrow spread.
To get around this problem special mirror prisms are used as shown below.
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All the components of the electronic theodolite described in the previous lectures are found total
stations.
The axis configuration is identical and comprises the vertical axis, the tilting axis and line of
sight (or collimation). The other components include the tribatch with levelling footscrews, the
keyboard with display and the telescope which is mounted on the standards and which rotates
around the tilting axis.
Levelling is carried out in the same way as for a theodolite by adjusting to centralise a plate level
or electronic bubble. The telescope can be transited and used in the face left (or face I) and
face right (or face II) positions. Horizontal rotation of the total station about the vertical axis is
controlled by a horizontal clamp and tangent screw and rotation of the telescope about the tilting
axis.
The total station is used to measure angles in the same way as the electronic theodolite.
Distance measurement
All total stations will measure a slope distance which the onboard computer uses, together with
the zenith angle recorded by the line of sight to calculate the horizontal distance.
For distances taken to a prism or reflecting foil, the most accurate is precise measurement.
For phase shift system, a typical specification for this is a measurement time of about 1-
2s, an accuracy of (2mm + 2ppm) and a range of
3-5km to a single prism.
Although all manufacturers quote ranges of several kilometres to a single prism.
For those construction projects where long distances are required to be measured, GPS methods
are used in preference to total stations. There is no standard difference at which the change
from one to the other occurs, as this will depend on a number of factors, including the accuracy
required and the site topography.
Rapid measurement reduces the measurement time to a prism to between 0.5 and 1' s for both
phase shift and pulsed systems, but the accuracy for both may degrade slightly.
Tracking measurements are taken extensively when setting out or for machine control, since
readings are updated very quickly and vary in response to movements of the prism which is
usually pole-mounted. In this mode, the distance measurement is repeated automatically at
intervals of less than O.5s.
For reflector less measurements taken with a phase shift system, the range that can be
obtained is about 1OOm, with a similar accuracy to that obtained when using a prism or foil.
KEYBOARD AND DISPLAY
A total station is activated through its control panel, which consists of a keyboard and multiple
line LCD. A number of instruments have two control panels, one on each face, which
makes them easier to use.
In addition to controlling the total station, the keyboard is often used to code data generated by
the instrument - this code will be used to identify the object being measured.
On some total stations it is possible to detach the keyboard and interchange them with other
total stations and with GPS receivers.This is called integrated surveying
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SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS
The microprocessor built into the total station is a small computer and its main function is
controlling the measurement of angles and distances. The LCD screen guides the operator
while taking these measurements.
The built in computer can be used for the operator to carry out calibration checks on
the instrument.
The software applications available on many total stations include the
following: Slope corrections and reduced levels
Horizontal circle orientation
Coordinate measurement
Traverse measurements
Resection (or free
stationing) Missing line
measurement Remote
elevation measurement
areas
Setting out.
require all instruments to be checked on a regular basis using procedures outlined in the quality
manuals.
Some instrumental errors are eliminated by observing on two faces of the total station and
averaging, but because one face measurements are the preferred method on site, it is
important to determine the magnitude of instrumental errors and correct for them.
For total stations, instrumental errors are measured and corrected using electronic calibration
procedures that are carried out at any time and can be applied to the instrument on site. These
are preferred to the mechanical adjustments that used to be done in labs by technician.
Since calibration parameters can change because of mechanical shock, temperature changes
and rough handling of what is a high-precision instrument, an electronic calibration should
be carried our on a total station as follows:
Before using the instrument for the first time
After long storage periods
After rough or long transportation
After long periods of work
Following big changes in temperature
Regularly for precision surveys
Before each calibration, it is essential to allow the total station enough to reach the ambient
temperature.
This axial error is caused when the line of sight is not perpendicular to the tilting axis. It affects
all horizontal circle readings and increases with steep sightings, but this is eliminated by
observing on two faces. For single face measurements,an on-board calibration function is
used to determine c, the deviation between the actual line of sight and a line perpendicular to the
tilting axis. A correction is then applied automatically for this to all horizontal circle readings.
This axial errors occur when the titling axis of the total station is not perpendicular to its
vertical axis. This has no effect on sightings taken when the telescope is horizontal, but
introduces errors into horizontal circle readings when the
telescope is tilted, especially for steep sightings. As with horizontal collimation error,
this error is eliminated by two face measurements, or the tilting axis error a is measured in
a calibration procedure and a correction applied for this to all horizontal circle readings -
as before if a is too big, the instrument should be returned to the manufacture.
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A vertical collimation error exists on a total station if the Oo to 18Oo line in the
vertical circle does not coincide with its vertical axis. This zero point error is present in all
vertical circle readings and like the horizontal collimation error, it is eliminated by taking FL
and FR readings or by determining i
For all of the above total station errors (horizontal and vertical collimation, tilting axis
and compensator) the total station is calibrated using an in built function. Here the function
is activated and a measurement to a target is taken as shown below.
Following the first measurement the total station and the telescope are each rotated
through 180o and the reading is repeated.
Any difference between the measured horizontal and vertical angles is then
quantified as an instrumental error and applied to all subsequent readings automatically.
The total station is thus calibrated and the procedure is the same for all of the above error
type.
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UNIT—IV
PART—A
1.What is meant by satellite constellation? [CO4 –L1]
Space segment consist 21 GPS satellites with an addition of 3 active spares.
These satellites are placed in almost six circular orbits with an inclination of 55 degree. Orbital
height of these satellites is about 2,200 km corresponding to about 26,600 km provides
repeated satellite configuration every day advanced by four minutes with respect to universal time.
PART-B
1. Briefly explain the Characteristics of GPS Navigation and Satellite navigation?(CO4-H1)
Traditional methods of surveying and navigation resort to tedious
field an d a s t ro n o m i ca l o bs er va tio n f or d eri v i n g p o sit ion a l an d di re cti o na l
information. Diverse field conditions, seasonal variation and many unavoidable
circumstances always bias the traditional field approach. However, due to rapid
advancement in electronic systems, every aspect of human life is affected to a great
deal. Field of surveying and navigation is tremendously benefited through electronic
devices. Many of the critical situations in surveying/navigation are now easily and
precisely solved in short time.
GPS has been under development in the USA s ince 1973. The US
department of Defence as a worldwide navigation and positioning resource for
military as well as civilian use for 24 hours and all weather conditions primarily
developed it.
GPS Nominal
Constellation
24 Satellites in 6 Orbital
Planes
4 Satellites in each
Plane
20,200 km Altitudes, 55 Degree
Inclination
Fig 4.1 The Global Positioning System (GPS), 21-satellite configuration
term for receiver clock error is observed for positioning whereas in carrier phase
techniques, the difference between the phase of the carrier signal transmitted by the
satellite and the phase of the receiver oscillator at the epoch is observed to derive the
precise information.
The GPS satellites act as reference points from which receivers on the ground
detect their position. The fundamental navigation principle is based on the
measurement of pseudoranges between the user and four satellites (Fig.2). Ground
stations pre c ise ly monitor the orbit of every satellite and by measuring the travel
time of the signals transmitted from the satellite four distances between receiver and
satellites will yield accurate position, direction and speed. Though three-range
measurements are sufficient, the fourth observation is essential for solving clock
synchronization error between receiver and satellite. Thus, the term "pseudoranges" is
derived. The secret of GPS measurement is due to the ability of measuring carrier
phases to about 1/100 of a cyc le equaling to 2 to 3 mm in linear distance.
M oreover the high frequency L1 and L2 carrier signal can easily penetrate the ionosphere
to reduce its effect. Dual frequency observations are important for large station separation
and for eliminating most of the error parameters.
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R1
2.What are the space, control and user segm ents of GPS and their
Functions?(CO4-H1)
For better understanding of GPS, we normally consider three major segments
viz. space segment, Control segment and User segment. Space segment deals
withGPS satellites systems, Control segment describes ground based time and
orbit control prediction and in User segment various types of existing GPS
receiver and its application is dealt .
Space Segment
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User Segment
Control Segment
GLONASS (Global Navigation & Surveying System) a similar system to GPS is being
developed by former Soviet Union and it is considered to be a valuable complementary
s y s te m to GPS for future application.
SPACE SEGMENT
Space segment will consist 2l GPS satellites with an addition of 3 active spares. These
satellites are placed in almost six circular orbits with an inclination of 55 d eg r e e. Orbital
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GPS satellite s are broadly divided into three blocks: Block-I satellite pertains to
developm ent stage, Block II represents production satellite and Block IIR are
replenishment/spare satellite.
Under Block-I, NAVSTAR 1 to 11 satellites were launched before 1978 to 1985 in two
orbital planes of 63-degree inclination. Design life of these prototype test satellites was
only five years but the operational period has been exceeded in most of the cases.
The first Block-II production satellite was launched in February 1989 using channel
Douglas Delta 2 booster rocket. A total of 28 Block-II satellites are planned to support
21+3 satellite configuration. Block -II satellite s hav e a designed lifetime of 5-7 years.
To sustain the GPS facility, the development of follow-up satellites under Block-II R has
started. Twenty replenishment satellites will replace the current block-II satellite as and
when necessary. These GPS satellites under Block-IR have additional ability to
measure distances between satellites and will also compute ephemeris on board
for real timeinformation gives a schem atic view of Block -II satellite. Electric al power
is generated through two solar panels covering a surface area of 7.2 square meter
each. However, additional battery backup is provided to provide energy when the
satellite moves into ear th's shadow region. Each satellite weighs 845kg and has a
propulsion system for positional stabilization and orbit maneuvers.
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NAVSTAR GPS is a o n e- w a y r an g in g s ystem i.e. signals are o n l y
transmitted by the satellite. Signal travel time between the satellite and the receiver
is observed and the range distance is calculated through the knowledge of
signal propagation velocity. One way ranging means that a clock reading at the
transmitted antenna is compared with a clock reading at the receiver antenna. But
since the two clocks are not strictly synchronized, the observed signal travel time
is biased with systematic synchronization error. Biased ranges are known as
pseudoranges. Simultaneous observations of four pseudoranges are necessary to
determine X, Y, Z coordinates of user antenna and clock bias.
P- code has a frequency of 10.23 MHz. This refers to a sequence of 10.23 million binary
digits or chips per second. This frequency is also referred to as the chipping rate of
P- code. Wavelength corresponding to one chip is 29.30m. The P-code sequence
is extrem ely long and repeats only after 266 days . Portions of s even days eac h
are as signed to the various satellites. As a consequence, all satellite can transm it
on the sam e frequency and can be identified by their unique one-week segment. This
technique is also called as Code Division Multiple Acces s (CDM A). P-code is the
primary code for navigation and is available on carrier frequencies L1 and L2.
The CIA code has a length of only one millisecond; its chipping rate is 1.023 MHz
with corresponding wavelength of 300 meters. CIA code is only transmitted on L1
carrier.
GPS receiver normally has a copy of the code sequence for determining
the signal propagation time. This code sequence is phase-shifted in time step- by-
step and correlated with the received code signal until maximum correlation is
achieved. The necessar y phase-shift in the two sequences of codes is a measure of the
signal travel time between the satellite and the receiver antennas. This technique can
be explained as code phase observation.
For precise geodetic applications, the pseudoranges should be derived from
phase measurements on the carrier signals because of much higher resolution.
Problems of ambiguity determination are vital for such observations.
The third type of signal transmitted from a GPS satellite is the broadcast
message sent at a rather slow rate of 50 bits per second (50 bps) and repeated every
30 seconds. Chip s equence of P-code and C IA c ode are s e p arately combined with
the stream of message bit by binary addition ie the same value for code and message
chip gives 0 and different values result in 1.
The main features of all three signal types used in GPS observation viz
carrier, code and data signals are given in Table 3.
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GPS Satellite Signals
The signal structure permits both the phase and the phase shift (Doppler effect) to be
measured along with the direct signal propagation. The necessary bandwidth is
achieved by phase modulation of the PRN code as illustrated in Fig. 6.
Tim
e
Carrie
r
PRN +1
Code -1
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Structure of GPS navigation data (message) is shown in Fig. 7. The user has to
decode the data signal to get access to the navigation data. For on line navigation
purpos es , the internal processor within the receiver does the decoding. Most of the
manufacturers of GPS receiver provide decoding software for post processing purposes.
W ith a bit rate of
50 bps and a cyc le tim e of 30 sec onds, the total information content of a
navigation data set is 1500 bits. The complete data frame is subdivided into five
subframes of six- second duration comprising 300 bits of information. Each subframe
contains the data words of 30 bits each. Six of these are control bits. The first
two words of each subfram e are the Telemetry Work (TLM) and the C/A-P-Code
Hand over Work (HOW). The TLM work contains a synchronization pattern, which
facilitates the access to the navigation data. Since GPS is a military navigation system
of US, a limited access to the total system ac curacy is m ade av ailab le to the
c ivilian users . The servic e available to the civilians is called Standard Positioning
System (SPS) while the service available to the authorized users is called the Precise
Positioning Service (PPS). Under current policy the accuracy available to SPS users is
100m, 2D- RMS and for PPS users it is 10 to 20 meters in 3D. Additional
limitation viz. Anti-Spoofing (AS), and Selective Availability (SA) was further
imposed for civilian users. Under AS, only authorized users will have the means to
get access to the P-code. By imposing SA condition, positional accuracy from
Block -II s atellite was random ly offset for SPS users . Since M ay 1, 2000 according
to declaration of US President, SA is switched off for all users.
Unlike the first two blocks, the subframe four and five are not
repeated every 30 seconds.
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the control
segment.
Appropriate GPS receivers are required to receive signal from GPS satellites for
the purpose of navigation or positioning. Sinc e, GPS is still in its development
phase, m any rapid advancem ents have completely eliminated bulk y first
generation user equipments and now miniature powerful models are frequently
appearing in the market.
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- Power supply
- User interface, command and display panel
- Memory, data storage
Signal External
An t Precisi
processor power
en n a a on
s upply
nd p r Code oscillat
tracking or
e
amplifie loop
Command &
r
Micro display unit
proces
Carrier sor
tracking External
loop data
Memo logger
ry
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Fig 4.9 Major components of a GPS receiver
ANTENNA
Sensitiv e antenna of the GPS receiver detects the electromagnetic wave
signal transmitted by GPS satellites and converts the wave energy to electric current]
amplifies the signal strength and sends them to receiver electronics.
Several types of GPS antennas in use are mostly of following types (Fig.).
The incoming GPS signals are down converted to a lower frequency in the RS
section and processed within one or more channels. Receiver channel is the primary
electronic unit of a GPS receiver. A receiver may have one or more channels. In
the parallel channel concept each channel is continuouslymfrank ing one particular
satellite. A m inim um of four parallel channels is required to determine position
and time. Modern receivers contain upto l2 channels for each frequency.
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In the sequencing channel concept the channel switches from satellite to
satellite at regular interval. A single channel receiver takes atleast four times of 30
seconds to establish first position fix, though some receiver types have a dedicated
channel for reading the data signal. Now days in most of the cases fast sequencing
channels with a switching rate of about one-second per satellite are used.
Though continuous tracking parallel channels are cheap and giv e good overall
performance, GPS receivers based on multiplexing technology will soon be available at
a cheaper price due to electronic boom.
Microprocessor
` To control the operation of a GPS receiver, a microprocessor is essential
for acquiring the signals, processing of the signal and the decoding of the
broadcast message. Additional capabilities of computation of on-line position and
velocity, conversion into a given local datum or the determination of waypoint
information are also required. In future more and more user relevant software will
be resident on miniaturized memory chips.
Precision
Oscillator
Power Supply
First generation GPS receivers consumed very high power, but modern
receivers are designed to consume as little energy as possible. Most receivers have
an internal rechargeable. Nickel-Cadm ium battery in addition to an external power
input. Caution of low battery signal prompts the user to ensure adequate arrangement of
power supply.
Memory Capacity
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For port processing purposes all data have to be stored on internal or
external memory devices. Post processing is essential for multi station techniques
ap p licab l e t o geo d ati c and s u r v e yin g p r o b lem s . G P S o b s er v atio n fo r
ps eudoranges , phas e data, tim e and navigation message data have to be
recorded. Based on sampling rate, it amount to about 1.5 Mbytes of data per hour for
six satellites and 1 second data for dual frequency receivers. Modern receivers have
internal memories of 5 Mbytes or more. Some receivers store the data on magnetic
tape or on a floppy disk or hard-disk using external microcomputer connected through
RS-232 port.
Most modern receivers have a keypad and a display for communication between
the user and the receivers. The keypad is used to enter commands, external
data like station num ber or antenna height or to select a m enu operation.
The display indicates computed coordinates, visible satellites, data quality indices and
other suitable information. Current operation software packages are menu driven
and very user friendly.
GPS receivers can be divided into various groups according to different criteria. In the
early stages two basic technologies were used as the classification criteria viz.
Code correlation receiver technology and sequencing receiver technology, which
were equivalent to code dependent receivers and code free receivers. However, this
kind of division is no longer justifiable since both techniques are implemented in
present receivers.
e.g.
Another classification of GPS receivers is based on acquisition of data types
as:
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Based on technical realization of channel, the GPS receivers can be classified
- Multi-channel receiver
- Sequential receiver
- Multiplexing receiver
Classical
Receivers
Detailed description of code dependent Tl 4lOO GPS Navigator and code free
Macrometer VlOOO is given here:
T1 4100 GPS Navigator was manufactured by Texas Instrument in 1984. It was the first
GPS receiver to provide CIA and P code and L1 and L2 carrier phase observations. It is
a dual frequenc y multiplexing receiver and suitable for geodesist, surveyor and
navigators. The observables through it are:
The data are recorded by an external tape recorder on digital cassettes or are
downloaded directly to an external microprocessor. A hand held control display unit
(CDU) is used for communication between observer and the receiver. For
navigational purposes the built in microprocessor provides position and velocity in real
time every three seconds. T1
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4100 is a bulky instrument weighing about 33 kg and can be pac ked in
two
transportation cases. It consumes 90 watts energy in operating mode of 22V -
32V. Generator use is recommended. The observation noise in P-Code is between 0.6
to 1 m, in CI A code it ranges between 6 to 10 m and for carrier phase it is between 2 to
3 m.
Sensitivity of its antenna for multipath and phase centre variation if two rec eiv ers are
connected to one antenna and trac king of seven satellites simultaneously
is possible. For long distances and in scientific projects, T1 4100 is still regarded
useful. However, due to imposition of restriction on P- code for civilian, T1 4100
during Anti Spoofing (AS) activation can only be used as a single frequency CIA code
receiver.
The MACROMETER V 1000, a code free GPS receiver was introduced in 1982 and
was the first receiver for geodetic applications. Precise results obtained through it
has demonstrated the potential of highly accurate GPS phase observations. It is a
single frequency receiver and tracks 6 satellites on 6 parallel channels. The complete
system consists of three units viz.
The processor is essential for providing the alm anac data because the Macrometer
V
1000 cannot decode the satellite messages and process the data. At pre
determined epoches the phase differences between the received carrier signal and a
reference signal from receiver oscillator is measured. A typical baseline accuracy
reported for upto 100 km distance is about 1 to 2 ppm (Parts per million).
Macrometer II, a dual frequency version was introduced in 1985. Though it is
comparable to Macrometer V 1000, its power consumption and weight are much
less. Both systems require external ephemeredes. Hence specialized operators
of few com panies are capable of using it and it is required to synchronize the clock
of all the instruments proposed to be used for a particular observation session. To
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overcom e above disadvantages, the dual frequency Macrometer II was further
miniaturized and combined with a single frequency CIA code receiver with a brand
name MINIMAC in
1986, thus becoming a code dependent
receiver.
In 1991, WILD GPS system 200 was introduced. Its hardware comprises the Magnavox
SR 299 dual frequenc y GPS sensor, the hand held CR 233 GPS controller and a
Nicd battery. Plug in memory cards provide the recording medium. It can track 9
satellites simultaneously on L1 and L2. Reconstruction of carrier phase on L1 is
through C/A code and on L2 through P-code. The receiver automatically switches to
codeless L2 when P-code is encrypted. It consumes 8.5 watt through 12-volt power
supply.
ASHTECH XII GPS receiver is a most advanced system, easy to handle and does
not require initialization procedures. Measurements of all satellites in view are carried
out automatically. Data can be stored in the internal solid plate memory of 5
Mbytes capacity. The minimum sampling interval is 0.5 seconds. Like many other
receivers it has following additional options viz.
- 1 ppm timing signal output
- Photogrammetric camera input
- Way point navigation
- Real time differential navigation and provision of port
processing and vision planning software
In 1991, ASHTECH P-12 GPS receiver was marketed. It has 12 dedicated channels
of
L1, P-code and carrier and 12 dedicated channels of L2, P-code and carrier. It also
has
12 L1, CIA code and carrier channels and 12 code less squaring L2 channels. Thus
the receiver contains 48 channels and provides all possibilities of observations to all
visible satellites. The signal to noise level for phase measurement on L2 is only slightly
less than on L1 and significantly better than with code-less techniques. In cases of
activated P- code encryption, the code less L2 option can be used.
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15-watt energy and is suitable for field use. It has 8 parallel channels on L1 and L2.
It provides code and phase data on both frequencies and has a codeless option. Full
P-code tracking provides highest precision phase and pseudo rages measurements,
codeless tracking is autom atic "full back" m ode. The code less m ode us es the
fact that eac h c arrier has identical modulation of P-code/Y- code and hence the L1
signal can be cross-correlated with the L2 signal. Results are the differential phase
measurement (L1-L2) and the group delay measurement (P1-P2)
One of the important features is that less than 1 cycle slip is expected
for
100 satellite hours.
Navigation Receivers
Navigation receivers are rapidly picking up the market. In most cases a single C/A code
sequencing or multiplexing channel is used. However, modules with four or five parallel
channels are becoming increasingly popular. Position and velocity are derived from C/A
code pseudoranges measurement and are displayed or downloaded to a
personal computer. Usually neither raw data nor carrier phase information is
available. Differential navigation is possible with some advanced models.
MAGELLAN NAV 1000 is a handheld GPS receiver and weighs only 850 grams. It was
introduced in 1989 and later in 1990, NAV 1000 PRO model was launched. It is a
single channel receiver and tracks 3 to 4 satellites with a
2.5 seconds update rate and has a RS 232 data
port.
The follow up model in 1991 was NAV 5000 PRO. It is a 5-channel receiver
tracking all visible satellites with a 1-second update rate. Differential navigation is
possible. Carrier phase data can be used with an optional carrier phas e m odule.
The quadrifilar antenna is integrated to the receiv er. Post processing of data is also
possible using surveying receiver like ASHTECH XII located at a reference station.
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Relative accuracy is about 3 to 5 metres. This is in many cases sufficient for thematic
purposes.
Many hand held navigation receivers are available with added features.
The latest market situation can be obtained through journals like GPS world etc.
For m ost navigation purpose a single frequenc y C IA code rec eiv er is sufficient. For
acc u r ac y requirem ents better than 50 to 100 m eters, a differential option is
essential. For requirement below 5 meters, the inclusion of carrier phase data is
necessary. In high precision navigation the use of a pair of receivers with full
geodetic capability is advisable. The main characteristics of multipurpose geodetic
receiver are summarized in Table 4.
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ACCURACY
In general, an SPS receiver can provide position information with an error of less than 25
meter and velocity information with an error less than 5 meters per sec ond. Upto
2
M ay 2000 U.S Gov ernment has activated Se le ctiv e Availability (SA ) to m aintain
optim um milita r y e ffec tiv ene s s . Se le c t iv e Availability inserts random errors into the
ephemeris information broadcast by the satellites, which reduces the SPS accuracy
to around 100 meters.
DIFFERENTIAL THEORY
Typically, the horizontal accur ac y of a single position fix from a GPS receiver is 15
meter RMS (root-mean Square) or better. If the distribution of fixes about the true
position is circular normal with zero mean, an accuracy of 15 m eters RMS im plies
that about 63% of the fixes obtained during a session are within 15 meters of the
true position.
Ionosphere delay errors and tropospheric delay errors are caused by atmospheric
conditions. Ionospheric delay is caused by the density of electrons in the ionosphere
along the signal path. A tropspheric delay is related to hu m idit y, te m perature,
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and altitude along the s i gnal path. Us uall y, a tropospheric error is smaller than an
ionospheric error.
The amount of error and direction of the error at any given time does not change
rapidly. Therefore, two GPS receivers that are sufficiently close together will
observe the same fix error, and the size of the fix error can be determined.
NON-CORRECTABLE ERRORS
Error Sources
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Most DGPS techniques use a GPS receiver at a geodetic control site whose position is
known. The receiver collects positioning information and calculates a position fix, whic h is
then compared to the known co-ordinates . The difference between the known position
and the acquired position of the control location is the positioning error.
Because the other GPS receivers in the area are assumed to be operating under similar
conditions, it is assumed that the position fixes acquired by other receivers in the area
(remote units) are subject to the same error, and that the correction computed for the
control position should therefore be accurate for those receive rs. The correction is
communicated to the remote units by an operator at the control site with radio or
cellular equipment. In post-processed differential, all units collect data for off-site
processing; no c orrections are determined in the field. The proces s of correcting the
position error with differential mode is shown in the Figure .
The difference between the known position and acquired position at the control point is the
DELTA correction. DELTA, which is always expressed in meters, is parallel to the surface of
the earth. When expressed in local co- ordinate system, DELTA uses North-South axis (y)
and an East-West axis (x) in2D operation; an additional vertical axis (z) that is
perpendicular to the y and x is used in 3D operation for altitude.
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UNIT 4
PART A
1. What do you understand by parallax? [CO5 –L2] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012/AUC Apr/May 2010)
Parallax is defined as the apparent displacement of an object due to the real displacement
of the observer. For example the apparent movement of the stars is due to the real
displacement of the observer from one position to another upon the earth's orbit.
2. Distinguish between crab and drift. [CO5 –L2] (AUC Apr/May 2010) Crab:
The angle formed between the flight line and the edges of the photograph in the direction
of flight is designated by a term called crab. The crab is caused in the photograph when the
focal plane of the camera is not square with the direction of flight.
Drift:
Drift is caused by the failure of the photograph to stay on the predetermined flight line. If
an aircraft is allowed to go on its course without allowance for wind velocity, it will drift.
3. What do you mean by sounding? [CO5–L1] (AUC Nov/Dec 2010/ Apr/May 2011)
The measurements of depths below the water surface are called soundings. It is to find the
depth measurement in land with reference to a datum.
4. Distinguish between 'terrestrial photogrammetry' and 'aerial photogrammetry'.
[CO5 –L2] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Terrestrial photogrammetry:
Photographs taken from a fixed position on or near the ground and the branch deals on
such aspects are called terrestrial photogrammetry.
Aerial photogrammetry:
Aerial photogrammetry is the other branch wherein the photograph are taken by cameras
mounted on an aircraft flying over the area.
5. What is meant by scale of a photograph? [CO5 –L1] (AUC May/June 2009)
Scale of photograph is obtained from the ratio of the distance of any two points on the
photograph and the distance between the corresponding points on the ground. The two points
chosen for scaling should lie nearly equidistant on either side of the principal point.
6. Write the concept of map - marking in cartography? [CO5–L2] (AUC May/June 2009)
While there are many steps involved in the map making process, they can be grouped
into three main stages: data collection, organization, and manipulation; map design and artwork
preparation; and map reproduction.
7. What is a fathometer? [CO5 –L1] (AUC May/June 2012)
A fathometer is used for measuring depth of large rivers and seas with depth more than
10 m. by this instrument the depth of water is obtained by sending a sound impulse from the
surface of water towards the bottom of the river or sea bed.
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8. Differentiate between 'tilted photograph' and 'oblique photograph'. (AUC May/June 2012)
Tilted photograph: [CO5 –L2]
A tilted photograph is an aerial photograph made with the camera axis unintentionally.
The tilt from the vertical axis is usually less than 30.
Oblique photograph:
An oblique photograph is the one made in an aerial photograph intentionally between the
horizontal and the vertical.
9. Define hydrographic surveying. [CO5 –L1] (AUC Nov/Dec 2010) (AUC May/June 2013)
Hydrographic surveying is that branch of surveying connected with all the observations
and measurements concerned with bodies of water. These observations and measurements are
needed for the design of marine structures, hydraulic structures and other cross-drainage
works.
10. Define EDM. [CO5 –L2] (AUC May/June 2013)
Electro-magnetic distance measurement is a general term used collectively in the
measurement of distances applying electronic methods. Basically the EDM method is based on
generation, propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of electromagnetic waves.
11. What are the equipments used for sounding? [CO5 –L2] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
i) Sounding rods or poles.
ii) Lead lines or sounding cables.
iii) Fathometer.
12. What is meant by three point problem in hydrographic surveying? [CO5 –L1]
If a sounding is located by two angles from the boat by observations to three known points
on the shore, the plotting can be done adopting three-point problem. The three point problem
may be solved by mechanical, graphical or analytical methods.
13. Explain the term 'Cartography'. [CO5 –L1]
Cartography:
Cartography has always been closely associated with Geography and Surveying. Its
recognition as a distinct discipline is relatively recent. Scientific journals dealing with
Cartography began to appear in the middle of the twentieth century. Numerous definitions of
Cartography have appeared in the literature. Earlier definitions tend to emphasize map making
while more recent definitions also include map use within the scope of Cartography.
14. What are lunar and solar tides? [CO5 –L1]
Lunar tides:
The periodical variations in natural water level are called as tides. The resultant force
between the earth and moon causes lunar tides.
Solar tides:
The production of solar tides is due to force of attraction between earth and sun which is
similar to the lunar tides.
15. What is meant by photo-theodolite? [CO4 –L1]
Photo-theodolite is a combination of a camera and a theodolite. It is used to take
photographs and measuring angles.
16. Define tilt displacement. [CO5–L1]
Tilt displacement:
Tilt distortion or tilt displacement is defined as the difference between the distance of the
image of a point on the tilted photograph from the isocentre and the distance of the image of the
same point on the photograph from the isocentre if there had been no tilt.
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17. Name the different methods for soundings. [CO5–L1]
) By cross rope
) By range and time intervals
) By range and one angle from the shore
) By range and one angle from boat
) By two angles from the shore
) By two angles from the boat
) By one angle from shore and one angle from boat
) By intersecting ranges
) By tacheometry
18. Give the significance of trilateration. [CO5–L1]
There is no angular measurement is made. The three sides of triangles are measured
precisely using the EDM equipment. This technique is useful when angular measurement is
difficult or impossible due to any reason.
19. Define cadastral surveying. [CO5–L1]
Cadastral surveying is the one which is conducted in order to determine the boundaries
of fields, estates, houses, etc.
20. What are the uses of photogrammetry? [CO5–L1]
) Construction of planimetric and topographic maps.
) Mountainous and hilly areas with less number of trees can be very satisfactorily
surveyed.
) Aerial surveying is most suitable for reconnaissance.
) Acquisition of military intelligence.
) Interpretation of geology and soil details.
) Largely used for the surveys of buildings.
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place is north or south of the equator. The latitude may also be defined as the angle between
the zenith and the celestial equator.
Co-latitude (c):
The Co-latitude of a place is the angular distance from the zenith to the pole. It is the
complement of the latitude and equal to (90°- ).
25. Distinguish between the 'Zenith' and 'Nadir'. [CO5–L2] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Zenith:
The Zenith (Z) is the point on the upper portion of the celestial sphere marked by plumb
line above the observer. It is thus the point on the celestial sphere immediately above the
observer's station.
Nadir:
The Nadir (Z') is the point on the lower portion of the celestial sphere marked by the plum
line below the observer. It is thus the point on the celestial sphere vertically below the
observer'station.
26. Differentiate 'Tropic of cancer' from 'Tropic of Capricorn'. [CO5–L2] (AUC Apr/May2011)
Tropicofcancer:
l'
The parallel of latitude 23o 27 north of equator is known as tropic of cancer.
2
Tropic of capricorn:
l'
The parallel of latitude 23o 27 south of equator is known as tropic of capricorn.
2
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27. Explain the term "sidereal time". [CO5–L1] (AUC May/June 2009)
The sidereal time at any instant is the hour angle of the first point of aries reckoned
westward from Oh to 24h. The right ascension of the meridian of a place is known as Local
sidereal time (L.S.T).
Local sidereal time (L.S.T) = Right ascension of a star + westerly hour angle of a star
28. What is the correction for parallax when the altitude of celestial body is observed?
[CO5–L1] (AUC May/June 2009)
When the sun or star is viewed from different points, change in the direction of the body
is observed due to parallax. The parallax in altitude is called diurnal parallax.
Correction for parallax 8.8" cos '
Where α' is the observed altitude. This correction is always additive.
29. Define the right ascension (R.A). [CO5–L1] (AUC May/June 2012)
Right ascension is the equatorial angular distance measured eastward from the First
Point of Aries to the hour circle through the heavenly body.
30. Enumerate the properties of a spherical triangle. [CO5–L1] (AUC May/June 2012)
) Any angle is less than two right angles or .
) Sum of the three angles is less than six right angles or 3 and greater than two right
angles or .
) Sum of any two sides is greater than the third.
) If the sum of any two angles is equal to two right angles or , the sum of the angles
opposite them is equal to two right angles.
) The smaller angle is opposite to the smaller side and vice - versa.
31. Define celestial sphere and azimuth axis. [CO5–L1] (AUC May/June 2013) (AUC
Nov/Dec 2012)
Celestial sphere:
The millions of stars that we see in the sky on a clear cloudless night are all at varying
distances from us. Since we are concerned with their relative distance rather than their actual
distance from the observer. It is exceedingly convenient to picture the stars as distributed over
the surface of an imaginary spherical sky having its center at the position of the observer. This
imaginary sphere on which the star appears to lie or to be studded is known as the celestial
sphere.
Azimuth axis (A):
The azimuth of a heavenly body is the angle between the observer's meridian and the
vertical circle passing through the body.
32. What is Latitude and Longitude? [CO5–L1] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Latitude ( ):
It is angular distance of any place on the earth's surface north or south of the equator,
and is measured on the meridian of the place. It is marked (+ or -) (N or S) place is north or
south of the equator. The latitude may also be defined as the angle between the zenith and the
celestial equator.
Longitude ():
The longitude of a place is the angle between a fixed reference meridian called the prime
of first meridian and the meridian of the place. The prime meridian universally adopted is that of
Greenwich. The longitude of any place varies between 0° and 180°, and is reckoned as Φ° east
or west of Greenwich.
33. Give the relationship for conversion of sidereal time to mean time. [CO5–L2]
Local sidereal time = R.A. of mean sun 12 h + mean time at that place
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PART B
1. At a point in latitude 550 46' 12'' N, the altitude of sun's centre was found to be 230 17'
32'' at 5h 17m, P.M. (G.M.T.) The horizontal angle at the R.M. and Sun's centre was 680
24' 30''. Find the azimuth of the sun. [CO5-H2]
Data:
i) Sun's declination of G.A.N. on day of observation = 17 0 46' 52'' N
ii) Variation of declination per hour = - 37''
0 0
iii) Refraction of altitude 23 20' 00'' = 0 2' 12''
iv) Parallax for altitude = 00 0' 8''
m s
v) Equation of time (App. - Mean) = 6 0 (IRSE). (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
Solution:
i) Calculation of declination:
G.M.T. of observation = 5h 17m P.M.
Add equation of time = 0h 6m 0s
G.A.T. of observation = 5h 23m 0s P.M.
Now declination at G.A.T. = 170 46' 52'' N
Apparent time interval,
G.A.N. = 5h 23m 0s
Variation in the declination in this time interval at the rate of 37" per hour = 3' 39"
(decrease).
Declination at G.A.T. of observation = 170 46' 52'' - 3' 39" = 170 43' 13''
ii) Calculation of altitude:
Observed altitude of sun's centre = 23 0 17' 32''
subtract refraction correction = 00 2' 12''
= 230 15' 2O''
Add parallax correction = O' 8"
0
Correct altitude = 23 15' 28''
Now, co-latitude = c = 900 - = 900 - 550 46' 12'' = 340 13' 48''
co-declination = p = 900 - = 900 - 170 43' 13'' = 720 16' 47''
co-altitude = z = 900 - = 900 - 230 15' 28'' = 660 44' 32''
2s = 1730 15' 7''
s = 860 37' 33.5''
s - c = 520 23' 45.5'' ; s - p = 140 2O' 46.5" ; s - z = 190 53' 1.5"
Azimuth of sun is given by,
A sin ( s z ) sin ( s c) sin (19 0 53' 1.5" ) sin ( 52 0 23' 45.5")
tan 1.0437
2 sin s sin ( s p) sin ( 86 0 37' 33.5") sin (14 0 20' 46.5")
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A
= 460 13' 29.84"
2
A = 230 6' 44.92'
2. What is the equation of time? Show that it vanishes four times a year. [CO5-H1]
(AUC Apr/May 2010)
At any instant the difference between apparent solar time and mean solar time is known
as the equation of time. The values of equation of time at 0 hour (midnight) at Greenwich are
tabulated in the nautical almanac for everyday of the year.
Values of equation of time are sometimes prefixed with the plus sign (sun after clock) or minus
sign (sun before clock).
Equation of time = R.A. of the mean sun - R.A. of the sun
At different seasons of the year the value of the equation of time varies from 0 to
16 minutes. During the following dates on a year viz., April 15, June 14, september 1 and
December 25 the true sun and the mean sun are on the same meridian, ie., the apparent time
and mean time are the same resulting in the equation time.
The difference between mean time and apparent time is due to obliquity of real sun
and the mean sun along different orbits as shown in figure.
The following relationships are of interest. We know
L.s.T. = R.A. of the mean sun + hour angle of the mean sun
L.s.T. = R.A. of the sun + hour angle of the sun
Equating the above both equations
R.A. of the mean sun - R.A. of the sun = hour angle of the sun - hour angle of the mean sun
Equation of time = hour angle of the sun - hour angle of the mean sun
Equation of time = apparent time - mean time
Apparent time = mean time + equation time
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3. Determine the hour angle and declination of star from the following data:
Altitude of star = 22° 30'
Azimuth of the star = 145° E
Latitude of the observer = 49° N. [CO5-H2] (AUC Apr/May 2010)
Solution:
The azimuth of the star is 145° E, the star is in the eastern hemisphere.
In the astronomical triangle ZPM, we have
Co - altitude, ZM = 90o - α = 90o - 22o 30' = 67o 30'
Co - latitude, ZP = 90o - = 90o - 49o = 41o
A = 145o
Using cosine formula,
Cos PM = cos ZM cos ZP + sin ZM sin ZP cos A
cos (670 30 ' ) cos ( 410 ) sin (670 30 ' ) sin ( 410 ) cos (1450 )
Cos PM 0.2077
PM = 1010 59' 15.36"
Declination of star, δ = 900 - PM = 900 - 1010 59' 15.36" = 110 59' 15.36"
δ = . 110 59' 15.36" s
Using cosine rule,
Cos H = 0.8406
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4. What are parallax and refraction and how do they affect the measurements of vertical
angles in astronomical work? [CO5-H1] (AUC May/June 2012) (AUC Apr/May 2010)
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5. If the GST of GMN is 13h 29m 28s, what will be the HA of the star of RA 22 h 19m 20s at a
place in longitude 120° 32' W at 2.10 AM, GMT the same day. [CO5-H2] (AUC Apr/May
2010) Solution:
LsT = RA of the star + Hour angle of the star
Calculate LsT corresponding to the given LMT knowing GsT of GMN.
First calculate LST of LMN:
Longitude = 120° 32' W = 8h 2.4m
As the place is to the west, the acceleration has to be added at the rate of 9.8565s per hour of
longitude to the GsT of GMN to get the LsT of LMN.
Now,
8h x 9.8565 = 78.85 seconds
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m
2.4 x 0.1642 = 0.39 seconds
Total acceleration = 79.24 seconds
GsT of GMN = 13h 29m 28s Add
acceleration = 79.24s L8T
of LMN = 13h 30m 47.248
Now GMT = 2h 10m 00s
subtract Longitude = 8h 2.4m 00s
LMT of the event = - 5h 52m 24s (previous day)
LMN (day of given G.s.T. of G.M.N.) = 12 h 00m 00s
subtract LMT of event (previous day) = 5h 52m 24s
Mean time interval between the event = 17h 52m 24s and the L.M.N.
Let us convert this mean time interval to the sidereal time interval by adding acceleration at the
rate of 9.8565s per mean hour.
17h x 9.8565 = 167.56 seconds
52h x 0.1642 = 8.54 seconds
h
24 x 0.0027 = 0.06 seconds
Total acceleration = 176.16 seconds = 2m 56.16s
sidereal time b/n event and L.M.N. = 17h 52m 24s + 2m 56.16s = 20h 48m 33.6s (before L.M.N.)
L.s.T. of L.M.N. = 13h 30m 47.24s
subtract s.l. = 20h 48m 33.6s
L.s.T. of event = - 7h 17m 46.36s = 16h 42m 13.64s
Now, Hour angle = L.s.T. - R.A. = 16h 42m 13.64s - 22h 19m 20s = - 5h 37m 6.36s
= 24h - 5h 37m 6.36s
Hour angle = 18h 22m 53.648 (here 24 hrs is added to make HA positive)
6. Describe the Napier's rules of circular parts in obtaining the solution of right angle
spherical triangle. [CO5-H2] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
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The relationship of right-angled spherical triangle may be obtained from 'Napier Rules
of Circular Parts'.
From the above figure the spherical triangle is right angled at C. a circle is drawn and
divided into five parts. In order to starting from the side a, the two sides containing the right
angle (a and b) and the components of three parts A, c and B are shown in figure. Then if any
part is considered as the middle part the two parts adjacent to it as adjacent parts, we have the
following rules as per Napier:
sine of middle part = product of tangents of the adjacent parts.
sine of middle part = product of cosines of opposite parts.
Thus,
sin b = tan a tan (900 - A) and
sin b = cos (900 - B) cos (900 - c)
By choosing different parts in turn as the middle parts, we can obtain all the possible
relationships between the sides and angles.
7. Find the shortest distance between two places A and B, given that the latitudes of A and
B are 15° 00' N and 12° 06' N and their longitudes are 50° 12' E and 54° 00' E respectively.
Find also the directions of B on the great circle route. Radius of the earth = 6370 km.
[CO5-H2] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Solution:
i) Distance between AB:
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0
p = 4 43' 33.85"
6370 x 40 43 ' 33.85" x
Arc distance = radius x central angle =
1800
AB = 525.43 km
ii) Direction of A from B:
The direction of A from B is the angle B and vice versa.
Angles A and B can be found by the tangent semi-sum and semi-difference formulae.
1
cos ( a- b )
1 2 1
tan (A +B) = cot P and
2 1 2
cos ( a +b )
2
1
sin ( a - b )
1 2 1
tan (A -B) = cot P
2 1 2
sin ( a +b )
2
a - b 77O 54' - 75O 0
= =1 27'
2 2
a + b 77O 54' + 75O
Here = =760 27'
2 2
P 3O 48'
= = 10 54'
2 2
1 cos (10 27 ')
tan (A +B) = cot (10 54 ') 128.62
2 cos (760 27 ')
A E
890 33 '16.36" ........................................(1)
2
1 sin (10 27 ')
tan (A B) = cot (10 54 ') 0.7846
2 sin (760 27 ')
A E
380 7 ' 3.83" ........................................(2)
2
By subtracting above equations, we get
Direction of A from B = angle B = 890 33' 16.36" - 380 7' 3.83" = N 510 26' 12.53" W
8. Write a detailed note:
i) Sidereal time
ii) Solar apparent time. [CO5-H1] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
i) Sidereal time:
since the earth rotates on its axis from west to east, all heavenly bodies appear to
revolve from east to west around the earth. such motion of the heavenly bodies is known as
apparent motion. We may consider the earth to turn on it axis with absolute regular speed. The
star appears to complete one revolution round the celestial pole as centre in constant interval of
time and they cross the observer's meridian twice.
The time interval between two successive upper transits of the first point of aries over
the same meridian is known as the sidereal day and the instant of crossing is called as sidereal
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noon. The day is divided into 24 hours which is reckoned consecutively from zero at one noon
to 24 hours at the following noon. Each hour is divided into 60 minutes and each m inute is
divided into 60 seconds.
Thus the sidereal time at any instant is the hour angle of the first point of aries reckoned
westward from 0h to 24h.
The right ascension of the meridian of a place is known as the local sidereal time.
Local sidereal time (L.s.T.) = R.A. of star + westerly hour angle of a star.
If the sum of above equation is greater than 24 hours, 24 hours has to be deducted and
24 hours should be added if it is negative. It is also expressed as
Local sidereal time (L.s.T.) = R.A. of mean sun 12 hours + mean time at that place.
When the position of the star is at its upper transit or culmination, its hour angle is zero.
Then
sidereal time of transit of star = R.A. of a star
ii) Solar apparent time:
The time interval between two successive lower transits of the centre of the sun over
the same meridian is called the apparent solar day. The apparent solar day is not of constant
length throughout the year but changes. Hence our modern clocks and chronometers cannot be
used to give us the apparent solar time. The non-uniform length of the day is due to two
reasons.
) The orbit of the earth round the sun is not circular but elliptical with sun at one of its foci.
The distance of the earth from the sun is thus variable.
) The apparent diurnal path of the sun lies in the elliptic. The time elapsing between the
departure of a meridian from the sun and it returns would vary because of the obliquity of
the ecliptic.
It is divided into 24 hours with each hour divided into 60 minutes and in turn each minute
is divided into 60 seconds. Thus the apparent solar time is the time calculated on the basis of
the daily motion of the sun. As the sun does not move uniformly along the ecliptic, the apparent
solar time or the solar day is not uniform. Thus it cannot be recorded by a clock which moves
with a uniform rate.
Apparent solar time = hour angle of the sun + 12 hours
9. The following observations of the sun were taken for azimuth of a line in connection with a
survey.
h m
Mean time = 16 30
Mean hour angle between sun and referring object = 18° 20' 30"
Mean corrected altitude = 33° 35' 10"
Declination of the Nautical Almanac = + 22° 05' 36"
Latitude of the place = 52° 30' 20"
Determine the azimuth of the line. [CO5-H2] (AUC Apr/May 2011)
Solution:
Considering astronomical triangle, the hour angle ZPM = H,
Zenith distance, ZM = z = 900 - α = 900 - 330 35' 10" = 560 24' 50"
Polar distance, PM = 900 - δ = 900 - 220 5' 36" = 670 54' 24"
Co-latitude, ZP = 900 - = 900 - 520 30' 20" = 370 29' 40"
Using cosine rule,
Cos PM = cos ZM cos ZP + sin ZM sin ZP cos A
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cos PM - cos ZP cos ZM
cos A =
sin ZP sin ZM
cos (670 54 ' 24") - cos (370 29 ' 40") cos (560 24 ' 50")
sin (370 29 ' 40") sin(560 24 ' 50")
Cos A = - 0.1238
Azimuth of sun, A = 970 6' 41.27"
10. Explain the three systems of coordinates by which the position of a heavenly body can
be specifies. [CO5-H1] (AUC May/June 2009)
i) Altitude and Azimuth system:
This system is also called a horizon system which is dependent on the position of
the observer. Here, the horizon is the plane of reference and the co -ordinates of a heavenly
body are azimuth and altitude. The horizon is the primary reference great circle and the
secondary reference great circle is the observer's meridian. This system is necessitated as only
horizontal and vertical angles could be measured using engineer's theodolite. The heavenly
body may be on the eastern or western part of the celestial sphere.
Let the heavenly body, M be in the eastern part of the celestial sphere. Let Z be the
observer's zenith and P be the celestial pole. A vertical circle passing through M and Z is drawn
to cut the horizon plane at M'. The azimuth (A), the angle between the observer's meridian
(through P) and the vertical circle through the body is the first co-ordinate. Azimuth is also equal
to the angle at the zenith between the meridian and the vertical circle through M. the other co -
ordinate of M is the altitude (α). It is the angle measured above or below the horizon on the
vertical circle through the body.
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Let the heavenly body, M be on the western part of celestial sphere. The concerned
angles NOM is the azimuth and MOM' is the altitude.
It should be noted that in the northern hemisphere, the azimuth is always measured from the
north to the east or west. In the southern hemisphere the azimuth is measured from the south to
the east or to the west.
Zenith distance = ZM -
MM'
ii) Declination and Right Ascension system:
This system is also referred to as Independent Equatorial system. In this system the
coordinates are independent of observer's position. Accordingly, the two great circles of
reference are:
i) The equatorial circle - primary circle
ii) The declination circle - secondary circle.
This system is used in the publication of star catalogues. The first coordinate of the
heavenly body, M is the right ascension. It is the angle along the arc of the celestial equator
measured from the first point of aries. It is also the angle between the hour circle through . The
other coordinates in this system is the declination ( ). It is the angle of the body measured from
equator along the arc of the declination circle.
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iii) Declination and Hour angle system:
This system is also called as Dependent equatorial system. Here one coordinate is
dependent on the observer's position and the other is independent. Accordingly, the two great
circles of reference are:
i) The horizon - primary circle
ii) The declination circle - secondary circle
The first coordinate of M is the hour angle. As discussed earlier, the hour angle is the
angle measured along the arc of the horizon from the observer's meridian to the declination
circle passing through the body. It is also the angle subtended at the pole, between the
observer's meridian and the declination circle of the body.
In the northern hemisphere the hour angle is measured always from the south towards
the west up to the declination circle. It varies from 0 0 to 3600. When it is between 00 to 1800,
the star is in western hemisphere, otherwise in the eastern hemisphere. The other coordinate is
the declination as discussed in the previous system. In the above figure star is the hour angle
and M1 M is the declination of the celestial body (M). The projection of M are M' and M1 on the
horizon and equator respectively.
11. Write the procedure for determination of true meridian. [CO5-H1](AUC May/June 09 & 13)
It is the simplest method of determining the direction of the celestial pole is probably
that observing at star at equal altitudes. In this method the knowledge of the latitude (or) local
time is not necessary.
The field observations are taken in the following steps:
) set the instrument at 0 and level it accurately.
) sight the reference mark with the reading 0 0 O' O" on the horizontal circle.
) 0pen the upper clamp and turn the telescope clockwise to bisect accurately the star at
position M1. Clamp both horizontal as well as vertical circle.
) Read the horizontal angle 1 as well as the altitudes α of the star.
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) When the star reaches the other side of the meridian, follow it through the telescope,
by unclamping the upper clamp and bisect it when it attains the same altitude.
The telescope is turned in azimuth and vertical circle reading remains unchanged. Read the
angle 2.
Case 1: Both positions of the star to the same side:
A = azimuth = 1 ROM1' ROM 2 '
ROP' 2
2 1 1 2
A 1
2 2
Hence the azimuth of the line is equal to half of the sum of the two observed angles.
Case 2: Both positions of the star are on opposite sides of line:
A = azimuth = M1OP M 1OR
1
M1OM 2 M1OR
2
1 2
A 1
2
2 1
A
2
Hence the azimuth of the line is equal to half of the difference of the two observed angles.
12. At a certain place in longitude 1380 45' east, the star is observed east of the meridian at
6h 45m 218 P.M. with a watch keeping local mean time. It was again observed at the same
altitude to the west of meridian at 8h 48m 438 P.M. Find the error of the watch given below.
G.8.T: at G.M.N on that day = 9h 26m 128; R.A of the star =17h 12m 488.
[CO5-H2] (AUC May/June 2013)
8olution:
L.s.T. of star = R.A. of star = 17h 12m 48s
Let sidereal time is converted into mean time.
Longitude = 1380 45' E = 9h 15m E
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since the place has east longitude.
L.s.T. of L.M.N. = (G.s.T at G.M.N) - retardation
9h x 9.8565 = 88.71 sec
15m x 0.1642 = 2.46 sec
Total retardation = 91.17 sec = 1m 31.17s
G.s.T. at G.M.N. = 9h 26m 12s
subtract retardation = 1m 31.17s
L.s.T. at L.M.N. = 9h 24m 40.83s
Now local sidereal time = 17h 12m 48s
subtract L.s.T. at L.M.N. = 9h 24m 40.83s
s.l. since L.M.N. = 7h 48m 7.17s
Let us convert this s.l. into mean time interval by subtracting the retardation at the rate of
9.8296s per sidereal hour.
7h x 9.8296 = 68.81 sec
48m x 0.1638 = 7.86 sec
7.17s x 0.0027 = 0.02 sec
Total retardation = 76.69 sec = 1m 16.69s
s.l. = 7h 48m 7.17s
subtract retardation = 1m 16.69s
M.l since L.M.N. = 7h 46m 50.48s
Local mean time of transit star = 7h 46m 50.48s P.M
Now L.M.T. of watch for east observation = 6h 45m 21s P.M
L.M.T. of watch for west observation = 8h 48m 43s P.M
= 15h 34m 04s
L.M.T. of transit of the star as shown by the chronometer = 7h 47m 13.52s P.M
Chronometer error = 53.65 sec
13. A star was observed at western elongation at a place in latitudes 52 o 20' N and latitude
52o 20' E when its clockwise horizontal angle from a survey line was 105 o 49' 55". Find
the azimuth of the survey line and the local mean time of elongation given that the stars
declination was 73o 27' 30" N and its right ascension 14h 50m 54s the G8T of GMN being
5h 16m 54s. [CO5-H2] (AUC May/June 2009)
8olution:
i) Azimuth of star:
cos cos ( 730 27' 30" )
sin A = 0.4659
cos cos ( 52 o 20' )
A = 270 46' 6.54"
ii) Hour angle of star:
tan tan ( 52o 20' ) 0.3847
Cos H =
tan tan ( 73o 27' 30")
H = 670 22' 29.58" = 4h 29m 29.978
iii) Azimuth of the line:
since the star was at western elongation, also lies on west of the meridian.
Azimuth of the line AB = azimuth of the star + horizontal angle between line and star
= 270 46' 6.54" + 1050 49' 55" = 1330 36' 1.54"
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iv) Local mean time of observation:
First calculate the L.s.T. of L.M.N. from the given value of G.s.T. of G.M.N.
Longitude = 520 20' E = 3h 29m 20s
3h x 9.8565 = 29.57
29m x 0.1642 = 4.76
20s x 0.0027 = 0.054
Total acceleration = 34.384 sec
G.s.T. of G.M.N. = 5h 16m 54s
Add acceleration = 34.384s
L.s.T. of L.M.N. = 5h 17m 28.38s
Now L.s.T. of observation = R.A. of star + H.A. of the star
= 14h 50m 54s + 4h 29m 29.97s
L.s.T. = 19h 20m 23.97s
subtract L.s.T. of L.M.N. = 5h 17m 28.38s
s.l. from L.M.N. = 14h 2m 55.59s
Let us convert the s.l. into mean time interval by subtracting the retardation at the rate of
9.8296 per sidereal hour.
14h x 9.8296 = 137.61 sec
2m x 0.1638 = 0.33 sec
55.59s x 0.0027 = 0.15 sec
Total retardation = 138.09 sec = 2m 18.09s
Mean time interval from L.M.N.
= s.l. - retardation
= 14h 2m 55.59s - 2m 18.09s
L.M.T. of observation = 14h Om 37.58
14. i) With the help of a sketch, explain the construction of an astronomical triangle.
Obtain the relations existing amongst the spherical coordinates. [CO5-H1]
lt is one formed by joining the pole, the zenith and any star M on the sphere by arcs of
great circles.
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be the latitude of the observer.
Then ZP = co-latitude of the observer
= 900 - = c
MP = co-declination (or) polar distance of M
= 900 - δ = p
ZM = zenith distance (or) co-altitude of the body
= 900 - α = z
Then
Angle at Z = MZP = azimuth (A) of the body
Angle at P = ZPM = hour angle (H) of the body
Angle at M=ZMP = parallactic angle
If the three sides (MZ, ZP and PM) of the astronomical triangles are known, the angles
A and H can be computed using the formulae of spherical trigonometry.
sinδ
cos A = - tan α . tan
cos α . cos
Also,
A sin ( s ZM ) sin ( s ZP )
tan
2 sin s . sin ( s PM )
sin ( s z ) sin ( s c )
sin s . sin ( s p )
A sin ( s z ) sin ( s c )
sin
2 sin z . sin c
A sin s sin ( s p )
cos
2 sin z . sin c
1 1
Where z ( ZM ZP PM ) ( z c p )
2 2
similarly,
sin
cos H tan tan
cos cos
Also,
H sin ( s ZP ) sin ( s PM )
tan
2 sin s . sin ( s ZM )
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H sin s sin ( s z )
cos
2 sin c . sin p
ii) Find the GMT corresponding to the LMT 9 h 40m 12s A.M. at a place in longitude 42o 36'
w. (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
420 36'
Longitude of the place is 42o 36' W = = 2h 50m 24s
15
As the place is west of Greenwich, the GMT will be more.
GMT = LMT + longitude
= 9h 40m 12s + 2h 50m 24s
GMT = 12h 30m 36S
15. The mean observed altitude of the sun, corrected for refraction, parallax and level was
36o 14' 16.8" at a place in latitude 36 o 40' 30" N and longitude 56o 24' 12" E. the mean
watch time of observation was 15h 49m 12.6", the watch being known to be about 3m fast
on LMT. Find the watch error given the following:
Declination of sun at the instant of observation = +17 o 26' 42.1"
GMT of GAN = 11h 56m 22.Ss. [CO5-H2] (AUC May/June 2012)
Solution:
The hour angle of the sun is given by
A sin ( s zp ) sin ( s zs )
tan
2 sin s sin ( s ps )
Where, zp = 900 - ; ps = 900 - ; zs = 900 - ;
2s = zp + zs + ps
zp = 900 - = 900 - 360 40' 30'' = 530 19' 30''
ps = 900 - = 900 - 170 26' 42.1'' = 720 33' 17.9''
zs = 900 - = 900 - 360 14' 16.8'' = 530 45' 43.2''
2s = 1790 38' 31.1''
s = 890 49' 15.55''
(s - zp) = 890 49' 15.55'' - 530 19' 30'' = 360 29' 45.55''
(s - zs) = 890 49' 15.55'' - 530 45' 43.2'' = 360 3' 32.35''
(s - ps) = 890 49' 15.55'' - 720 33' 17.9'' = 170 15' 57.65''
A sin ( s zp ) sin ( s zs ) sin ( 36 0 29' 45.55" ) sin ( 360 3' 32.35")
tan 1.0861
2 sin s sin ( s ps ) sin ( 89 0 49' 15.55" ) sin (17 0 15' 57.65" )
A
= 470 21' 48.38''
2
A = 940 43' 36.75'' = 6h 18m 54.45s
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h m s
L.A.T. = 18 18 54.45
Now the longitude 56o 24' 12" is converted as 3h 45m 36.8s
L.A.T. = 18h 18m 54.45s
Longitude = 3h 45m 36.8s
G.A.T. = 12h 04m 03.8s
G.M.T. of G.A.N. = 11h 56m 22.8s
G.A.T. = G.M.T. + E.T
12 04 03.8s = 11h 56m 22.8s + E.T
h m
E.T = 7m 41s
Then L.M.T. = G.M.T + Longitude = 11 h 56m 22.8s + 3h 45m 36.8s = 15h 41m 59.6s
Error = 15h 49m 12.6" - 15h 41m 59.6s = 7m 13S (East)
16. Explain about Mean solar time and Standard time system.
[CO5-H2] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Mean solar time:
In order to circumvent the non-uniformity of apparent solar time, a fictitious body called
the mean sun is introduced. Thus the man sun is an imaginary body and is assumed to move at
a uniform rate along the equator in order to make a solar day of uniform period. It is presumed
to start from the vertical equinox at the same time as the true sun and to return to the vernal
equinox with the true sun. Thus the line when measured by the diurnal motion of the mean sun
is called the mean solar time or simply mean time. This is the time kept by clocks and watches.
The time interval between two successive lower transits of the mean sun over the same
meridian is called a mean solar day or civil day. Civil time and astronomical time are the two
systems which are in use. Prior to 31st December 1924, the astronomical day was reckoned to
begin at noon.
From 1st January, 1925 both the civil day and astronomical day begin at zero hour midnight.
Civil day is divided into two portions, viz.,
Midnight to noon = anti meridian (AM)
Noon to midnight = post meridian (PM)
But astronomical day is from midnight to midnight, i.e., zero hour to 24 hours.
Standard time:
Instead of using different local mean times by the people in a country it will be
appropriate to adopt the mean time on a particular meridian as the standard time for the whole
of a country. such a meridian is called the standard meridian.
The meridian passing the Greenwich is called Greenwich meridian which is the
standard meridian for Great Britain. Greenwich mean time (G.M.T.) is measured from the lower
transit of the Greenwich meridian by the mean sun, i.e., from Greenwich mean midnight, 0 to 24
hours. It is identical with Universal time (U.T), a term which was recommended by the
international astronomical union and which has now been generally adopted.
The standard meridian usually lies at an exact number of hours from Greenwich. The
mean time associated with this meridian is called the standard time. This is the time which is
kept by all watches and clocks throughout the country. The longitude of the standard meridian
adopted in India is 820 30' E or 5 hours 30 min East.
The standard time may be converted to the local mean time and vice-versa by the
relation.
standard time = L.M.T (difference of longitude in time between the given place and the
standard meridian)
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Thus plus sign has to be used if the place is to the west of the standard meridian and
minus sign if it is to the east.
17. Determine the hour angle and declination of a star from the following data.
Altitude of the star = 21o 30'
Azimuth of the star = 140o E
Latitude of the observer = 4So N. [CO5-H2] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
Solution:
The azimuth of the star is 140° E, the star is in the eastern hemisphere.
In the astronomical triangle ZPM, we have
cO altitude, ZM 90 0 90 0 210 30' 680 30'
cO latitude, ZP 90 0 90 0 480 42 0
A = 1400
Using cosine formula,
Cos PM = cos ZM cos ZP + sin ZM sin ZP cos A
cos ( 680 30' ) cos ( 42 0 ) sin ( 680 30' ) sin ( 42 0 ) cos (140 0 )
Cos P = - 0.2046
PM = 1010 48' 21.9"
Declination of star, δ = 900 - PM = 900 - 1010 48' 21.9" = - 110 48' 21.9"
δ = 110 4S' 21.9" s
Using cosine rule,
cos ZM cos PZ cos PM
cos H
sin PZ sin PM
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from the observed altitude. sometimes it may not be practicable to take observations on
both faces; in such cases the correction for index error is necessary. The index error is
eliminated by taking both face observations.
ii) Bubble error corrections:
At the time of observation, when the bubble tube is not at the centre of its run, then the
correction for bubble error is needed.
0 EX V
Correction for bubble error
n
In which LO = sum of the readings of the object glass end of the bubble.
LE = sum of the readings of the eye-piece end of the bubble. n =
number of bubble ends read.
v = angular value of one division of the bubble in seconds.
The sign of the correction is plus or minus according as LO is greater or lesser than
LE. The observed altitude when corrected for index error and bubble error (semi-diameter) is
called the apparent altitude
19. Explain Direction and velocity of current by floats using three methods.
[CO5-H2] (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
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20. Explain the location of floats with two theodolite method. [CO5-H1] (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
In this method, a point is fixed independent of the range by angular observations from
two points on the shore. The method is generally used to locate some isolated points. If this
method is used on an extensive survey, the boat should be run on a series of approximate
ranges. Two instruments and two instrument men are required. The position of instrument is
selected in such a way that a strong fix is obtained. New instrument stations should be chosen
when the intersection angle ( ) falls below 30°.
Thus A and B are the two instrument stations. The distance d between them is very
accuarately measured. The instrument stations A and B are precisely connected to the ground
traverse or triangulation, and their positions on plan are known. With both the plates clamped to
zero, the instrument man at A bisects B ; similarly with both the plates clamped to zero, the
instrument man at B bisects A. Both the instrument men then direct the line of sight of the
telescope towards the leadsman and continuously follow it as the boat moves. The surveyor on
the boat holds a flag for a few seconds, and on the fall of the flag the sounding and the angles
are observed simultaneously. The co-ordinates of the position P of the sounding may be
computed from the relations:
d tan d tan α tan
x = ; y =
tan α + tan tan α + tan
Advantages:
) The preliminary work of setting out and erecting range signals is eliminated.
) It is useful when there are strong currents due to which it is difficult to row the boat
along the range line.
21. Explain Tilt distortion with neat sketch in photographic method.
[CO5-H1] (AUC May/June 2013) (AUC Nov/Dec 2010)
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This is the most accurate method of locating the soundings and may be used for
rivers, narrow lakes and harbours. It is also used to determine the quantity of materials
removed by dredging the soundings being taken before and after the dredging work is don e.
A single wire or rope is stretched across the channel etc. and is marked by metal tags at
appropriate known distance along the wire from a reference point or zero station on shore.
The soundings are then taken by a weighted pole. The position of the pole during a
sounding is given by the graduated rope or line.
ii) By range and time intervals:
In this method, the boat is kept in range with the two signals on the shore and is
rowed along it at constant speed. Soundings are taken at different time intervals. Knowing
the constant speed and the total time elapsed at the instant of sounding, the distance of the
total point can be known along the range. The method is used when the width of channel is
small and when great degree of accuracy is not required. However, the method is used in
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conjunction with other methods, in which case the first and the last soundings along a range
are located by angles from the shore and the intermediate soundings are located by
interpolation according to time intervals.
iii) By range and one angle from the shore:
In this method, the boat is ranged in line with the two shore signals and rowed
along the ranges. The point where sounding is taken is fixed on the range by observation of
the angle from the shore. As the boat proceeds along the shore, other soundings are also
fixed by the observations of angles from the shore. Thus B is the instrument station, A1 A2 is
the range along which the boat is rowed and α1, α2, α3 etc., are the angles measured at B
from points 1, 2, 3 etc.
To fix a point by observations from the shore, the instrument man at B orients his
line of sight towards a shore signal or any other prominent point (known on the plan) when
the reading is zero. He then directs the telescope towards the leadsman or the bow of the
boat, and is kept continually pointing towards the boat as it moves. The surveyor on the boat
holds a flag for a few seconds and on the fall of the flag, the sounding and the angle are
observed simultaneously.
The angles are generally observed to the nearest 5 minutes. The time at which the
flag falls is also recorded both by the instrument man as well as on the boat. In order to
avoid acute intersections, the lines of soundings are previously drawn on the plan and
suitable instrument stations are selected.
iv) By range and one angle from the boat:
The method is exactly similar to the previous one except that the angular fix is made
by angular observation from the boat. The boat is kept in range with the two shore signals
and is rowed along it. At the instant the sounding is taken, the angle, subtended at the point
between the range and some prominent point B on the sore is measured with the help of
sextant. The telescope is directed on the range signals, and the side object is brought into
coincidence at the instant the sounding is taken. The accuracy and ease of plotting is the
same as obtained in the previous method. Generally, the first and the last soundings, and
some of the intermediate soundings are located by angular observations and the rest of the
soundings are located by time intervals.
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As compared to the previous methods, this method has the following advantages:
) Since all the observations are taken from the boat, the surveyor has better control
over the operations.
) The mistakes in booking are reduced since the recorder books the readings directly
as they are measured.
) On important fixes, check may be obtained by measuring a second angle towards
some other signal on the shore.
) Obtain good intersections throughout; different shore objects may be used for
reference to measure the angles.
v) By two angles from the shore:
In this method, a point is fixed independent of the range by angular observations
from two points on the shore. The method is generally used to locate some isolated points. If
this method is used on an extensive survey, the boat should be run on a series of
approximate ranges. Two instruments and two instrument men are required. The position of
instrument is selected in such a way that a strong fix is obtained. New instrument stations
should be chosen when the intersection angle ( ) falls below 30°.
Thus A and B are the two instrument stations. The distance d between them is very
accuarately measured. The instrument stations A and B are precisely connected to the
ground traverse or triangulation, and their positions on plan are known. With both the plates
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clamped to zero, the instrument man at A bisects B ; similarly with both the plates clamped
to zero, the instrument man at B bisects A. Both the instrument men then direct the line of
sight of the telescope towards the leadsman and continuously follow it as the boat moves.
The surveyor on the boat holds a flag for a few seconds, and on the fall of the flag the
sounding and the angles are observed simultaneously. The co-ordinates of the position P of
the sounding may be computed from the relations:
d tan d tan α tan
x = ; y =
tan α + tan tan α + tan
Advantages:
) The preliminary work of setting out and erecting range signals is eliminated.
) It is useful when there are strong currents due to which it is difficult to row the boat
along the range line.
vi) By two angles from the boat:
In this method, the position of the boat can be located by the solution of the three-
point problem by observing the two angles subtended at the boat by three suitable shore
objects of known position. The three-shore points should be well-defined and clearly visible.
Prominent natural objects such as church spire, lighthouse, flagstaff, buoys etc., are
selected for this purpose. If such points are not available, range poles or shore signals may
be taken.
Thus A, B and C are the shore objects and P is the position of the boat from which
the angles α and β are measured. Both the angles should be observed simultaneously with
the help of two sextants; at the instant the sounding is taken. If both the angles are observed
by surveyor alone, very little time should be lost in taking the observation. The angles on the
circle are read afterwards. The method is used to take the soundings at isolated p oints. The
surveyor has better control on the operations since the survey party is concentrated in one
boat.
Advantages:
) Preliminary work setting out and erecting range signals is eliminated.
) The position of the boat is located by the solution of the three point problem either
analytically or graphically.
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vii) By one angle from shore and one from boat:
This method is the combination of methods 5 and 6 described above and is used
to locate the isolated points where soundings are taken. Two points A and B are chosen on
the shore, one of the points (say A) is the instrument station where a theodolite is set up,
and the other (say B) is a shore signal or any other prominent object. At the instant the
sounding is taken at P, the angle α at A is measured with the help of a sextant. Knowing the
distance d between the two points A and B by ground survey, the position of P can be
located by calculating the two co-ordinates x and y.
viii) By intersecting ranges:
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ranges, thus completely avoiding the angular observations. Suitable signals are erected at the
shore. The boat is rowed along a range perpendicular to the shore and soundings are taken at the
points in which inclined ranges intersect the range, as illustrated in figure. However, in order to
avoid the confusion, a definite system of flagging the range poles is necessary. The position of the
range poles is determined very accurately by ground survey.
ix) By tacheometry:
The method is very much useful in smooth waters. The position of the boat is located by
tacheometric observations from the shore on a staff kept vertically on the boat. Observing the staff
intercept s at the instant the sounding is taken, the horizontal distance between the instrument
stations and the boat is calculated.
The direction of the boat (P) is established by observing the angle (α) at the instrument
station B with reference to any prominent object A The transit station should be near the water level
so that there will be no need to read vertical angles. The method is unsuitable when soundings are
taken far from shore.
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24. What is a three point problem in hydrographic surveying? What are the various
solutions for the problem? Explain in detail. [CO5-H1] (AUC May/June 2009)
Given the three shore signals A, B and C, and the angles α and β subtended by AP,
BP
and CP at the boat P, it is required to plot the position of P.
1. Mechanical Solution
(i) By Tracing Paper
Protract angles α and β between three radiating lines from any point on a piece of
tracing paper. Plot the positions of signals A, B, C on the plan. Applying the tracing
paper to the plan, move it about until all the three rays simultaneously pass through A, B
and C. The apex of the angles is then the position of P which can be pricked through.
Let a, b and c be the plotted positions of the shore signals A, B and C respectively
and let α and β be the angles subtended at the boat. The point p of the boat position p can
be obtained as under:
) Join a and c.
) At a, draw ad making an angle β with ac. At c, draw cd making an angle α with ca.
Let both these lines meet at d.
) Draw a circle passing through the points a, d and c.
) Join d and b, and prolong it to meet the circle at the point p which is the require d
position of the boat.
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) With - as the centre, draw a circle to pass through a and b. Similarly, with - as the
centre draw a circle to pass through b and c. Let both the circles intersect each other at
a point p. p is then the required position of the boat.
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"It is the time interval that elapses between the moon's transits and occurrence of next
high water". The value is found to vary because of existence of priming and lagging. The
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values can be observed and plotted for a fortnight against the times of moon's transits, a
curve is obtained. A curve has approximately same for each fortnight and used for rough
prediction of time of tide. The time of transit of moon at Greenwich is given in nautical
almanac. The time of transit can be derived by adding 2 m for every hour of west longitude
and subtracting 2 m for every hour of east longitude.
iii) Mean establishment:
The average value of Lunitidal at a place is known as mean establishment as shown
by dotted line. If the value is known and Lunitidal interval and the time of high water can be
estimated. The procedure of determination are
) Find from charts, the age of tide and mean establishment for the place.
) Knowing the hour of moon's transit, determine the time of moon's transit on the day
of generation of tide.
Day of generation = day in question - age of tide
) Corresponding to time of transit of moon on the day of generation of tide, find out the
amount of priming or lagging correction.
) Add the priming or lagging correction to mean establishment to get Lunitidal interval
for day in question.
) Add the Lunitidal interval to the time of moon's transit on the day in question to get
approximate time of high water.
Hour of moon's transit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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26.Explain the principle underlying "Electronic Distance Measurement". Write a note
on errors in EDM. [CO5-H1] (AUC May/June 2013) (AUC May/June 2012)
Principle:
Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) is a general term used collectively in the
measurement of distances applying electronic methods. Basically the EDM method is based
on generation, propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of electromagnetic wave s.
Every EDM equipment should perform the following
functions:
) Generation of carrier wave and measuring wave frequencies.
) Modulation and demodulation of the carrier wave.
) Measurement of the phase difference between the transmitted and received
measuring waves.
) Display, in some form, the result of this measurement.
Scale Error:
Scale error is proportional to the length of the line measured and is caused by:
) internal frequency errors, including those caused by external temperature
and instrument "warm up" effects;
) errors of measured temperature, pressure and humidity which affect the velocity of
the signal; and
) non-homogeneous emissions/reception patterns from the emitting and
receiving diodes (phase in-homogeneities).
Cyclic Error
The precision of an EDM instrument is dependent on the precision of the internal
phase measurement. Unwanted interference either through electronic/optical cross talk or
multi-path effects of the transmitted signal onto the received signal causes cyclic error. The
major form of the cyclic error is sinusoidal with a wavelength equal to the unit length of the
instrument.
The unit length is the scale on which the EDM instrument measures the distance, and is
derived from the fine measuring frequency. Unit length is equal to one half of the
modulation wavelength. The magnitude of the cyclic error can be of the order of 5 - 10 mm,
but it will vary depending on the actual length measured.
27. Given the three shore signals A, B and C and the angles α and β subtended by AP,
BP
and CP at the boat P, it is required to plot the position of P (refer figure below). How
will you obtain the position of P using a station pointer? [CO5-H2] (AUC May/June
2012)
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ii) Stereoscopy:
28. How to measure angles with the sextant? [CO5-H1] (AUC Nov/Dec 2012)
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30. Explain the different types of tides in detail. [CO5-H1]
Tides:
All celestial bodies exert a gravitational force on each other. These forces of attraction
between earth and other celestial bodies (mainly moon and sun) cause periodical variations in
the level of a water surface, commonly known as tides.
Types of tides:
i) Lunar tides
ii) Solar tides
iii) Spring and neap tide (combined effect)
iv) Other effects
i) Lunar tides:
The figure shows the earth and the moon, with their centres of masses 01 and 02
respectively. Since moon is very near to the earth, it is the major tide producing force. To start
with, we will ignore the daily rotation of the earth on its axis. Both earth and moon attract each
other, and the force of attraction would act along 01 0 2. Let 0 be the common centre of gravity
of earth and moon. The earth and moon revolve monthly about 0, and due to this revolution
their separate positions are maintained. The distribution of force is not uniform, but it is more
for the points facing the moon and less for remote points. Due to the revolution of earth about
the common centre of gravity 0, centrifugal force of uniform intensity is exerted on all the
particles of the earth. The direction of this centrifugal force is parallel to 0102 and acts outward.
Thus, the total force of attraction due to moon is counter-balanced by the total centrifugal force,
and the earth maintains its position relative to the moon. However, since the fore of attraction
is not uniform, the resultant force will very all along. The resultant forces are the tide producing
forces. Assuming that water has no inertia and viscosity, the ocean enveloping the earth's
surface will adjust itself to the unbalanced resultant forces, giving rise to the equilibrium. Thus,
there are two lunar tides at A and B, and two low water positions at C and D. The tide at A is
called the superior lunar tide or tide of moon's upper transit, while tide at B is called inferior or
antilunar tide.
Now let us consider the earth's rotation on its axis. Assuming the moon to remain
stationary, the major axis of lunar tidal equilibrium figure would maintain a constant position.
Due to rotation of earth about its axis from west to east, once in 24 hours, point A would
occupy successive position C, B and D at intervals of 6 h. Thus, point A would experience
regular variation in the level of water. It will experience high water (tide) at intervals of 12 h and
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low water midway between. This interval of 6 h variation is true only if moon is assumed
stationary. However, in a lunation of 29.53 days the moon makes one revolution relative to sun
from the new moon to new moon. This revolution is in the same direction as the diurnal
rotation of earth, and hence there are 29.53 transits of moon across a meridian in 29.53 mean
solar days. This is on the assumption that the moon does this revolution in a plane passing
through the equator. Thus, the interval between successive transits of moon or any meridian
will be 24 h, 50.5 m. Thus, the average interval between successive high waters would be
about 12 h 25 m. The interval of 24 h 50.5 m between two successive transits of moon over a
meridian is called the tidal day.
ii) Solar tides:
The phenomenon of production of tides due to force of attraction between earth and
sun is similar to the lunar tides. Thus, there will be superior solar tide and an inferior or anti -
solar tide. However, sun is at a large distance from the earth and hence the tide producing
force due to sun is much less.
Solar tide = 0.458 Lunar tide
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